EARTH AND

LIFE SCIENCE
QUARTER 1

(Compilation of Lectures, Discussions and

Supplemental Learning Materials)
 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
UNIT 1: EARTH SCIENCE

CHAPTER 1: THE ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

WEEK: Week 1 to Week 2

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. To state the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the universe
2. To describe the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the solar system
3. To explain the current advancements/ discoveries on the solar system
4. To recognize the uniqueness of the earth, being the only planet in the solar system with
properties necessary to support life
5. To describe the four subsystem of the earth
6. To identify and describe the layers of the earth

LEARNING COMPETENCIES:
1. State the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the universe.
2. Describe the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the solar system.
3. Recognize the uniqueness of Earth, being the only planet in the solar system with
properties necessary to support life.
4. Explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whoseboundaries matter and
energyflow.
5. Explain the current advancements/information on the solar system.
6. Show the contributions of personalities/people on the understanding of the earth systems.
7. Identify the layers of the Earth (crust, mantle, and core).
8. Differentiate the layers of the Earth.
LESSON 1: UNIVERSE AND SOLAR SYSTEM

DISCUSSION:

Universe is an all space-time, matter and energy including the solar system, all stars and galaxies and content of
intergalactic space, regarded as a whole. There are three various theories explaining the origin of the universe;

1. Steady State Theory.It states that the counting of the galaxies in our Universe is constant and new galaxies
which are forming continuously are filling the empty spaces which are created by those heavenly bodies
which have crossed the boundary lines of observable Universe. This theory proposes that the overall
structure of the universe is always the same at any point in time and space. This structure is maintained
even when certain events, such as birth of new stars, occur. It is balanced by the death of old stars.

2. Pulsating Theory: In this theory it is assumed that there is continuous expansion and contraction in
universe. It proposes that the universe will keep expanding more and more then slowly it stop. Then it will
start to contract due to gravitation. This contraction will continue until the universe become more compact
and will later explode and expand again.

3. Big Bang Theory: It proposes that the entire universe was once condensed in a very small and compact
particle called primeval nucleus. It is estimated that about 20 billion years ago, primeval nucleus suddenly
exploded in a big bang. The force of this explosion caused matter to scatter in any direction forming a
universe.

2| INTEGRATED INNOVATION AND HOSPITALITY COLLEGES, INC

 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
Biblical Belief on the Formation or Creation of the Universe

“Genesis 1:1 - In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. “

The very first claim made in the Bible is that there was a beginning. Since Genesis 1 describes how God
created the universe, and in a certain sequence, there is no doubt that he did that exactly. Godcreated the
universe.

SOLAR SYSTEM

Just a part of the vast universe is our solar system. It is located somewhere in Milky Way Galaxy. It
consists of the sun being at the center, minor and major planets and other celestial bodies like satellites, comets,
asteroids and meteoroids.

ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

There are major theories that explain the origin of the solar system.

1. Nebular Hypothesis Theory. According to this theory, the sun and other celestial bodies orbiting around it
where formed from a nebula- a spinning cloud of gases. These clouds are gravitationally unstable, and
matter coalesces within them to smaller denser clumps, which then rotate, collapse, and form stars.

2. Accretion Theory.Accretion is the gradual increase in the size of an object by the buildup of matter due to
gravity. The accretion theory says that a protosun passing through a cloud of interstellar materials pulled
this material along causing it to swirl around the protosun. As the protosun evolved into the sun, the
material it accreted gradually formed the planets and other revolving bodies.

3. Tidal Theory. According to this theory, the time when the sun about to form (protosun), a large body
passing around it may have drawn some gaseous materials from it. The mass of gaseous materials drawn
did not completely escape gravitational pull of the protosun. It continued to spin around it, eventually
becoming denser and gradually formed into planetesimals. These planetisimals give rise to the planets and
their satellites.

Space exploration by means of manned and unmanned spacecrafts give us information about the solar
system and beyond. Achieving spaceflight enabled humans to begin to explore the solar system and the rest of
the universe, to understand the many objects and phenomena that are better observed from a space perspective, and
to use for human benefit the resources and attributes of the space environment.

3| INTEGRATED INNOVATION AND HOSPITALITY COLLEGES, INC

 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
LESSON 2: EARTH AND EARTH SYSTEM

Earth is the only planet in the solarsystem capable of supporting life. Complex and brilliant combination
ofgases, composition and structure of earth are some of the reasons why itcan sustain life.

EARTH SUBSYSTEM
Earth is a very complex place. The earth consists of four distinct yet connected spheres.All of the processes
on Earth are driven by four “spheres”, which we describe individually, but are really all connected.

1. GEOSPHERE
The Geosphere describes all of the rocks, minerals and ground that are found on and in Earth.
This includes all of the mountains on the surface, as well as all of the liquid rock in the mantle below us
and the minerals and metals of the outer and inner cores. The continents, the ocean floor, all of the rocks on
the surface, and all of the sand in the deserts are all considered part of the geosphere. Basically, if it looks
like solid ground, it's part of the 'ground' sphere.

2. HYDROSPHERE
Planet Earth has been called the "Blue Planet" due to the abundant water on its surface Over 70
percent of the surface area of the earth is covered by water. All the earth’s water, solid or in liquid form,
those that are contained in glaciers, rocks, soil and the air, comprise the earth’s hydrosphere.

SOURCES OF WATER

A. OCEAN. A big portion of earth’s water is found in ocean. The oceans cover more than 70 percent of
the Earth's surface and contain 97 percent of the Earth's water. If the ocean's total salt content were
dried, it would cover the continents to a depth of 5 feet.
Together with the atmosphere, oceans regulate global temperatures, shape weather and climate
patterns, and cycle elements through the biosphere.

