> Chapter 5 Chemical calculations Tureen menue ae eee ae Pet ee ae en nee nee ee ee eee cs Ceara ese er ren et aac ee ee eA ane Peer ie ee eeu io ee an Pee eee see ea are ea) Ra eae Pca learn that the molar gas volume for any gasis 24dm* at rtp, and use this value for calculations on eee ep Understand the different units used to express the concentration of @ solution and use them when ese geese ec eas> cameRiDGE Kacse™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Working in groups of three or four, review the scenario described here and discuss the questions asked. To answer the questions, you will need to recall information covered in Chapters 1-3. a + 8 ¥ a v D y Figure 5.1: These balloons all contain the same volume of gps at the same pressure and temperature. You have four balloons filled to the same volume and pressure, These balloons contain different gases as indicated in Figure 5.1. ‘© From what you know of the nature of gases, what can you say about the number of gas molecules in each of the balloons? * Which of the four balloons will sink to the ground fastest? Discuss these questions in your group and the reasons behind your answers. ‘The rather unusual word stoichiometry is derived from two Greek words - stoicheion (meaning element), and metron (meaning measure). it describes the relative measures, or mounts, of a reactant and a product in a chemical reaction. Chemists talk of stoichiometry when balancing symbol equations (Chapter 4), and itis how they work out what quantities of different substances will react to form particular amounts of product. ‘You can think of stoichiometry as the link between what happens at an atomic level and what can bbe measured practically ina reaction. Although the pairing of elements may change in a chemical reaction, the amount of matter remains the same, s0 stoichiometry is @ type of chemical accountancy that takes place at the atomic level. The standard amount of substance that contains a known number of particles at an atomic level is known as the mole, The concept of the mele is important to new developments in industrial chemistry where the twelve principles of Green Chemistry have been proposed to guide more sustainable chemical engineering. Green Chemistry emphasises that industrial processes should reduce the use, or production, of hazardous or waste substances (igure 5.2). By reducing the involvement of hazardous substances, the environmental safety of any new process is more effective, Green Chemistry also stresses the atom economy (of a reaction as a measure of percentage of substance present in the reactants that finishes Up in the desired product. The concept of the mole is important here, as itis used to measure the amount of substance present in the reactants and the useful products. A high level of atom ‘economy is important for sustainable development ‘and the economic efficiency of an industrial process, Although atoms are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction, not all the atoms in the reactants will necessarily become part of the desired product; some may end up forming by-products, or waste products. If all the atoms in the reactants end up in the desired product - that is, fthere is no by-product from the reaction ~ this Figure 5.2: Moclern chemical plants should be designed for safety and atom economy. 100 >stoichiometry: the ratio of the reactants and products in a balanced symbol equation mole: the measure of amount of substance in Chemisty 1 mole ofa substance has a mase fequal to its relative formula mass in grams that amount of substance contains 6.02 10” (the ‘Avogadro constant) atoms, molecules or formula Units depending on the substance considered 5.1 The mole and Avogadro's constant If you take any compound, eg. iron sulfide (FeS). it will always contain the same elements, in this ease iron (Fe) and sulfur (8). The to elements in iron sulfide are always present in the same ratio by mass. The relationship can be determined experimentally. When increasing amounts of iron are heated with sulfur, the ‘mass of sulfur that combines also increases. When the results are plotted on a graph you see a straight-line relationship (Figure 5.3) indicating that the elements ‘combine ina fixed ratio by mass. How can we make the Tink between the mass ratio and the chemical formula of ‘4 compound? To do this we need to use the concept of the mole. 5 Chemical calculations Mass of sultur / Mass ofiron / Figure 5.3: Experiments on heating iron with sulfur show ‘that the two elements actin a fixed ratio by mess to produce iron sulfide. The mole - the chemical counting unit ‘When carrying out an experiment, a chemist cannot ‘weigh out a single atom or molecule and then react it ‘with another atom or molecule. Atoms and molecules are simply too small. A ‘counting unit’ must be found that is useful in practical chemistry. This idea is not unusual when dealing with large numbers of small objects. For ‘example, banks weigh coins rather than count them ~ they know that a fixed number of a particular coin will always have the same mass (Figure 5.4)‘COURSEBOOK Figure 5.4: Coins weighed using a balance. Chemists have applied this idea of counting large ‘humbers of objects to the problem of relating a number of sub-microscopic particles to the amount of substance in a sample. Chemists count atoms and molecules by Weighing them. The standard ‘unit’ of the ‘amount™ of a substance is taken as the relative molecular (or, formula) mass of the substance in grams. This ‘unit’ is called | mole of the substance. The unit ‘moles’ is used + to measure amounts of