Book Title: eTextbook: Introductory Chemistry: A Foundation

Chapter 16. Acids and Bases

16.4. The pH Scale

16.4. The pH Scale

Objectives

To understand pH and pOH.

To learn to find pOH and pH for various solutions.

To learn to use a calculator in these calculations.

To express small numbers conveniently, chemists often use the “

p
scale,” which is based on common

logarithms (base 10
logs). In this system, if N
represents some number, then

pN = − log N = (−1) × log N

That is, the p

means to take the log of the number that follows and multiply the result by −1
. For

example, to express the number 1.0 × 10

−7

on the p
scale, we need to take the negative log of

1.0 × 10
−7

.

−7 −7
p(1.0 × 10 ) = − log(1.0 × 10 ) = 7.00

Because the +
[H ]
in an aqueous solution is typically quite small, using the p
scale in the form of the

pH scale provides a convenient way to represent solution acidity. The pH is defined as

+
pH = − log[H ]

To obtain the pH value of a solution, we must compute the negative log of the +
[H ]
.
In the case where [H
+
] = 1.0 × 10
−5
M
, the solution has a pH value of 5.00
.

To represent pH to the appropriate number of significant figures, you need to know the following rule for

logarithms: the number of decimal places for a log must be equal to the number of significant figures in the

original number. Thus

Details

and

Interactive Example 16.5. Calculating pH

Calculate the pH value for each of the following solutions at 25 °C

.

a. A solution in which [H
+
] = 1.0 × 10
−9
M

b. A solution in which [OH

−
] = 1.0 × 10
−6
M

Solution

a. For this solution [H

+
] = 1.0 × 10
−9

.

−9
− log (1.0 × 10 ) = 9.00

pH = 9.00

b. In this case we are given the [OH

−
]
. Thus we must first calculate [H
+
]
from the Kw

expression. We solve
 + − −14
Kw = [H ][OH ] = 1.0 × 10

for +
[H ]
by dividing both sides by [OH
−
]
.

−14 −14
1.0 × 10 1.0 × 10
+ −8
[H ] = = = 1.0 × 10
− −6
[OH ] 1.0 × 10

Now that we know the [H

+
]
, we can calculate the pH because

pH = − log[H
+
] = − log(1.0 × 10
−8
) = 8.00
.

Self-Check: Exercise 16.3

Calculate the pH value for each of the following solutions at 25 °C

.

a. A solution in which [H
+
] = 1.0 × 10
−3
M

SHOW ANSWER

b. A solution in which [OH

−
] = 5.0 × 10
−5
M

SHOW ANSWER

See Problems 16.41, 16.42, 16.43, and 16.44.

Because the pH scale is a log scale based on 10

, the pH changes by 1
for every power-of-
10
change

in the [H
+
]
. For example, a solution of pH 3
has an H
+

concentration of 10
−3
M
, which is 10

times that of a solution of pH 4 ([H

+
] = 10
−4
M)
and 100
times that of a solution of pH 5
. This is

illustrated in Table 16.2. Also note from Table 16.2 that the pH decreases as the [H
+
]
increases. That is, a

lower pH means a more acidic solution. The pH scale and the pH values for several common substances

are shown in Fig. 16.3.

Table 16.2. The Relationship of the +
H
Concentration of a Solution to Its pH

[H
+
](M ) pH

−1 1.00
1.0 × 10

−2 2.00
1.0 × 10

−3 3.00
1.0 × 10

−4 4.00
1.0 × 10

−5 5.00
1.0 × 10

−6 6.00
1.0 × 10

−7 7.00
1.0 × 10
 Figure 16.3.

Details

The pH scale and pH values of some common substances.

We often measure the pH of a solution by using a pH meter, an electronic device with a probe that can be

inserted into a solution of unknown pH. A pH meter is shown in Fig. 16.4. Colored indicator paper is also
commonly used to measure the pH of a solution when less accuracy is needed. A drop of the solution to
be tested is placed on this special paper, which promptly turns to a color characteristic of a given pH (Fig.
16.5).
Figure 16.4.

Source: Ken O’Donoghue © Cengage Learning

A pH meter. The electrodes on the right are placed in the solution with unknown pH. The difference between the
[H
+
]
in the solution sealed into one of the electrodes and the +
[H ]
in the solution being analyzed is

translated into an electrical potential and registered on the meter as a pH reading.

 Figure 16.5.

Source: © Cengage Learning

Indicator paper being used to measure the pH of a solution. The pH is determined by comparing the color that
the solution turns the paper to the color chart.

Log scales similar to the pH scale are used for representing other quantities. For example,

−
pOH = − log[OH ]

Therefore, in a solution in which

− −12
[OH ] = 1.0 × 10 M

the pOH is

− −12
− log[OH ] = − log(1.0 × 10 ) = 12.00

The symbol p
means − log
.

Critical Thinking
 What if an elected official decided to ban all products with a pH outside of the 6−8
range?

How would this affect the products you could buy? Give some examples of products that would
no longer be available.

