Question No 1

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What is the procedure of textbook development in
Pakistan? Highlight some of the flaws in the
development of AIOU textbooks.

Answer:
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE LIGHT OF NATIONAL
EDUCATION POLICIES

After the independence of Pakistan, the first educational

conference was convened in Karachi in 1947 to restructure and
reshape the whole process of education including the process of
curriculum in order to make curriculum effective and responsive to
the needs of the country. But the fruitful results could not be
achieved. Therefore, in 1959 the national commission on
education was set up to review the whole education system of the
country. Although, it was time consuming task, it produced an
explicit framework for promoting education in Pakistan aiming at
restructuring the education system. The objectives of education
were elaborated and emphasis was laid on the overall
development of an individual through education process so that
he/she could become effective member of the society. But due to
several reasons, our education system was not to fully achieve
the desired objective.
In late1960s, it was realized that there was a need to formulate
new education policy in order to bring about changes in the
education as a whole. This policy also focused on the quality
education and character building of the young generation that
appeared to be marvelous on paper other than putting these
ideas into practice through the curriculum. After a few years a
new government took over and announced another educational
policy in 1972 for a period of 8 years which provided a
comprehensive list of objectives of education including the
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promotion of ideology of Pakistan, building national cohesion by
promoting social and cultural harmony among the people,
nurturing the total personality of the individual. mobilizing the
youth for leadership roles. It was proposed that these objectives
can be achieved through the translation of curriculum into
classroom practice. For example; the Educational Policy (1972-
80) mentioned that 'relevant curricula will be prepared in line with
the nation's changing social and economic needs compatible with
its basic ideology and to provide a. massive shift from general
education to more afro technical education' (Government of
Pakistan 1972). In the light of the above policy objectives, the
curricula at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels were
revised and implemented in the educational institutions but the
policy could not fully achieve its targets. However, another
educational policy was introduced in 1979. This policy also
retained more or less the same objectives of the past policies.
However, this policy laid an emphasis on the individual as a good
Muslim and making him/her effective member of Muslim Ummahs
Education Polycephalies the need for creating awareness in every
student that he/she as a member of Pakistani nation was also a
part of the universal Muslim Ummah and that it was expected of
him/her to con- tribute towards the welfare of fellow Muslims.
Education Policy 1979 clearly stated that before revising the
existing curriculum, the evaluative studies will be undertaken to
identify strengths and weaknesses of the existing curriculum
which seemed an encouraging trend to develop curriculum in line
with findings of evaluative research. In the past, looking at the
curriculum and text- books it appears that no systematic research/
evaluation were conducted to develop bases for the revision and
restructure of the curriculum. Therefore, our process of curriculum
development was more relied on their intuitive knowledge and

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arm chair research approach of curriculum planners who failed to
consider the reality of instructional and learning milieu.
After a period of about 13 years a new National Education Policy
was announced called the National Education Policy 1992-2002
which emphasized the importance of an Islamic Order enabling
the students to understand the message of the Holy Quran,
imbibe the spirit of Islam, and appreciating its world view in the
context of scientific and technological advancements. This policy
endorsed some of the factors such as limited financial resources,
poor appreciation of educational priorities, inadequate delivery
system, population pressure, low participation of education, poor
quality of teaching, overloaded textbooks, lack of self-learning etc.
The National Education Policy 1992-2002 further revealed that
our education system has not been able to build the capacity of
human capital which could provide high rates of return to society.
In order to develop institutional capacity building, policy envisaged
the improved quality of public instruction, textbooks, evaluation
techniques, and teachers training. The most important thing was
that it highlighted the importance of redefining the role of
teachers. The Educational Policy further provided the seventeen
principles as a conceptual framework to restructure the education
system in the country. However, some measures were taken to
renovate curriculum in line with the above conceptual framework.
It would have been better if these measures were based on
research outcomes. Like other educational policies, this policy
also seemed to be based on rhetoric rather than reality.
PROCESS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

Before 1972, there was no permanent institution responsible for

curriculum development in Pakistan. Saeed (1977) noted that
before this time, curriculum development was not visualized as