elements and compounds (mol is the symbol or shortened form of mole or moles). The ‘mass of I mole of a substance is called the molar m (of that substance. To find the molar mass (mass of 1 mole) of any substance, you write down the formula of the substance: for example, ethanol is C,H,OH. Then work out its relative formula mass (for ethanol this is 46). For example, ethanol contains two carbon atoms (A, = 12), six hydrogen atoms (4, = 1) and one oxygen atom (4, = 16). So, for ethanol M, = (2 x 12) + (6 « 1) + 16 = 46, ‘This value is expressed in grams pet mole (1 mole of ethanol = 46g), ‘Table 5.1 shows some further examples of how this idea applied to other substances One mole of each of these different substances contains the same number of atoms, molecules or formula units, (Table 5.1), That number per mole has been worked ‘ut by several different experimental methods. [tis hhamed after the 19th century Italian chemist Amedeo Avogadro and is 6.02 10% particles per mole (this is called the and its given the symbol L) (Figure 5.5). Knowing that 46g of ethanol is | mole of that compound, we now also know that there ate 6 x 10° ethanol molecules in that amount of ethanol. the mass, in grams, of 1 mole of fe substance the number (6 « 10%) of characteristic particles in 1 mole of a substance ST LY Me I5 Chemical calculations Figure 5.5: Onemole always contain the same number of paticles (Avogadro's constant ‘One mole of a substance: contains 6.02 x 10" (the Avogadro constant) atoms, ‘molecules or formula units, depending on the substance considered ‘© asa mass equal to its relative molecular (or formula) mass (4Y,) in grams. . Figure 5.6 shows how to convert between these important values chide by Avogadro’® —mukiolyby molar constant mass M, number of umber of massin particles moles, ‘grams multiply by Avogadro's divide by molar constant mass, M, Figure 5.6: The number of moles of substances is related +0 the mass of substance in 2 sample and the number of, particles present Calculations involving the mole For any given mas of a substane, you can Bind the number of moles of atoms, molecules or formula units present using the following mathematical equation, there the mass is in grams and the molar mass i in srams per mole ‘number of moles = #5 ‘molar mass ‘This mathematical equation can be rearranged so that any one of the values can be calculated, provided the ‘other two values are known. The ‘calculation triangle’ Figure 5.7 isa useful check to make sure that you have rearranged the equation correctly: cover the quantity to be found and you are left with how to work it out Figure 5.7: Caleulation triangle for relating number of moles cof substance to mass. ‘This shows that if we need to calculate the mass of one mole of some substance, the straightforward way is to work out the relative formula mass of the substance and write the word “grams’ after it. Using this mathematical equation, it is possible to convert any mass of @ particular substance into moles, or vice versa. We shall Took at two examples. 103 >CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Using calculation triangles lum hydroxide? The relative formula mass of sods hydroxide is M,(NaOM) = 234164 1 =40 molar mass of NaOH'= 40 gimo) no. of roles 08 58 Calculation triangle for working out the number of moles in 60g of sodium hydroxide muss (Figure sa wy, number of males = | Nove that here we have put the vlses int the mnt fy rearrange te equation rst, whichever you eel mv ms the calculation you shoul Ji this case Now ity these 10 examplabifior yourself, being cavalul to 1 4 2 Mow many’ moles ae thor i (i H= = WG AL ol water basa mass of 4S. Whial i then 1. How many males are there in 60 of z onfiden| about. | of hydrated coppertTD) What is the mass af 0, sulfate eryslal 1d copperttt) Sulfate {{CU8O, SHO) = 64422-414 =16)9 45 st molar mass «f ©uSO/5H,0 = 250 pmo! O5me! Fo 5% Caleulating the mass of 0Smel of coop st ae. rnb ss = Thee Working out chemical formulae experimentally The coacept af the wile means tht we a ap work out cesta forme fem experiment dae The concep provides the link jemnet iu eomnpaund wind tie bet furnber Of stone presct. 104) WF mgtesidets burnt dhe OA g af magnesium oxtte is formed, Ths meats ul iy mathesiinn combines Wit O16 _ q 40) —024 =U Wed Weeat new se il find the formato oF moagmestae oxide (pus 5.10) aFind the number ‘Find the umber Fritts of grams of the ‘of moles of Gets. ‘loments that atoms of och ‘combine slerant ht rurnber rato Ma. mosscombined 024g O16 solar mass 2igimol temo! sumoerofmoles O01mai_— O01 mal simplest atio| 1 1 Formula Figur ‘rom experimental data on the masses of magnesium and ‘oxygen that react together Calculating the formula of magnesium oxide Empirical and molecular formulae for simple covalent molecules 5 Chemicat calculations 5 ° percentageby mess 47% 100-47 = 53% moss in 1009 479 539 rmelar mass Pains) Yealmol | numberofmekis 148 mal 3.31 mol simples ratio 1 2 Formula so, oxide from percentage mass data Finding the empirical formula of scone) P ° [percentage by mass [44% 100 = 44 = 56% ass in 1009 48g 56g molar mass Btgimel_| 16g/mol numberof moles _[14mol__|3.5 mol simplest ratio 1 25 or 2 5 Formula I P.O, " Caleulating the empirical formula of phosphorus oxide.