1

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE, YOUTH AND SPORTS OF UKRAINE

IVAN FRANKO NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF LVIV

Institute of Advanced Studies and Retraining

Faculty of Humanities and Sciences

COMPLEX SENTENCE IN MODERN ENGLISH

The Diploma Paper

submitted by
N.Zubal

Supervised by
Assistant Professor of the
Department of English Philology
R.I. RIADSKA

Lviv 2011
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CONTENTS
Introduction........................................................................................................................3
CHAPTER 1. Approaches to Sentence Analysis in Theoretical Grammar
1.1.Communicative types of sentences…………………………………………………..6
1.2.Functional sentence perspective ……………………………………………………..8
1.3.Structural types of sentences……………………………………………..…………11
1.3.1.Structural types of a simple sentence…………………………………..…………11
1.3.2.Composite sentence as a polypredicative unit……………………...……………..17
CHAPTER 2. Structural Types of a Composite Sentence
2.1.The structure of a compound sentence…………………………………………..….19
2.2.The structure of a complex sentence………………………………………………..21
2.2.1.Clauses of primary nominal positions…………………………………………….24
2.2.2.Clauses of secondary nominal positions………………………………………….29
2.2.3.Clauses of adverbial positions………………………………………………….…30
CHAPTER 3. The Functioning of Structural Sentence Types in "His last bow" by
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle...................................................................................................51

Conclusion........................................................................................................................57
References........................................................................................................................59

INTRODUCTION
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Expounded in this paper are the salient features of structural sentence types in
English, with particular emphasis on the complex sentence. Writers use a variety of
sentences to make their writing interesting and lively. Too many simple sentences, for
example, will sound choppy and immature while too many long sentences will be
difficult to read and hard to understand. But before analyzing semantic and syntactic
functions of complex sentences and subordinate clauses we would like to analyze the
structure of sentence in general and the functions of clauses. Just as words and phrases
are the constituents of the clause rank, so two clauses themselves can combine in several
ways as the constituents of the sentence. The idea of the sentence, however, is a difficult
one for grammar for many reasons. First, when linguists think of language, they tend to
think of a sound. And people do not speak in sentences. People speak in words, and
phrases, and clauses.
The idea of the sentence is a product of a tendency to think primarily of written
language, where standardized writing systems articulate the conventions associated with
the written sentence.
Thus, many grammarians prefer to use a more inclusive, more general term when
describing the grammatical relationship that holds between two or more clauses - a
clause complex. For our purposes, though we can continue to use the term sentence as
long as we remain aware of the limits and biases implied by the more common term.
There are five parts of a sentence: the subject, the predicate, the attribute, the object, and
the adverbial modifier. Accordingly, there are five types of subordinate clauses: the
subject clauses: the subject clause, the predicative clause, the attributive clause, the
object clause, and the adverbial clause. Word order in subordinate clauses is first the
subject, then the verb. In complex sentences, the clauses stand in the place of the part of
the sentence that they represent.
Clause is the name used to mark the component sentences in a complex sentence.
A clause may or may not have total meaning; therefore, it needs other clauses.
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The principal clause is the sentence containing the principal verb in a complex
sentence. Subordinate clauses help build the meaning in main clause, or in other
subordinate clauses. Subordination is revealed between clauses of unequal rank, one of
them being dominated by the other. From the structural point o view it means that one
clause, the dominated or subordinate one, is in a notional position of the other clause.
It means that a subordinate clause refers to one notional constituent (expressed by
a word or a phrase) in a principal clause. From the communicative point of view a
subordinate clause renders the information which is additional to that of the principal
clause.
Complex sentence syntax is a superior form of grammatical analysis performed on
complex sentences. Complex sentence syntax studies relational functionality developed
between constituent clauses using "analogy to morphology" and "analogy to the
sentence syntax". The complex sentence is a polypredicative unit built up on the
principle of subordination. It is derived from two or more base sentences one of which
becomes the principle clause form a semantico-syntactic unity. It cannot be destroyed
without affecting the structure of the sentence. The existence of either of clauses is
supported by the existence of other.
Within the traditional linguistics the two different principles have been put
forward. The first in functional and the second is categorical. In accord with the
functional principle subordinate clauses are classes on the basis of their similarity in
function with parts of a simple sentence. Namely, they are classed into subject,
predicative, object, attributive, adverbial clauses.
The syntactic arrangement classification of complex sentences is definitely useful.
It gives the evaluation of the "depth" of subordination - one of the syntactic
characteristics of the complex sentence. Thus, the traditional linguistics suggests the
interpretation of the complex sentence based on the analysis of its semantico-syntactic
properties.
The complex sentence is viewed as a subordinative arrangement of clauses, one
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being the principal and the rest subordinate. The existing classifications of complex
sentences are built up around the semantic difference of clauses, the essence and
intensity of the subordinate connection. In conclusion it should be noted that the
discussed principles of classification (functional and categorical) are mutually
complementary.
The object of the graduation essay is the structure and semantics of complex
sentences.
The aim of the graduation essay is manifold and embraces several tasks to be
accomplished :
- to research the approaches to the sentence analysis in different types of grammars;
- to provide a theoretical insight into the peculiarities of a sentence paradigm in
English, including simple sentences, two-member and one-member (nominal and
infinitival) and composite sentences (compound and complex);
- to investigate the structure and semantics of complex sentence and the types of
subordination in Modern English;
- to review the functions assigned to different types of subordinate clauses from a
semantic and syntactic perspectives;
- to examine the functioning of different structural types of sentences in "His last
bow" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.
The need to study other structural sentence types alongside the complex ones,
which are given particular prominence to in the research, is determined by the fact that
in continuous speech sentences are not used in isolation. Regardless of their structure
and complexity, they are used to mutually complement each other, thereby conveying a
coherent message. It is owing to the abundance of different structural sentence types that
the text becomes more diverse and vibrant, and the author’s message is rendered more
compelling. The scientific significance of the diploma paper lies in the research of the
patterns and functions of complex sentences for oral and written communication.
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CHAPTER I. Approaches to Sentence Analysis in Theoretical Grammar