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distinct, separate and specialized function. The entire curricular
activity was carried out through committees which were created
for a specific purpose at a specific time and were dissolved as
soon as U1e task was over. To fulfill the gigantic task of
curriculum revision and further development, the National Bureau
of Curriculum in Islamabad was reorganized and strengthened in
1972. A primary feature which distinguished the education system
in general and curriculum in particular, however, in all four
provinces of Pakistan, parallel Bureau of Curriculum and
Extension Wings were established in 1972 independently aimed
at revising the school curriculum in close collaboration with the
Central Bureau of, Curriculum and Textbooks, Islamabad, but the
role of the Provincial Bureau of Curriculum and Extension Centre
was somewhat limited (Memon 1989). The present processes of
curriculum development are based on the center-periphery
approach which emphasizes achieving the desired objectives with
the formulation of aims and goals by the bureaucrats at the
central level under the directives of the education policy. The
goals provide a platform for the development of curriculum and
textbooks. The provincial curriculum committees consist of
concerned teachers, heads of schools, teacher educators, subject
experts and curriculum experts who work on the proposals. After
prolonged deliberation, the provincial committees formulate and
tryout the draft and arrange the test edition of the textbooks and
training of teachers. After necessary amendment, the modified
provincial draft is placed before the national curriculum committee
under the control of central government for formulating a uniform
draft for the whole country. It may be noted that the central
government is the only guiding and controlling authority in this
matter, and final approval is therefore, only sought from the
central government. Therefore, the textbooks and relevant
instructional material are published in collaboration with the

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Provincial Bureau of Curriculum and Extension Wings. In reality,
the renewal of the curricula is either based on 'arm chair research'
or 'intuitive knowledge' of the so-called experts of curriculum in
general or imported innovation from western countries in
particular. In some cases, donor driven innovations are also
introduced and their impact on the improvement of education as a
whole has to be examined. Under the current situation, the
schools are effectively discouraged from devising and using their
own curriculum. Teachers are legally bound to use the printed
books which are approved by the relevant provincial Textbook
Boards which acts as 'gatekeepers' to make sure that prescribed
books are in use in the schools. One of the Textbook Boards in its
circular mentioned that all the heads of schools, teachers, parents
and students are requested to see that the textbooks prepared
and published under the 'authority of the Sindh Textbook Board
alone are purchased. and no book other than these is used in the
classroom (Sindh Textbook Board, 1987). This indicates that the
teachers' authority is restricted to use of the prescribed books in
order to avoid running any risk that students will not be specially
prepared for the relevant examination which is all based on the
official syllabus. Public prestige and status of secondary schools
is primarily based on the relevant success of their students in the
examination.
Highlight some of the flaws in the development of AIOU textbooks.
 Textbooks are too inflexible and generally reflect the
pedagogic, psychological, and linguistic preferences and
biases of their authors. Textbooks essentially determine and
control the methods, processes and procedures of language
teaching and learning.
 Other theorists have focused on the use of the target
language culture as a vehicle for teaching the language in

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 textbooks and suggest that it is not really possible to teach a
language without embedding it in its cultural base.
 Too many textbooks are often marketed with grand artificial
claims by their authors and publishers yet these same books
tend to contain serious theoretical problems, design flaws,
and practical shortcomings.
 Course book is old or obsolete.
 Course book questions will more often than not be low level
or reality based.
 Course book doesn't consider understudies' experience
information.
 Perusing level of the course book is excessively
troublesome.
CONCLUSION
Efforts are made at the governmental level to bring about the
reforms in education and accordingly, the curriculum was
restructured but the desired objectives of education have not yet
been achieved so far. The curriculum developers need to
understand the context of curriculum before initiating any change.
The change should be carefully planned through maximum
involvement of the curriculum users including teachers so that the
curriculum could be implemented effectively. Another factor which
is more important that is teacher development which is the low
priority in Pakistan. The teachers should be trained in a way that
they should, become reflective practitioners and researches to
solve Their own academic and professional problems. They could
facilitate the students learning in the classroom. Looking at the
objectives of educational policies, it seems the curriculum
planners failed to understand these objectives and translate them
into curriculum draft. As a result, most of the objectives remained
on paper rather than in practice. Teachers should also be