Ocean Structure and Composition

Like the atmosphere, the oceans are not uniformly mixed
but are structured in layers with distinct properties. Pressure
increases with depth as the weight of the overlying air and water
increase. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 pounds per
square inch, and pressure increases by an additional atmosphere
for every 10 meters of descent under water.

Layers of the ocean

The EPIPELAGIC(1), or sunlight, zone (so called because most visible light in the oceans is
found here) comprises the first 200 meters below the surface, and is warm and mixed by winds and
wave action.
At a depth of about 200 meters, the Continental Shelf (the submerged border of the continents)
begins to slope more sharply downward, marking the start of the MESOPELAGIC(2), or twilight zone.
Here water temperature falls rapidly with depth to less than 5°C at 1,000 meters. This sharp transition,
which is called the thermocline, inhibits vertical mixing between denser, colder water at depths and
warmer water nearer the surface. About 18 percent of the total volume of the oceans is within this
zone. Below 1,000 meters, in the Bathypelagic, or midnight, zone, water is almost uniformly cold,
approximately 4°C. No sunlight penetrates to this level, and pressure at the bottom of the zone (around
4,000 meters depth) is about 5,880 pounds per square inch. Little life exists at the ABYSSOPELAGIC
(3)
or abyssal zone, which reaches to the ocean floor at a depth of about 6,000 meters. Together, these
cold, deep layers contain about 80 percent of the total volume of the ocean. The deepest layer of the
ocean is the HADAL ZONE(4) or Trench Zone.The deepest trench on earth is Mariana Trench, also
called Marianas Trench, lies in the floor of the western North Pacific Ocean.

4| INTEGRATED INNOVATION AND HOSPITALITY COLLEGES, INC

 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
B. INLAND WATERS
Household, commercial and agricultural water supply mainly comes from inland bodies of water.
Two major inland waters are described below.
a. Rivers – Avolume of fresh flowing water across the surface of the land usually to the sea.
Rivers flow in channels.
b. Lakes – Areservoir of relatively still water that is surrounded by land.It is formed from the
accumulationof large amounts of water innatural or artificial depressions onthe
surfaceof theland. Other inland waters include ponds, spring,stream, wetlands, floodplains
and reservoirs.

C. GROUNDWATER
It is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock. It is stored in and
moves slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers. It results from the
accumulation of water penetrating through small openings called pores in the rocks or soil. This
process is known as percolation.
Groundwater supplies drinking water, used for irrigation to grow crops and an important
component in many industrial processes.

D. A MASSIVE BODY OF ICE

About 2 percent of earth’s waters is in a form of solid, a massive bodies of ice called glaciers.
Deposited snow that falls during winter season piles up yearly. This accumulated snow transforms the
lower layers into solid ice.

E. THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE (WATER CYCLE)

Wateron earthis continuously moving. It endlessly circulates
throughthe hydro- logic cycle.As watergoes in a cycle,it changes
its states. From liquid toicetogasand back again.
Sun heats water causing the water to evaporate. Rising air
currents take the water vapor up in the atmosphere. The vapor
rises into the air where cooler temperatures cause it
to condense into clouds.
Air currents move the cloud. Cloud particles collide, grow,
and fall out of the sky as precipitation. Most of the precipitation returns to the oceans.

3. ATMOSPHERE
A very huge envelope of air that surrounds the earth and pulled by the gravitational force of the
earth is called atmosphere. The earth’s atmosphere is primarily composed of 78 percent nitrogen and 21
percent of oxygen. Other gases like argon, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, hydrogen, helium and
other inert gases make up the remaining 1 percent.
The earth’s atmosphere is made up of different layers as shown in the table below.

LAYER NAME DESCRIPTION

5| INTEGRATED INNOVATION AND HOSPITALITY COLLEGES, INC

 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
• The lowest layer
• From ground level upward to about 10 km (6.2 miles
or 33, 000 feet) above sea level
Troposphere • Humans live here
• Weather formation and clouds appear here
• 99 % of the water vapor in the atmosphere also
found here
• Extends from the top of the troposphere to about 50
km (31 miles) above the ground
• Ozone layer is part of this layer
Stratosphere • The ozone molecules in this layer absorbs high-
energy ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun
• Commercial passenger jets fly in the lower part of
this layer
• Extends upward to a height of about 85 km (53
miles) above our planet
• Meteors burn up and breaks in this layer
Mesosphere
• Coldest layer – with about -90o C (-130o F)
temperature
• Air in this layer is far too thin to breath
• Top of this layer can be found 500 and 1000 km (311
to 621 miles) above the ground
• Temperature in this layer can range from about 500o
C (932o F) to 2000o C (3632o F) or higher
Thermosphere
• This is more like the outer space – satellites actually
orbit Earth within this layer
• The aurora, the northern Lights and Southern Lights,
occur in this layer
• Uppermost region of Earth’s atmosphere
• Beyond 10,000 km (6,200 miles) above the surface
of Earth
Exosphere • Air is extremely thin – in many ways it is almost the
same as the airless void of outer space
• This layer separates the rest of the atmosphere from
outer space

4. BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is where all forms of life exist. Since life exist in the air, in water and on the ground, its
boundaries overlap other “sphere” because life can be found everywhere on earth.The biosphere is
sometimes thought of as one large ecosystem—a complex community of living and nonliving things
functioning as a single unit.

INNER PART OF THE EARTH

The planet Earth is made up of different layers: the very thin, brittle crust, the
mantle, and the core; the mantle and core are each divided into two parts. Although the
core and mantle are about equal in thickness, the core actually forms only 15 percent
of the Earth's volume, whereas the mantle occupies 84 percent. The crust makes up the
remaining 1 percent.