Interactive Example 16.6. Calculating pH and pOH

Calculate the pH and pOH for each of the following solutions at 25 °C

.

a. 1.0 × 10
−3
M
−
OH

b. 1.0 M
H
+

Solution

a. We are given the [OH

−
]
, so we can calculate the pOH value by taking − log[OH
−
]
.

− −3
pOH = − log[OH ] = − log(1.0 × 10 ) = 3.00

To calculate the pH, we must first solve the Kw

expression for [H
+
]
.

−14
Kw 1.0 × 10
+ −11
[H ] = = = 1.0 × 10 M
− −3
[OH ] 1.0 × 10

Now we compute the pH.

+ −11
pH = − log[H ] = − log(1.0 × 10 ) = 11.00

b. In this case we are given the [H

+
]
and we can compute the pH.

+
pH = − log[H ] = − log(1.0) = 0

We next solve the Kw

expression for [OH
−
]
.
Now we compute the pOH.

− −14
pOH = − log[OH ] = − log(1.0 × 10 ) = 14.00

We can obtain a convenient relationship between pH and pOH by starting with the Kw

expression +
[H
−
][OH
−14
] = 1.0 × 10
and taking the negative log of both sides.

+ − −14
− log([H ][OH ]) = − log(1.0 × 10 )

Because the log of a product equals the sum of the logs of the terms—that is,
log(A × B) = log A + log B
—we have

Details

which gives the equation

pH + pOH = 14.00

This means that once we know either the pH or the pOH for a solution, we can calculate the
other. For example, if a solution has a pH of 6.00
, the pOH is calculated as follows:

pH + pOH = 14.00

pOH = 14.00 − pH

pOH = 14.00 − 6.00 = 8.00

 © Monika Wisniewska/Dreamstime.com

Red blood cells can exist only over a narrow range of pH.

Interactive Example 16.7. Calculating pOH from pH

The pH of blood is about 7.4

. What is the pOH of blood?

Solution

pH + pOH = 14.00

pOH = 14.00 − pH

= 14.00 − 7.4

= 6.6

The pOH of blood is 6.6

.

Self-Check: Exercise 16.4

A sample of rain in an area with severe air pollution has a pH of 3.5

. What is the pOH of this

rainwater?

SHOW ANSWER
 See Problems 16.45 and 16.46.

It is also possible to find the [H

+
]
or [OH
−
]
from the pH or pOH. To find the [H
+
]
from the pH, we

must go back to the definition of pH:

+
pH = − log[H ]

or

+
− pH = log[H ]

To arrive at [H
+
]
on the right-hand side of this equation we must “undo” the log operation. This is

called taking the antilog or the inverse log.

+
Inverse log (− pH) = inverse log (log[H ])

+
Inverse log (− pH) = [H ]

There are different methods for carrying out the inverse log operation on various calculators. One

common method is the two-key inv

log
sequence. (Consult the user’s manual for your calculator to

find out how to do the antilog or inverse log operation.)

The steps in going from pH to [H

+
]
are as follows:

This operation may involve a 10

x

key on some calculators.

Steps for Calculating [H

+
]
from pH

Step 1. Take the inverse log (antilog) of − pH

to give +
[H ]
by using the inv
log
keys in

that order. (Your calculator may require different keys for this operation.)

Step 2. Press the minus [−]

key.
 Step 3. Enter the pH.

For practice, we will convert pH = 7.0

to [H
+
]
.

pH = 7.0

− pH = −7.0

The inverse log of −7.0

gives −7
1 × 10
.

+ −7
[H ] = 1 × 10 M

This process is illustrated further in Example 16.8.

Charles D. Winters/Science Source

Measuring the pH of glacial meltwater.

Interactive Example 16.8. Calculating [H

+
]
from pH

The pH of a human blood sample was measured to be 7.41

. What is the +
[H ]
in this blood?

Solution
 pH = 7.41

− pH = −7.41

+ −8
[H ] = inverse log of −7.41 = 3.9 × 10

+ −8
[H ] = 3.9 × 10 M

Notice that because the pH has two decimal places, we need two significant figures for [H
+
]
.

Self-Check: Exercise 16.5

The pH of rainwater in a polluted area was found to be 3.50

. What is the [H
+
]
for this

rainwater?

SHOW ANSWER

See Problems 16.49 and 16.50.

A similar procedure is used to change from pOH to [OH

−
]
, as shown in Example 16.9.

Interactive Example 16.9. Calculating

from pOH
−
[OH ]

The pOH of the water in a fish tank is found to be 6.59

. What is the −
[OH ]
for this water?

Solution

We use the same steps as for converting pH to [H

+
]
, except that we use the pOH to calculate the

[OH
−
]
.
 pOH = 6.59

− pOH = −6.59

− −7
[OH ] = inverse log of −6.59 = 2.6 × 10

− −7
[OH ] = 2.6 × 10 M

Note that two significant figures are required.

Self-Check: Exercise 16.6

The pOH of a liquid drain cleaner was found to be 10.50

. What is the −
[OH ]
for this cleaner?

SHOW ANSWER

See Problems 16.51 and 16.52.