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encouraged to enrich and update the curriculum in the light of
classroom requirements. This will lead to create an environment
of professionalism among the teachers who are real decision
makers of the curriculum implementation in them classrooms. We
need to regard teachers as professional practitioners whose
advice in the curriculum and school management matters should
be valued. We also need to create framework based on
combination of both top down and bottom-up approaches of
curriculum management in which teachers and curriculum
developers will be able to share their practical experiences and
challenges of curriculum development.

Question No 2
Discuss the role of textbook publisher in development of
textbook.

Answer:
A book publisher is a group or person who is responsible for
bringing the book to the public for reading purposes. The book
publisher is involved in the major steps of developing, marketing,
producing, printing, and distributing the book. The book publisher
negotiates with authors over intellectual property rights, rights to
distribute, and rights to change the book.
Book publishers must go through an initial process of negotiation
with the author. Intellectual rights must be negotiated. The
intellectual rights laws for every country is different, so the author
must demonstrate which countries he/she would like to market the
book in, and what his/her desires are for the rights of the book in
each country. If there is a digital printing of the book, the author
would also discuss which rights would be allowed with the

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internet. There have been many issues of download copyright
protected material from the internet, however this is a complicated
issue, as many countries have not yet passed laws against this
act, or do not enforce already present legislation on downloading
copyrighted material from the internet.
 Book Title Development
Just because a publisher likes an author’s submission doesn’t
mean the publishing company will publish the book as is.
Publishers’ direct books using formulas that sell. For example, a
publishing house typically assigns its editors a genre. This starts
with fiction or non-fiction and can progress to specific genres such
as romance, children’s horror, young adult, adventure, politics,
self-help, how-to or mystery, according to The Oprah Magazine.
Different publishing house staff members specialize in each of
these areas and guide writers to rewrite parts of their books to
better fit the expectations of consumers who purchase titles in
these categories. For example, depending on the genre, the writer
might need to tone down or spice up any sex scenes in the book.
 Author and Book Promotion
It doesn’t matter how well the author writes if no one knows about
the book. Publishers promote authors and books in a variety of
ways, such as scheduling media interviews and setting up book
signings. They send press releases and advance copies to
members of the media. They promote the book to book-of-the-
month clubs, bookstores, online sellers and other book
distributors.
Booksellers also submit books for awards and promote an author
or title that wins an award. Publishers keep track of sales to see if
the author makes any best-seller lists or wins awards. Then, they
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blast this news out on their social media channels and to their
media contacts and print the information on subsequent editions
of the book.
A publisher trains authors to make public appearances and give
media interviews. Not only do they help pick the right clothes to
wear, they might also conduct mock interviews using a list of
questions the writer can expect from those who typically interview
book writers.
 Production and Distribution
Book publishers help with the printing, illustration and distribution
of books, including getting them into brick-and-mortar and online
stores. Depending on how well they think the book might sell,
publishers might start selling the book in hardcover format to cash
in on early adopters and then quickly add softcover versions.
Booksellers also distribute e-book versions of titles and work on
formatting and selling digital versions of books. Publishers know
how to work with these sellers and format digital titles for e-
readers, tablets and other apps.
 The Rise of Self-Publishing
Self-publishing technology has made it possible for authors to
create, produce and sell their own books. Amazon, for example,
provides services to help writers layout a book, turn it into digital
or print versions, sell on Amazon, set a price and collect the
money.
While self-publishing allows writers to keep all of the profits, it
doesn't provide the experience and massive support in all areas
of the book publishing process that publishers have. In addition to

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being an author, writers have to become a part-time book
promoter or hire someone who can do this for them.