> camenioce 1scse™ cHemustay: OURSEBOOK However, itis found experimentally that its relative ‘molecular mass (M,) is 284. The sum of the relative ‘atomic masses in the empirical formula (P,0,) is 2231) + 6x16) ‘molecular ‘mass is twice this value. Therefore, the molecular Formula of phosphorus oxide is (P,O,), oF PQy., The cenopirical formula is nor the actual molecular formula of phosphorus oxide, A molecule of phosphorus ox contains four P atoms and 10 O atoms (Figure 5.12), Table 5.3: Calculating the formula of hydrated coppert sulfate, Questions - Figure 5.12: Phosphorus oxide, P.O, * The empirical formula of @ compound is the simplest whole number formula ‘+ Forsimple molecular compounds, the empirical formula may not be the actual molecular formula, ‘The molecular formula must be calculated using the relative molecular mass (M,) of the compound as found by experiment. . _ Finding the formula of a hydrated salt “The mass of water present in crystals of hydrated salts is always ated proportion of the total mast The formula of such a salt can be worked out by a method similar to that used to calculate the empirical formula oF nemenecad If 5.03 of hydrated copper(I) sulfate crystals are heated to drive off the water of crystallisation, the remaining solid has a mass of 3.2g. The ratio of the salt and water i the crystal can be calculated, This gives the formula of the crystals (Table 5.3). 2 Calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide in 16.08 of sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Calculate how many formula units of sodium hydroxide are present in 16.0g of NaOH. From your answer, deduce how many sodium ions (Na) and hydroxide ions (OH) axe present in this mass of sodium hydroxide. One of the ores of copper is the mineral chalcopyrite A laboratory analysis of a sample showed that 15.15g of chalcopyrite had the following composition by mass: capper $.27g and iron 4.61 g. Sulfur is the only other element present. Use these figures to calculate the empirical formula of chaleopyrite. (Az S= 32, Fe = 56, Cu= 64) ‘A.sample of antifreeze has the composition by ‘mass: 38.7% carbon, 9.7% hydrogen, 51.6% oxygen, 0=16) @ Calculate its empirical formula, b The relative molecular mass of the compound is 62. What is its molecular formula? © This compound isa diol. The molecule contains two alcohol (-OH) groups attached to different ccarbon atoms. What is its displayed formula?5 Chemical calculations 5.2 The mole and chemical equations Calculating reacting amounts ‘We can now see thatthe chemical equation fora reaction is more than simply a record of what is produced. In addition to teling us what the reactants and products are, it tll us fow much product we can expect from particular amounts of reactants. “The equation forthe thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate (limestone) is calcium carbonate + calcium oxide + carbon dioxide aco, + GO + ©, ‘We can see that 1 mole of calcium carbonate gives 1 mole each of ealeium oxide and carbon dioxide mol mol Imol 404124 3x16 40416 12+(2x16) = 100g = 56g =a4e ‘The mass of the product is equal to the total mass of the reactants, This isthe law of conservation of mass, which \we met in Chapter 4 when discussing the balancing of chemical equations. Although the atoms have rearranged themselves, their total mass remains the same. A. chemical equation must be batanced. In practice, we may not want to react such large amounts. We could scale down the quantities (use smaller amounts). However, the ‘mass of calcium carbonate, calcium oxide and carbon dioxide will always be in the ratio 10:56:44, Figure 5.13: A chemical footbridge’. Following the sequence the mats of reactant used, The ‘We could use just 10g of calcium carbonate, which ‘would mean that we could not produce more than 5.68, of calcium oxide (lime). CaCO, Cad +0, log 56g +442 {In industry, the reacting amounts given by an equation cean also be sealed up (that is, use larger amounts). In industry, tonnes of chemical reactants may be used, but the ratios given by the equation still apply. ‘The industriel manufacture of lime is important for the cement industry and agriculture. Lime is made by heating limestone in lime kilns. Caco, + Ca + CO, Imol Imo! Imo! 100g + 56g 4ag This relationship between the reacting masses is fixed and can be scaled up to work in industrial proportions (tonnes): 100 tonnes S6 tonnes 44 tonnes ‘Similarly, if 10 tonnes of calcium carbonate were heated, we should expect to produce 5.6 tonnes of lime (calcium oxide). Calculating reacting amounts - a chemical ‘footbridge’ We can use the concept of the mole to find reactant or product masses fom the equation fora reaction “There are various ways of doing these calculations. The balanced equation itself can be used asa numerical “Tootbridge’ between the two sides of the reaction (Figure 5:13) 2-6-2 uvnnevesevncngovneneineaeerie jp-aeross-down’ helps to relate the mass of product made to ridge’ can also be used inthe reverse direction. 107)> > CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSED! Calculating the mass of aluminium oxide produced when aluminium reacts with oxygen What mies of aluainiuny tid faced whi Stup'a York out th alu etal seats oom nb owygen ¢ smn i alias iumtonNa Theda Te w+, aNG, f ist 1 rato = 4 mol: 2mel : _ ‘ ; 929 mass =? © Using the chemical equation to cacuate the sa 7 amount of product ina rection, er 1 ’ 1 We-wt thr ite oii sis Kips Sti Lthe "up singe Canon 94g of AN i ' ‘ in i poe vio Mi iny m ALO, an — hating nl of Al uote Zan A. A the eat af the reaction. The Fimiting reactant: : ea acting alia Prom the equalion. Tywlcadh — i er wil dit Sent oO oO5 Chemical galeulations : me si “A teactiod stops when theTimitmg reyctant is used tp = Buia "You can ind which’ Waetant i limiting by doing the ws 8 fe fafiowing simple exleulatin: reactant involved # + = + thea divide eweh by is balancin z coctliciet) i Abe balanced symbol cut