TMC 411

Technical Note - TN 060: 2015
For queries regarding this document

standards@transport.nsw.gov.au
www.asa.transport.nsw.gov.au

Issued date: 06 October 2015
Effective date: 06 October 2015
Subject: Withdrawal of TMC 411 Earthworks

This technical note is issued by the Asset Standards Authority as a notification to remove from
use the RailCorp document TMC 411 Earthworks, Version 2.0.
The essential content in the TMC 411 has been incorporated into T HR CI 12110 ST Earthworks
and Formation, Version 1.0. The section 13 is contained in the T HR CI 12101 ST Geotechnical
Problem management, Version 1.0.
Authorisation:
Technical content Checked and Interdisciplinary Authorised for
prepared by approved by coordination release
checked by
Signature
Date
Name Sarath Fernando Richard Hitch John Paff Graham Bradshaw

Position Principal Engineer Lead Civil Engineer A/Chief Engineer Rail Director Network
Geotech Standards and
Services
© State of NSW through Transport for NSW Page 1 of 1

Superseded by T HR CI 12110 ST
For queries regarding this document

standards@.transport.nsw.gov.au
www.asa.transport.nsw.gov.au

Issued date: 11 June 2015
Effective date: 11 June 2015
Subject: Update to RailCorp engineering standards

ESC 410, ESC 540 and TMC 411
This technical note supersedes TN 009: 2013 and is issued by the Asset Standards Authority as
a temporary update to the standards listed in Table 1.
Table 1 – RailCorp engineering standards
Reference No Title Version Issue date

ESC 410 Earthworks and Formation 2.0 01/07/2010
ESC 540 Service Installations within the Rail Corridor 2.2 01/07/2010
TMC 411 Earthworks 2.0 01/07/2010
The SMS document reference on CTN 13/04 has changed to SMS-06-GD-3066 Guide to
managing construction hazards.
Documents listed in Table 1 are presented as legacy RailCorp documents and shall be read in
conjunction with this technical note and interpreted according to the interpretation guides listed in
Table 2.
Table 2 – Interpretation guides
Reference no Title Version Issue date

TS 10762 Legacy RailCorp Standards Interpretation - Management 1.0 28/06/2013
Overview
TS 10760 Guide to interpretation of organisational role and process 1.0 17/06/2013
references in RailCorp standards
TS 10760 - SMS Interpretation guide RailCorp SMS References within 1.0 17/06/2013
RailCorp engineering standards

1. Embankment/cut slope instability due to toe

disturbances and trenching
This instruction includes mandatory requirements.
There have been several embankment destabilisations reported as a result of excavations into
the toe of embankments. As shown in the photographs (Figure 1 to Figure 5), it appears that the
toe was cut to create access at the expense of embankment stability.
Removing the toe restraint, which is an integral part of the earth structure, leads to slip failure
progressing towards the track. This is one of the worst forms of destabilisation for dynamic
loading. It was noted that vertical cuts were left unsupported until track patrol discovered the slip
failure.
Each incident led to emergency repairs being undertaken to reinstate the embankment with
temporary speed restrictions to manage the risk until repairs had been completed.
Embankment toes and slopes shall not be disturbed by any means including cuts, cable and pipe
trenches or otherwise as this directly affects the stability of the earth structure.
If excavation is unavoidable, advice shall be sought from the geotechnical engineer.
Any trenching at the toe of cuttings for cable routes, cess drainage and so on, shall not be carried
out without a stability assessment or advice from the geotechnical engineer. Trenches especially
at top of soil/soft rock cuttings and embankments shall not be left open overnight. Water ponding
in trenches can result in slope failures (see Figure 4 and Figure 5).
Excavation work shall not commence without a risk assessment and implementation of
appropriate controls.
Refer to TMC 411 Earthworks and SMS-06-GD-3066 Guide to managing construction hazards for
requirements for excavation work including planning of works, risk assessment, excavation work
plans and excavation procedures. Also, refer to ESC 540 Service Installations within the Rail
Corridor for detailed requirements for the location and installation of cables and pipes by
trenching.

Figure 1 - Vertical toe cut leading to slip failure
Figure 2 - Vertical toe cut leading to slip failure
Figure 3 - Vertical toe cut with high risk for slip failure

Figure 4 - Cable trench left open at top of soil/soft rock cutting allowed ponding water to enter slope
leading to failure (see Figure 5)
Figure 5 - Failure due to cable trench left open at top of soil/soft rock cutting
Authorisation:
Technical content Checked and Interdisciplinary Authorised for
prepared by approved by coordination release
checked by
Signature
Name Sarath Fernando Richard Hitch John Paff Graham Bradshaw

Position Principal Engineer Lead Civil Engineer A/Chief Engineer Rail Principal Manager
Geotech Network Standards
and Services

Engineering Manual
Geotechnical
TMC 411
Engineering Manual
EARTHWORKS
Version 2.0
Issued July 2010
Owner: Principal Engineer Geotechnical
Approved by: John Stapleton Authorised by: Jee Choudhury

A/Principal Engineer Principal Engineer
Technology & Standards
Disclaimer
This document was prepared for use on the RailCorp Network only.
RailCorp makes no warranties, express or implied, that compliance with the contents of this document shall be
sufficient to ensure safe systems or work or operation. It is the document user’s sole responsibility to ensure that the
copy of the document it is viewing is the current version of the document as in use by RailCorp.
RailCorp accepts no liability whatsoever in relation to the use of this document by any party, and RailCorp excludes any liability which arises in
any manner by the use of this document.
Copyright
The information in this document is protected by Copyright and no part of this document may be reproduced, altered, stored or transmitted by
any person without the prior consent of RailCorp
UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED Page 1 of 47

RailCorp Engineering Manual — Geotechnical
Earthworks TMC 411
Document control
Revision Date of Approval Summary of change
2.0 July, 2010 Changes detailed in chapter revisions
1.2 November 2009 Format change throughout
1.1 October 2007 C1-6 “Safety and Environmental” deleted, except two requirements
moved to C3-1, New C2-6 “Ground anchors” to be consistent with
ESC 350, C3-1 added requirements re not undermining adjacent
structures & relocation of services
1.0 October 2006 First issue as a RailCorp document. Includes content from C 1100
Summary of changes from previous version

Chapter Current Revision Summary of change
Control 2.0 Updated version details
pages
1 2.0 C1-4: additional defined terms
2 2.0 New
3 2.0 New
4 2.0 New
5 2.0 New
6 2.0 C6-1 and C6-2: minor additions
7 2.0 C7-1: added reference to SMS excavation guide and RailCorp
Environmental Management System; new sections: C7-2, C7-3.1,
C7-3.2, C7-4, C7-5, C7-6, C7-7, C7-8 and C7-9
8 2.0 C8-1 to C8-5: minor changes; new sections C8-6 to C8-10; C8-11:
minor changes; new sections C8-12 to C8-14
9 2.0 New C9-1; C9-2 & C9-3: minor changes; new C9-4, C9-5 & C9-7;
C9-6: addition of CBR requirement
10 2.0 Split into 4 sections; capping thickness specified as minimum
requirement; minimum subgrade CBR specified
11 2.0 Minor editing
12 2.0 New C12-1; C12-2 & C12-3: minor changes
13 2.0 C13-2: new sections re slope failure, transverse cracks, piping &
erosion, and settlement; C13-3: new sections re failure of cutting
face, weathering & excessive erosion of cutting face, and stability
of structures on the top of cuttings
App 1 2.0 Retitled; notes added
App 2 2.0 Retitled; notes added
App 3 2.0 No change
App 4 2.0 No change
App 5 2.0 New
App 6 2.0 New
© Rail Corporation Page 2 of 47

Issued July 2010 UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED Version 2.0
Earthworks TMC 411
Contents
Chapter 1 General....................................................................................................................................... 6
C1-1 Purpose....................................................................................................................................... 6
C1-2 How to read the Manual.............................................................................................................. 6
C1-3 References.................................................................................................................................. 6
C1-4 Definitions, abbreviations and acronyms .................................................................................... 6
Chapter 2 Management Requirements ..................................................................................................... 9
Chapter 3 Competencies.......................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 4 Assessment, Planning and Documentation......................................................................... 11
C4-1 Adjoining Property..................................................................................................................... 11
C4-2 Preservation Items .................................................................................................................... 11
C4-3 Rehabilitation ............................................................................................................................ 11
C4-4 Drainage.................................................................................................................................... 11
C4-5 Erosion and Siltation ................................................................................................................. 11
C4-6 Sloping Ground ......................................................................................................................... 11
C4-7 Slope Stability ........................................................................................................................... 12
C4-8 Soft or Compressible Foundation Soils .................................................................................... 12
C4-9 Reactive Soils ........................................................................................................................... 12
C4-10 Low Density or Potentially Collapsing Soils.............................................................................. 12
C4-11 Existing Filled Ground............................................................................................................... 12
C4-12 Site Investigations..................................................................................................................... 12
C4-13 Non-potable Water .................................................................................................................... 12
C4-14 Trenches ................................................................................................................................... 13
C4-15 Compaction Moisture Content .................................................................................................. 13
C4-16 Surcharging of Slopes............................................................................................................... 13
C4-17 Calculation of Quantities ........................................................................................................... 13
C4-18 Physical Separation of Dissimilar Materials.............................................................................. 13
C4-19 Geosynthetics ........................................................................................................................... 13
C4-20 Construction Activities Vibrations.............................................................................................. 13
C4-21 Contamination ........................................................................................................................... 13
C4-22 Retaining Walls ......................................................................................................................... 14
C4-23 Potential Acid Sulfate Soils ....................................................................................................... 14
C4-24 Investigation and Planning........................................................................................................ 14
C4-25 Documentation .......................................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 5 Acceptance Standards ........................................................................................................... 16
C5-1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 16
C5-2 Vertical Tolerances ................................................................................................................... 16
C5-3 Horizontal Tolerances ............................................................................................................... 16
Chapter 6 Earthworks & Formation ........................................................................................................ 17
C6-1 Formation .................................................................................................................................. 17
C6-2 Compaction Standards ............................................................................................................. 17
C6-3 Non-compliance with Compaction Standards........................................................................... 17
C6-4 Drainage.................................................................................................................................... 17
C6-5 Ground Anchors ........................................................................................................................ 17
C6-6 Train Examination Areas........................................................................................................... 18
C6-7 Walkways .................................................................................................................................. 18
Chapter 7 Preparation for Earthworks.................................................................................................... 19
C7-1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 19
C7-2 Earthworks Plan ........................................................................................................................ 19
C7-3 Site Clearing.............................................................................................................................. 19
C7-4 Spoil .......................................................................................................................................... 20

Earthworks TMC 411
C7-5 Benching and Cuttings.............................................................................................................. 21