1. Crust
It is the outermost part of the earth and is very thin compared to the other layers. It is a part where the
living organisms dwell in. It forms a very thin continuous layer that extends underneath the ocean and
continents.
Two kinds of Crust:

6| INTEGRATED INNOVATION AND HOSPITALITY COLLEGES, INC

 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
A. Continental crust is mostly composed of different types of granites. Geologists often refer to the
rocks of the continental crust as “sial” which stands for silicate and aluminum, the most abundant
minerals in continental crust. Cratons are the oldest and most stable part of the continental
lithosphere and are found deep in the interior of most continents.
B. Oceanic crustis mostly composed of different types of basalts. Rocks of the oceanic crust are
referred to as “sima”which stands for silicate and magnesium, the most abundant minerals in oceanic
crust.

2. The Mantle
It is the mostly-solid bulk of Earth’s interior. The mantle lies between Earth’s dense, super-heated core and
its thin outer layer, the crust. It is made up of silicates, magnesium oxide, iron, aluminum, calcium, sodium,
and potassium.The mantle is divided into two layers: the upper mantle and the lower mantle.

Mantle Plumes
A mantle plume is an upwelling of superheated rock from the mantle. Mantle plumes are the likely
cause of “hot spots,” volcanic regions not created by plate tectonics.

3. The Core
It is thedense center and hottest part of earth.The core is made almost entirely of iron and nickel. The
Gutenberg discontinuity is the boundary between the core and the mantle.Bullen discontinuity is the
boundary separating the two layer of core.

The core is made of two layers:

A. Outer Core - borders the mantle. Bullen discontinuity is the hottest part of the core.
B. Inner Core- is a hot, dense ball of iron. The temperature of the inner core is far above the melting
point of iron.

Earth’s Magnetic Field

Earth’s magnetic field protects the planet from the charged particles of the solar wind. Without the shield of
the magnetic field, the solar wind would strip Earth’s atmosphere of the ozone layer that protects life from
harmful ultraviolet radiation.

CHAPTER II: EARTH MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

7| INTEGRATED INNOVATION AND HOSPITALITY COLLEGES, INC

 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
WEEK: Week 3 to Week 5

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. To identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties
2. To classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic

LEARNING COMPETENCIES:
1. identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemicalproperties
2. classify rocks into igneous,sedimentary, andmetamorphic
1. describe how rocks undergo weathering
2. explain how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion and deposited elsewhere
3. make a report on how rocks and soil move downslope due to the direct action of gravity
4. describe where the Earth’s internal heat comes from.
5. describe how magma is formed (magmatism)
6. describe what happens after the magma is formed (plutonism and volcanism)
7. describe the changes in mineral components and texture of rocks due to changes in pressure and
temperature (metamorphism)
8. compare and contrast the formation of the different types of igneous rocks
9. describe how rocks behave under different types of stress such as compression, pulling apart, and shearing
10. explain how the continents drift
11. cite evidence that support continental drift
12. explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds and faults
13. explain how the seafloor spreads
14. describe the structure and evolution of ocean basins
15. describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed
16. describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) to determine the age of stratified rocks
17. explain how relative and absolute dating were used to determine the subdivisions of geologic time
18. describe how marker fossils (also known as guide fossils) are used to define and identify subdivisions of
the geologic time scale
19. describe how the Earth’s history can be interpreted from the geologic time scale

LESSON 3: ROCKSANDMINERALS

DISCUSSION:

Rocks
• Rock or stone is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals.
• The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock.

The types and abundance of minerals in a rock are deter-mined by the manner in which the rock was formed.
Many rocks contain silica (SiO2); a compound of silicon and oxygen that forms 74.3% of the Earth's crust. This
material forms crystals with other compounds in the rock.

Geological Classification of rocks according to Characteristics such as

1. mineral and chemical composition,
2. permeability,
3. the texture of the constituent particles,
4. particle size.
These physical properties are the end result of the processes that formed the rocks. Over the course of time,
rocks can transform from one type into another, as described by the geological model called the rock cycle. These
events produce three general classes of rocks:igneous,sedimentary, and metamorphic.

1. Igneous – Igneousrocks form from the cooling of melted rock (either lava or magma) into solid form.
➢ If the cooling occurs underground, the rock is an intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rock.
➢ If the cooling occurs on theearth’s surface, the rock is an extrusive or volcanic rock.
➢ Molten material within the Earth is called magma; it is “lava” once it haserupted onto the surface.

8| INTEGRATED INNOVATION AND HOSPITALITY COLLEGES, INC

 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

2. Metamorphic – Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are subjected to intense heat and
pressure, usually deep below the earth's surface. These conditions change the original minerals of the
rock into new minerals.

3. Sedimentary – Sedimentary rocks are either detrital or chemical.

a. Detritalrocks are formed by the compaction ofseparate particles, or sediments, into a rock.
b. Chemical sedimentary rocks form from minerals that have been dissolved in water and
precipitate out, forming a solid rock.

Geologists describe sedimentary rocks according to the size and shape of the particles in them or their
mineral composition (in the case of chemical sedimentary rocks).

Rock Cycle
The rocks ofearth's crust areconstantlybeing
recycledand changedinto newforms through geologic
processes. This continualtransformation of rocks from one
type to another is called the rock cycle.

How rock type can be changed?

Rock can be changed through the processes of

weathering, heating, melting, cooling, and compaction.Any
one rock type can be changed into a different rock type as its
chemical composition and physical characteristics are
transformed.
The minerals and metals found in rocks have been
essential to human civilization.

Minerals
➢ Minerals are the fundamental components of rocks.
➢ They are naturally occurring inorganic substances with a specific chemical composition and an orderly
repeating atomic structure that defines a crystal structure.
➢ Silicate minerals are the most abundant components of rocks on the Earth's surface, making up over
90% by mass of the Earth's crust.
➢ The common non-silicate minerals, which constitute less than 10% of the Earth's crust, include
carbonates, oxides, sulfides, phosphates and salts. A few elements may occur in pure form. These
include gold, silver, copper, bismuth, arsenic, lead, tellurium and carbon.

