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COMM1208 Unit5 Baseband
COMM1208 Unit5 Baseband
Baseband Communications
1. Bandwidth...............................................................................................................................................2
1.1 Bandwidth definitions (Google definitions)......................................................................................2
1.2 Minimum Bandwidth Requirements.................................................................................................3
2. Line Coding.............................................................................................................................................4
2.1 Requirements....................................................................................................................................4
2.2 Analogue Telephone Line Considerations........................................................................................4
2.3 Digital Signalling Formats................................................................................................................4
2.3.1 Unipolar Non Return to Zero (NRZ).........................................................................................4
2.3.2 Bipolar NRZ.............................................................................................................................5
2.3.3 Unipolar Return to Zero (RZ)...................................................................................................5
2.3.4 Bipolar RZ................................................................................................................................5
2.3.5 Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) RZ Signalling........................................................................6
2.3.6 Manchester Coding...................................................................................................................6
2.3.7 Coding comparison...................................................................................................................7
3. M-Ary Line Coding................................................................................................................................8
4. Line Transmission Systems....................................................................................................................9
4.1 Equaliser.........................................................................................................................................10
5. Transmission Line Impairments.........................................................................................................10
5.1 Amplitude distortion and phase distortion......................................................................................11
5.2 Inter Symbol Interference...............................................................................................................11
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COMM 1208 Unit 5 Baseband Communications
1. Bandwidth
A measure of the capacity of a communications channel. The higher a channel's bandwidth, the
more information it can carry.
www.tamu.edu/ode/glossary.html
A measure of spectrum (frequency) use or capacity. For instance, a voice transmission by telephone
requires a bandwidth of about 3000 cycles per second (3 KHz). A TV channel occupies a bandwidth
of 6 million cycles per second (6 MHz) in terrestrial Systems. In satellite based systems a larger
bandwidth of 17.5 to 72 MHz is used to spread or "dither" the television signal in order to prevent
interference.
www.spidersat.net/glossary/glossary_b.htm
The range of frequencies, expressed in hertz (Hz), that can pass over a given transmission channel.
The bandwidth determines the rate at which information can be transmitted through the circuit.
www.ssloral.com/html/products/glossary.html
The complete range of frequencies over which a circuit or electronic system is allocated to function.
In transmission, the US analog and digital television channel bandwidth is 6 MHz.
www.wgcu.org/watch/hdtv_glossaryofterms.html
The range of frequencies a channel can carry. The higher the frequency, the higher the bandwidth
and the greater the capacity of a channel. In Internet terms, higher bandwidth means a higher ability
to transmit and receive data.
www.7designavenue.com/glossary.htm
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COMM 1208 Unit 5 Baseband Communications
For example a 64 kbit/s data stream, could be sent and recovered over a 32 kHz bandlimited channel.
This is an important general rule (due to Nyquist) for digital waveforms.
Example: A primary ISDN signal has a bit rate of 2.048 Mbit/s. What would be the minimum
theoretical bandwidth required to transmit this signal?
Example: A spectrum analyser and antenna is used to record the radiation pattern from a TDM
system which contains clock generators. There are two peaks, at 153.088 MHz and 154.112 MHz.
(a) What is the frequency of the clock generator which is responsible for these peaks?
(b) What is the order of these harmonics?
(c) How might these peaks be reduced without affecting the performance of the system?
Answer: (a) A clock generator outputs a square wave which contains only odd harmonics.
Therefore these frequencies are odd multiples of the clock frequency, and the difference between them
is twice the clock frequency (or perhaps 4 or six times - but much less likely). The difference is
154.112 - 153.088 MHz = 1.024 MHz. Therefore the clock is 512 kHz.
(b) 154.122 MHz is the 301st harmonic (154.122/.512 = 301). The other one is the 299 th
harmonic
(c) The output from the clock generator should be filtered e.g. by using a ferrite bead in series,
or a small capacitor to earth. Track layout is important, keeping all tracks as short as possible. Or the
circuit could be screened - effectively put in a metal box.
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2. Line Coding
2.1 Requirements
Digital data can be transmitted by various pulse waveforms, also called line codes. The following properties
are desirable for a line code:
It is important that the pulses stream to be transmitted does not have a DC component. It can case
baseline wander or Galvanic Corrosion.
It should be relatively easy to recover the data clock.