C7-6 Borrow Material ......................................................................................................................... 21
C7-7 Excavation in Rock ................................................................................................................... 21
C7-8 Blasting ..................................................................................................................................... 21
C7-9 Pre-splitting and Line Drilling .................................................................................................... 22
Chapter 8 Embankments.......................................................................................................................... 24
C8-1 Preparation of embankment base............................................................................................. 24
C8-2 Drainage blanket....................................................................................................................... 24
C8-3 Embankment material ............................................................................................................... 25
C8-4 Placing embankment material................................................................................................... 25
C8-5 Compaction of embankment material ....................................................................................... 25
C8-6 Field moisture control................................................................................................................ 26
C8-7 Surface heaving ........................................................................................................................ 26
C8-8 Compaction equipments ........................................................................................................... 26
C8-9 Sampling and testing ................................................................................................................ 27
C8-10 Test rolling................................................................................................................................. 27
C8-11 Embankment profile .................................................................................................................. 28
C8-12 Rock Facing of Embankments .................................................................................................. 28
C8-13 Hillside Embankments .............................................................................................................. 29
C8-14 Drainage and Erosion Control................................................................................................... 29
Chapter 9 Cuttings.................................................................................................................................... 30
C9-1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 30
C9-2 Excavation................................................................................................................................. 30
C9-3 Batter Slopes............................................................................................................................. 30
C9-4 Benching ................................................................................................................................... 31
C9-5 Treatment of Cuttings Floors .................................................................................................... 31
C9-6 Compaction ............................................................................................................................... 31
C9-7 Cut to Fill Transition .................................................................................................................. 32
Chapter 10 Capping Layer ......................................................................................................................... 33
C10-1 General Requirements.............................................................................................................. 33
C10-2 Sampling and testing ................................................................................................................ 33
C10-3 Preparation of Capping ............................................................................................................. 33
C10-4 Spreading, Placing, Compaction and Trimming of Capping..................................................... 33
Chapter 11 Widening of Existing Embankments..................................................................................... 34
C11-1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 34
C11-2 Preparation................................................................................................................................ 34
C11-3 Embankment Construction........................................................................................................ 34
C11-4 Drainage and Erosion Control................................................................................................... 35
Chapter 12 Earthworks near Structures................................................................................................... 36
C12-1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 36
C12-2 Construction .............................................................................................................................. 36
C12-3 Excavation................................................................................................................................. 37
Chapter 13 Earthworks - Geotechnical Problems ................................................................................... 38
C13-1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 38
C13-2 Embankment problems ............................................................................................................. 38
C13-3 Problems in Cuttings................................................................................................................. 39
Appendix 1 Single Track Cross Section ................................................................................................... 41
Appendix 2 Double Track Cross Section .................................................................................................. 42
Appendix 3 Shoulder Distance .................................................................................................................. 43
Appendix 4 Earthworks Construction Drawing........................................................................................ 44
APPENDIX 5 Daily Earthworks Report ........................................................................................................ 45

Earthworks TMC 411
APPENDIX 6 Earthworks Summary Report ................................................................................................ 47


Earthworks TMC 411
Chapter 1 General
C1-1 Purpose
This document specifies procedures for the construction and maintenance of cuttings,
embankments and track formation.
It is applicable to all RailCorp mainline and siding tracks.
Guidelines for the rehabilitation of existing track formation are given in TMC 403 “Track
Reconditioning Guidelines”.
C1-2 How to read the Manual

When you read this manual, you will not need to refer to RailCorp Engineering Standards.
Any requirements from standards have been included in the sections of the manual and shown
shaded. The shaded sections are extracts from RailCorp Standard ESC 410 “Earthworks and
Formation”, unless noted otherwise.
Reference is however made to other Manuals.
C1-3 References
AS 1141 Methods for sampling and testing aggregates
AS 1289 Methods for testing soils for engineering purposes
AS 1726 Geotechnical site investigations
ESC 410 Earthworks and Formation
SPC 301 Structures Construction
SPC 411 Earthworks Materials Specification
TMC 403 Track Reconditioning Guidelines
TMC 421 Track Drainage Manual
NSW Government Environmental Planning and Assessment Act
RailCorp Environmental Management System
SMS-06-GD-0378 System Guide - Excavation and Earthworks
C1-4 Definitions, abbreviations and acronyms

Borrow Pit: Excavation made for the procurement of material
Capping Layer: Layer of compacted material that provides a sealing layer to the
earthworks.
CBR: Soaked California Bearing Ratio, determined on a sample compacted by
Standard Compaction.
Cohesionless Material consisting mostly of sand and gravel mixture, generally with less
Soil: than 5% fines (i.e., particles finer than 75 μm diameter).
Cohesive Soil: Material consisting mostly of silt and clay and has a well-defined moisture-
density relationship when tested in accordance with AS 1289.5.1.1 or AS
1289.5.2.1.
Collapsible Soil: Soil that may suffer a significant decrease in volume under load or when it
becomes nearly saturated, which may have existed in this metastable state
for a long time
Compaction: The process whereby the density of soil is increased by mechanical
means. This typically involves, rolling, impact or vibration, or a combination
of these processes.

Earthworks TMC 411
Contaminated Material that may contain toxic substances or soluble compounds harmful
Material: to environment, water supply or agriculture.
Cutting: An earth or rock excavation within the works site that is made below an
existing surface to create the railway formation.
Dispersive soil: Soil that has the ability to pass rapidly into suspension in the presence of
water
Earthworks: The activities covered by this specification
Earthworks Level at the centre of the earthworks prior to placing of the capping
Level: layer.
Embankment: An earth or rock fill structure above an existing and/or excavated surface to
create the rail track formation.
Expansive Soil: Soil that will suffer a high volume change when in contact with
water. Any increase or decrease in the moisture content of such soil, would
cause swelling or shrinkage, respectively. This type of soil is also called
“Reactive Soil” and “Swelling Soil”.
Formation: The earthworks structure including all Foundation, Structural Treatment and
Capping Layer, on which ballast is laid
Formation Level: Finished level at the centre of the formation preparatory to laying ballast. It
includes the required capping layer.
Formation Width: Width at formation level
Foundation A special layer or treated zone at the base of a formation for the purpose of
Treatment: reinforcing, strengthening or drainage.
General Fill: The lower zone of the embankment.
Geosynthetics: Prefabricated sheet made of polymeric materials which may be permeable

or non-permeable. This material may be used as filter-drainage (if
permeable) or foundation reinforcement. It includes geotextile, geonet,
geogrid and geocell.
Geotechnical RailCorp’s Principal Geotechnical Engineer or a competent person with
Engineer: delegated engineering authority for geotechnical design activities relating to
earthworks.
Highly Dispersive Soil that has the ability to pass rapidly into suspension in the presence of
Soil: water and has an Emerson Class number of 1.
Rail Level: Theoretical level of the running surface of the rails. In the case of
superelevated track, it is the low rail.
Relative Density: The field dry density expressed in terms of maximum/minimum densities
established by laboratory test (used for cohesionless soils). The specific
minimum value should be determined with the Earthworks Specifications.
Relative For cohesive soils, the dry density ratio determined in accordance with AS
Compaction: 1289.5.4.1, or the Hilf density ratio determined in accordance with AS
1289.5.7.1.
For cohesionless soils, the density index determined in accordance with AS
1289.5.6.1.
Right of Way: The strip of land over which railroads are built.
Rockfill: Fill compacted almost exclusively of fragments of broken rock. It generally
consists of a large portion of gravel, cobble, and larger sized fragments,
and may contain large open voids.
Scarp: Bench formed by excavating down the slope perpendicularly.
Shoulder Distance from the track centreline to the edge of the formation.
Distance:

Earthworks TMC 411
Site Supervisor: A qualified civil engineer or a competent person with delegated engineering
authority for earthworks supervision.
Soluble Soil: Soil containing perishable particles such as gypsum or rock salt.
Stockpile: Placement of material that has been selected, loaded, transported and
unloaded in a heap outside the confines of a borrow pit or of an excavation
that forms part of the works.
Structural Zone: The upper zone of the embankment. Its thickness varies from 500 mm to
1000 mm, depending on the CBR of the general fill/subgrade.
Tolerance: Range between the limits within which a dimension or position lies.
Top Soil: A natural surface soil that may contain organic matter.
Unsuitable The material that occurs in the borrow site or below the foundation level of
Material: embankment and is not considered as suitable due to its adverse
characteristics as specified in Clause 8.

Earthworks TMC 411
Chapter 2 Management Requirements

Civil Maintenance Engineers must establish systems to ensure that installation and maintenance
tasks in this Manual are undertaken by people who have the required competencies.

Earthworks TMC 411
Chapter 3 Competencies
Design of earthworks is to be approved by the Geotechnical Engineer.
Earthworks shall only be carried out under the supervision of the Site Supervisor.
Some aspects of the earthworks may require the approval of the Geotechnical Engineer.
Certification of the track during earthworks or after earthworks has been completed may only be
undertaken by persons with the following competency:
− TDT B38 - Maintain track geometry.

Earthworks TMC 411
Chapter 4 Assessment, Planning and Documentation

The assessment, planning, design and documentation of earthworks require the designer to
consider those factors which may affect the works. This chapter details the factors that shall be
taken into consideration before site works are commenced.
C4-1 Adjoining Property

Assessment to find whether there is a potential for damage due to excavation, compaction,
vibration, noise, run-off, dust or other effects of the earthworks, and liaison with the adjoining
owners.
C4-2 Preservation Items

Surveys necessary to identify rare flora and/or fauna, which may require preservation or relocation.
This item shall be carried out in accordance with environmental regulations and standards.
C4-3 Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation of areas which are affected by different construction activities such as borrow areas,
stockpiles, excavated or fill batters, spoil disposal areas, haul routes, stormwater control, camp,
office and workshop sites, should be included in drawings and specifications so that materials such
as topsoil, mulched native vegetation (which can contain useful seed stock and nutrients) and bulk
fill materials used for rehabilitation are identified and preserved for re-use. Rehabilitation works
should be completed before the constructor vacates the site.
C4-4 Drainage
Temporary and permanent diversion of permanent or ephemeral watercourses prior to or during
construction of the earthworks and associated works may affect the quantity or quality, or both, of
the stormwater run-off. Therefore, special provisions may be necessary to minimize the effects and
to protect the legal rights of adjacent and downstream landowners. Failure in providing for such
provisions could lead to litigation and delay in completion of the earthworks projects.
Approval from the relevant authorities should be obtained prior to either the placement of fill on
flood-prone lands or construction of drainage structures, i.e., culverts in natural watercourses.
The placement of fill or construction of cuts may impact the flow of subsurface water and may lead
to localised instability. Special provisions may be necessary to account for the potential effect of
the works in such cases.
C4-5 Erosion and Siltation

Protection of the earthworks from erosion, both during and after construction, needs to be taken
into account. Run-off from the works, and areas affected by the works, may be subject to special
provisions. Siltation of eroded materials in downstream structures needs also special consideration.
C4-6 Sloping Ground

Special precautions may be needed where the earthworks are constructed on sloping ground.
These include:
− Benching of the surface of the natural ground to assist in the placing of the fill and to key the
fill to the foundation soil;
− Berms or benches above, within, or at the foot of cuts to intercept stormwater run-off or
detritus; and/or other
− Special works.