Although92 naturallyoccurring elements exist in nature, only eight of these arecommon in the rocks of the
Earth's crust. Together, these eight elements make upmore than 98% of the crust (Table 1).

Table 1. The eight most common elements in the Earth’s crust(by mass)

Oxygen (O) 46.6%

Silicon (Si) 27.7%
Aluminum (Al) 8.1%
Iron (Fe) 5.0%
Calcium (Ca) 3.6%
Sodium (Na) 2.8%
Potassium (K) 2.6%
Rock Forming Minerals: Magnesium (Mg) 2.1%

9| INTEGRATED INNOVATION AND HOSPITALITY COLLEGES, INC

 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
The physical properties of minerals, such as their hardness, lustre, color, cleavage, fracture, and relative
density can be used to identify minerals.
These general characteristics are controlled mainly by their atomic structure (crystal structure).

Common rock-forming minerals:

These are specimens of minerals from the University of Auckland's collection. Along with the common
rock-forming minerals, including apatite, corundum, diamond, fluorite, topaz and talc to illustrate minerals used in
Moh's Scale of Hardness.

apatite augite biotite calcite chlorite corundum diamond

fluorite garnet gypsum hornblende ilmenite magnetite muscovite

Classification and Identification of Minerals

Minerals are classified according to their chemical composition.

1. Definite fixed composition,
Quartz is always SiO2, and calcite is always CaCO3.
2. Form both by inorganic and organic processes.
For example, calcite (CaCO3) is a common vein mineral in rocks, and also a shell-forming
material in many life forms. Calcite of organic origin conforms to the above definition except for the
requirement that it be inorganic.
3. "Mineraloids"
While not truly falling into the category of minerals, they are still usually classified as minerals.
Two well-known examples are Mercury, which lacks a crystal structure due to its liquid state,
and Opal, which also lacks a crystal structure as well as a definitive chemical formula. Despite the fact
that these mineraloids lack certain essential characteristics of minerals, they are classified as minerals
in most reference guides including the acclaimed Dana's System of Mineralogy.
4. Organic minerals is another unique category of minerals.
While this term is technically an oxymoron, since the definition of a mineral requires it to be
inorganic, there are several naturally occurring rare organic substances with a definitive chemical
formula. The best example of this is Whewellite. Most reference guides and scientific sources make an
exception to these substances and still classify them as minerals.

LESSON 4: EXOGENIC PROCESSES

❖ Exogenic process includes geological phenomena and processes that originate externally to the Earth’s
surface.
❖ Generally related to the:
➢ atmosphere,
➢ hydrosphere and
➢ biosphere, and
➢ therefore to processes of:
o weathering,
o erosion,
o transportation,
o deposition,
o denudation etc.

10 | I N T E G R A T E D I N N O V A T I O N A N D H O S P I T A L I T Y C O L L E G E S , I N C
 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
❖ Exogenic factors and processes could also have sources outside Earth, for instance under the influence of
the Sun, Moon, etc.

The above mentioned processes constitute essential landform-shaping factors. Their rate and activity very often
depends on local conditions, and can also be accelerated by human actions.
The combined functions of exogenic and endogenic factors influences the present complicated picture of the
Earth’s surface.

Mountains, valleys and plains seem to change little, if at all, when left to nature, but they do change continuously.
The features of the Earth’s surface temporary forms in a long sequence of change that began when the planet
originated billions of years ago, and is continuing today. The process that shaped the crust in the past are shaping it
now. By understanding them, it is possible to imagine, in a general way, how the land looked in the distant past and
how it may look in the distant future.

Landforms are limitless in variety. Some have been shaped primarily by:
➢ streams of water,
➢ glacial ice,
➢ waves and currents and
➢ movements of the Earth‘s crust or
➢ volcanic eruptions.

These are landscapes typical of deserts and others characteristic of humid regions. The arctic makes its special
mark on rock scenery, as do the tropics. Because geological conditions from locality to locality are never quite the
same, every landscape is unique. Rock at or near the surface of the continents breaks up and decomposes because of
exposure. The processes involved are called weathering.

• Weathering – is the decomposition and disintegration of rocks and minerals at the Earth’s surface.

• Erosion – is the removal of weathered rocks and minerals by moving water, wind, glaciers and gravity.

The four processes – weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition work together to modify the earth’s surface.

The Work of Weathering

Weathering produces some landforms directly, but is more effective in preparing rocks for removal by
mass wasting and erosion. Weathering influences relief in every landscape.

Freezing and thawing

❖ Water expands when it freezes.
❖ If water accumulates in a crack and then freezes, its expansion pushes the rock apart and the process is
called frost wedging.
❖ In a temperate climate, water may freeze at night and thaw during the day.
❖ Ice cements the rock temporarily, but when it melts, the rock fragments may tumble from a steep cliff.
❖ Large piles of loose angular rocks, called talus slopes, lie beneath many cliffs. These rocks fell from the
cliffs mainly as a result of frost wedging.

Temperature changes
Sudden cooling of a rock surface may cause it to contract so rapidly over warmer rock beneath that it flakes
or grains break off. This happens mostly in deserts, where intense daytime heat is followed by rapid cooling after.

LESSON 5: ENDOGENIC PROCESS

➢ Endogenic processes include tectonic movements of thecrust,magmatism, metamorphism, andseismic

activity.
➢ Endogenic processes have been responsiblefor shaping the earth’s relief and the formation of many of
theimportant mineral resources.
➢ The principal energy sources for endogenic processes are:

11 | I N T E G R A T E D I N N O V A T I O N A N D H O S P I T A L I T Y C O L L E G E S , I N C
 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
1. heat
2 the redistribution of material in the earth’sinterior according to density
- The earth’s deep heat originates chiefly from radiation.
- The continuous generation of heat in the earth’s interior results in theflow of heat toward the
surface.