 The Role of Agents

Many large publishers only work with author agents to avoid being
swamped by countless amateur writers who aren’t ready to make
the jump to publication. When an established book agent contacts
a publisher with a manuscript, the publisher knows that the title is
ready or close to ready for publication.
This is because agents make sure a book has commercial
potential before submitting it, based on their knowledge of what
publishers want. Book agents have editor contacts who can help
authors with potentially commercially viable books clean up their
manuscripts.
Agents also help authors make character and plot changes to
books to make them more likely to be picked up by a publisher.
Agents can determine whether an author should try self-
publishing and can help with that. Agents can also promote a
book if the writer goes the self-publishing route.
The last thing professional literary agents want to do is damage
their reputation with publishing houses by bringing them poor
titles that are a mess to read or don’t have good sales potential.
For this reason, if an agent agrees to represent an author, he or
she works diligently to give the book the best chance to make a
good impression on a publisher.

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Finally, agents help negotiate the best contracts and
compensation with publishers. They can do this because they
know what publishers pay and don’t make inappropriate requests,
which a new author might make. This prevents rejections.

The book publisher also deals with the editorial phase of book
creation. This phase involves utilizing a large staff of editors,
artists, copyeditors, writers, and other members to change and
alter the book to the chief executive editor’s preferences, as well
as the author’s preferences. The amount of editing that takes
place, as well as the different levels of editing depends on how
large the book publisher is. Larger publishers may go through
several rounds of editing before the book is finally released, and
there is more of a lengthy process involved. The more clout that
an author has, the less that the editor can alter the book.
Finally, the book publisher will produce and distribute the book.
The production process is the process of physically creating the
book. This process may be accomplished using onsite facilities, or
the publisher may go to a third-party production company to fulfill
this need. The book is then wrapped and shipped to a variety of
bookstores where it is displayed to the public. The publisher
usually has negotiated some kind of deal with the bookstore to get
their books displayed.

Question No 3
Explain effectiveness of textbooks and its advantages
and disadvantages in today context.

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Answer:
A course reading is a book containing a far reaching gathering of
content in a part of study determined to make sense of it. Course
books are delivered to address the issues of instructors, normally
at instructive establishments. Textbooks will be course readings
and different books utilized in schools. Today, numerous reading
material are distributed in both print and advanced designs.
 Jabberwocky
A textbook is a collection of the knowledge, concepts, and
principles of a selected topic or course. It's usually written by one
or more teachers, college professors, or education experts who
are authorities in a specific field. Most textbooks are accompanied
by teacher guides, which provide you with supplemental teaching
materials, ideas, and activities to use throughout the academic
year.
Advantages and Disadvantages
As you visit classrooms, you probably notice that most, if not all,
of those classrooms use a standard textbook series. The reasons
for this are many, depending on the design and focus of the
curriculum, the mandates of the administration, and/or the level of
expertise on the part of classroom teachers.
o Textbooks provide you with several advantages in the
classroom:
o Textbooks are especially helpful for beginning teachers. The
material to be covered and the design of each lesson are
carefully spelled out in detail.

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 o Textbooks provide organized units of work. A textbook gives
you all the plans and lessons you need to cover a topic in
some detail.
o A textbook series provides you with a balanced,
chronological presentation of information.
o Textbooks are a detailed sequence of teaching procedures
that tell you what to do and when to do it. There are no
surprises everything is carefully spelled out.
o Textbooks provide administrators and teachers with a
complete program. The series is typically based on the latest
research and teaching strategies.
o Good textbooks are excellent teaching aids. They're a
resource for both teachers and students.
Use Textbooks Wisely
A course book is just pretty much as great as the educator who
utilizes it. Furthermore, it's memorable critical that a course book
is only one device, maybe a vital apparatus, in your educating
stockpile. Some of the time, instructors over-depend on course
readings and don't think about different guides or different
materials for the homeroom. A few educators reject a course
reading way to deal with learning on the grounds that the reading
material is obsolete or inadequately covers a point or branch of
knowledge.
As an instructor, you'll have to settle on numerous choices, and
one of those is the way you need to utilize the course book. As
great as they might show up on a superficial level, reading
material truly do have a few restrictions. The accompanying table
records the absolute most normal shortcomings of course
readings, alongside approaches to conquering those hardships.