Earthworks TMC 411
C4-7 Slope Stability

The basis for the assessment of the short- and long-term stabilities of natural slopes, cut-face
slopes and fill slopes is:
− Geotechnical investigation and analysis; and
− Local experience with similar materials under similar conditions.
Each stability assessment needs to take into account any existing slopes, proposed undercut and
surcharge of the slopes, dynamic loads (such as induced vibrations, earthquake) and the effect of
water seepage on the slopes. Each slope should be selected with regard to the required access,
including maintenance.
C4-8 Soft or Compressible Foundation Soils

Soft or compressible soils do not form a good foundation on which to place and compact fills, and
may need to be excavated. Alternatively, fill which is readily compactable may be placed in the
lower levels of the earthworks immediately above such soils. Geosynthetics or some other ground
improvement techniques may also be considered in such cases.
To avoid excessive displacement of soft/compressible soils during construction, movement of

heavy construction equipments over such materials should be restricted. In calculation of material
quantities, compression of soft fill or foundation soils should be considered.
C4-9 Reactive Soils

The moisture content of reactive soils after compaction of fills should approximate the estimated
long-term moisture content, which may be about the same as the moisture content for the
undisturbed reactive soils at or about the depth of seasonal influence. Any change in moisture
content of such soils may cause considerable heave or shrinkage.
C4-10 Low Density or Potentially Collapsing Soils

Low density or potentially collapsing soils such as loess, lose volume when saturated and/or
compacted in or beneath the earthworks. In calculation of quantities, compression of the fill or
foundation of such material needs to be taken into account.
C4-11 Existing Filled Ground

Existing filled ground, for which the conditions of the placement are not adequately documented,
should not be assumed to be either of the standard of compaction or of the composition adequate
to support fill or any other loads. In many cases un-engineered fill and/or domestic refuse may be
present which are considered unsuitable to support fill or other loads.
C4-12 Site Investigations

Site investigation for earthworks may include test pits; bore holes, test rolling, field and laboratory
tests or other methods necessary to assess the degree of compaction, strength and composition of
the existing filled ground. Analysis of the results obtained from these investigations will allow
adequacy assessment of the existing filled ground or the extent of remedial works that may be
required. Such remedial works may include improvement or complete removal of the material.
C4-13 Non-potable Water

Suitability of non-potable water for increasing the moisture content of fill should be evaluated by
field and laboratory tests. Saline waters should not be used in the following cases:
− areas where vegetation may be established; and

− fill where steel or reinforced concrete is buried.

Earthworks TMC 411
C4-14 Trenches
Excavations for trenches require special consideration for support. Relevant authorities place
limitations on the maximum depth to which trenches may be excavated without shoring. In this
regard, safety regulations should be considered.
The effect of trench excavation on the stability of any adjacent embankment, cutting, formation,
track or structure shall also be considered.
C4-15 Compaction Moisture Content

The optimum moisture content determined by laboratory methods is only a guide for field
construction, as the optimum moisture content for compaction under field conditions will depend on
the material type, equipment used, the layer thickness, climate conditions and the nature of the
foundation. In general, the heavier the compaction effort or the thinner the layer, the lower is the
optimum moisture content. The compaction moisture content in dry, windy conditions should be
higher. Excessive compaction may cause the soil to approach saturation and does not provide
higher densities or strengths.
C4-16 Surcharging of Slopes

Cut face and fill slopes, sides of trenches and slopes supported by retaining walls should not be
loaded, e.g., by construction equipment, materials, soil and the like, unless the assessment of the
slope stability included an allowance for the particular load(s).
C4-17 Calculation of Quantities

In calculating quantities of fill, the following should be taken into account:
− Volume changes due to excavation, spreading and compaction;

− Compression of the foundation.
NOTE: The degree of volume change is dependent on the type and texture of the material and
required relative compaction. It can be assessed as part of the site investigation, using field density
and laboratory compaction tests.
C4-18 Physical Separation of Dissimilar Materials

Filters, comprising material of selected particle size distribution and geosynthetics, may be used to
avoid the mixing of materials after placement. These materials are used to avoid:
− Soft materials being forced into voids of granular material; or

− Erosion and migration of fine particles into adjacent granular material.
C4-19 Geosynthetics
Proprietary products are available with particular properties suitable to act as a filter, drainage layer
and/or physical separator to allow water flow whilst avoiding migration of soil particles or as a
tensile reinforcement element. Such materials may be construction expedients, or may form part of
the permanent earthworks. Geosynthetics should be carefully chosen for the intended purpose in
accordance with SPC 411 and have an adequate service life under the intended conditions.
C4-20 Construction Activities Vibrations

Construction activities, particularly those using equipment such as compactors or blasting, may
cause vibrations that could damage nearby structures, either directly (extra stresses transmitted to
the structure due to the vibration) or indirectly (for example, by causing settlement of the
foundations).
C4-21 Contamination
Any known or suspected ground or groundwater contamination should be investigated. Relevant
authorities have set limits on the quantity of contaminants permitted in ground, in various

Earthworks TMC 411
applications. Removal of contaminated soil from the site is likely to require special consideration,
such as classification. Similarly, allowing contaminated soil to be imported or to remain on site may
require approval from the relevant authorities. The impact of any investigation on planned
earthworks, including safety and environmental aspects, should always be considered.
C4-22 Retaining Walls

The compaction of fill against retaining walls may induce higher pressures than adopted in the
design. The nature of the fill to be used, the specified level of compaction, and the type of
compaction equipment to be used, should be assessed in selecting design loads on retaining walls.
C4-23 Potential Acid Sulfate Soils

In certain areas, particularly in coastal marine deposit areas, the presence of considerable amounts
of iron sulfates is possible. Disturbing or exposing these soils to air may cause formation of sulfuric
acid. Excavation and movement of such soils are subject to strict environmental controls that
normally expect chemical treatment to avoid contamination of streams and drains. Consultation
with the relevant environmental authority is required prior to the excavation, handling or use of such
soils.
C4-24 Investigation and Planning

Investigations for planning of earthworks for use by the designer, the constructor and other
interested parties should include the following:
− Outline of the need for, and objectives of, the project;

− Site investigation of the project and any associate sites including:
∼ foundation and subgrade materials;
∼ special areas due to presence of groundwater, seepage, rock, problematic soils;
∼ available fill materials and, where applicable, details of the overburden;
∼ suitability of the fill materials for the intended purposes;
∼ classification of materials to be removed off site; and
∼ suitability of water for placement of the fill.
− Where applicable, an outline of other plans that have been considered in the investigation;
− The quality assurance requirements for the project.
C4-25 Documentation
Documentation is an important consideration in all earthworks projects. The relevant documents
should include:
C4-25.1 Design and Specification

The functional requirements of the design should be documented in the specification and drawings
for the earthworks project. This documentation should be sufficiently complete to allow the
constructor to unambiguously carry out the works, and for the superintendent (and the geotechnical
inspection and testing authority, as necessary) to be able to interpret the design and administer the
contract.
Such documentation will typically include (or have consciously excluded), the following, as well as
any other matters that may be of particular importance to the particular project:
− Adequate specification and drawings to allow the proper planning, execution and supervision
of the works. Plans, sections and elevations should clearly show areas of earthworks,
identifying areas which require specific treatments. Particularly on larger projects, the
specification and drawings should adequately define the followings:
∼ The areas in which spoil may be dumped or stockpiled;
∼ Restrictions on clearing and stripping;
∼ Drainage requirements during and after construction;

Earthworks TMC 411
∼ Criteria for selection of materials for placement in various parts of the fill and for material
to be excluded from fill. Material descriptions should be clear, unambiguous and in
accordance with AS 1726;
∼ Criteria for standard of surface trim of completed earthworks;
∼ Details of tests, including minimum frequency, to be carried out for testing to ensure the
fill complies with the specified criteria;
∼ The scope of the commission to be given to the geotechnical inspection and testing
authority;
∼ Either the methods to be used for construction or the requirements to be met by test in
the finished project. It is generally unwise to mix performance and method specifications.
Where a performance specification is adopted, restrictions on methods should be limited
to those absolutely necessary (for example, to limit the risk of damage to nearby
structures).
− Site investigation information, together with details of, and provisions for, access to any further
relevant information for the purpose of design or construction planning. Selective provision of
available site investigation data can give rise to serious problems, either engineering or legal,
or both, and should not be done without due consideration of the issues involved.
− Any other relevant information in the possession of the designer.
C4-25.2 Construction
Adequate records need to be kept during construction, including conditions encountered, works as
executed, as built drawings, testing records and any alterations to the specification and drawings.
As a minimum, these records should show the followings:
− The areas in which fill is placed;

− Levels after stripping;
− Location of any trees or large shrubs that may have been removed;
− Materials exposed after stripping and the criteria upon which the decision to cease stripping
was made;
− Levels after completion of the filling;
− Details of test rolling, if undertaken;
− Types of fill material in various zones;
− Sources of fill material in various zones, where applicable;
− Location and level of each compliance test, together with test results. Where a test is a retest
of a lot that was previously rejected, this should be stated;
− Action taken where testing indicated that the specified criteria had not been met.
− Any areas in which the fill material or compaction is of a lesser standard or a greater standard
than elsewhere on the site.
C4-25.3 Site Record

Daily diaries and detailed drawings of works, as executed, should be maintained by site staff.
Typical site records are (Refer to appendices 5, 6):
− A daily geotechnical report, generally appropriate for larger projects;

− A geotechnical site visit record; and
− An earthworks summary report, generally appropriate for small projects.

Earthworks TMC 411
Chapter 5 Acceptance Standards

C5-1 General
Completed earthworks shall comply with the vertical and horizontal tolerances specified below.
C5-2 Vertical Tolerances

In embankments
− Top of the structural zone + 0 mm to – 50 mm

− Top of the general fill zone + 40 mm to – 40 mm
In cuttings
− Floor of cut (top of common earthworks): other than rock + 40 mm to – 40 mm

− Floor of cut (top of common earthworks): rock + 0 mm to – 80 mm
− Top of Structural Zone: other than rock + 0 mm to – 50 mm
At transitions between cut and fill
− Floor of cut to fill transition + 0 to – 50 mm

Top of benches and berms
− Top of benches and berms + 50 mm to –50 mm

Capping layer
− The finished surface of the capping shall be within 25mm of the level shown on the drawings
and:
∼ The algebraic difference of the deviations from the correct level for any two points
20 metres apart on the centreline shall not exceed 15mm.
∼ The deviation from a three (3) metre straight edge laid on the surface parallel to the
centreline shall not exceed 10mm.
C5-3 Horizontal Tolerances

Base at top of cuts and fills, widths of benches and berms shall not to be less than specified
dimensions. Maximum positive tolerance is 300 mm, unless approved by the Geotechnical
Engineer.
The width of the capping layer from the design centreline to the finished top of embankment slopes
or toe of batters in cuttings shall be not less than the dimensions required by Appendix 3.
When the capping layer is tested with a three (3) metre straight edge laid perpendicular to the
centre line the deviation from design profile shall not exceed 10mm concavity.