➢ With the proper combination of materials, temperature, and pressure, chambers and layers of partial
melting mayoccur at certain depths within the earth.
➢ The asthenosphere, the primary source of magma formation, is such a layer in the upper mantle.
Convection currents may arise in the asthenosphere and they are hypothesized to be lithosphere.
➢ In the zones of the volcanic belts of the island arcs and continental margins, the principal magma chambers
are associated with super deep dip faults, slanting beneath the continents from the ocean side to depths of
about 700 km.
➢ Under the influence of the heat flow or under the direct influence of the heat carried by rising abyssal
magma, magma chambers form in the crust itself. Reaching the near
surfaceparts, the magma is intruded into them in the form of variously shaped intrusive bodies or
isextruded onto thesurface,forming volcanoes.
➢ Gravitational differentiation has led to the stratification of the earth into geospheres of varying density.
➢ Is also manifested in the form of tectonic movements,which, in turn, lead to the tectonic deformation of
crustal and upper mantle rocks.
➢ The accumulation and subsequent discharge of tectonic stresses along active faults causes earthquakes.

It is hypothesized that acombination of these processesleads to the temporal

unevenness of the release of heat and light matter toward the surface, which, in
turn,can be explained by the occurrence of tectonicmagmatic cycles in the history of the earth’s crust. The spatial
irregularities of the same abyssal processes may explain division of the crust intomore or less geologically active
regions, for example, into geosynclines and platforms.

LESSON 6: CRUSTAL DEFORMATION PROCESSES

Crustal Deformation

I. Deformation of rocks in Earth's crust takes many forms;

A. Changes in volume, shape, and position can occuralone or in combination.
1. Stress = applied force = cause of the deformation
a. Types of stress include:
1) Tensional-stretching, increased volume
2) Compressional - squeezing, decreased volume
3) Shear - change in shape
2. Strain = resulting deformation

B. Causes of deformation
1. Confining pressure - due to the load of overlying rocks
2. Stresses applied at plate boundaries - usuallynot uniform instead this is a directed pressure

C. Types of deformation (affected by confining pressureand temperature)

1. Deformation by flow
a. Elastic-recoverable, small amounts of strain,doesn’t happen to rocks
b. Plastic-permanent; rocks flow as movement occurs along small structural defects.
2. Brittle deformation - rupture - rock moves in opposite directions on either side of a break.

II. Strike and dip are used to describe the orientation of planar features.
a. Outcrop - site where rocks are exposed at the surface
b. Dip - the angleof inclination of the bedding surface down off the horizontal
c. Strike - the trend or direction of thestrata or the bearing of any horizontal line on the
plane perpendicular to the direction of dip.

12 | I N T E G R A T E D I N N O V A T I O N A N D H O S P I T A L I T Y C O L L E G E S , I N C
 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

III. Features of plastic deformation - Folds

A. Folds-wavelike undulations caused by bending of rocks usually produced by horizontal compressive
stresses – occurs at great depths inside the Earth under great temperatures and pressures
B. Terminology
1. Axial plane - a plane through a rock fold that includes the axis-divides the fold as symmetrically
as possible.
2. Axis-the ridge or place of sharpest folding.
3. Limb- 1 of 2 parts of the fold-on either side of axis.
4. Plunge-angle that fold axis makes with the horizontal
C. Types of folds
1. Anticline- arching or up warping of rock layers
2. Syncline- down warping of rock layers
3. Monocline-double flexure of rock layers
4. Dome-non-linear, anticlinal fold-beds dip away from central area in all directions
5. Basin- non- linear, synclinal fold-beds dip towardscentral area from all directions.
D. Description of folds
1. Symmetrical-dips of opposite limbs of fold are approximately equal
2. Overturned-asymmetrical fold with one limb tilted beyond vertical
3. Recumbent-overturned fold with a horizontal axis
4. Plunging-axis of fold penetrates into ground

IV. Features of brittle deformation - Faults and Joints

A. Joints-break in rock mass with no appreciable relative movement of rocks on opposite sides of
break.Sheet jointing causes formation of exfoliation domes and cooling results in columnar joints in
basalt.
B. Faults-break in rock mass where appreciable movement of rocks on opposite sides of the break has
occurred. Faults are classified on the basis of the relative movement of blocks on either side of the
fault.
1. Terminology
a. Hanging wall-block of rock immediately above fault surface
b. Footwall-block of rock immediately below fault surface
2. Dip-slip faults-movement of the two blocks is up and down the dip of the fault-primarily vertical
a. Normal fault-footwall moves up with respect tohanging wall (associated with tensional stress)
Graben and horst-features characterized by down-dropped anduplifted blocks of rock,
respectively,bordered by pairs of normal faults.
b. Reverse and thrust-footwall moves down with respectto hanging wall (associated with
compressional stressand usually lots of folding)
3. Strike-slip and transform faults-movement of the two blocks on either side of the break is along
the strike and dominantly horizontal (associated with shear stress)
a. Right lateral and left lateral
b. Transform fault-special kind of strike-slip fault, found along plate boundaries,which acco-
mmodatesmotion between crustal plates. The SANANDREAS FAULT is a right lateral
strike-slip transform fault.
C. Deformation of Earth's Crust occurs abruptly orgradually
1. Abrupt movements are associated with earthquakes.
2. Gradual movements = creep = semi-continuous movement.

Deformation of rock involves:

➢ Changes in the shape and/or volume of these substances.
➢ Changes in shape and volume occur when stress and strain causes rock to buckle and fracture or
crumple into folds.
➢ A fold can be defined as a bend in rock that is the response to compressional forces.
➢ Folds are most visible in rocks that contain layering.