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 Weakness Student Difficulty Ways of Overcoming
Problem

The textbook is designed as Students only see one Provide students with lots
the sole source of perspective on a concept or of information sources
information. issue. such as trade books, CD-
ROMS, websites,
encyclopedias, etc.

Textbook is old or outdated. Information shared with Use textbook sparingly or

students is not current or supplement with other
relevant. materials.

Textbook questions tend to Students assume that Ask higher-level questions

be low level or fact-based. learning is simply a collection and provide creative
of facts and figures. thinking and problem-
solving activities.

Textbook doesn't take
students' background
knowledge into account.
Teacher does not tailor
lessons to the specific
attributes and interests of
students.
Discover what students
know about a topic prior to
teaching. Design the
lesson based on that
knowledge.

Reading level of the Students cannot read or Use lots of supplemental

textbook is too difficult. understand important materials such as library
concepts. books, Internet, CD-ROMs,
etc.

The textbook has all the
answer to all the questions.
Students tend to see learning
as an accumulation of correct
answers.
Involve students in
problem-solving activities,
higher-level thinking
questions, and extending
activities.

 Well-qualified Opinion
Keep in mind, no course book is great, and no reading material is
finished. It is nevertheless one asset available to you. Use it as a
plan, a manual, or a blueprint.
I might want to add an individual note of watchfulness here: don't
tragically put together your whole study hall educational plan with
respect to a solitary course book. The course reading should be
utilized prudently. A woodworker, for instance, doesn't utilize just
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a sledge to construct a glorious oak chest. She might utilize a
plane, etch, saw, sander, or quite a few devices to make the
show-stopper she wishes to fabricate. An extraordinary
homeroom program, very much like an incredible household item,
needs many devices in its development.
While contemplating how you need to utilize course books,
think about the accompanying:
 Utilize the course book as an asset for understudies,
however not by any means the only asset.
 Utilize a course book as an aide, not an order, for guidance.
 Be allowed to alter, change, wipe out, or add to the material
in the course reading
 Supplement the course book with loads of external readings.
 Supplement educator data in the reading material with
educator asset books; participation at neighborhood, local,
or public meetings; articles in proficient periodicals; and
discussions with experienced instructors.

Question No 4
Compare AIOU's model of textbooks publishing to any
other model of textbooks publishing.

Answer:
Pakistan's University-Based Model
Allama Iqbal Open University develops, prints, publishes and
markets textbooks in the same way as Bath-Nelson with the
exception that in this case no external participation of private
sector publishing is involved at any stage and that it produces
books only for its registered students. This University develops its

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own Curriculum and has no concern with the National Curriculum
of Pakistan for even secondary and post-secondary level. The
books relate to the very specialized field of distance learning. The
University has evolved a very strong infrastructure of textbook
development comprising panels of Authors/Editors, its own
editorial, illustration and printing press and professionally
equipped marketing/mailing department. The whole process of
textbook development in this University is very systematic and
exemplary. The University has achieved repute in this field at
normal and international levels. This University-based Pakistan
Model can compete with the British Model on many aspects,
some of which are more established and well organized than the
British one.
Provincial Textbook Boards: Pakistan's Publishing House Based
Model This is the only model of textbook development for classes
I to XII (year 1-12) in Pakistan. In the case of higher education
Private-sector publishing houses or the Universities do the work.
This model has already been discussed. The whole system is
very similar to the- British Model with the exception that in the
case of Pakistan the Provincial Textbook Boards play the role of a
publishing house and the subject Specialists that of the
Publishers/ Commissioning Editors.
we find many similarities in textbook process with that of the U.K.
The reason is obvious as we have earlier explained that Pakistan
inherited major components of its educational system from the
British tradition, Nevertheless, the question remains if the process
has similarities, why does the product not carry the same
standard? The answer is: Lack of textbook development
knowledge ability of the panels of authors/editors and subject
specialists.

