Basic Rules and Precautions in laboratory:

-Why we need to know the rules and precautions in the

laboratory? To avoid us on the risk or harmful in specimen that
need to examine
-What is the proper way on putting the PPE? This was also known
as dONning: Gown, Mask, Goggles, Gloves (Gow Ma Go Glo)
dOFFing: Gloves, Gown, Goggles, Mask
-It is true that the laboratory gown is inside the laboratory? TRUE
- The Biosafety Level 1, we can handle specimen but the
specimen can’t affect us
-Biosafety Level 2, we can handle this type of specimen in
laboratory but it this can affect the mild disease on that
specimen but curable
-Biosafety level 3, Also we can handle but we need to take care
more because the type of the specimen we handle is much hard
to find the cure.
-Biosafety Level 4, Not curable so we need to take serious on
what we handle

Cell and Cell division and tissue

-Cell are the small unit of life and building block of all living
things
-Cells are not all the same ex. The human cell won’t have
vacoule and vacoule also find at Animal and plant cells but the
size of vacoule are not same
-The Cell divided into three(3) major parts:Nucleus, Cytoplasm,
Plasma Membrane
 The Nucleus: nucleus is the control center of cell, and nuclues
contains genetic material
 -Also the nucleus divided into 3 parts: Nuclear membrane,
Nucleolus, Chromatin
I. Nuclear Membrane: This is the barrier of whole nucleus,
contains the phospolipid bilayer membrane, nuclear pores
for allowing to exchange the material. The inside of
Nucleoplasm or nuclear membrane are the nucleoli and
chromatin.
II. Nucleoli: Every nucleus contains one or more nucleoli
(nucleolus-singular), Sites of ribosome production and
ribosomes are migratted to the cytoplasm through nuclear
pores
III. Chromatin: This contain of unwound DNA and Proteins,
Chromatin condeses to form chromosomes when the cell
diveds or under the process of Mitosis and Meiosis
 Plasma Membrane: Barrier of the cell, and consist of semi-
permable of phospolipid bilayer with Hydrophilic heads(water
loving), Hydrophobic tails ( Water fearing)
Other materials in plasma membrane
 Protein- Receptors for cell recognition and
communication or channels for transport
 Cholesterol - To keep membrane fluid and stable
 Glycoproteins - another receptors for cell to cell
interactions

 Plasma Membrane Specializations:

 Microvilli : Increase the surface area for absorption
 Membrane Junctions
 Tight junctions - Leakproof sheets
 Desmosomes - Anchor to prevent the cells being
seperated
 Gap junction - Allow to communicate between cells
through connexons that span two cell membrane

 Cytoplasm: Material outside and nucleus and inside the

plasm membrane
 Cytosol : Fluid containing nutrients dissolved in water
 Organells : Metabolic machinery of the cell
 Inclusions : For non-function units to stored nutrients,
fat droplets, glycogen granules, pigments, and mucus
 Cytoplasmic Organelles
 Mitochondria : Powerhouses of the cell has double
membrane and had its own DNA, Carry out reactions of
oxygen is used to breakdown foods for cell respiration
and also provides ATP for cellular energy
 Ribosomes: Made of protein and RNA, proved protein
synthesis, found at two(2) locations-Free moving in
cytoplasm and Attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum
 Endoplasmic Reticulum: Fluid- filled tubules for carrying
substances.And it’s have two(2) types of ER
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum- Studded with
ribosomes, building materials of cellular membrane
are formed
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - Functions in
cholesterol synthesis, fat metabolism, and
detoxification of drugs.
 Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and package protiens
 Diffirent types of packages
 Secretory vesicles - Contain proteins for export
  Lysosomes - contain hydrolytic enzymes
 Lysosomes : Contains enzymes that digest non-usable
materials the cells such as old organelles as well as
bacteria and viruses
 Peroxisomes : Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes,
break down free radicals( that highly reactive chemical
with free electron)
 Cytoskeleton: Network of protein structures that extend
throughout cytoplasm, Determine cell shapes, support
organelles, provide path for intracellular transport.
 Three (3) different types
 Microfillaments - Cell motility and change in shape -
actin and myosin(7nm)
 Intermediate fillaments - Help to form desmosomes
and internal guy wires - Fibrous subunits (10nm)
 Microtubeles - Determine overall shapes of a cell and
location of organelles - Tubulin subunits(25nm)
 Centrioles: Rod-shaped bodies made of microtubules
that lie at right angle to each other and near the
nucleus. And direct formation of mitotic spindle during
cell division
 Cilia and Flagella : Not found in all cell, used for
movement
 Cilia moves materials across the cell surface -
Usually short and many
 Flagellum propels the cell - usually long and few in
number
Cell diversity
 Erthrocyte or Red Blood Cell has no organelles
 Fibroblast - The fiber outside the cell and connect the body
parts
 Epthelial Cell - Is the cover and line body organs
 Skeletal Muscle cell - Assigned to move organs and body
parts
 Fat cell - Stores nutrients
 Macrophage - Cell that fight disease
 Nerve Cell - gathers information and contraol body function
 Egg and Sperm cell - Cell to reproduction