Earthworks TMC 411
Chapter 6 Earthworks & Formation

C6-1 Formation
Formation is the earthworks structure including all foundation, structural treatment and capping
layer on which ballast is laid.
The formation for single track mainlines and single track sidings shall comply with the appropriate
dimensions shown in Appendix 1.
The formation for double track mainlines and double track sidings shall comply with the appropriate
dimensions shown in Appendix 2.
The formation for multiple track mainlines and multiple track sidings shall comply with the
appropriate dimensions shown in Appendix 2, subject to the requirement that the water from one
track shall not cross another track to get away. For example, if there are three tracks, there shall be
at least one subsurface centre drain.
Shoulder distances shall comply with Appendix 3.
Track centres shall be in accordance with ESC 215 “Transit Space”.
Where reduced shoulder distances exist due to physical constraints, an assessment is to be made
of the need for safety refuges, handhold devices and limited clearance signs. The requirements are
specified in ESC 350 “Retaining Walls and Platforms”.
C6-2 Compaction Standards

To achieve a stable and durable embankment, the material shall be prepared and compacted as
specified below.
The Compaction standards shall be as follows:

Compaction A: - Cohesive soils - Not less than 100% maximum dry density as
determined by AS.1289 Tests 5.1.1 and 5.3.1 (Standard Compaction)
- Rock fill or cohesionless soils - No visible deflection of surface under 10
tonne vibratory rollers after 6 to 8 passes.
Compaction B: Not less than 95% maximum dry density as determined by AS.1289
Tests 5.1.1 and 5.3.1 (Standard Compaction).
C6-3 Non-compliance with Compaction Standards

Material not complying with the specified compaction standard shall only be used with the approval
of the Principal Engineer Geotechnical.
C6-4 Drainage
Cess drains; sub-surface drains, top drains and interceptor drains shall be provided for cuttings and
are to comply with the requirements in ESC 420 “Track Drainage”.
C6-5 Ground Anchors

Ground anchors shall have a design life of 100 years.
Ground anchors shall comply with the requirements of AS 4678 “Earth-retaining structures” and
Technical Specification S38 “Permanent Rock Anchors” in RailCorp Engineering Specification SPC
301 “Structures Construction”.
The design of ground anchors shall include mitigation against the effects of stray currents.
The designer shall specify requirements for testing. Test procedures shall comply with Technical
Specification S38.

Earthworks TMC 411
The designer shall specify requirements for long term monitoring, if any.
Anchor heads shall be protected so as not to be an obstruction. They shall be recessed or

protected by a continuous smooth surface of shotcrete, concrete etc.
Ground anchors shall not extend under private property without the approval of the Chief Engineer
Civil.
C6-6 Train Examination Areas

Where nominated, train examination areas are to be provided. The minimum requirement is to
cover these areas with a 50 mm layer of 10 mm single sized aggregate as shown in Appendices 1
and 2.
The train examination area is not to be assumed as available for road access purposes.
C6-7 Walkways
Where nominated, walkways are to be provided for staff to walk along the track cess. The
minimum requirement is to cover walkways with a 50 mm layer of 10 mm single sized aggregate as
in Appendices 1 and 2.

Earthworks TMC 411
Chapter 7 Preparation for Earthworks

C7-1 General
Prior to commencing earthworks, the Site Supervisor shall determine proposed work methods,
taking into account the physical conditions at the site.
Earthworks shall be carried out so as not to undermine any adjacent track, formation, embankment,
cutting or structure.
Excavation work shall be planned and managed in accordance with SMS-06-GD-0378 System
Guide - Excavation and Earthworks.
Environmental protection of the site shall be in accordance with the RailCorp Environmental
Management System.
Services that are located within the construction zone may require relocation so as not to adversely
affect the performance of the completed earthworks.
C7-2 Earthworks Plan

The earthworks plan shall address all requirements and constraints imposed by the Specifications,
the physical conditions at the site and the proposed work method and shall include details of:
− Excavation sequence and proposals for the management of all materials in the earthworks,
including the use of topsoil, procurement and control of imported materials, materials from
borrow sites, and spoil;
− Preliminary identification of zones of potentially unsuitable materials, and management of
disposal and replacement of unsuitable materials;
− Methods to be employed to ensure that materials of the specified or higher quality are
identified made available and incorporated into the work at the sites where the quality of the
material has been specified. The details include any sorting, isolating, processing, and
placement of the materials proposed for such use. Processing may include screening,
crushing, blending, and modification of the material;
− Sources of materials and testing proposed for Structural Treatment;
− Procedures proposed for procuring and managing materials from borrow sites where
applicable;
− Procedures proposed for the treatment of foundations;
− Procedures and mass haul diagram proposed for the management of excavation and the
placement of earth and rock fill embankments, and rock facing, to ensure that no deficiency of
earth fill occurs and conformity requirements are met.
− Methods to demonstrate that the specified compaction has been achieved over the full depth
and width of each layer and that specified layer thickness is not exceeded.
C7-3 Site Clearing

The whole area to be occupied by the completed works including ancillary earthworks for drains
and diversion levees is to be cleared and grubbed plus a clearance of 2m from tops of cuttings and
toes of embankments.
Clearing includes removal and disposal of all trees, stumps, logs, timber, scrub, vegetation, minor
structures, refuses and other material unsuitable for incorporation in the work.
Grubbing is to be carried out to the level of 0.5m below natural surface.
Holes left after grubbing under proposed embankments are to be filled with sound material and
compacted in layers as for embankments.

Earthworks TMC 411
Regarding fauna and flora of the site, approval shall be taken from the environmental division prior
to clearing and grubbing.
C7-3.1 Removal of Topsoil and Unsuitable Material
Most naturally occurring soils, with the exceptions specified in the following section, are capable of
being compacted to form a general fill. Similarly, weathered rock that can be ripped and broken
down by compaction, will be generally suitable for use as structural fill.
Topsoil shall be removed over the area which will be occupied by the completed works plus a
clearance of 2 metres. Topsoil suitable for vegetation propagation shall be placed in a stockpile
clear of the work to enable its re-use in landscaping and revegetation.
After stripping of top soil covering each embankment foundation or upon reaching the designed
floor of cuttings, earthworks processes are held to allow inspection of foundation. Where unsuitable
material for forming structural fill is found, such unsuitable material should be either removed to
spoil or used in non-critical areas as directed by the Geotechnical Engineer. The material that has
been removed in accordance with this Clause must either be replaced with suitable material or
treated as directed.
C7-3.2 Unsuitable Materials

Some materials are unsuitable for forming structural fill and foundation of railway formation and
should be either removed to spoil or used in non-critical areas. Unsuitable materials may include:
− Topsoil, organic soils, such as severely root-affected subsoils, peat, logs, stumps. Top soils
containing organic materials can be used for landscaping purposes, if necessary.
− Free draining material susceptible to scouring or piping such as very fine clean sand, wind
blown sand and non-cohesive silt.
− Organic silt and clay with CBR<1.
− Expansive or swelling soils which undergo large volume changes due to change in moisture
content. These materials either be removed to spoil or treated by additives as directed by the
Geotechnical Engineer.
− Dispersive soils, which are easily suspended in standing water or eroded by running water.
− Materials that contain substances which can be dissolved or leached in the presence of
moisture such as gypsum and sodium chloride.
− Contaminated materials containing toxic substances which may be harmful to environment,
water supply or agriculture.
− Collapsible soils in foundation are also considered as unsuitable material and shall either be
removed or treated as directed by the Geotechnical Engineer.
− Fill that contains wood, metal, plastic, boulder or other deleterious materials, in sufficient
proportions to affect the required performance of the fill.
− Saline, chemically aggressive or polluted soils, and carbonate soils where acid disposal may
occur.
Dispersive, expansive and soluble soils can be used only in accordance with guidelines provided
by the Geotechnical Engineer.
Where unsuitable material exists in excessive depths, the advice of the Geotechnical Engineer is
sought.
All materials unsuitable for incorporation in the work shall be disposed off-site, unless approved for
re-use on site e.g. as noise barriers.
C7-4 Spoil
Spoil is surplus material fro excavations which is not required to complete the Works as specified,
or materials from excavations whose quality deems to be unacceptable for incorporation in the
Works.

Earthworks TMC 411
Except for contaminated materials, spoil generated from the work must be disposed of in the
manner and at locations shown on the Drawings or specified by the site supervisor. Disposal of
non- contaminated material within the site may be by flattening of batter slopes of embankments,
uniform widening of embankments or stockpiling.
Embankment widening or batter flattening work is deemed to form part of the embankment
construction and must be carried out in accordance with C7-3. The spoil must be spread and
compacted as specified for materials in embankments. Effective drainage must be maintained for
the whole embankment.
If the proposed stockpile locations are outside the works site, all necessary written approvals,
including environmental approvals must be obtained. This may require segregation by material
type, classification and, where required, disposal at facilities appropriately licensed to receive the
particular materials.
Contaminated materials are considered as unsuitable material and must be stockpiled and/or
removed from the works site in accordance with Clause 7.3.2.
C7-5 Benching and Cuttings

After an area has been stripped as specified in C7.3.1, excavation shall be carried out first to any
general levels to which the ground has to be reduced and then for foundations, footings, etc., to the
depths indicated in the drawings or to such greater depths as may be required to reach a suitable
founding stratum.
Cut batters shall be benched as shown on Drawings to provide drainage and erosion control, to
provide geotechnical stability, and to allow access for maintenance purpose. The bench widths
shall not be less than shown on the Drawings. The floor of the bench must not vary from levels
shown on the Drawings by more than (+0mm/-100mm). The bench must have a crossfall to drain
water away from cut face immediately below the bench, and longitudinal drainage must be
provided and maintained. Bench drains shall be constructed progressively as each batter face is
complete.
C7-6 Borrow Material

Where there is a deficiency of good quality material to be incorporated in construction of the
formation, it shall be acquired from the closest available borrow area to the project site. The quality
of the borrow material shall satisfy all necessary technical requirements in accordance with SPC
411.
Before entering and excavating the borrow, all necessary permits shall be acquired and the
contractor shall comply with any requirements of the Environmental Planning Act, 1998, the Local
Government Planning Scheme, local laws, local planning policies and land owners, as appropriate.
C7-7 Excavation in Rock

Rock shall comprise material found in ledges or masses in its original position or artificial materials,
which would normally have to be loosened either by the use of blasting or approved pneumatic
tools for their removal. Rock boulders found in general excavation shall constitute as rock if such
boulders are of size exceeding one cubic meter. Rock shall not include material which can be
loosened with a dozer mounted drawn ripper.
C7-8 Blasting
For any blasting operation, all necessary licences from the appropriate authorities shall be obtained
and comply with all Government Regulations relating to transport, storage, handling and the use of
explosives.
The Vibration and Air Blast Management Plan must contain review and verification of the
requirements set by appropriate authorities to ensure that the public, building structures and
infrastructure are protected.