1.1.Communicative Types of Sentences

The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according
to a definite pattern and distinguished by a contextuality relevant communicative
purpose [24, 236]. Any coherent connection of words having an informative destination
is effected within the framework of the sentence. Therefore the sentence is the main
object of syntax as a part of the grammatical theory.
In studying the sentence, we are faced with a number of problems belonging to
the science of language as a whole rather than to English philology. Among these are:
definition of a sentence, classification of sentences, parts of a sentence, and any other
problems of a similar character [29, 190]
The problem of classification of a sentences is a highly complicated one. There
are two principles of classification.
The sentence is a communicative unit, therefore the primary classification of
sentences must be based on the communicative principle. This principle is formulated in
traditional grammar as the "purpose of communication" [24, 251].
The purpose of communication, by definition, refers to the sentence as a whole,
and the structural features connected with the expression of this sentential function
belong to the fundamental, constitutive qualities of the sentence as a lingual unit.
In accord with the purpose of communication three cardinal sentence-types have
long been recognized in linguistic tradition: first, the declarative sentence; second, the
imperative (inducive) sentence; third, the interrogative sentence. These communicative
sentence-types stand in strict opposition to one another, and their inner properties of
form and meaning are immediately correlated with the corresponding features of the
listener's responses. [24, 251]
Thus, the declarative sentence expresses a statement, either affirmative or
negative, and such stands in systemic syntagmatic correlation with the listener's
 7
responding signals of attention, of appraisal (including agreement or disagreement) of
fellow-feeling:
"I think," he said, "that Mr. Desert should be asked to give us his reasons for
publishing that poem." - "Hear, hear!" said the K.C. (J. Galsworthy).
The imperative sentence expresses inducement, either affirmative or negative.
That is, it urges the listener, in the form of request or command, to perform or not to
perform, a certain action [38, 243]. As such, the imperative sentence is situationally
connected with the corresponding "action response" and lingually is systemically
correlated with a verbal response showing that the inducement is either compiled with ,
or else rejected [24, 251]:
"Let's go and sit down up there, Dinny" - "Very well" (J. Galsworthy). "Then
marry me." - "Really, Allan, I never met anyone with so few ideas" (J. Galsworthy).
The interrogative sentence expresses a question, i.e. a request for information
wanted by the speaker from the listener. By virtue of this communicative purpose, the
interrogative sentence is naturally connected with an answer, forming together with it a
question-answer dialogue unity.
Alongside of the three cardinal communicative sentence-types, another type of
sentences is recognized in the theory of syntax, namely, the so-called exclamatory
sentence [36, 198]. In modern linguistics it has been demonstrated that exclamatory
sentences do not possess any complete set of qualities that could place them on the one
and the same level with the three cardinal communicative types of sentences. The
property of exclamation should be considered as an accompanying feature which is
effected within the system of three cardinal communicative types of sentences. In the
other words, each of the cardinal communicative sentence types can be represented in
the two variants: non-exclamatory and exclamatory.
1.2.Functional Sentence Perspective
The notional parts of the sentence form its nominative meaning. The division of
the sentence into notional parts is referred to as the nominative division. Alongside the
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nominative division of the sentence, the idea of the actual division has been put forward
in theoretical linguistics. The purpose of the actual division or the functional sentence
perspective is to reveal the correlative significance of the sentence parts from the point
of view of their actual informative role in an utterance.
Although ordinary conversation, personal letters, and even some types of
professional writing (such as newspapers stories) consist almost entirely of simple
sentences. Writers who use only simple sentences are like a truck drivers who do not
know how to shift out of first gear: they would be able to drive a load from Montreal to
Calgary (eventually), but they would have a great deal of trouble getting there.
If you use phrases and clauses carefully, your sentences will become much more
interesting and your ideas much clearer. This complex sentence develops a major, central
idea and provides structured background information.