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Textbook Defined
A course reading is a coordinated collection of material valuable
for the conventional investigation of a branch of knowledge. A
great course reading is recognized by the accompanying
academic highlights:
A discrete, very much limited scope: all the material ought to
connect with a strong comprehension of the subject, as a rule
blending hypothesis and practice for every point as it covers the
subject space.
Utilization of models and issues: the understudy ought to have the
option to all the more likely handle each introduced idea by
following models, and afterward applying the idea in organized
practices or issues.
An inside predictable style: after the initial not many areas, there
ought to be almost no curve balls for the understudy concerning
design and show of material. The texts client can get alright with
the format, the rhythm of show, and the example of figures,
outlines, models and activities.
Utility for future reference: when looked into, the course book
ought to segregate material that is valuable to the future utilization
of subject information in efficient reference sections and tables.
A construction that checks out: the course reading isn't simply an
assortment of helpful material; it is a manual for the understudy
for a request for survey which will support dominating the branch
of knowledge.
Reading material Structure

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Themes are introduced in significant parts, sections, segments
and subsections that are coordinated in a way that works with
understanding. This implies that the text's association depends on
the convergence of two prerequisites. The first of these are the
prerequisites of the subject area. Since most reading material are
created by, or in view of the commitments of subject matter
specialists, this necessity is normally very much taken care of.
The subsequent necessity is characterized by the restrictions of
the understudy's brain. Comprehension is a normal human
capacity, yet its necessities and cutoff points are every now and
again overlooked by the people who have currently dominated a
branch of knowledge. To utilize the understudy's capacities, a few
principles can be explained for the organizing and show of
thoughts, ideas, and material.
These principles ought to include:
Rule of Frameworks:
Keep a predictable construction. The construction goes about as
a psychological guide that permits students to explore inside and
through the subject area. To best guide in grasping, the
construction ought to be noticeable almost immediately.
Rule of Meaningful Names:
Make and utilize steady titles and wordings. Use wording that is
normal in your discipline. These names are basic to the capacity
to review or recover the things we know and keep in mind.
Rule of Manageable Numbers:
Limit how much data presented at one time. For new material,
four to six new components are a sensible cutoff. The vast
majority of us are restricted in our capacity to retain new material.
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As we come out as comfortable with part of a subject space, this
number grows.
Rule of Hierarchy:
New information expands on scholarly information. While
presenting new material, just allude to essential material
assuming it is applicable to the new material. The understudy
needs to comprehend the basic information prior to being
acquainted with another idea. At the point when new ideas are
presented, they ought to be expressly associated with the basic
material.
Rule of Repetition:
Rehash significant ideas. For instance, systems and significant
ordered progressions are rehashed upwards of five or multiple
times; every now and again utilized components are rehashed
three or multiple times; and components of lesser utility may not
be rehashed by any means. There is an example of reiteration
that guides in advancing the components of a subject from
present moment to long haul memory.
Textbook, Management/ Procurement
Development of Textbook Proclamations and Adoption of
Textbooks
In U.S. the development of textbook proclamations, review, and
adoption of textbooks includes the coordination of the annual
review and development of subsequent recommendations for
conforming and nonconforming textbooks. This is a requirement
of high status, model institutions some consider the
recommendations of the Director of Education and accept,

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modify, or rejects the recommendations. The specific business
processes are as follows:
1. Manage the textbook proclamation and adoption processes
which include maintenance of a life of textbook adoptions and
establishment of textbook review panels consisting of outstanding
teachers and other citizens.
a) Obtain publishers input on proposed maximum textbook prices.
b) Prepare the annual proclamation announcement under
consideration, the maximum costs for textbooks a calendar of
major events and accessibility information including technical
specifications for publisher's files. The detailed tasks to complete
this process is;
2. Receive and review official textbook bid submissions from
publishers and update the life with descriptive information on
textbooks and publishers.
3. Recruit and recommend potential textbook review panel
members for appointment by the Director.
4. Manage review panel evaluation of all instructional materials
submitted for adoption.
5. Hire contractors to conduct an independent review to detect
factual and editorial errors in instructional materials.
6. Arrange public hearings.
7. Prepare all materials necessary and provide testimony at
publisher show cause hearings,
8. Submit recommendations for conforming and nonconforming
textbooks based on panel evaluations and show-cause hearings,

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to the Director of Education. The recommendations also include
lists of required corrections in the textbooks. Subsequently, the
Director accepts or modifies the recommendations and submits
them to the higher authorities.
9. Coordinate independent contractor audits of corrected
instructional materials.
10. Recommend administrative penalties against publishers who
fail to correct factual errors or make editorial corrections.