Solution and Transport

 Solution - Homogeneous mixture of two or more components
 Solvent: Dissolving Medium
 Solutes: Components in smaller quantities within a solution
 Intracellular Fluid - Nucleoplasm and cytosol
 Interstitial Fluid - Fluid on exterior of the cell
Membrane Transport
 Membrane transport - Movement of subtance into and out of
the cell. Transport is by two basic methods
 Passive transport - No Energy is required
 Active transport - Cell must provide metabolic energy
 Selective Permeability - Plasma membrane allows some
materials to pass while excluding others

 Passive Trasnport Processes: Diffusion - Movement is from

high to low concentration, low to down or gradient
concentration. The movement is due to kinetic energy in the
molecules and affected by size and temperature
Types of diffusion
 Simple Diffusion - Passive, unassisted process, solute are lipid-
soluble material
 Osmosis - Simple diffusion of water highly polar water and
easily crosses the plasma membrane
 Facilitated Diffusion - The subtance require a protein carrier for
passive transport, Moving down concentration gradient and no
energy is needed
 Filtration - Water and solutes are forced through a membrane
by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure

 Active Transport Processes: Transport substances that are

unable to pass by diffusion. It maybe too large, not able to
dissolve in the fat core membrane, or the movement againts
a concentration gradient
Types of Active Transport
 Solute pumping - Amino acids,and ions are transported by
solute pumps, ATP energize proteins carriers, and most cases,
moves against concentration gradients
 Bulk Transport - Exocytosis, moves materials out of the cell,
Vesicle combines with plasma membrane. Endocytosis is the
extracellular substance and being enclosed in a membranous
vescicle.
Types of Endocytosis
 Phagocytosis - Cell eating
 Pinocytosis - Cell drinking

Events of Cell Division

 Mitosis: Division of Two nucleus, Two daugther nuclei
 Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm, begins when mitosis is
near completion
Stage of Mitosis
 Interphase - Carries out normal metabolic activity and
growth. No cell division occurs
 Prophase - Centromeres migrate to the poles and dirrect
assembly of the mitotic spindle
 Metaphase - Spindle from centomeres are attached to
chromosomes that aligned in the center.
 Anaphase - Daugther chromosomes are pulled toward the
poles
 Telophase - Daugther nuclei begin to form

Protein Synthesis
-Gene - DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one
protien.
-RNA is essential for protein synthesis

Role of RNA
-Transfer RNA(tRNA)
Transfer amino acids to the ribosome for building proteins
-Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Form the ribosomes along with proteins
-Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Carries the instruction for building protein

Classification of Epithelium
-Simple: One Layer
-Stratified: More than one

Shape of Epithelium Cell

-Squamous - Flatted
-Cuboidal - Cube Shaped
-Columnar - Column like

Connective Tissue : Found everywhere in the body. The

function of this tissue are provide protection, supports the body,
binds body tissues together

Extracellular Matrix: Non-living material that surrounding

living cells.
Two main elements
-Ground Substance - Mostly water along with adhesion proteins
and polysaccharide molecules
-Fibers - Produced by the cells. Three types of Fiber ( Collagen,
Elastic, Reticular fibers)
Connective Tissue Types
 Bone (Osseous tissue) - Composed of lacunae or cavities,
hard matrix of calcuim salts, Large numbers of collagen
fibers, Used to support and protect the body
 Hyaline Cartilage : Common Cartilage composed of Abundant
Collagen, Rubbery matrix, Entire fetal skeleton is hyaline
cartilage
 Fibrocartilage - Highly compressible, Forms cushion-like
discs between vertabrae.
 Elastic cartilage: Provide Elastocity, and supports the
external ears
 Dense Connective Tissue - Main matrix element is collagen
fibers ex. Tendon-attach muscle to bone. Ligaments - attach
bone to bone
 Adipose Tissue - Fat globules predominate. Function-
insulate the body, serve as a site of fuel storage
 Reticular Connective Tissue - Delicate network of interwoven
fibers. Lymph nodes, Spleen, Bone Marrow
 Blood - SUrrounded by fluid matrix

Muscle Tissue: To produce movement by contrating or

shortening.
Three types of muscle tissue:
 Skeletal : Can controlled voluntarily, cell have more than one
nucleus
 Cardiac muscle : Founded Only in heart, To pump blood
involuntary, One nucleus per cell
 Smooth muscle : Surrounds hollow organs, spindle shaped

Nervous Tissue: Neurons and nerve supporting cells. To

receive and send impulses to the other areas of the body

Physiological Apparatus:

-The physiological apparatus is used to examine and

provide diagnosis of the patients.

These are the Sample of physiological appratus:

 Battery - Source of current

 Simple Key - Switc, Types- New simple key uses metal or fiber
glass and Old simple key. This Appratus used for create
shock or brake a current flow
 Kymograph - This apparatus used to record simple muscular
contraction. Types - Spring Driven and electic driven
kymograph
 Inductrium - Used to regulate the amount of current that
flows in circuit
 Muscle Clamp - Used to hold and stay muscles in place
 Turning fork - Used to record time duration of muscles
contraction and this apparatus can creates 100 times
vibration per second
 Pnuemograph- used for record the respiratory movements
 Tambour - This was always attached to pnuemograph and
record the changes in the size of the ribe cage
 Spirometer - Used to record different pulmonary volume and
capcity of lungs
 Stethescope - Used to listens the heartbeats, airflow in the
lungs
 Aneroid Sphygmomanometer - Used to know the blood
pressure.