Earthworks TMC 411
All blasts shall be monitored for ground vibration and air blast to ensure that the blasting methods,
peak particle velocity and air blast do not cause damage to property as indicated in the following
table:
Point of Potential Damage (within 1 km from Blast Overpressure Peak Particle
the proposed blast site) Level [dB(linear)] Velocity
Completed and cured bridge structures or sub-

115 dB 10 mm/sec
structures (e,g. completed abutment)
Bridgeworks and structural retaining walls under
115 dB 10 mm/sec
construction
Residential premises, schools, hospitals and 115 dB 5 mm/sec
other buildings
(5% not to exceed 120 (not to exceed 10
dB) mm/sec)
Buildings or monument of historical significance 115 dB 2 mm/sec
It is vital to implement and maintain a community liaison program during blasting activities to keep
people in the vicinity of the work area informed of any activities. Level of vibration or air blast must
be addressed. All residents within a radius of 1 km from the site of the proposed blast shall be
advised before blasting operation commences. Written advice must include the likely times,
frequency, and duration of blasting and precautions being taken to ensure that damage to property
will not result.
When blasting operations are being carried out, precautions must be taken relating to the safety of
persons and animals and appropriate approval taken from the environmental division prior to the
operation.
Any road likely to be affected by the blast must be closed to traffic and the appropriate signs
erected.
C7-9 Pre-splitting and Line Drilling

Pre-splitting or line drilling must be used to ensure protection of batters prior to burden blasts. Prior
to commencing blasting, batters with gradients 1H: 1V or steeper must be pre-split or line drilled to
the design batter profile at sufficiently close centres to produce a uniform and neat batter surface
after excavation.
Where pre-splitting or line drilling is carried out, the centre to centre spacing of drill holes must not
exceed the following:
Cut Batter Treatment Hole Diameter Maximum Hole Spacing

(mm) (mm)
Pre-splitting 38-51 450
Line Drilling Up to 51 150
Line Drilling 51-76 250
For each blasting operation the following information should be recorded:
− Date, identification number and time of blast;

− Location, number and diameter of blast holes loaded;
− Depth of each drill hole loaded;
− Inclination of drill holes;
− Burden(s) and spacing(s);
− Types and amount of explosives used;

Earthworks TMC 411
− Maximum instantaneous charge;

− Initiation plan;
− Length and type of stemming in each blast hole;
− Ground vibration and noise levels at measuring locations.

Earthworks TMC 411
Chapter 8 Embankments
C8-1 Preparation of embankment base
Preparation includes clearing, grubbing, removal of topsoil and removal of unsuitable material and
subsequent restoration as described in C7-3.
It also includes cutting of terraces into slopes, scarifying and compaction of embankment base and
provision of drainage works as specified below.
Where embankments are to be constructed on a natural slope or on the slope of an existing

embankment steeper than 4 to 1 (horizontal to vertical), the existing slope is to be cut in horizontal
terraces at least 1.5m wide.
The terraces are to be cut progressively as the embankment is constructed (refer to Appendix 4).
Suitable material excavated in cutting the terraces may be incorporated in the embankment but
unsuitable material must be disposed off-site as described in C7.3.2.
In cases where collapsible soil is found as the subgrade, the material is considered unsuitable for
construction of embankment and shall be removed or treated by ponding following heavy
compaction.
Soluble soils or rocks (such as gypsum and salt rock) are not permitted to be present in the
subgrade of the embankment and shall either be removed or treated to eliminate any potential of
leaching in the future. Any remedial measure in this regard should be approved by the
Geotechnical Engineer
The area of the base of the embankment shall be scarified to a depth of 100mm, parallel to the
embankment axis.
A layer of general fill 100mm thick shall be spread over the scarified area, and the whole area shall
be compacted to Compaction B standard as detailed in C6-2.
C8-2 Drainage blanket

Where specified or directed by the Geotechnical Engineer, a free draining filter layer consisting of
hard durable crushed rock, river gravel or slag which is called drainage blanket, shall be provided
under the embankment.
It will comprise a geotextile fabric (as specified in SPC 411 and approved by the Geotechnical
Engineer) laid along the base and around a layer of free draining filter material to a depth of
300mm, and spall protection provided at the outlet.
Manufacturer’s instructions concerning installation of the geofabric shall be followed.
The free draining filter material shall be crushed rock, river gravel or slag composed of sound, hard,
strong and durable particles, and complying with SPC 411. The filter material shall not contain clay
or silt fines more than 5%.
The material shall be placed and spread in such a way as to avoid segregation and to ensure that it
is not contaminated during construction with foreign materials.
The filter material shall be spread in uniform layers to give the specified compacted thickness in
such a manner as to avoid damage to the fabric.
Compaction is to be obtained using at least 8 passes of a vibratory roller of static drum load of 6
tonnes.
Bad ground, seepage or springs encountered during embankment preparation may require
additional special treatment (refer to Appendix 4). Obtain advice from the Geotechnical Engineer.

Earthworks TMC 411
C8-3 Embankment material

Embankment materials shall comply with Engineering Specification SPC 411 Earthworks Materials.
Embankments are earthfill or rockfill structures above an existing and/or excavated surface to
create the rail track formation.
The embankment shall consist of two zones of embankment material:

− General Fill
− Structural Zone.
General fill is the embankment below the structural zone.
The structural zone is the fill at the top of the embankment.
The thickness of the structural zone (H) is determined by the following relationship with the general
fill in the embankment:
− for general fill with CBR* of 3 to 8%, H = 500 mm
− for general fill with CBR* of 1 to 3%, H = 1000 mm.
* (Soaked California Bearing Ratio, Standard Compaction).
Material for use in the structural zone shall comply with SPC 411.
Unsuitable material as defined in C7-3.2 shall not be used as general fill.
Material not complying with the above requirements is only to be used with the approval of the
Geotechnical Engineer.
C8-4 Placing embankment material

The embankment must be constructed so as to derive its stability from compaction of the fine
materials around the coarse particles. Rock material must be broken down and evenly distributed
throughout the layer to prevent the formation of void and produce a dense, compact embankment.
To meet this requirement, additional fine material may need to be obtained from other places within
work area or by change in the method of winning and processing of the material.
Embankments shall be constructed in full width horizontal layers. Normally layers should not
exceed 200 mm thickness unless it can be shown that the specified compaction can be obtained
for a thicker layer. For this purpose, prior approval of the Geotechnical Engineer is necessary.
Layers or pockets of substantially varying material should be avoided. The maximum particle size
should be less than 2/3 of the compacted layer thickness.
Construction shall be carried out in such a manner as to ensure adequate drainage of the works,
and to avoid scour and erosion. The top of the earthworks is to be trimmed in accordance with the
requirements for preparation for capping.
C8-5 Compaction of embankment material

All layers of material placed in the works must be uniformly compacted over the full area and depth
of the layer to achieve the relative compaction specified before the next layer is commenced.
Each layer of material must be trimmed prior to and during compaction. Compaction must be
completed promptly to ensure moisture content remains conforming and uniform and to minimise
the possibility of rain damage.
Fill batter faces should be compacted as a separate operation or, alternatively, overfilled and cut
back. The trimmed and compacted batter face should have a roughed surface to reduce run-off
velocities and aid revegetation, if required.
Embankments shall be compacted to:

Earthworks TMC 411
General Fill: Compaction B

Structural Zone: Compaction A
The earthworks in embankments shall be placed and compacted to a level 30 millimetres above
the base of the capping layer.
Immediately prior to the placement of the capping, the fill shall be trimmed by grading to the final
profile and compacted by a minimum of three passes of a smooth steel drum roller which has a
static mass not less than 10 tonnes.
The finished, rolled surface shall be true to profile to a tolerance of +0 to -30 mm, and shall be free
of depression and ruts.
No traffic shall be allowed on the finished surface.
Field testing for Relative Compaction control shall be carried out in accordance with SPC 411 or
more frequently as determined by the Geotechnical Engineer or Site Supervisor.
C8-6 Field moisture control

At the time of compaction, the moisture content must be maintained within the specified range at all
locations within the lot. The moisture content must be adjusted within the range to enable the
specified compaction to be achieved. Monitoring and adjusting of moisture content must be
addressed in the Earthworks Plan.
Compaction shall be carried out at a moisture content, which will allow the specified compaction to
be achieved, normally within 2 per cent of optimum moisture content. If there is insufficient
moisture in the material for it to be compacted as specified, water must be added. The added water
must be applied uniformly and thoroughly mixed with the material until a homogeneous mixture is
obtained.
The material which is too wet must not be compacted until it has dried out so that the moisture
content is within the specified range. The drying process may be assisted by aeration or, where
approved by the Geotechnical Engineer, by use of hydrated or quick lime. Addition of lime should
be considered if rain occurs during a possession. Alternatively, the wet material may be removed to
a stockpile site for drying out and later use. Bond between layers is to be ensured, if necessary by
wetting or scarifying.
If rain is threatening or the site is to be left unattended, the upper surfaces of fills should be
crowned and, if possible, sealed with rubber-tyred or smooth-wheeled plant and graded to prevent
ponding.
In hot, dry seasons, and in rare cases where potentially expansive soils are to be utilized (with
approval of the Geotechnical Engineer), compaction moisture content shall be 2-3% above the
Optimum.
C8-7 Surface heaving

Surface heaving results from the compaction of materials approaching saturation and inhibits
further compaction. The development of surface heaving on fills may be avoided as follows:
− Ensuring that the moisture content of materials during placement avoids near saturation at the
specified density.
− Providing drainage on the surface of fills and preventing the ponding of water on fill layers.
− Selecting appropriate earthmoving and compaction equipment.
C8-8 Compaction equipments

Selection of the compaction equipment requires careful consideration of the job specification
requirements. The plant should be capable of compacting all of the fill area, including its edges and
junctions with the natural ground.

Earthworks TMC 411
The type of compaction equipments is dependent on the nature of the materials to be compacted.
The suitable equipments for various types of fill materials are summarized in the following table:
Equipment Most Suitable Soils
1 Smooth wheel rollers, static or Well-graded sand and gravel
vibrating mixtures, crushed rock
2 Rubber-tyred rollers Coarse-grained soils with
some fines
3 Grid rollers Weathered rock, well-graded
coarse soils
4 Sheepsfoot rollers:
Static Fine-grained soils with more
than 2% fines
As for static, sand-gravel
Vibrating
mixtures
5 Vibrating plate (light) Coarse grained soils with 4-
8% fines
6 Tampers, rollers All types
7 Impact rollers, impact compaction Wide range of soil types and
moisture regimes
C8-9 Sampling and testing

After compaction of each layer, sampling locations will be selected for moisture content and relative
density tests.
Sampling and testing must be carried out by an independent laboratory.
A smooth surface must be provided at each sampling location.
At each sample location selected, field density test and field moisture content test is carried out and
a sample is taken for laboratory maximum dry density test.
Field (in-situ) density and laboratory tests shall be carried out in accordance with relevant
Australian Standards. The test results must be representative of the tested layer at its full depth,
width and length. Sample forms for reporting the earthworks tests are given in Appendices 5 and 6.
The relative compaction value and the characteristic relative compaction must be rounded off to the
nearest 0.1%. Frequency of the testing shall be in accordance with the provisions as recommended
in SPC 411.
C8-10 Test rolling

Areas upon which structural fills are to be constructed, all layers of structural fill, and materials
within 150 mm of permanent subgrade level in cuttings should be compacted so as to be capable
of withstanding test rolling without visible deformation or springing.
Suitable plant for test rolling procedures may consist of the following:
− Static smooth steel wheeled rollers with a mass of not less than 12 t and a load intensity under
either the front or rear wheels of not less than 6 t/m width of wheel.
− Pneumatic tyred plant with a mass of not less than 20 t and a ground contact pressure under
either the front or rear wheels of not less than 450 kPa per tyre. The area over which this
ground contact pressure is applied should be not less than 0.035 m2 per tyre.
− Highway truck with rear axle or axles loaded to not less than 8 t each with tyres inflated to 550
kPa.