Question No 5
Explain the concept of structure writing. Discuss the
system of textbook analysis.

Answer:
textbook analysis is the systematic analysis of the text materials
including the structure, the focus, and special learning assists.
Teachers may assume the text is “sacred" and follow it without
thought or write it off as useless. Either approach is a disservice
to students.
Structure in Writing
One of the most important skills a writer can develop is the ability
to infuse structure into a narrative. When you can write from a
basic framework, you will be able to save yourself and your
readers a lot of time because you’ll be getting to the points you
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need to make. Structure in writing allows you to avoid tangents
that may disrupt the plot of a story or the bond a reader wants to
make with a character.
Structure occurs in many different ways and it is often dependent
on the type of writing that you’re doing. Here are some examples
of structure in writing and when you would want to use that type of
structure.
Headings and Subheadings
If you’re reading content on the internet today, then there is a
good chance that you’re reading something with this type of
structure. Headings allow a reader to see what key points are
going to be made in the following content. Subheadings let
readers see what specific facts are going to be offered to them or
show readers where you’re going to address their anticipated
questions.
Headings and subheadings are generally used for formal writing
assignments. You’ll find this structure in research papers, thesis
papers, informal essays, and journalistic-style content. It is
primarily dedicated to work that would be classified as non-fiction.
Chapters
Most novels are broken down into specific chapters. These are
like “mini-stories” that are all tied into one main story. It’s like
breaking down your day into 24 different chapters. Each hour tells
a different story in some way, but all of the chapters tell the story
of your day.
Chapters may be titled or left untitled. They are also included in
non-fiction works, especially when a different subject matter may
be addressed. It is primarily reserved for works that are 20,000
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words or longer in length, though some short stories may be
broken down into 2-4 chapters to make them easier to read.
Paragraphs
All forms of writing are structured into paragraphs. Even if you’re
reading online content where every sentence is starting a new
paragraph, you’re still reading a paragraph structure. In general
terms, good paragraph structure is broken down into four specific
sentences for the reader.
Sentence #1: This sentence summarizes what the paragraph
intends to accomplish. Any key information the reader needs
should be included in this sentence. It is what will pique the
interest of the reader.
Sentence #2: This sentence adds more details to the key points
that were described in the first sentence.
Sentence #3: This sentence makes one key point. It could be a
quote from a character, a relevant fact from personal research, or
something that pushes the plot of a story or narrative forward.
Sentence #4: This sentence adds any additional information that
a reader would find relevant to a story or set of facts.
Any additional sentences would be used to continue adding
information that is needed for a reader. A paragraph that goes
beyond 6 sentences, however, is generally too long from a
structural standpoint.
Dialogue
Dialogue has its own structure that should be followed as well. In
terms of paragraph writing, dialogue should usually start at the
third sentence. “This is where you want to add dialogue,” the
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author said, “because it reinforces the information provided by the
following two sentences.”
“But I disagree,” said the second author. “Sometimes dialogue
can stand on its own.”
“That isn’t true and you know it.”
When structuring dialogue, you’re essentially telling a miniature
story. This means your dialogue needs an introduction, the main
body, and a conclusion. The structure of dialogue must be
present every time it occurs within a narrative for it to be
meaningful.
This is why many stories, articles, and other forms of written
content fail. You can’t just throw in a quote here and there or have
characters start a conversation out of the blue. In real life, there is
preparation before a conversation starts. There is a desire to
reach a meaningful conclusion when a conversation occurs.
There must be a point to the conversation in the first place.
Dialogue also requires conflict in its structure. Otherwise, there
would be no point in having the dialogue in the first place. “This is
where you want to add dialogue,” the author said,” because it
reinforces what I want to say.”
“I agree,” said the second author. “I agree completely.” “And I
agree with you.” The second structure is much less engaging,
isn’t it?
There can be many forms of structure in writing, but it must be
presented in a way that is logical to the type of writing being
constructed.