Figure .15ihanatng howesceesesctintB 6rpurpl) «* «the sulle! ini indicates ie ining oath remains unused after the reaction has taken place. Ju the reaction berween aluminium and oxygen (Worked sewinple $2) we needed (0 make sure that the metal eueted vormpletely with oxygen, We do this by using an excess of oxygen some of which will not beased up. The ammount of aluminiuny oxide provced is devided by the ins of unum Ae star wilh thal it Menting rastant i thikease p Limiting reactants and reactants in excess a 6:09 0 cobaltttty carbonate was reacted with The follwing isa further calculation of his type (.08mo} of hydrochlorie acid to produce cotsat( I) sou to try ee i ei tas 1 Agof maignesium istencted with « hydrochloric im excess Huon that eomains 8.489 of the ued, COCO (9) + THElagy— CoChing) + HOM) + COKgh HC Hag) = MeCl pag) Hw = 15) Whies of he reactants i the lansing reagent? M, of cobalt carbonate 59.4124 = 16)= H9gimol umber of males of eobalt earbo: 60/119 = 0.0Smol (a4; Mg= 24 C1= 38.) = 1) From the balunaed equation: * J mot gobalttIt} curhonae reacts with 2mol hydrachlaric acid * 0.05mol cobalt) carbonate would react wit .10mol hydroghtoric-acid_ + theeobattt wbonate is in excess> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Getting to grips with the mole Which is heavier, 10kg of feathers or 10g of bricks? This isa trick question as they have the same mass, they are both 10kg. But what happens when we change the question and ask which is. heavier —a dozen feathers or a dozen bricks? Now higher mass than 12 feathers. In chemistry, we carbon? The answer is that both have a mass of 19, is heavier 1 mole of hydrogen or 1 mole of carbon? ‘The answer is 1 mole of carbon, ‘The mole can be a tricky concept, but itis essential to chemical success as it links the umber of particles present to the relative mass of that chemical. In simple terms, the mole is just the chemist's way of explaining the amount of substance present. You are going to prepare a five-minute lesson to explain the concept of the mole to your classmates, To do this, you are going to use the by electrolysis: 21,0, + 4Al + 30, think your pre 110) ‘there is a definite answer, 12 bricks will have a much ‘could esk which is heavier, 1g of hydrogen or 1.9 of However, what if we were to ask the question which equation for the decomposition of aluminium oxide ‘Work in a pair to write down an explanation cof moles and how they link to mass via M, Your explanation should include: ‘+ what the mole is (you might want to include 8 reference to Avogadro's constant) * how the balanced equation shows the mole ratios + how these ratios remain constant, e.g, what would happen if you had 400 moles of ALLO, in terms of the moles of Al produced or if you only had 0.6 moles of Al,O, * how an understanding of the number of moles allows masses to be deduced {by use of the equation: number of moles = mass (g) / molar mass). You might want to explain why the number of moles in the reactants and products does not have to be the same. In this case, for example, there are two moles of reactants but seven moles of products. Having worked through this example, can you think of another balanced equation and produce couple of questions to test your classmates Understanding of moles?5 Chemical calculations Percentage yield and percentage purity ‘A reaction may not alvays yield the total amount of ‘product predicted by the equation. The loss may be due to several factors: + the reaction may not be totally complete + errors may be made in weighing the reactants or the products + material may be lst in carrying out the reaction, or in transferring and separating the product. ‘The equation gives us an ideal figure forthe yield of| ‘reaction; in eality a lower yields often produced. ‘This can be expressed as the percentage yield for a particular experiment. In other more complex reactions, a particular product ‘may be contaminated by other products or unreacted ‘material. The ‘crude’ product may prove to contain less than 100% of the required substance. ‘The percentage purity of a chemical product can be caloulated ina similar way to the percentage yield. Calculating percentage yield percentage yield of copper(II) oxide? cuco, + CuO + C0, Imol = Imol + Imol GAHI24dR 64416 248, 808 % 100 = 87.8% and percentage yield = Here is an example for you to try Caleulate the percentage yield of this reaction 2Alts) + 3CL(g) “+ 2AICL(S) Al=27;Cl= 35.5) percentage yield: a measure of the actual yield 6f a reaction when carried out experimentally compared to the theoretical yield calculated from the equation: —actualyield _ predicted yield * 1° percentage purity: a measure of the purity of the product from a reaction carrie out experimentally: —_—— per pty 0 percentage yield = Heating 12.4g of copper(II) earbonate ina crucible produced only 7.02 of copper(II) oxide. What was the ‘Therefore, heating 12.4g of copper(II) carbonate should have produced 8.0.g of copper(II) oxide. So: 11 Asstudent reacts 45g of aluminium powder with chlorine gas, 17.8 of aluminium chloride are produced. m)>> camrioce iscse™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK exceptionally pure (99.99%), The following caleulation, uses the example of copper to show how perventage purity is calculated. An initial crude sample of copper 's prepared industrially and then tested for purity. A sample of 10.15g of the erude copper is analysed by various methods and shown to contain 9.95g of copper, ‘with the remaining mass being made up of other metals. Generally, purity = —M7ASSOF pure product “Parity = “pass of impure