Earthworks TMC 411
Fill layers should be test-rolled immediately following completion of compaction. If further test-
rolling is required at some later date, the surface should be moisture-conditioned, as required, and
given not less than four coverage of the testing roller before test rolling resumes.
Any areas where visible deformation or springing is detected by test-rolling should be rectified and
represented for test-rolling, or the opinion of the designer should be sought.
Where unstable areas exceed 20% of the area being considered by test-rolling, the whole of the
area should be ripped, re-compacted and re-presented for test rolling.
An alternative method for test-rolling is to use an impact roller or impact compaction, a non-circular
towed or self-propelled module that imparts a high energy dynamic force. Impact rollers can be
utilized to identify weak zones or soft spots, but will tend to loosen the surface layer.
C8-11 Embankment profile

Embankment batter slopes up to a height of 3 meters, shall be 2:1 (horizontal: vertical). For higher
embankments, the batter slopes shall be determined by stability analysis taking into account of
materials properties, height, foundation conditions, static and dynamic loading, and potential
seepage forces. Advice shall be sought from the Geotechnical Engineer if there is any doubt
concerning the embankment stability.
The completed batter must be free of rills running down the face of batter. Any loose material on
the batter shall be promptly removed as the work progresses.
Fill batter faces should be compacted as a separate operation, or alternatively, overfilled and cut
back.
If water storage next to the embankment is expected, stability analysis for steady seepage and
sudden draw down cases should be considered and risk of overtopping assessed.
Any compacted layer which has deteriorated after an interruption in the earthmoving operation,
should be rectified before further material is placed over it.
C8-12 Rock Facing of Embankments

Where shown on the Drawings, embankment batters (including embankments at bridge structures)
must be provided with a facing of clean, hard, durable rock (rip-rap) separated from the earth fill
embankment with a graded filter or geotextile sheet in accordance with specifications given in SPC
411. Rock facing must be placed outside of the general embankment dimensions.
Rock used for rock facing must have a Point Load Strength Index (Is) greater than 1 MPa and
Wet/Dry strength variation not more than 35% and a minimum dimension of 500 mm.
The rock facing must be built up in layers ahead of each layer of filling. Rock must be place in such
a manner that its least dimension is vertical such that mechanical interlock between larger stones
occurs. Any rock deposited in the rock facing which has an excess of fine material surrounding it
must be removed together with the excess fine material and replaced. The space between larger
batter rocks and adjacent fill material must be filled with progressively smaller rocks to form a
graded filter which prevents the migration of fines out of the fill material , but which does not overfill
the voids between larger rocks, or cause the larger rocks to lose contact with one another.
Where adjacent geology and the terrain are likely to produce moisture flow through the
embankment, a drainage blanket with properties specified by SPC 411 of minimum 300 mm
thickness must be provided at the base of the fill.
Where wave action or inundation may occur, a geotextile in accordance to SPC 411 must be
placed between the rock facing and the graded filter. In this case the earth fill and filter are placed
ahead of the rock facing.
Extreme caution must be exercised whilst placing rock facing. The outer rock layer must be placed
in such a manner as to prevent spillage down the batter. Under no circumstances the rocks should
be allowed to be dislodged and rolled onto any adjacent track or roadway in use.

Earthworks TMC 411
C8-13 Hillside Embankments

Where embankments are to be constructed on or against any natural slopes or the batters of
existing embankments, if the existing batter is steeper than 4 horizontal to 1 vertical in any
direction, it shall be cut in the form of horizontal terraces over the whole area to be covered by new
filling. The existing slope or batter shall be stepped in successive terraces, each at least 1 meter in
width, the terraces to be cut progressively as the embankment is placed. Wherever possible,
terraces shall coincide with natural discontinuities. Subsoil drainage may be required in some
instances.
C8-14 Drainage and Erosion Control

During the construction period, measures should be taken to prevent excessive water-logging of
surface materials yet to be excavated or compacted or both, and to prevent fill material from being
eroded and redeposited at lower levels. Such measures should include:
− The surfaces of fills and cuts should be graded to prevent ponding.

− Temporary drains should be constructed at the toe of steep slopes to intercept surface run-off
and to lead drainage away to a suitable watercourse or pipe storm-water system.
− Surface water should be prevented from discharging over batter faces by drains formed to
intercept surface run-off and discharge via stable channels or pipes, preferably into stable
watercourses or piped storm-water systems.
− The upper surface of fills should be compacted with rubber tyres or smooth wheeled plant
when rain is impending, or when the site is to be left unattended.
− The completed battered surfaces of fills should be compacted with sheepsfoot or similar non-
smooth compaction plant to reduce runoff velocities.
− Silt traps and retention ponds should be constructed where they are feasible and necessary.
These should be cleaned out, as required to ensure that adequate silt storage is maintained.
− Temporary barriers or fences choked with brush, sacking or the like, should be used to reduce
flow velocities and to trap silt.
− Section of natural ground should be left unstripped to act as grass (or other vegetation) filters
for run-off from adjacent areas.
− All earthwork areas should be re-topsoiled and grassed or hydro-seeded as soon as possible
after completion of the earthworks and drainage works.

Earthworks TMC 411
Chapter 9 Cuttings
C9-1 General
Construction of cuttings shall provide for excavation of material within the limits of the batters
including benching and terracing of cut batters; cleaning of batter surfaces; treatment of cutting
floors; and foundation treatment below the embankment. Cuttings in both soil and rock should
provide a stable, safe foundation for the structure.
Benching in cuttings will be provided in both soil and rock as necessary.
C9-2 Excavation
Excavation shall be carried out to the lines, levels, dimensions and slopes shown on the Drawings.
The excavated faces shall be neatly trimmed and the top edges of the cuttings neatly rounded.
Under cutting of the slopes shall not be permitted under any circumstances.
Excavation shall be carried out in such a manner as to prevent erosion or slip; working faces shall
be limited to safe height and slopes, and surfaces shall be drained to avoid ponding and erosion.
Batters will generally require fattening at the ends of cuttings owing to the presence of less stable
material. In all cuttings, undulations in the general plane of the batter shall not be permitted.
Overhanging and loose or unstable materials likely to slip shall be cut back, removed or stabilised.
Rock cuttings and exposed surfaces shall be excavated so as to obtain smooth, uniformly trimmed
surface.
Excavation at the base of cutting shall be finished at a level to suit the capping thickness, with
cross falls and cess drains provided.
Prior to placing formation materials and carrying any designed foundation treatment, the cutting
floor shall be tested and inspected by the Geotechnical Engineer.
C9-3 Batter Slopes

Batter slopes in soil and rock cuttings in excess of 3 m high and closer than 6 m from the track
centreline, shall be determined on the advice of the Geotechnical Engineer.
Unless shown otherwise on the Drawings or as advised above, cutting slopes should be in
accordance with the following guidelines:
Material Slope
Horizontal Vertical
1 Sand 2.5 1.0
2 Clay, loose gravel 2.0 1.0
3 Sandy clay, boulder clay, compacted
1.75 1.0
gravely soil, talus
4 Highly jointed, weathered rock 1.5 1.0
5* Sound shale dipping sharply towards
1.0 1.0
railway formation, tight cemented gravel
6* Ordinary rock 1.0 1.0
7* Solid well bedded rock 0.25 1.0
* Maximum height without bench – 7 m.
* Batter slopes in rocks shall be confirmed by the Geotechnical Engineer.

Earthworks TMC 411
Slopes shown on the Drawings represent the estimated requirements for the expected types of
material and will be subject to re-determination on the basis of site inspection and investigation
during excavation. Where necessary, advice shall be obtained from the Geotechnical Engineer.
Batters in cuttings shall be carried around curves in an even and regular manner. Finished batters
shall not have a slope steeper than that specified.
If the batter is over-excavated beyond the tolerance applicable for the batter slope line, or after
cleaning the batter is beyond the tolerance applicable, the batter must be restored to specified
slopes and stability to the satisfaction of the Geotechnical Engineer. Proposals for restoration must
take into account long-term stability, durability, and consideration of urban design solutions.
The tolerances for the excavation of batters shall comply with the figures provided in the following
table:
Location Tolerance (mm)

Slope 1H:1V or flatter Steeper than 1H:1V
Batters at toe of batter +0 +0
- 150 - 200
2m above toe of batter and + 300 + 300
higher
-3 00 - 600
Between level of toe of Pro rata basis Pro rata basis
batter and 2m above toe of
batter
Note: Plus (+) is towards the track and minus (-) is away from the track. Tolerances are measured
perpendicular to the plane of the slope
Undulations in the general plane of the batter will not be permitted. The completed batter must be
free of rills running down the face of the batter.
C9-4 Benching
Cut batters shall be benched as shown on Drawings to provide drainage and erosion control.
Benches shall be maintained and cleaned of loose earth, stones, and boulders throughout the
works.
C9-5 Treatment of Cuttings Floors

The floors of cuttings shall be excavated parallel to the designed grade line to a designed floor
level which shall be at the underside of the general or structural fill. The floors shall then be
trimmed to a level of not more than 50 mm above or below the design floor level. If the underlying
material (subgrade) is considered as unsuitable, its removal should be considered as specified in
Clause C4.3.2.
All material on the cutting floor shall be ripped or loosened to a depth of 200 mm below the
designed floor level for the width of overlying general or structural fill. The maximum dimension of
any particles in the ripped or loosened zone shall not exceed 150 mm.
C9-6 Compaction
Compaction of the top 150mm layer in the base of cuttings or of material required to fill over-
excavation shall be 95 per cent maximum modified dry density as determined by AS 1289 Test
5.2.1 or shall be solid rock.
The compacted material shall have a soaked CBR of at least 8%. If the measured CBR is less than
8%, reinforcement of the cutting base by geofabrics may be considered.

Earthworks TMC 411
C9-7 Cut to Fill Transition

After removal of top soil and before the excavation of any cutting commences, the position of the
intersection line between cutting and embankment occurring at the underside of the fill should be
marked.
Following excavation to the cutting floor, a terrace shall be excavated for the width of the
embankment to a depth of 600 mm below and parallel to the cutting floor as shown in the following
figure:

Earthworks TMC 411
Chapter 10 Capping Layer

C10-1 General Requirements
Capping is a compacted layer from selected materials that provides seal to the earthwork
underneath. The capping layer shall be constructed in a single layer having a compacted thickness
of minimum 150 millimetres.
Capping material shall comply with Engineering Specification SPC 411 Earthworks Materials.
Material proposed for capping shall be a well-graded natural or artificially blended sandy-gravely
soil. It shall have sufficient fines to provide a sealing layer and to permit it to be compacted to high
densities by static or vibratory steel - tyred rollers or by ballasted pneumatic - tyred rollers.
Materials such as natural ridge gravel free from vegetable matter, ripped sandstones with low clay
content and crushed and blend tough, durable rock or slag, have been found to meet material
properties of this specification.
C10-2 Sampling and testing

Samples of material proposed for use shall be tested and results considered in final selection of the
material. Samples of capping material for laboratory testing shall be taken and handled fully in
accordance with AS.1726, and AS.1141.
The material shall be tested in accordance with AS.1289.
C10-3 Preparation of Capping

Capping is to be laid on subgrade with a minimum CBR of 8%.
The earthworks in embankments shall be placed and compacted to a level 30 millimetres above
the base of the capping layer. Immediately prior to the placement of the capping, the fill shall be
trimmed by grading to the final profile and compacted by a minimum of three passes of a smooth
steel drum roller, which has a static mass not less than 10 tonnes.
The finished, rolled surface shall be true to profile to a tolerance of +0 to -40mm, and shall be free
of depressions and ruts. No traffic other than that required to place the capping shall be allowed on
the finished surface.
The capping material shall be transported from the source to the work in vehicles which are so
constructed that loss of material does not occur. The material shall be suitably damp to prevent
segregation during transit.
C10-4 Spreading, Placing, Compaction and Trimming of Capping

The capping layer shall be constructed to a total compacted thickness of 150 millimetres. The
material shall be spread in uniform horizontal layers. Spreading shall be undertaken by a full width
of the capping layer and by a method which will ensure segregation does not occur, and so as not
to rut or disturb the compacted layer.
Where required for compaction purposes, water shall be added as necessary to achieve optimum
moisture content and mixed uniformly with the capping material by approved mechanical means.
Compaction shall achieve a minimum dry density of 95 per cent Maximum Dry Density as
determined by AS 1289, Test 5.2.1.
The capping material shall be well mixed throughout the layer so that all voids are filled. The top of
the final layer shall be graded and trimmed, and material shall be added as necessary to produce
an even sealing layer.