Plastic deformation of rock to occur, a number of conditions must be met, including:

13 | I N T E G R A T E D I N N O V A T I O N A N D H O S P I T A L I T Y C O L L E G E S , I N C
 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
➢ The rock material must have the ability to deform under pressure and heat.
➢ The higher the temperature of the rock the more plastic it becomes.
➢ Pressure must not exceed the internal strength of the rock. If it does, fracturing occurs.
➢ Deformation must be applied slowly.

A number of different folds have been recognized and classified by geologists:

1. The simplest type of fold is called a monocline. This fold involves a slight bend
in otherwise parallel layers of rock.

Figure 1 - Monocline Fold

2. An anticline is a convex up fold in rock that resembles an arch like structure
with the rock beds (or limbs) dipping way from the center of the structure.
Note how the rock layers dip away from the center of the fold are roughly
symmetrical.
Figure 2- Anticline Fold
3. A syncline is a fold where the rock layers are warped downward (Figure 3 and 4). Both anticlines and
synclines are the result of compressional stress.

Figure 3– Syncline Fold Figure 4

More complex fold types can develop in situations where lateral pressures become greater. The
greater pressure results in anticlines and synclines that are inclined and asymmetrical.
The following illustration shows two anticline folds which are inclined. Also note how the beds on
either side of the fold center are asymmetrical.Figure 4 shows two anticline folds which are inclined. Also
note how the beds on either side of the fold center are asymmetrical.
4. A recumbent fold develops if the center of the fold moves from being once vertical to a horizontal
position. Recumbent folds (Figure 5) are commonly found in the core of mountain ranges and indicate
that compression and/or shear forces were stronger in one direction. Extreme stress and pressure can
sometimes cause the rocks to shear along a plane of weakness creating a fault. We call the combination
of a fault and a fold in a rock an over thrust fault.

Figure 6

Figure 5

Faults form in rocks when the stresses overcome the internal strength of the rock resulting in a
fracture. A fault can be defined as the displacement of once connected blocks of rock along a fault
plane. This can occur in any direction with the blocks moving away from each other.
Faults occur from both tensional and compressional forces. Figure 6 shows the location of some of
the major faults located on the Earth. Note that many of these faults are in mountainous regions.

There are different kinds of faults. These faults are named accordingto the type of stress that acts on the
rock and by the nature of the movement of the rock blocks either side of the fault plane.

1. Normal faults occur when tensional forces act in opposite directions and cause one slab of the rock to
be displaced up and the other slab down.

14 | I N T E G R A T E D I N N O V A T I O N A N D H O S P I T A L I T Y C O L L E G E S , I N C
 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
2. Reverse faults develop when compressional forces exist. Compression causes one block to be pushed
up and over the other block.
3. A graben fault is produced when tensional stresses result in the subsidence of a block of rock. On a
large scale these features are known as Rift Valleys.
4. A horst fault is the development of two reverse faults causing a block of rock to be pushed up.
5. The final major type of fault is the strike-slip or transform fault. These faults are vertical in nature and
are produced where the stresses are exerted parallel to each other.

A well-known example of this type of fault is the San Andreas Fault in California.

EARTH QUAKES
➢ An earthquake is a sudden vibration or trembling in the Earth.
➢ Earthquake motion is caused by the quick release of stored potential energy into the kinetic energy of
motion.
➢ Most earthquakes are produced along: faults,
❖ tectonic plate boundary zones, or
❖ along the mid-oceanic ridges
At these areas, large masses of rock that are moving past each other can become locked due to friction.
➢ Friction is overcome when the accumulating stress has enough force to cause a sudden slippage of the rock
masses.
➢ The magnitude of the shock wave released into the surrounding rocks is controlled by:
❖ the quantity of stress built up because of friction,
❖ the distance the rock moved when the slippage occurred, and
❖ ability of the rock to transmit the energy contained in the seismic waves.

Stratified Rock
➢ The stratified rocks form more than nine-tenths of the earth's surface, and if the entire series of them were
present at any one place, they would have a maximum thickness of about thirty miles, but no such place is
known.
➢ The regions of greatest sedimentary accumulation are the shallower parts of the oceans, while those regions
which have remained as dry land, through long ages, may not only have had no important additions to their
surfaces, but have lost immense thicknesses of rock through denudation.
➢ The great oceanic abysses are also areas of excessively slow sedimentation, and thus the thickness of the
stratified rocks varies much from point to point, a variation which has been increased by the irregularities
of upheaval and depression and of different rates of denudation.