product * '0 Therefore: ‘% purity of the copper sample = Tass of copper in sample ‘mass of impure copper 00 _ 2.98 “TOS, = 98.03% (answer to four significant figures) This result shows that this batch of copper would need to be purified before it could be used for electrical circuits such as those inside TVs, smartphones and computers x10 Percentage composition by mass The importance of the relative molecular (or formula) ‘mass of a compound (§M,) is central to calculations based on the concept of the mole. However, even the M, value itself provides useful information about a compound. ‘The M, value enables us to calculate the percentage composition of a compound. Calculations of percentage composition are useful, lor instance, in estimating the efliciency of one fertiliser compared with another (Chapter 9). Ammonium nitrate is a commonly used fertiliser. It isan important source of nitrogen, significant figures: the number of digits in 2 number, not including any zeros at the beginning; for example the number of significant figures in 0.0682 is three percentage composition: the percentage by mass of each element in a compound What percentage of the mass of the compound is nitrogen? The formula of ammonium nitrate is NH,NO, (it contains the ions NH," and NO,”). Using the A, values for N, Hand O we get: . M,= (2% 14)+(4% 1) +3 16) = 2844448 = 80 Then: caf itp nthe fro = 28 mas of nog aa fasion of tet = 2 ee eer 5% Carry out a similar calculation for yourself to work out the percentage by mass of nitrogen in another fertiliser, ammonium sulfate, (NH,),SO,5 Chemical calculations Similar calculations can be used to work out the percentage by mass of water of erystalisation in crystals of a hydrated salt (Worked example 5.6). What is the percentage mass of water in crystals of hydrated magnesium sulfate? ‘The formula of hydrated magnesium sulfate is MgSO,.7H,O. Using the A, values for Mg, S, O and H we get: M,= 244324 (4% 16) (7* 18) = 246 Then: mass of water in formula = 126 sass of water a3 faction ofthe total = 26 r Be igs percentage mass of water in the crystals = —4¢- * 100 = 51.29 [Now carry out a similar caleulation to work out the percentage mass of water in crystals of hydrated sodium, ‘carbonate, Na,CO,"10H,0. Questions Calculations involving gases 4 Calculate the percentage by mass of nitrogen in the following fertilisers and nitrogen-containing_- Molar volume of a gas compounds: “Many reactions, including some of those we have just a ammonium phosphate, (NH,),PO, considered, involve gases, Weighing solids or liquids is bb alycine, CH,(NH,)COOH (an amino acid) relatively straightforward. In contrast, weighing a gas is duite difficult. I is much easier to measure the volume of | ‘a gas. But how does gas volume relate to the number of (A: H= 1, C= 12,N= 14,0 = 16, P=31,S=32) 5. Define the mole. atoms or molecules present? 6 Explain the difference between the percentage yield of a product from a reaction and its percentage purity. ‘Table 5.4: Milar mass and molar volume of various gases.> caMBringe 1scse™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOK In a gas, the particles are relatively far apart, Indeed, any gas can be regarded as largely empty space. Equal volumes of gases are found to contain the same number of particles (Table 5.4); this is Avogadro's law. This leads (oa simple rule about the volume of one mole of a gus. + one mole of any gas occupies a volume of approximately dm? (24 litres) at room temperature and pressure (r1.p.) + themolar gas volume of any gas therefore has the value 24dm"#mol at rp. ‘© remember that I dm? (I litre 000m This rule applies to all gases. This makes it easy to convert the volume of any gas into moles, or moles into volume: volume number of moles = Pele — In this equation, the volume isin cubic decimetres (dim") and the molar volume is 24dm'/mol. The calculation triangle shown in Figure 5.16 will help you remember how to rearrange this mathematical equation to work out the different values. Figure 5.16: A calculation triangle for calculating the moles of goses, ‘Avogadro's law: equal volumes of any gas, under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, contain the same number of particles tip.: room temperature and pressure; the standard values are 25°C/298K and 101.3kPa/? atmosphere pressure molar gas volume: 1 mole of any gas has the same volume under the same conditions of temperature and pressure (24m? at rt.) If 8g of sulfur are burnt, what volume of SO, First, consider the reaction of sulfur burning in oxygen. sulfur + oxygen + sulfur dioxide Si) + Of) + SOKe) Imol [mol = Imol 32g 24am? 24am? We have: 8 number of moles of sulfur burnt = =0.25mol pie 3elmol From the equation: | mol of sulfur + [mol of SO, produced? Therefore: 0.25mol of sulfur -*0,25mol of $0, So, from the above rule: ‘number of moles = ——*2lume— molar volume volume 0.25mol = 4 am7mol Volume of sulfur dioxide = 0.25%24dm* jdm? at rp. Now, using the relationship between the volume of 4a gas and the number of moles it contains, work out the following: the volume of gas present in 22g of carbon dioxide at rp b the mass of a sample of nitrogen gas with a volume of 36dm* at r..p.5 Chemical calculations Reactions involving gases For reactions in which gases are produced, the caleulation of product volume is similar to those we have seen already, The approach used is an adaptation ofthe footbridge’ method used earlier for calculations involving solids, It is shown in Figure 5.17 Some important reactions involve only guses. For such reactions, the calculation of expected yield are Simplified by the fact