Earthworks TMC 411
Chapter 11 Widening of Existing Embankments

C11-1 General
Embankments are widened:
− To dispose of spoil from other works

− To provide access to the track side
− To provide width for structures such as electrification masts
− To provide for additional tracks
− To rectify unstable or over-steep embankments.
Although embankments are often widened as a spoil disposal measure, the widened section
becomes part of the embankment structure. Hence it is necessary for the work to be done in
accordance with proper earthworks practice.
Sites for embankment widening are to be approved by the Civil Maintenance Engineer. All work is
to be in accordance with this Manual.
C11-2 Preparation
C11-2.1 Survey
The embankment widening shall be properly set out using batter pegs for toe of embankment and
necessary survey for drainage structures.
C11-2.2 Foundation Preparation

Unsuitable materials, including vegetable matter, organic clay and silt, ash and material which are
unstable in dry or wet conditions, are to be moved from the base of the embankment widening and
the side of existing embankments.
The embankment base is to be prepared in accordance with C8-1.
C11-2.3 Drainage Structures

Existing culverts and particularly suburban drains are to be located, extended and cleared by
hydro-blasting or similar measures to ensure satisfactory flow of watercourses.
Care is to be taken to ensure that moisture is not trapped between the existing and the widened
embankment, and water does not pond against the toe of the embankment.
See other standards for details of culvert construction.
C11-2.4 Drainage Blanket

A drainage blanket is to be laid at the base of the embankment in accordance with C8-2.
The procedure is:
− Excavate into the embankment toe to give a 1m scarp.

− Spread and compact layer of coarse rock 300mm thick. Scour protection shall be provided by
placing large boulders on the outer edge of the drainage layer.
− Place geotextile over the drainage layer.
− Cover the geotextile with a layer of fill material 500 mm thick compacted to Compaction B
standard as detailed in C6-2. The geotextile shall be selected based on the guidelines given in
SPC 411.
C11-3 Embankment Construction

The embankment shall be constructed by a benching procedure as specified in C7-5, as follows:

Earthworks TMC 411
− Excavate into the embankment to give a 1 metre scarp;

− Dispose of vegetation and other unsuitable material;
− The exposed material is to be identified as either:
∼ Non-porous such as clay;
∼ free draining such as sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders;
∼ seepage zones;
− If free draining or seeping water, the bench must be connected to the lower drainage blanket,
or an additional drainage layer may be constructed using coarse aggregate 300 mm thick, as
in C8-2;
− Place compacted fill until a compacted thickness of 0.5 m is achieved;
− Repeat the above steps until the top of required embankment widening is achieved.
A capping layer of suitable material is to be provided at the top of the widened embankment,
constructed in accordance with Chapter 10.
The capping layer is to be at a level below the track capping level or track formation level, with a
crossfall of 1 in 30 away from the track.
C11-4 Drainage and Erosion Control

A windrow is to be provided on the embankment shoulder in sandy soils and the shoulders graded
to drain to controlled drains down the embankment.
Cess drains, catch drains and mitre drains are to be provided in accordance with other standards.
Drains down the embankment are to be protected from erosion.
Appropriate erosion control is to be carried out including topsoiling, mulching and revegetation of
embankment slope with grass and native plants.

Earthworks TMC 411
Chapter 12 Earthworks near Structures

C12-1 General
For the purpose of this Clause, structures include bridge piers and abutments, wing walls, box
culverts, pipe culverts, headwalls, tunnels, retaining walls, platform walls, overhead wiring
structures, signal gantries and towers.
C12-2 Construction
Care shall be exercised in constructing earthworks within 5 metres of structures to avoid damage to
the structures.
Non-vibratory compaction equipment shall be used within this distance and adjacent to the
structure as defined in the following table:
Structure Compaction Method

Bridge abutment and wing Hand held compaction equipment for full structure height for a
walls distance of 2/3 H from wall (H = overall height of structure)
Pipe Culverts Hand held compaction equipment for distance D from pipe to
top of pipe (D= diameter of pipe)
Box culverts & culvert wing Hand held compaction equipment for full structure height for a
walls & retaining wall distance 2/3 H from wall (H = overall height)
Compaction of earthworks near structures
Selected backfill shall be placed adjacent to structures in accordance to the following table. The
selected backfill shall consist of a granular material having a maximum dimension not exceeding 50
mm and a plasticity index, determined in accordance with AS 1289.3.3.1, neither less than 2 nor
more than 12. In the table, H = overall height of the structure.
Selected Backfill
Structure Type
Width Height
Bridge Abutments 2m H
Box Culverts, Precast Culverts H/3 H + 300 mm
Corrugated Steel Pipes and Arches 0.5 m H + 500 mm
Retaining Walls H/3 H
Select fill adjacent to structures
The fill shall be placed in horizontal layers with a compacted thickness between 100 mm and 150
mm.
Layers shall be placed simultaneously on both sides of box culverts to avoid differential loading.
Compaction shall start at the wall and proceed away from it.
The existing slope behind the structures shall be cut in the form of successive horizontal terraces,
each terrace being at least 1 meter in width and 600 mm in height.
In case of spill-through abutments, rocks shall not be dumped against the columns or retaining
walls but shall be built up evenly by hand placing around or against such structures.
In the case of framed structures, embankments at both ends of the structure shall be brought up
simultaneously and the difference between the levels of the embankments at the respective
abutments shall not exceed 500 mm unless otherwise specified in the Drawings or within the
specifications.

Earthworks TMC 411
Adjacent to weep holes, free draining filter material encapsulated in a suitable geotextile fabric
should be placed, horizontally for at least 300 mm from, and vertically for 450 mm above the weep
- hole. Free draining material must be provided by broken stone or river gravel consisting of clean,
hard, durable particles graded from 50 mm to 10 mm such that:
− the maximum particle dimension does not exceed 50 mm; and

− no more than 5% by mass passes the 9.5 mm AS sieve.
C12-3 Excavation
Care should also be exercised when excavating within 5 metres of structures (for example near
overhead wiring structures when benching into slopes for embankment widening or when
excavating for track reconditioning).
When excavating adjacent to structures, there is a risk that the footings may be undermined or the
structure destabilized, resulting in structural failure and potential collapse.
Excavations in the vicinity of structure footings are therefore not permitted unless documented
engineering advice and approval are obtained.
No excavation should be made within this 5m distance without prior analysis of structure stability
with respect to the effects of the excavation.
No excavation shall be made below the base of the footings of any structure (for example bridges,
retaining walls and station platform walls) without prior analysis of structure stability with respect to
the effects of the excavation.
The approval will be in the form of a certification by a competent geotechnical/structural engineer

with relevant engineering authority, based on the results of an appropriate geotechnical and/or
structural investigation.

Earthworks TMC 411
Chapter 13 Earthworks - Geotechnical Problems

C13-1 General
Geotechnical problems require expert attention to determine the nature of the problem and the
remedy required.
Maintenance staff should be aware of the warning signs that could point to potential geotechnical
problems so that investigation of the problem can be undertaken by the Geotechnical Services
Section. For this purpose, a regular inspection of the tracks with due attention to the stability of the
surrounding slopes and buildings is required.
The supporting track structure should be inspected during track patrols and detailed walking
inspections.
Some warning signs to look for are detailed below.
C13-2 Embankment problems

Railway embankments may face several problems. The followings are the most important problems
to be noticed:
C13-2.1 Slope Failure

Slope of the embankment may fail due to steep batter slope, excessive loading, weak subgrade,
and heavy rainfall. Special care should be taken in selection of the batter slope in the design stage.
Design of batter slope should be carried out considering all relevant factors including embankment
height, quality of the subgrade and embankment material, external static and dynamic loads. A well
drainage system would enhance stability of the slopes.
C13-2.2 Embankment Cracking

Railway embankments may suffer two types of cracks as detailed below:
C13-2.2.1 Horizontal Cracks

Horizontal cracks along the shoulder of the embankment could indicate lateral movement of the
embankment due to low compaction of the material near the edge of shoulder, sliding of the slope
and possible shear failure and swelling/shrinkage of the material.
C13-2.2.2 Transverse Cracks

Transverse cracks may occur due to differential settlement in the foundation material, over under-
drainage, at the bridge abutments, change in substrata and fill depth.
C13-2.3 Bulge in the Slope or Toe

Bulges in the slope or at the toe could indicate heaving of the material during failure. Any bulge in
an embankment should be reported and checked for its cause.
C13-2.4 Seepage from Toe

Seepage could indicate that the embankment is saturated or the base is being weakened and a
flow movement or shear failure could result.
C13-2.5 Piping and Erosion

Surface erosion and piping (internal erosion) may caused by problematic soils such as dispersive
clay, non-cohesive coarse silt and clean-fine sand. Enlarging erosion gullies and sink holes are
indicators of external or internal erosion which may cause failure of the embankment. Any type of
erosion and/or sink hole on the embankment should be assessed for the cause and remedial
measures are to be taken accordingly.

Earthworks TMC 411
C13-2.6 Slacks in the Track

Slacks or holes in the track could indicate embankment problems, especially if associated with
horizontal cracks or bulges.
C13-2.7 Culverts or Pipes, Cracked or Broken

This could indicate movement within the embankment and should be reported and monitored.
C13-2.8 Local High Ballast

Ballast that is of a far greater depth than the surrounding track could indicate an old depression
suggesting areas of previous problems or failure.
Other warning signs could include:
− Leaning poles of structures

− Water ponding at the toe
− Loss of shoulder ballast.
C13-2.9 Settlement
Railway track embankment may experience two types of settlements:
− Excessive uniform settlement due to compressible, soft subgrade;

− Differential settlement due to presence of non-uniform soft, compressible subsoil.
Both types of settlements may cause damage to the railway due to loss of support of the track/s.
Excessive loading of high embankments and lowering of the ground water table may be the causes
of the settlements.
Subsoils made of loose, fine grained sand under groundwater table may suffer excessive
settlement due to liquefaction caused by high dynamic loadings such as earthquakes.
C13-3 Problems in Cuttings

Railway cuttings may face several problems. The followings are the most important problems to be
noticed:
C13-3.1 Rock Falls

The most important common problem in railway cuttings is the danger of rock falls and thus close
attention must be paid to cutting faces during inspections. The following signs may be an indication
of rock fall:
C13-3.1.1 Small Rock Falls

These could indicate that larger rocks may be in danger of falling.
C13-3.1.2 Cracks in Rock Face

Cracks should be checked as large rocks may become loose and fall. This could be quite
dangerous if the cracks isolate a section or block of rock, especially if this isolated block is
undercut.
C13-3.1.3 Seepage in Cutting Face

Seepage could apply extra force to the rock surface, undermine the rock or create a slippery
surface causing rocks to become dislodged. The seepage force on soil or weathered rock may
cause slip or erosion.
C13-3.1.4 Undermined Rocks

Undermined rocks should be investigated to find the causes and to determine the danger of them
falling.