15 | I N T E G R A T E D I N N O V A T I O N A N D H O S P I T A L I T Y C O L L E G E S , I N C
 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
➢ Even with this irregularity in the formation and removal of the stratified rocks, it would be exceedingly
difficult to investigate the entire series of them, if they had all retained the
original horizontal positions in which they were first laid down.
➢ In many places, however, the rocks have been steeply tilted and then
truncated by erosion, so that their edges form the surface of the ground, and
thus great thicknesses of them may be examined without descending below
the surface.
➢ Stratification, or division into layers, is the most persistent and conspicuous
characteristic of the sedimentary rocks.
➢ In studying the sedimentary deposits of the present day we learned that by
the sorting power of water and wind, heterogeneous material is arranged
into more or less homogeneous beds, separated from one another by distinct
planes of division, and the same thing is true of the sedimentary rocks
stratification of all ages. This division into more or less parallel layers is
called, and the extent to which the division is carried varies according to
circumstances.
➢ A single member, or bed, of a stratified rock, whether thick or thin, is called
a layer, though for purposes of distinction, excessively thin layers are called
lamince.
➢ Each layer or lamina represents an uninterrupted deposition of material,
while the divisions between them, or bedding planes, are due to longer or
shorter pauses in the process, or to a change, if only in a film, of the material
deposited.
➢ A stratum is the collection of layers of the same mineral substance, which occur together and may consist
of one or many layers.
➢ The passage from one stratum to another is generally abrupt and indicates a change in the circumstances of
deposition, either in the depth of water, or in the character of the material brought to a given spot, or both.
So long as conditions remain the same, the same kind of material will accumulate over a given area, and
thus immense thicknesses of similar material may be formed.
➢ To keep up such equality of conditions, the depth of water must remain constant, and hence the bottom
must subside as rapidly as the sediment accumulates.
➢ Usually, a section of thick rock masses shows continual change of material at different levels. Given figure
is a section of the rocks in Beaver County, Pennsylvania, in which several different kinds of beds register
the changes in the physical geography of that area.
1. At the bottom of the section is a coal seam, the consolidated and carbonized vegetable matter which
accumulated in an ancient fresh-water swamp.
2. Next came a subsidence of the swamp, allowing water to flow in, in which were laid down mixed
sands and gravels.
3. The accumulations eventually shoaled the water and enabled a second peat swamp to establish itself;
this is registered in the second coal bed, the thinness of which indicates that the second swamp did not
last so long as the first.
4. Renewed subsidence again flooded the bog, as is shown by the stratum of shale which overlies the
second coal bed.
5. Next, the water was shoaled by an upheaval, and argillaceous sands were laid down, which now form
the flaggy sandstones overlying the shale.
6. The twenty-five feet of sandstone, aided by continued slow rise, silted up the water and allowed a third
peat bog to grow, the result of which is the third coal seam, while a repetition of the subsidence once
more brought in the water, in which were laid down the seventy feet of gravel at the top of the section.
➢ In this fashion the succession of strata records the changes which were in progress while those strata were
forming. Whether the beds, other than the coal seams, were laid down in fresh water, or in salt, by a lake, a
flooded river, or the sea, may be determined from the fossils contained in those beds.
➢ In the absence of fossils it is not always possible to make the distinction.
➢ Similar changes in the strata may be occasioned by the steady lowering of a land surface through
denudation.

❖ This diminishes the velocity of the streams, which, in its turn, changes the character of the
materials which the rivers bring to the sea.

16 | I N T E G R A T E D I N N O V A T I O N A N D H O S P I T A L I T Y C O L L E G E S , I N C
 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

➢ We have no trustworthy means of judging how long a time was required for the formation of any given
stratum or series of strata, but it is clear that different kinds of beds accumulate at very different rates.
➢ The coarser materials,like conglomerates and sand-stones, were piled up much more rapidly than the shales
and limestones; so that equal thicknesses of different kinds of strata imply great differences in the time
required to form them.
➢ Comparing like strata with like, the thickness of a group of rocks is a rough measure of the time involved in
their formation, and that very thick masses imply a very long lapse of time, but it cannot be inferred that the
number of years or centuries or millennia required.
➢ Geological chronology can be relative only.
❖ Such a relative chronology is by the order of succession of the beds.
❖ Obviously the lowest stratum is the oldest and the one at the top the newest.
❖ This may be put as a general principle, that, unless strata have lost their original position through
disturbance or dislocation, their order of superposition is their order of relative age.
❖ It is for this reason that in geological sections the strata are numbered and read from below
upward.
➢ Change in the character of the strata takes place not only vertically, but also horizontally, since no stratum
is universal, even for a single continent.
➢ The study of the processes of sedimentation which, showed that the character of the bottom in the ocean or
in lakes is subject to frequent changes, varying with the depth of water and other factors.
➢ The same is true of the ancient sea and lake bottoms, now represented by the stratified rocks of the land.
➢ Strata may persist with great evenness and uniform thickness over vast areas, and in such cases the bedding
planes remain sensibly parallel.
➢ But sooner or later, the beds, whenever they can be traced far enough, are found to thin out to edges and to
dovetail in with beds of a different character.
➢ When the strata are of constant thickness for considerable distances, and the bedding planes remain
parallel, the stratification is said to be regular.
➢ In many cases these changes take place rapidly from point to point, and then the strata are plainly of
lenticular shape, thickest in the middle, thinning quickly to the edges.
➢ Here the bedding planes are distinctly not parallel, and the stratification is irregular.
➢ An example of rapid horizontal changes is given in the two accompanying parallel sections (Fig.7), taken
through the same beds, only twenty feet apart. In these sections the differences of thickness of the coal
seams and of the sands and clays which separate them are very striking.

Figure7 - Parallel sections near Colorado Springs, Col. (Hay-den).

The finer details of structure of the stratified rocks, such as cross-bedding, ripple and rill-
marks,rain-prints, tracks of animals, and the like, likewise afford valuable testimony as to
the circumstances under which the rocks were laid down.

LESSON7: HISTORY OF EARTH

In the very beginning of earth's history, this planet was a giant, red hot,
roiling, boiling sea of molten rock - a magma ocean. The heat had been generated
by the repeated high speed collisions of much smaller bodies of space rocks that
continually clumped together as they collided to form this planet. As the
collisions tapered off the earth began to cool, forming a thin crust on its surface.
As the cooling continued, water vapor began to escape and condense in the
earth's early atmosphere. Clouds formed and storms raged, raining more and
more water down on the primitive earth, cooling the surface further until it was
flooded with water, forming the seas.