Just as a good driver uses different gears, a good writer uses different types of
sentences in different situations:
1. A long complex sentence will show what information depends on what other
information;
2. A compound sentence will emphasize balance and parallelism;
3. A short simple sentence will grab a reader's attention;
4. A loose sentence will tell the reader in advance how to interpret your information;
5. A periodic sentence will leave the reader in suspense until the very end;
6. A declarative sentence will avoid any special emotional impact;
7. An exclamatory sentence, used sparingly, will jolt the reader;
8. An interrogative sentence will force the reader to think about what you are writing;
and
9. An imperative sentence will make it clear that you want the reader to act right away
[6, 26].
One of the basic characteristic features of the sentence is its communicative and
informative sufficiency. It means that every sentence should convey some new
 9
information in the process of communication. The interpretation of the sentence from
this point of view requires the division of the sentence into two parts. One of them
contains the starting point of communication or that already known to the listeners and
the other part conveys new information or that not yet known and for the sake of which
the sentence is constructed to the listeners.
This interpretation of the sentence has been put forward by W. Mathesius. He
termed the starting point of communication the "basis" and the new information the
"nucleus". Later there came into common e new pair or terms. They are the "theme" and
the "rheme". The theme denotes the starting point of communication, it is an object or
phenomenon about which something is reported, e.g.:
Their visit to the Blacks was quiet promising.
"Their visit to the Blacks" is the "theme", the other part is the "rheme" [24, 146]
The theme and the rheme of the sentence may or may not coincide with the
subject and the predicate respectively. The actual division in which the "theme" is
expressed by the subject and the "rheme"- by the predicate is called "direct". Due to a
certain context the order of actual division can be changed into the reverse one, in which
the rheme is expressed by the subject, while the predicate exposes the theme. This kind
of actual division is "inverted", compare:
a) This old photo wakes up my memories. - a case of "direct" actual division. The theme
is expressed by the subject, while the rheme coincides with the predicate;
b) From behind the corner there appeared a smart car. - a case of "inverted" actual
division. The rheme is expressed by the subject.
There are several formal means of expressing distinction between the theme and
the rheme. They are word-order patterns, intonation contours, constructions with
introducers, constructions with articles and other determiners, constructions with
intensifying particles, constructions with contrastive complexes. With the word - order
patterns the rheme is placed towards the end of the sentence, while the theme is
positioned at the beginning of it, when it is necessary, the inversion is used:
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Theme/rheme
Jane stood in the center of the large hall.
In the center of the large hall stood Jane.
Constructions with introducers, such as the three-patterns and it-patterns, help to
identify the subject of the sentence (or maybe any other part of the sentence within the
it-pattern) as its rheme,
e.g.: There came a loud sound (rheme).
It was him (rheme) who made the party a party.
Determiners, among them the articles, used as means of forming certain patterns
of actual division, divide their functions so that the definite determiners serve as
identifiers of the theme while the indefinite determiners serve as identifiers of the rheme,
e.g.: The man came up to me.
A man came up to me.
Intensifying particles identify the rheme,
e.g.: Even she has done it come.
He is being so kind.
Only then did he realize the situation.
Syntactic patterns of contrastive complexes, based on some sort of antithesis, are
employed to make explicative the inner contrast inherent in the actual division.
This is a real story, not a fiction.
Intonation presents itself as a universal means of expressing the actual division of
a sentence in all types of contexts and known as logical accent. It is inseparable from the
other rheme-identifying means mentioned above. The thematic reduction of responses in
dialogue speech serves to identify the rheme of the sentence. In these cases the rheme is
placed in isolation.
e.g.: - Where did you see her last time?
- London.
- Shall we go out tonight?
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- Yes. The night club.
Thus, we may conclude, that the actual division of the sentence is closely
connected with the context of communication and enters the predicative aspect of the
sentence. It meets the same function, which is to relate the nominative content of the
sentence to reality [24, 267].