Earthworks TMC 411
C13-3.1.5 Trees Growing from Cracks

Trees growing from cracks in rock cuttings should be removed as the root action will dislodge
rocks. Trees should be cut and the stumps poisoned within 5 seconds of cutting to ensure they are
killed.
C13-3.1.6 Thick Vegetation

While thick vegetation on earth cuttings and embankments may assist in holding them stable and
should not be removed, in rock cuttings it may indicate an area of soft moist earth that may be
undermined or cause large rocks to slip.
If any of these conditions are noticed by track maintenance staff, they should immediately be
reported to their controlling officer who will arrange for the Geotechnical Services Section to
investigate.
C13-3.2 Failure of Cutting Face

The face of cutting may be destabilised and fail due to steep slope, orientation of bedding, high
external loading, excessive surface run-off and seepage force. Cutting face should have a safe
slope depending on the type of material, height, expected external load and drainage conditions.
Providing appropriate benching and interceptor drains would enhance the stability of cut slopes.
C13-3.3 Weathering and Excessive Erosion of Cutting Face

Cutting face is always subjected to continuous weathering and erosion which may cause the
instability. Weak geological formations such shale, mudstone, claystone and erodible alluvium and
residual soils are mostly susceptible to weathering, and excessive erosion. Such material should
be protected by protective covers such as shotcrete or fibercrete.
C13-3.4 Stability of the Structures on the Top of Cuttings

Any structure such boundary fence; retaining wall or other buildings, built on the top of the cuttings
should be checked for stability as they apply external load to the slope. Besides, excessive
weathering and erosion may undermine the foundation of such structures and cause their failure. A
regular check in this regard is vital.

Earthworks TMC 411
Appendix 1 Single Track Cross Section

CL
Shoulder Distance Shoulder Distance
Rail Level
1.5 :1 1.5 :1
1000 min. Ballast Formation Level
1 in 30 1 in 30 Earthwork Level
1 in 10
Capping Layer
Batter Slope
Natural
Surface
EMBANKMENT
Where space permits,
increase this distance to
allow for mechanized
maintenance equipment.
1000 min
CL
Batter Slope
Batter Slope
Top Drain
1.5 :1 1.5 :1
1 in 30 Ballast 1 in 30
Additional area to be used for

Capping Layer drainage where grade in cutting
Cess Drain is less than 1 in 200 or where
ROCK
EARTH additional drainage is required.
CUTTING
CL
1250
50 min.
Rail Level
1.5 :1 1 in 30
1.5 :1
1 in 30 Formation Level
Earthwork Level
1 in 30 1 in 30
Capping Layer
Typical section where shunters’ and Typical section where examinations

guards’ walkways are required. areas are specified.
SPECIAL WIDTH REQUIREMENTS

Earthworks TMC 411
Appendix 2 Double Track Cross Section

Shoulder Distance Track Centres Shoulder Distance
1000 min. Rail Level

1.5 :1 1.5 :1
Ballast Formation
1 in 30 1 in 30
1 in 10 Earthwork Level
Natural Surface Capping Batter Slope
EMBANKMENT Where space permits,

increase this distance to
allow for mechanized
maintenance equipment.
1000 min.
Batter Slope
Batter Slope
1.5 :1 1.5 :1
1 in 30 Ballast 1 in 30 Top Drain
EARTH
ROCK Capping Layer Additional area to be used for
drainage where grade in cutting is
Cess Drain less than 1 in 200 or where
CUTTING additional drainage is required.
3 :1 3 :1
1.5 :1 1.5 :1
Ballast
1 in 30 1 in 30 1 in 30
1 in 30
Capping Subsurface Drain
Surface Drain
CENTRE DRAIN
Shoulder Distance
50 min.
1.5 :1
1 in 30 Ballast
1 in 30
Capping
Typical section where shunters’ and

guards’ walkways are required.
SPECIAL WIDTH REQUIREMENTS

Earthworks TMC 411
Appendix 3 Shoulder Distance

Shoulder width
Plain track mm
Main line (Electrified or non-electrified) 4250
Siding (Electrified) 4250
Siding (Non-electrified) 3000
Main line or siding with parallel access road (Electrified) 6200
Main line or siding with parallel access road (Non-electrified) 5500
Special Requirements
Shunters and guards parallel walkways 4250
Train Examination areas 5500
Train Examination areas with parallel access road 7750
Clear width of road from back of any structure 3000

Earthworks TMC 411
Appendix 4 Earthworks Construction Drawing

TERRACE
EXISTING SLOPE
PROPOSED NEW
SLOPE
AC OR CONCRETE
PIPE 150 DIAM MIN 800 mm POROUS
MATERIAL
300 mm
EMBANKMENT CONSTRUCTION IN LAYERS REMOVAL OF SOIL
FREE DRAINING FILTER

MATERIAL WRAPPED IN
GEOTEXTILE MIN
LENGTH 2000 mm
BENCHING (SEE BELOW)
EMBANKMENT CONSTRUCTION & BENCHING PROCEDURES TREATMENT OF LOCALISED

SEEPAGE OR POROUS ZONES
PROPOSED NEW PERMEABLE

SLOPE GEOTEXTILE
EXISTING
SLOPE
EXCAVATION TO PRODUCE
IMPERMEABLE 1.0 m SCARP MAXIMUM.
FILL 0.5 M AT A TIME EXISTING SLOPE
GEOTEXTILE
SEE DETAIL A
COMPACTED IN 200 mm LAYERS
SPALLING PROTECTION
100 mm TO 150 mm DRAINAGE BLANKET
ROCK AT ZONES OF PERMEABILITY 1.0 m
FREE DRAINING 500 mm 1.0M

FILTER MATERIAL
300 mm
AREA TO BE STRIPPED GEOTEXTILE

SCARIFIED AND COMPACTED
DETAIL A
TYPICAL BENCHING PROCEDURE
EARTHWORKS CONSTRUCTION

Earthworks TMC 411
APPENDIX 5 Daily Earthworks Report

DAILY EARTHWORKS REPORT

Sheet No.:
Date:
Job No.:
Project:
Constructor:
Superintendent:
Inspection and testing by:
Earthworks in current progress:
Materials testing: Refer to material type, source, purpose of testing, sampling methods and
locations, test types, sample reference numbers, results obtained, and to whom distributed
Field density testing: Refer to types of test, section of work to which tests apply, test locations
and levels, test reference numbers, results obtained, and to whom distributed.
Laboratory compaction testing: Refer to test methods, location of sampling, sample reference
number, results obtained, and to whom distributed.
Works meeting geotechnical requirements: Refer to work type (e.g. stripping, subgrade
compaction), basis of assessment (e.g., inspection, test reference numbers, and the like), extent of
works apparently complying and requirements met*.

Earthworks TMC 411
DAILY EARTHWORKS REPORT

Works failing to meet geotechnical requirements: Refer to work type (e.g., stripping, subgrade
compaction), basis of assessment (e.g., inspection, test reference numbers, and the like), extent of
work apparently failing to comply, requirements not met, and action taken (instructions issued,
retests ordered, and the like)*
Remarks: Include observations on works, site conditions, meetings or conversations on site, and
the like.
Signed: Position: Date:

Earthworks TMC 411
APPENDIX 6 Earthworks Summary Report

EARTHWORKS SUMMARY REPORT

Sheet No.:
Date:
Job No.:
Project:
Constructor:
Superintendent:
Broad description of earthworks undertaken, extent of fill, etc.:
Observations on stripping and site preparation:
Observations of fill materials:
Summary of testing: Refer to attached result certificates, location plans, etc.:
Location Estimated Number of tests

onsite and Volume m3
Material quality Field density
type of Compaction
earthworks Total Failed Total Failed
Action taken where non-compliance occurred:
Remarks:
Signed:


TMC 411

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

TMC 411

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Technical Note - TN 060: 2015

For queries regarding this document

Technical Note - TN 060: 2015

Effective date: 06 October 2015

Subject: Withdrawal of TMC 411 Earthworks

Name Sarath Fernando Richard Hitch John Paff Graham Bradshaw

© State of NSW through Transport for NSW Page 1 of 1

For queries regarding this document

Technical Note - TN 033: 2015

Effective date: 11 June 2015

Subject: Update to RailCorp engineering standards

Table 1 – RailCorp engineering standards

Reference No Title Version Issue date

Table 2 – Interpretation guides

Reference no Title Version Issue date

© State of NSW through Transport for NSW Page 1 of 4

1. Embankment/cut slope instability due to toe

If excavation is unavoidable, advice shall be sought from the geotechnical engineer.

© State of NSW through Transport for NSW Page 2 of 4

Figure 1 - Vertical toe cut leading to slip failure

Figure 2 - Vertical toe cut leading to slip failure

© State of NSW through Transport for NSW Page 3 of 4

Name Sarath Fernando Richard Hitch John Paff Graham Bradshaw

© State of NSW through Transport for NSW Page 4 of 4

Issued July 2010

Owner: Principal Engineer Geotechnical

Approved by: John Stapleton Authorised by: Jee Choudhury

UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED Page 1 of 47

Summary of changes from previous version

© Rail Corporation Page 2 of 47

© Rail Corporation Page 3 of 47

C7-5 Benching and Cuttings.............................................................................................................. 21

© Rail Corporation Page 4 of 47

APPENDIX 6 Earthworks Summary Report ................................................................................................ 47

© Rail Corporation Page 5 of 47

It is applicable to all RailCorp mainline and siding tracks.

C1-2 How to read the Manual

Reference is however made to other Manuals.

C1-4 Definitions, abbreviations and acronyms

© Rail Corporation Page 6 of 47

Geosynthetics: Prefabricated sheet made of polymeric materials which may be permeable

© Rail Corporation Page 7 of 47

© Rail Corporation Page 8 of 47

Chapter 2 Management Requirements

© Rail Corporation Page 9 of 47

© Rail Corporation Page 10 of 47

Chapter 4 Assessment, Planning and Documentation

C4-1 Adjoining Property

C4-2 Preservation Items

C4-5 Erosion and Siltation

C4-6 Sloping Ground

© Rail Corporation Page 11 of 47

C4-7 Slope Stability

C4-8 Soft or Compressible Foundation Soils

To avoid excessive displacement of soft/compressible soils during construction, movement of

C4-9 Reactive Soils

C4-10 Low Density or Potentially Collapsing Soils

C4-11 Existing Filled Ground

C4-12 Site Investigations

C4-13 Non-potable Water

− areas where vegetation may be established; and

© Rail Corporation Page 12 of 47

C4-15 Compaction Moisture Content