17 | I N T E G R A T E D I N N O V A T I O N A N D H O S P I T A L I T Y C O L L E G E S , I N C
 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
It is theorized that the true age of the earth is about 4.6 billion years old, formed at about the same time as
the rest of our solar system. The oldest rocks geologists have been able to find are 3.9 billion years old.
Using radiometric dating methods to determine the age of rocks means scientists have to rely on when the rock was
initially formed (as in - when its internal minerals first cooled). In the infancy of our home planet the entire earth
was molten rock - a magma ocean.
Since we can only measure as far back in time as we had solid rock on this planet, we are limited in how
we can measure the real age of the earth. Due to the forces of plate tectonics, our planet is also a very dynamic one;
new mountains forming, old ones wearing down, volcanoes melting and reshaping new crust. The continual
changing and reshaping of the earth's surface that involves the melting down and reconstructing of old rock has
pretty much eliminated most of the original rocks that came with earth when it was newly formed. So the age is a
theoretical age.

When Did Life on Earth Begin?

Scientists are still trying to unravel one of the greatest mysteries of earth: When did "life" first appear and
how did it happen? It is estimated that the first life forms on earth were primitive, one-celled creatures that
appeared about 3 billion years ago. That's pretty much all there was for about the next two billion years. Then
suddenly those single celled organisms began to evolve into multicellular organisms. Then an unprecedented
profusion of life in incredibly complex forms began to fill the oceans. Some crawled from the seas and took
residence on land, perhaps to escape predators in the ocean. A cascading chain of new and increasingly
differentiated forms of life appeared all over the planet, only to be virtually annihilated by an unexplained mass
extinction. It would be the first of several mass extinctions in Earth's history.
Scientists have been looking increasingly to space to explain these mass extinctions that have been
happening almost like clockwork since the beginning of "living" time. Perhaps we've been getting periodically
belted by more space rocks (ie. asteroids), or the collision of neutron stars happening too close for comfort? Each
time a mass extinction occurred, life found a way to come back from the brink. Life has tenaciously clung to this
small blue planet for the last three billion years. Scientists are finding new cues as to how life first began on earth in
some really interesting places - the deep ocean.

Checking the Fossil Record

Scientists have studied rocks using radiometric dating methods to determine the age of earth. Another
really cool thing they've found in rocks that tells us more about the story of earth's past are the remains of living
creatures that have been embedded in the rocks for all time. We call these fossils. It has been the careful study of
earth's fossil record that has revealed the exciting picture about the kinds of creatures that once roamed this planet.
Fossilized skeletons of enormous creatures with huge claws and teeth, ancient ancestors of modern day species (such
as sharks) that have remained virtually unchanged for millions of years, and prehistoric jungles lush with plant life,
all point to a profusion of life and a variety of species that continues to populate the earth, even in the face of
periodic mass extinctions.
By studying the fossil record scientists have determined that the earth has experienced very different
climates in the past. In fact, general climactic conditions, as well as existing species, are used to define distinct
geologic time periods in earth's history. For example, periodic warming of the earth - during the Jurassic and
Cretaceous periods - created a profusion of plant and animal life that left behind generous organic materials from
their decay. These layers of organic material built up over millions of years undisturbed. They were eventually
covered by younger, overlying sediment andcompressed, giving us fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural
gas.
Alternately, the earth's climate has also experienced periods of extremely cold weather for such prolonged
periods that much of the surface was covered in thick sheets of ice. These periods of geologic time are called ice
ages. Entire species of warmer-climate species died out during these time periods, giving rise to entirely new species
of living things which could tolerate and survive in the extremely cold climate. Believe it or not, humans were
around during the last ice age - the Holocene (about 11,500 years ago) - and we managed to survive. Creatures like
the Woolly Mammoth - a distant relative of modern-day elephants - did not.
Read about a really exciting recent find of a perfectly-preserved, frozen Woolly Mammoth! This was a
particularly exciting find because it wasn't a fossil that scientists found, but actual tissue, which still has its DNA
record intact.
Also, read more about the Ice Man - another frozen tissue sample of a human being who was frozen into
the high mountains of France. He was just recently discovered as thousands of years of ice pack have finally melted
from around his body.

18 | I N T E G R A T E D I N N O V A T I O N A N D H O S P I T A L I T Y C O L L E G E S , I N C
 COMPILATION 1 QUARTER 1
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
Rocks in the mantle and the core are still hot from the formation of the Earth about 4.6 billion years ago.
When the Earth formed, material collided at high speeds. These collisions generated heat (try clapping your
handstogether - they get hot) that heat became trapped in the Earth. There is also heat within the earth produced by
radioactive decay of naturally-occurring radioactive elements. It is the same process that allows a nuclear reactor to
generate heat, but in the earth, the radioactive material is much less concentrated. However, because the earth is so
much bigger than a nuclear power plant it can produce a lot of heat. Rocks are good insulators so the heat has been
slow to dissipate.
This heat is enough to partially melt some rocks in the upper mantle, about 50-100 km below the surface. It
partially melt because the rocks don't completely melt. Most rocks are made up of more than one mineral, and these
different minerals have different melting temperatures. This means that when the rock starts to melt, some of the
minerals get melted to a much greater degree than others. The main reason this is important is that the liquid
(magma) that is generated is not just the molten equivalent of the starting rock, but something different.
The most common type of magma produced is basalt (the stuff that is erupted at mid-ocean ridges to make
up the ocean floors, as well as the stuff that is erupted in Hawai'i). Soon after they're formed, little drops of basaltic
magma start to work their way upward (their density is slightly less than that of the solid rock), and pretty soon they
join with other drops and eventually there is a good flow of basaltic magma towards the surface. If it makes it to the
surface it will erupt as basaltic lava.

REFERENCE

Alberts,Bruceet.al.Molecularbiologyofthecell.(5thed.).NewYork:GarlandPublishing,2007.

Reece,Jane.B.et.al.CampbellBiology(9thed.).Boston:Pearson,2011.

19 | I N T E G R A T E D I N N O V A T I O N A N D H O S P I T A L I T Y C O L L E G E S , I N C