1.3. Structural Types of Sentences in English

The other classification is according to structure. In terms of the latter two main
types are distinguished: simple sentences and composite sentences [29, 191]. The
relations between the two classifications should now be considered.
It seems plain that a simple sentence can be either declarative, or interrogative, or
imperative. But things are somewhat more complicated with reference to composite
sentences. If both (or all) clauses making up a composite sentence are declarative, the
composite sentence as a whole is of course declarative too. And so it is bound to be in
every case when both (or all) clauses making a composite sentence belong to the same
type of communication (that is the case in an overwhelming majority of examples).
Sometimes, however, composite sentences may consist of clauses belonging to different
types of communication. Here it will sometimes be impossible to say what type of
communication the composite sentence as a whole belongs [37, 153].
The task of the diploma paper is to investigate all types of sentences according to
structure; to describe further subdivision of simple and composite sentences in order to
show the role of the sentence in communication.
1.3.1. Structural types of a simple sentence
The simple sentence, as different from the composite sentence, is formed by one
predicative line.
It has been usual for some time now to classify sentences into two-member and
one-member sentences [35, 212].
This distinction is based on a difference in the co-called main parts of a sentence.
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We shall therefore have to consider the two problems, that of two-member and one-
member sentences and that of main parts of the sentence simultaneously.
In a sentence like Helen signed there obviously are two main parts: Helen, which
denotes the doer of the action and is called (grammatical) subject, and signed, which
denotes the action performed by the subject and is called (grammatical) predicate.
Sentences having this basic structure: a word (or phrase) to denote the doer of the action
and another word (or phrase) to denote the action, are termed two-member sentences
[29, 195]. However, there are sentences which do not contain two such separate parts; in
these sentences there is only one main part: the other main part, is not there and it could
not even be supplied, at least not without at violent change in the structure of the
sentence. Examples of such sentences, which are accordingly termed one-member
sentences, are the following: Fire! Come on! or the opening sentence of "American
Tragedy": Dusk - of a summer night. (Dreiser).
There is no separate main part of the sentence, the grammatical subject, and no
other separate main part, the grammatical predicate. Instead there is only one main part
(fire, come on, and dusk, respectively). These, then, are one-member sentences. [29,
195]
One-member sentences with their own stylistic traits and idiosyncrasies in any
language are widely current to serve different purposes in the act of communication and
as such are a source of constant interest.
The grammatical content of a one-member sentence can vary with the context,
which is always sufficiently explicit to reveal in each case emotive and dynamic force.
it is to be pointed out that the classification of one-member sentences appears to
be difficult for two reasons. They cover a wide and most varied range of meanings. The
meaning of a sentence may change with the context and the nature of surrounding
circumstances; and since the context is capable of almost infinite variation the shades of
meaning expressed by them are correspondingly numerous.
Considered in their grammatical organization, one-member sentences should be
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subdivided into 1) nominal (or naming) sentences and 2) infinitival sentences [40,
109].
One-member Nominal Sentences
Nominal (naming) sentences name a person or thing. They are fairly common in
introducing people to each other:
"My youngest daughter Lavinia", said Mrs. Wilfer... "Mr. George Sampson, a
friend of the family" (Ch. Dickens, Martin).
Nominal sentences are not infrequent in announcements of guests, in direct
address, as well as in "words-representations" whose aim is to call up the image of the
object mentioned in the mind of the reader (or the person spoken to), as for instance:
One afternoon ... Tungay came in, and called out in his usual strong way, "Visitors
for Copperfield!" (Ch. Dickens David)
"David Copperfield," said Miss Murdstone, "A word" (Ch. Dickens David)
Poor Mrs. Micawber! She said she had tried to exert herself (Ch. Dickens David).
Nominal sentences of this type may have words expressing direct address in pre-
or post-position [34; 108].
"Girl number twenty possesses of no facts in reference to one of the commonest of