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Imagine a novel that was all headings and subheadings. Or a blog
post that had a new chapter for every 50 words. When you get the
structure right, you’re writing will be easier to complete, and
everyone will benefit from that at the end of the day.
Textbook Analysis

The practice of using textbooks is, according to Robinson (1981),

as old as the practice of writing. The word textbook appeared in
the 1830's long after ‘collocation’ textbook (Love and Pimm,
1996). According to Wal Besser (1973) the first arithmetic
textbook was written by Isaac Greenwood in 1729; `Arithmetic,
Vulgar and Decimal'. The sequencing of this textbook was as
follows:
o Present a rule,
o Provide example which uses the rule,
o Exercises for students to apply the rule,
o Formal proof of the rule,

“I was made learn by heart: `The square of the sum of two

numbers is equal to the sum of their squares increased by twice
their product' - I had not the vaguest idea what this meant and
when I could not remember the words, my tutor threw the book at
my head, which did not stimulate my intellect in any way". Wal
Besser also informs of the indifference of publishers with regard
to visual appeal of the textbooks, it was 1834 before drawings
appeared in American mathematics textbooks. Wal Besser noted
an emphasis on the practice of rule-example-practice in his
research more than thirty years ago and despite his research
being dated little has changed with regard the process of rule-
example-practice or in the development of textbook appeal.

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The educational value of a textbook is crucially important. He
identifies the need for textbooks to direct students to such a zone,
one where there is optimal learning. Difficult tasks cause
frustration and tasks which are considered too easy have little
influence on students' progress. There is a need for textbooks to
encourage students to work in this zone. Research can help
ensure textbooks are focused on reaching such a goal.
Structure Analysis

Textbook structure adds to or takes from textbook comprehension

suggesting that succession and connections between text
elements need to be analyzed carefully. Halliday and Hasan
(1993 cited in Mikk, 2000: 94) broke text cohesion/structure down
into 5 parts; reference (pronominal, comparatives, articles),
substitution (nominal, clausal, etc.), ellipsis (nominal, verbal, etc.),
conjunction (additive, temporal etc.), lexical (same item, general
item, etc.). Mikk (2000: 99) illustrates by way of a matrix table how
one can easily analyses the structure of a text and record
diagrammatically how frequent ideas/topics appear and therefore
connections are visualized. In order for a structure to impact
positively there are a number of key issues which need to be
incorporated. These were analyzed in the TIMSS report as
`Physical Scale'. While the structure of the knowledge within a
textbook is vital the physical structure will determine whether the
intended audience will even consider the text. It includes many
aspects such as those outlined by Valverde teal. (2002); Area and
framing, Elements (pictorial, verbal, design), Color and Non color,
Information levels, Unification and Separation.
Content Analysis
Textbook content influences the selections and emphases applied
by teachers and students, consequently impacting on learning
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outcomes (Mulryan, 1984). Rivers (1990) discusses four aspects
of content analysis which are similar to those outlined by Gerbner
(1969). She created four subheadings in the area of content
analysis:
 Motivational factors - which includes historical notes,
scientist and mathematician biographies, career information,
applications and photographs,
 Comprehension cues - focuses on color and graphics,
 Technical Aids - includes all material related to calculators
and computers,
 Philosophical Position - emphasis and predominant
philosophy.
These subheadings are easily identified for analysis and their role
in effective teaching is transparent. Witling (1978), whose work
on museum exhibits was connected with science textbook
analysis by Robinson (1981), insists that the very first objective of
any textbook must be to attract student attention.
Then the focus switches to presenting the message clearly and
comprehensibly, and finally maintaining.

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