thatthe value for molar volume applies to any gas. For example: hydrogen + chlorine + hydrogen chloride Hy) + CY + — 2HCl® Lol mot 2mol 24dm* 24dm* 48cm’ ‘The volumes of the gases involved are in the same ratio, 1s the number of moles given by the equation: H® + C@ 7 2HCKg) volume I volume 2 volumes So, if we react 20cm’ of hydrogen with sufcient Chlorine, it wll produce 40cm of hydrogen chloride gos 5.3 Moles and solution chemistry ‘We have seen how calculations based on the mole ‘can provide very useful information about chemical reactions involving solids and gases. However, there are ‘many other reactions of importance. These reactions all take place in solution. The usual solvent is water. ‘When setting up such reactions, we normally measure out the solutions by volume. To know how much of the reactants we ure actually mixing, we need to know the concentrations of the solutions. eS fe Figure 5.17: ovo vnsnvnvneecneveeveanenvnt Concentration of solutions ‘When a chemical substance (the solute) is dissolved in ‘volume of solvent, we can measure the “quantity’ of solute in two ways, We can measure ether its mass (in grams) or its amount (in moles). The final volume of the solution is normally measured in cubic decimetres, dm’ (dm = | litre or 1000cm’). When we measure the ‘mass of the solute in grams, itis the mass concentration that we obtain, in grams per cubic decimetre of solution (aidnv), But itis more useful to measure the amount in mmoles, in which case we get the molar concentration in moles per eubie decimetre of solution (molidm’) amount of solute Soncentration = “otume of solution © the mass concentration of a solution is measured in, ‘grams per cubic decimetre (g/dm’) the molar concentration of a solution is measured in moles per cubic decimetre (moVdm’) ‘© when I mol of a substance is dissolved in water and the solution is made up to | dm (1000em"), a solution with a concentration of | mol/dm? is produced. mass concentration: the measure of the Concentration of a solution in terms ofthe mess of the solute, in grams, dissolved per cubic decimetre of solution (g/d?) molar concentration: the measure of the concentration of solution in terms of the number of moles of the solute dissolved per cubic dacimetre of solution (mol/dm’) 1 outline ofthe footbridge’ method for caleulations invoking gases> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK For example, « | mol/dm' solution of sodium ehloride contains $8.5g of NaCl (1 mole) dissolved in water and made up to a final volume of 1000cm’, Figure 5.18 shows how the units are expressed for solutions of differing concentrations. It also shows how solutions ‘of the same final concentration can be made wp in different ways. 1 mel of copper sulfate, CuSO, 2mol of copper sulfate, CuSO, a SY dissoWe to dssohero make 'drm! make 2d? solution, ef solution, = mova! = 0S molidn? Figure 5.18: Making copper sulfate solutions of different concentrations Calculations using solution concentrations ‘ ‘The following equation is useful when working out the .- umber of moles present in a particular solution: ‘number of moles in solution = ‘molar concentration volume of solution (in dm) This mathematical equation can be rearranged to work out an unknown value provided the other two values are known and can be represented by a calculation triangle (Figure 5.19). Figure 5.19: A calculation tiangle for warking with solution concentrations in dm? In practice, however, we are usually dealing with solution volumes in cubic centimetres (em), Therefore the ‘equation is usefully adapted to: ‘number of moles in solution = concentration 000 In this equation, concentration isin moles per cubic volume of solution (in em’) Figure 5.20: A calculation tiangle for werking with solution ‘concentrations in cm. For example, how many moles of sugar are therein 00cm of # 3.0moldny sugar solution? We get: 30 1000 In practice, a chemist still has to weigh out a substance in grams. So, questions and experiments may also involve ‘converting between moles and grams. ‘number of moles = % 500 = 1.Smot5 Chemical calculations Calculate the concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, that contains 10g of NaOH in a final volume of 250m? Step 1. Find out how many moles of NaOH are present relative formula mass of NaOH = 234+ 16+1 = 40 210 numberof moles of NaOH = 40 Step 2. Find the concentration: concentration 7000 25mol ‘number of moles = > volume (in em’) concentration 025 = onsen 250 1000. 250 concentration = 0.25% = I molldm* [Now find the molar concentration of a solution of 14.3g of hydrated sodium carbonate, Na,CO,-10H,0 in 500cm of distilled water. Acid-base titration calculations ‘The concentration of an unknown acid solution ean be found if itis reacted with a standard solution of an alkali. A standard solution is one that has been carefully ‘made up 50 that its concentration is known precisely ‘The reaction is carried out in a carefully controlled way. ‘The volumes are measured accurately using a pipette ‘and a burette, ust sufficient acid is added to the alkali to neutralise the alkali. This end-point is found using an indicator. The method is known as titration and can, ‘be adapted to prepare a soluble salt I is summarised in Figure 5.21 ‘The practical method of titration will be described later asa method of preparing a salt (Chapter 12) and as an ‘analytical technique (Chapter 22). In this chapter, we are dealing with the application of the concept of the mole to the type of calculation that can be carried out. standard solution: a solution whose concentration is known precisely ~ this solution is then used to find the concentration of another solution by titration titration: a methed of quantitative analysis using solutions: one solution is slowly added to a known volume of another solution using a burette until an end-point is reached 117)> CAMBRIDGE I6cse™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Figure 5.21: Summary ofthe tiation method A solution of hydrochloric acid is titrated against a standard sodium hydroxide solution. Its found that 20.0cm’ of acid neutralise 25.0en» of 0.10moldém? NaOH solution. What is the concentration of the hydrochloric acid solution? How many moles of alkali are in the flask? ‘number of moles of NaOH concentration. ‘ TaO0 * Volume (in em =2.5 « 10°mol Step 2. Use the chemical equation, How many moles of acid are used? ‘The equation is HCI + NaOH = NaCl + 4,0 Imo! iol {mol of NaOH neutralise mol of HCI and so: 2.5% 10 "mol of NaOH neutralises 2.5% 10 mol of HCI Step 1, Use information about the standard solution. Calculating the concentration of a hydrochloric acid solution Step 3. Use the titration value. What is the concentration of the ac ‘The acid solution contains 2.5% 10 ?mol in 20.0em concentration, 1000 concentration 1000 concentration of acid = 2.510 x 1000/20 = 0.125molidm ‘Try working through the following question for practice: ‘number of moles = X volume (in em) 225x109 = 20.0 Sulfuric acid can be neutralised using sodium Iydroxide solution, 1,80 ag) + 2NaOH(aq) —* Na,S0 (aq) + 2H,00) 25.0em of a sulfuric acid solution of concentration 0.2moVdm’ reacted with 10.0cry of sodiuin hydroxide. Calculate: @ the number of moles of sulfuric acid used b the number of moles of NaOH reacted € the concentration of the NsOH solution in moldy,5 Chemical calculations ‘The calculation method uses a further variation of the ‘footbridge’ approach to link the reactants and products (Figure 5.22), J = S Figure 5.22: 4 summary ofthe cliferent ways in which a balanced equation act asa footbridge Figure 5.23 isa visual reminder of the key relationships involved in discussing the meaning and usefulness of the mole as a measure of amount of substance. concentration (mol/d x volume (dn) 1d = 000m? ‘numberof particles 6.023% 102 Figure 5.23: The mole as a measure of amount of substance in diferent stuations. Think about the following questions: © Did you face any problems when learning about the concept of the mole in © Are there any maths skils that you feel it would be helpful to improve? chepter?> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK 7 Calculate the number of moles of gas there arein: 9 Calculate the concentration (in mol/dm’) of the a) MISC SACD following solutions bb 48dm’ of carbon dioxide a L.0mol of sodium hydroxide is dissolved in distilled water to make SO0em’ of solution. € 1689cm*of ox oer b 0.2mol of sodium chloride is dissolved in 8 Calculate the volume (in cm’) of the following Sc aa ence trae eacie sau Bolo vothm ints dhe in snake Sine taro mae tena con ee . + 0.88 of solid sodium hydroxide is dissolved in © OSmoles of chlorine. distilled water to a final volume of | dm’. Lo 6,5 Chemical calculations eau ‘The mole and a green approach to industrial chemistry The concept of the mole and its use in calculating the yield and purity ofthe product of @ ‘chemical reaction is very important in discussing the conditions used in key industrial processes such asthe Haber and Contact processes, These ideas & have become part of the Green Chemistry approach Figure $.24: The cover toindustrial processes ofthe science journal (Figure 5.24) The ideas __Bublishedby the Royal OFfGreen Chemistry are __‘Setietyof Chemisty proposed inasetof 12 concerned with the development of ideas principles (Figure 5.25). These principles cover such ideas as: + maximising the amount of the raw materials that ends up in the desired product; measured as atom economy using renewable raw materials and eneray sources using the least environmentally | harmful substances and solvents using energy efficient processes avoiding the production of waste, In groups, discuss the idea of atom economy and the other principles of Green Chemistry Focus on these questions in your discussion: Why might @ green approach to chemistry be important for industrial processes? Which of the principles do you think are the mostimportant? Why? How do these ideas link to what you have learnt in this chapter? ‘of Green Chemisty 1. Prevent waste 2: Lees hazardous chemicals '5. Safer salen and esction cantons 7. Use renewable feedstocks 9.Usecataate 11 Analyee fr pallation canto Figure 5. ‘You could also link your ideas to the industrial method for producing ammonia tthe Haber process; Chapter 9 Topic 3) and think about the following: the economy ofthe supply ofthe raw materials the use of a catalyst and the effect of that on the conditions used the recycling of the major reactants Following your discussion, work in groups to prepare a podcast for the class to listen to ‘explaining the importance of the green approach 10 industrial chemistry. In your podcast, include idleas on the following: = percentage yield, how to calculate it, and why itis important to industrial chemistry wiry its important to consider limiting reactants and those in excess in an industrial reaction. 2, Maximise torn economy 4 Safer chemicals and products 6 Increase nergy efcency 8 Reduce dernatioes 10. Design degradable products 12. Accident prevention 225: The 12 principles of Green Chemisty.> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK 1. Hydrogen peroxide solution is used as a bleach and to clean oil paintings. ona cece a eat ner iry Ca Sea acc rete ya} Tat B 20g oer Cie COs ee cree Soe Cees nd pee cel eat Pees aces ‘calculate: work out from given facts, bb ts relative molecular mass is 60, Calelate its molecule formula 4 figures or information Caen to enema is Porat eee stint Poe Ere ere pst ener aa) ECR aoe ntact cy ns K,CO,aq) + MgSO{(aq) ~ K,S0,(aq) + MsCO, Peet ee See) dried, What mass of magnesium carbonate should be obtained? Cen et ea Dee eee eect E The actual mass obtained was 0.35g. What was the percentage yield Caer ‘When propane, Pec Senta et b What volume of carbon dioxide, measured at rt.p, will be Peon sd Ceres ens eee! What is the total volume of the mixture aftaw Ss Vv 5 Chemical calculations Seer een Cieiromen eee er eonet Percentage purity oF the barium carbonate ‘After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics, This will help you see any ‘zaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively. ‘understand that the mole is standard number (Avogadro’ constant) of characteristic particles | 5.1 (atoms, fons or molecules) ofa substance calculate the empirical formula (and molecular | 5) formula) of «compound using appropriate data | ™ “aleulate the relationship between the number of ‘moles of a substance and the mass or number of | 5.1 particles present in a sample of a substance ‘use the information given in an equation to calculate reacting masses, limiting reagents and amount of | $.2 prduct fora stated reaction ‘caleulate the peresntage composition by mass of compound, and the peeentage yield and purity of a | $.2 product of a given reaction ‘understand that the molar gas volume for any ens {s Mdm at room temperature and pressure, and be | 5 fe to use tis value or ealeulations on reactions | ** E involving gases ‘understand the diferent units for used to express 5 ‘the concentration of a solution and usethem when | 5 5 calculating the concentration of a solution from & titration experiments eee a eeii describe metals as electrical conductors and non-metallic materials as non-conducting insul define electrolysis and identify the components of an electrolytic cel describe and predict the electrolysis products of binary compounds in the molten state describe the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution and dilute sulfuric acid using inert electrodes describe how to electroplate a metal object state that a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell generates electricity predict the proclucts of electrolysis of dilute and concentrated halide solutions describe how charge is transferred in electrolysis and learn how to construct ionic half-equations identify the products of the electrolysis of copper(l) sulfate solution using graphite or eee Cre ee Wee eee eee aE6 Electrochemistry Arrange yourselves into groups within the class 2 Why iswiring usually covered with a and discuss your background understanding plastic coating? cof electrical conductivity, Discuss the following questions: 3 Doliquid metals conduct electricity? What other kinds of liquid are able to 11 From your everyday experience, which metals conduct electricity? have you seen most often used in electrical wiring, both domestically and in computer circuit boards? ‘Summarise the answers from your group and report back to the whole class. The chemical reaction between hydrogen ‘The hope is that hydrogen can be produced on a ‘and oxygen isa simple reaction. The reacting large scale by the electrolysis of water. However, substances are gaseous elements and are easy this is currently net very economical. is possible to mix, There isa single, simple non-polluting that cheap surplus eleetrcity from nucleer, wind product: water. The reaction gives out a great cor solar power may make the production of Emount of energy. This is what makes the prospect hydrogen (green hydrogen’) by electrolysis more of using hydrogen as a fuel for transport very ‘economical. Hydrogen could also be produced attractive. The hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell uses an _from waste plastics and paper that would otherwise lectrochemical process to convert the chemical _go into landill. The development of these nergy of the reaction into electicity and seems technologies form significant steps in generating to be one of the better options to reduce the the hydrogen necessary to act as a pillar of a dependence of our transport systems on fossil decarbonised economy. fuels (Figure 6. Discussion questions ‘A future ‘hydrogen economy’ has been talked ‘bout, with hydragen being used as an eneray source in a variety of situations, including bulk transport, trains and public transport, shipping and aeroplanes, However, there are problems of 1 What is the word equation for the overall reaction in a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell? s the reaction exothermic or endothermic, and what type of energy is involved? storage and transport of hydrogen because of its 2 These of hydrogen fuel cells is regarded as low density, slthough companies are beginning to non-pelluting for the environment, but what invest in fuelling stations to improve its distribution ‘Bios need tee enstlered foc to. bs as a transport fuel. Hydrogen is not cheap. The main method of obtaining hydrogen currently is by the steam-reforming of natural ges (gee Chapter 9 for how hydrogen = is produced for ammonia production ells ul in the Haber process). This means that this hydrogen (sometimes called ‘grey hydrogen’) is not independent of fossil fuel production regarded as carbor-neutral? Figure 6.1: hydrogen fuel cal bus operating in Perth, Australis,