The line coding scheme should be bandwidth efficient.
The line code should be robust in the presence of noise.
It should be possible to recognise a line coding error, sometimes called a line violation. (In some
signalling protocols, a line violation is deliberately generated to mark the start of a frame)
Local Exchange
The bandwidth of an analogue telephone line connection is 300 Hz to 3.4 kHz. A square wave or any pulse
train with very fast rise times will be distorted if it is sent along a telephone line. Therefore an analogue
telephone line is not suitable for sending digital pulses as all frequency components outside the 300 - 3 kHz
range will be removed. This bandwidth limitation is not caused totally by the copper pair but by the filters in
the local exchange which are part of the analogue to digital process. In the past some analogue telephone
lines also had loading coils (inductors) on the line which were intended to give a flat frequency response.
On a digital telephone line all analogue filters are removed so the usable bandwidth of the copper pair itself
is much greater and can extend to a few Megahertz. These lines are suitable for pulse transmission e.g.
ISDN.
From www.wikipedia.com
In telecommunication, a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) line code is a binary code in which "1's" are represented
by one significant condition and "0's" are represented by the other significant condition, with no other
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COMM 1208 Unit 5 Baseband Communications
neutral or rest condition. The pulses have more energy than a RZ code, but it does not have a rest state,
which means a synchronization signal must also be sent alongside the code.
For a given data signaling rate, i.e., bit rate, the NRZ code requires only half the bandwidth required by the
Manchester code.
When used to represent data in an asynchronous communication scheme, the absence of a neutral state
requires other mechanisms for data recovery, to replace methods used for error detection when using
synchronization information when a separate clock signal is available.
2.3.4 Bipolar RZ
Positive and negative pulses of equal amplitude are used for symbol 1 and symbol 0. In either case the pulse
returns to 0 before the end of the bit interval.
From www.wikipedia.com
Return-to-zero (RZ) describes a line code used in telecommunications signals in which the signal drops
(returns) to zero between each pulse. This takes place even if a number of consecutive zeros or ones occur in
the signal. The signal is self-clocking. This means that a separate clock does not need to be sent alongside
the signal, but suffers from using twice the bandwidth to achieve the same data-rate as compared to non-
return-to-zero format.
The "zero" between each bit is a neutral or rest condition, such as a zero amplitude in pulse amplitude
modulation (PAM).
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From www.wikipedia.com
A binary 0 is encoded as zero volts as in unipolar encoding. A binary 1 is encoded alternately as a positive
voltage and a negative voltage. This prevents a significant build-up of DC, as the positive and negative
pulses average to zero volts. Little or no DC-component is considered an advantage because the cable may
then be used for longer distances and to carry power for intermediate equipment such as line repeaters. The
DC-component can be easily and cheaply removed before the signal reaches the decoding circuitry.
Bipolar encoding is preferable to non-return-to-zero where signal transitions are required to maintain
synchronization between the transmitter and receiver. Other systems must synchronize using some form of
out-of-band communication, or add frame synchronization sequences that don't carry data to the signal.
These alternative approaches require either an additional transmission medium for the clock signal or a loss
of performance due to overhead, respectively. A bipolar encoding is an often good compromise: runs of ones
will not cause a lack of transitions, however long sequences of zeroes are still an issue. Long sequences of
zero bits result in no transitions and a loss of synchronization. Where frequent transitions are a requirement,
a self-clocking encoding such as return-to-zero or some other more complicated line code may be more
appropriate, though they introduce significant overhead.
From www.wikipedia.com
Manchester coding provides a simple way to encode arbitrary binary sequences without ever having long
periods without level transitions, thus preventing the loss of clock synchronization, or bit errors from low-
frequency drift on poorly-equalized analog links (see ones-density).
If transmitted as a bipolar signal (i.e. where the two signaling levels are of opposite polarity), the DC
component of the encoded signal is zero, again preventing baseline drift of the repeated signal, making it
easy to regenerate and preventing waste of energy.
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Time is divided into periods, and one bit is transmitted per period
A "0" is expressed by a low-to-high transition, a "1" by high-to-low transition (according to G.E.