animals! Some boy's definition of a horse. Bitzer, yours" (Ch. Dickens, Times).
Nominal sentences may be unextended or extended. An unextended nominal
sentence consists only of a noun (with or without the article) or its equivalent; in
extended sentences the nominal element may be extended in different ways:
a) by attributive adjuncts:
The gloomy dockside, and the grey river; the bustle with baggage, and the
crowded tender. An aching business! (J. Galsworthy, Spoon).
b) by objects, mostly prepositional:
His hands trembled as he took the elate letters. None from Irene (J. Galsworthy,
To Let).
Four strokes from the old clock in the tall grey tower of the Academy (A. Cronin,
 14
Citadel).
c) by adverbial modifiers (usually in post-position):
The fairy palaces burst into illumination, before pale morning showed the
monstrous serpents of smoke trailing over Coketown. A clattering of clogs upon the
pavement; a rapid ringing of bells ...(Ch. Dickens).
Day and night again, day and night again. The monotony was unbroken (Ch.
Dickens).
A) nominal one-member sentence may be coordinated with a two-member one.
A distant flash, a low rumble and large drops of rain spattered on the thatch about
him (J. Galsworthy, Man).
One-member sentences present a major point of interest as relevant to the problem
of functional-semantic category of modality.
Modal meanings are known to be expressed by structural elements of different
linguistic levels. Indicating some kind of attitude of the speaker concerning the reality of
what is expressed in predication, modality is, in fact, e regular structural feature of any
sentence. It may find its immediate linguistic expression in such grammatical elements
as, say, phrases with modal auxiliaries, modal words and intonation. Modal meaning
may also be traced in one-member sentences, sometimes called "minor" sentences.
In linguistic theory it has been customary to distinguish [39, 113]:
1. Modality of reality - a "classical" nominal sentence generally names some
object of reality, asserting or denying its being: Poor thing! (J. Galsworthy).
2. imperative modality - this kind of modal meaning is fairly common in
exclamatory one member sentences expressing common or order: Courage, wife! (Ch.
Dickens)
3. modality of irreality - the irreality of what is linguistically expressed in
predication is generally association with some obligation or admonition, possibility,
wish, supposition or condition: Rest-peace. Let a poor fellow rest (J. Galsworthy,
Chancery).
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To sum up in brief, it must be emphasized that:
1) In one-member nominal sentences grammatical categories that characterize
each sentence in general, such as modality, time relations, person, etc., may find their
expression in various kind of contextual indication, linguistic or situational, and
intonation patterns in actual speech. As always in language, grammatical meaning and
context are inseparable here and must be analyzed in relation to each other.
2) In terms of grammatical meaning, one-member sentences are synonymous with
two-member ones. Alteration in the grammatical device generally appears a matter of
stylistic preference. Nominal sentences are in most cases emphatic and colourful [39,
116].
One-member Infinitival Sentences
Infinitival sentences present a major point of interest in many, if not all,
languages. Most colourful and effective in their stylistic aspect, they are fairly common
in present-day English syntax. The stylistic range of infinitival sentences is very wide.
Their modal force and synsemantic character as well as the possibility of extension by
various kind of adjuncts makes them particularly suitable for use in informal spoken
English as well as in literary prose, in pictorial language. The stylistic resources
concealed in such sentence-patterning are skillfully mastered by creative writers.
Infinitival sentences with their own stylistic traits and idiosyncratic features in any
language are widely current to serve different purposes of communication. Their
functioning in English has contributed much to the development of synonymy not only
their denotative meanings but also the connotative suggestions of the various
circumstances of their use [40, 116].
The occurrence of infinitival sentences in different syntactic environments, will
show variations of their grammatical content, subjective modal force, in particular. The
context, linguistic or situational, and intonation in actual speech will always be explicit
enough to make the necessary meaning clear, and no ambiguity arises.
Infinitival sentences are stylistic alternatives of sentences with finite verb forms.
 16
Identical in their grammatical content, such synonyms differ in style, modal force and
emotive value. The following comparison will furnish vivid examples to illustrate the
statement [39, 117].