Microscope : Optical Instrument that use to produced magnified

images of small objects. This was also used by pathologist and
medical technology

Types of microscope:
 Compound Microscope: More than one lens and its own light
source.
I. Brigth Field Microscopy - used where light is either passed
through, or reflected off, a specimen
II. Dark Field Microscopy - is arranged so that the light
source is blocked off, causing light to scatter as it hits the
specimen.
III. Phase Contrast Microscopy - Transparent and Colorless
objects, does not require staining to view the slide
IV. Polarized light microscopy - - Is a contrast-enhancing
technique that improves the quality of the image obtained
with birefringent materials.
 Fluorescence Microscope: Uses Flourescence to generate an
image
 Electron Microscope(Trasmission and Scanning EM): Uses a
beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination

Parts of Microscope
 Eyepiece : Viewer looks through to see the Specimen
 Body tube(head) : Connects eyepice to objective lenses
 Arm : Connects the body tube to the base of the microscope
 Coarse Adjusment : Brings the specimen into general focus
 Fine Adjustment : Increse the detail of the specimens
 Revolving nose piece : Holds the objective lens
 Objective lens : Important parts of microscope, Lenses closest
to the specimen
 Slide or Specimen : The object being examined. Flat and
rectangular glass
 Stage: Flat platform where the slide placed
 Stage clips : Metal clips that hold the slide in place
 Stage height : These knob move the stage left to right or Up
and down
 Aperature : The hole in the middle of the stage that allows
light from the illuminator to reach the specimen
 Illiminator : Light source of microscope
 Iris Diaphragm: Adjusts the amount of light that reaches the
specimen
 Condenser : Gathers and focuses the light from illuminator
 Base : Support the microscope and where illiminator placed

Using microscope
 Center the slide on the stage and use the scanning lens(x4).
Focus using the course adjustment knob
 Switch the objective to low power
 Switch to high power and focus using fine adjustment knob

Total Magnification

TM= E x O(Eyepiece multiply to Objective)

Total magnification using low power: 10x10=100

Total magnification under high power: 10x40 = 400

Organization of Human body

 Plane and Section

 Plane : Geometrical concept referring to imagine flat

surface
 Sagittal Plane - Dividing the body left to right
 Frontal Plane (coronal plane) - Divide Front and back
 Horizontal Plane (Transverse plane) - Divide Top and
Bottom
Directions:
 -Lateral - Toward to side away to Sagittal
-Medial - Toward to Mid-sagittal
-Anterior - Toward to front of body
-Posterior - Toward to back
-Superior - Toward to top
-Inferior - Toward to bottom
-Proximal - Toward to trunk
-Distal - Away to trunk

Body Cavities and regions

 Viscera/ Internal organs - Are found in any of a numbers of

cavities with in the body
 Cranial Cavity : With in the Skull
 Spinal Cavity : Within the vertebral column
 Thoraic Cavity : With in the Rib Cage
 Pleural Cavity : Lung
 Mediastinum - Middle on thrid of the thorax (Heart,
trachea, esophagus)
 Abdominopelvic cavity - From diaphgram to the bottom
of the trunk
 Abdominopelvic Regions
 Right Hypochondriac Region (Liver, right kidney,
gallbladder, large and small intestine
 Right Lumbar Region ( Ascending colon, Right
kidney, small intestine)
 Right Iliac Region ( Appendix, cecum, Ascending
colon, Small intestine
 Epigastric Region(Liver, stomach, spleen,
duodenum, adrenal, glands, pancreas
 Umbilical Region(Doudenum, Small intestine,
and transverse colon
 Hypogastric Region(Bladder, Sigmoid colon,
Small intestine, Reproductive organ)
 Left hypochondriac Region ( Liver’s tip,
Pancreas, Left kidney, spleen, Large/small
intestine)
 Left Lumbar Region(descending colon, Left
kidney, small intestine)
 Left iliac Region ( SIgmoid colon, Descending
colon, and small intestine)

Surface Regoins
 Abdominal- area overlying the abdominal cavity
 Axillary- armpit
 Brachial- upper arm
 Buccal- cheek (side of the mouth)
 Cervical- neck
 Antebrachial- lower arm
 Femoral- upper leg (thigh)
 Orbital- eye
 Patellar- anterior knee joint
 Pubic- lower front of trunk, between
 legs
 Surface Regions
 Calf- posterior lower leg
 Gluteal- buttocks
 Lumbar- lower back
 Occipital- posterior of the head
 Popliteal- posterior knee joint
 Scapular- shoulder blade
 Thoracic- upper back

Level of Organization

 Atom
 Cell
 Tissues
 Organ
 Organ System
 Organism