Thomas' convention--in the IEEE 802.3 convention, the reverse is true)
The transitions signifying 0 or 1 occur at the midpoint of a period
Manchester codes always have a transition at the middle of each bit period, and depending on the state of the
signal, may have a transition at the beginning of the period as well. The direction of the mid-bit transition is
what carries the data, with a low-to-high transition indicating one binary value, and a high-to-low transition
indicating the other.
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
Unipolar NRZ
Bipolar NRZ
Unipolar RZ
Biplolar RZ
AMI
Manchester
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01
00
For example, the input binary sequence 11100001 is viewed as a new sequence of dibits (pairs of bits); 11
10 00 01. Each dibit symbol is assigned one of 4 levels. If we increase the number of levels there will be a
trade-off between noise performance and bandwidth.
Example: Explain how a ternary line coding system can code 3 bits per symbol.
Answer: At 3 bits per symbol, 23 = 8, therefore we need at least 8 symbols. A single ternary pulse
would only allow one of 3 symbols to be represented. Two ternary pulses in a particular order,
however would allow for 9 combinations of levels. This code could be abbreviated as 3B2T. It is not
as efficient as 2B1Q but one advantage is that zero volts is one of the levels and the wave form would
resemble a binary bipolar format, Note that 4B3T coding is also used on ISDN lines in some
countries.
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COMM 1208 Unit 5 Baseband Communications
Noise Retiming
Digital Information Extracot
clocked at fc E
- may be source Received
and/or channel Digital
Channel
coded Threshold Retiming Information
Transmitter e.g. Co-ax Equaliser
A B C Detector D Sector F
Copper pair
Typical waveforms at the points labelled A to F in the system are shown. After passing down the cable the
original waveform A is attenuated and a noise component is added. Also because of a finite system response
time and propagation delays, the clear transition between voltage levels become indistinct.
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COMM 1208 Unit 5 Baseband Communications
transmitted signal, provided only that the noise is not sufficient to cause an incorrect decision to be made at
the threshold detector.
4.1 Equaliser
From www.wikipedia.com
An equalization (EQ) filter is a filter, usually adjustable, chiefly meant to compensate for the unequal
frequency response of some other signal processing circuit or system.
An EQ filter typically allows the user to adjust one or more parameters that determine the overall shape of
the filter's transfer function. It is generally used to improve the fidelity of sound, to emphasize certain
instruments, to remove undesired noises, or to create completely new and different sounds.
(a) Time
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
(b)
b) Response of the same filter to a binary waveform.
The figure shows the response to a single pulse, and the superimposed pulse responses corresponding to an
input pulse train (binary waveform). Note that because the response to a single pulse takes longer to decay
that the duration of a symbol period, the output waveform gradually accumulates a DC offset. In the absence
of further processing this would clearly cause problems for threshold detection. Even in the positions
corresponding to a binary 0 there can be a considerable output voltage.
input pulse This figure, on the other hand, shows a much more desirable
V overall pulse response for a telecommunications channel. It
shows the possible response of a telecommunications channel
pulse response to (a) a rectangular pulse and (b) a binary waveform. Here the
system response to a bit stream could be decoded without
(a) Time difficulty, owing to the clear distinction in the combined
response between binary 1 and 0.
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
(b)
An alternative approach to modelling a linear channel or component is based on the second definition of
linearity. Any practical message signal can be described in terms of its frequency content - or, to be more
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COMM 1208 Unit 5 Baseband Communications
precise, modelled as a frequency spectrum. Similarly, any linear system can be completely specified by its
frequency response function, which is a description of amplitude and phase shifts introduced by the system
for all frequencies.
Intersymbol
Interferencce
This effect of pulse overlap and the resultant difficulty of discriminating between symbols at the receiver are
termed inter symbol interference (ISI).
From www.wikipedia.com
In telecommunication, intersymbol interference (ISI) means a form of distortion of a signal that causes the
previously transmitted symbols to have an effect on the currently received symbol. This is usually an
unwanted phenomenon as the previous symbols have similar effect as noise, thus making the
communication less reliable. ISI is usually caused by echoes or non-linear frequency response of the
channel. Ways to fight against intersymbol interference include adaptive equalization or error correcting
codes.
In a digital transmission system, distortion of the received signal, which is manifested in the temporal
spreading and consequent overlap of individual pulses to the degree that the receiver cannot reliably
distinguish between changes of state, i.e., between individual signal elements. At a certain threshold,
intersymbol interference will compromise the integrity of the received data.
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