Infinitival sentences Sentences with finite verb-forms

But once you got a thought like that- But once you got a thought like that -
sleep? No! Her face among the balloons, how can you sleep? No...
the way she had smothered his eyes and
turned his head - so that he couldn't
think, couldn’t go into it and ask her
questions , Monkey, 226).

To have brought Fleur down openly I could have brought Fleur down
- yes! But to sneak her like this! Openly (= i had brought) - yes! But
(J. Galsworthy, Let, 140) how can I sneak her like this!
A host to snatch food from a guest! How can I host a snatch food from a
A host to strike a guest! A gentleman guest? How can a host strike a guest?
to strike a lady! (A. Bennett, Tale, 226). How can a gentleman strike a lady?
In different contexts of their use infinitival sentences may express a great variety
of the subtlest shades meanings which can hardly be classified in all their diversity.
The grammatical organization of these patterns gives every reason to subdivide
them into two groups [40, 117]:
a) one-member infinitival sentences:
To give her to that boy! (J. Galsworthy)
b) two-member infinitival sentences. They are less frequent: That fellow to have
her love, where he had failed! (J. Galsworthy)
There is one more type of Simple Sentences - elliptical sentences.
By "elliptical sentences" we mean sentences with one or more of their parts left
 17
out, which can be unambiguously inferred from the context. We will apply this term to
any sentence of this kind, no matter what part or parts of it have been left out [29, 262].
The main sphere of elliptical sentences is of course dialogue: it is here that one or
more parts of the sentence are left because they are either to be supplied from the
preceding sentence (belonging to another speaker) or may be easily dispensed with. We
take a few examples of elliptical sentences from contemporary dramatic works: Charlie:
Have you asked her yet? Captain Jinks: Not often enough. (Fitch) It is clear here that
the answer means: "I have, but not often enough". Aurelia: And by the way, before I
forget it, I hope you'll come to supper to-night - here. Will you? After the opera. Captain
Jinks: Delighted! (Idem) It is also clear here that Aurelia's second sentence means: "I
shall be delighted to come". Whatever is understood from the preceding context is
omitted, and only the words containing the rheme are actually pronounced. Elliptical
sentences or clauses can of course also occur outside dialogue.

1.3.2.Composite sentence as a polypredicative unit

The composite sentence, as different from the simple sentence, is formed by two
or more predicative lines [24, 288]. Being a polypredicative construction, it expresses a
complicated act of thought, i.e. an act of mental activity which falls into two or more
intellectual efforts closely combined with one another. In terms of situations and events
this means that the composite sentence reflects two or more elementary situational
events viewed as making up a unity; the constitutive connections of the events are
expressed by the constitutive connections of the predicative lines of the sentence, i.e. by
the sentential polypredication [30, 263].
Each predicative unit in a composite sentence makes up a clause in it, so that a
clause as part of a composite sentence corresponds to a separate sentence as a part of a
contextual sequence .E.g.:
When I sat down to dinner I looked for an opportunity to slip in casually the
information that I had by accident run across the Driffields; but news travelled fast in
 18
Blackstable (S. Maugham).
In combination of sentences into larger units we may observe two different types
of grammatical relationship based upon relative position and interaction of sentences.
These are co-ordination and subordination [40, 136].
By coordination the clauses are arranged as units of syntactically equal rank, i.e.
equipotently; by subordination, as units of unequal rank, one being categorially
dominated by the other. In terms of the positional structure of the sentence it means that
by subordination one of the clauses (subordinate) is placed in a notional position of the
other (principal).
The means of combining clauses into a polypredicative sentence are divided into
syndetic, i.e. conjunctional, and asyndetic, i.e. non-conjunctional [24, 298]. The great
controversy going on among linguists about this division concerns the status of syndeton
and asyndeton versus coordination and subordination. Namely, the question under
consideration is whether or not syndeton and asyndeton equally express the two types of
syntactic relations between clauses in a composite sentence.
According to the traditional view, all composite sentences are to classed into
compound sentences (coordinating their clauses) and complex sentences (subordinating
their clauses), syndetic or asyndetic types of clause connection being specifically
displayed with both classes.
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CHAPTER 2. STRUCTURAL TYPES OF A COMPOSITE SENTENCE

2.1.The structure of a compound sentence

The compound sentence is a composite sentence built on the principle of
coordination [24, 332]. Coordination, the same as subordination, can be expressed either
syndetically (by means of coordinative connectors) or asyndetically.
The classification of compound sentences is one of the disputable questions in
syntax. Linguistic studies of recent times have made it obvious that the independence of
the clauses in co-ordination is not absolute. The structure of the second clause and those
which follow it, if any, is generally somewhat predetermined by the first clause, to
which the latter are joined. The significant order of sentence elements in each case is an
important fact of their meaning. In many cases the verb-forms of predicates in
coordinated clauses are mutually dependent.
The formative words linking the parts of a compound sentence fall into clearly
distinct types:
1) co-ordinative conjunctions,
2) conjunctive adverbs,
3) fixed prepositional phrases [40, 142].
It is important to remember that sometimes there is no formal link binding the
members together since the logical connection forms a sufficient tie and makes it
abundantly clear. Upon close investigation however, it will become clear that such
apparently independent sentences are not absolutely independent and one of them
implicitly stands in some grammatical relation to the other.
It will be helpful to identify linking words in co-ordination as follows:
a) Copulative, connecting two members and their meanings, the second member
indicating and addition of equal importance, or, on the other hand, an advance in time
 20
and space, or an intensification, often coming in pairs, then called correlatives: and;
both... and; equally... and; at once... and; not... nor (or neither, or and neither); not
(or never)... not (or nor)... either; neither... nor, etc.
b) Disjunctive, connecting two members but disconnecting their meaning, the
meaning in the second member excluding that in the first: or, in older English also
either or outher (-or) and in questions whether... or with the force of simple or; or ..
either; either... or, etc.; the disjunctive adverbs else, otherwise, or... or, or... else, in
older English other else.
c) Adversative, connecting two members, but contrasting their meaning: but, but
then, only, still, yet, and yet, however, or the other hand, again, on the contrary, etc.
d) Causal, adding an independent proposition explaining the preceding statement,
represented only by the single conjunction for: The brook was very high, for a great deal
of rain had fallen over night.
e) Illative, introducing an inference, conclusion, consequence, result: namely,
therefore, on that account, consequently, accordingly, for that reason, so then,
hence, etc.
f) Explanatory, connecting words, phrases or sentences; introducing an
explanation or a particularization: namely, to wit, that is, that is to say, or such as, as,
like, for example, for instance, say, let us say, etc. [40, 143].
Co-ordinative conjunctions are rather few in number: and, but, or, yet, for.
Sentence-linking words, called conjunctive adverbs are: consequently,
furthermore, hence, however, moreover, nevertheless, therefore.
Some typical foxed prepositional phrases functioning as sentence linkers are: at
least, as a result, after a while, in addition, in contrast, in the next place, on the other
hand, for example, for instance.
It comes quite natural that the semantic relations between the co-ordinate clauses
depend to a considerable degree on the lexical meaning of the linking words.
The functional meaning of some of them is quite definite and ambiguous. Such is,
 21
for instance, the conjunction but implying contrast or dissociation between the related
items; its meaning is so distinct that there can hardly be any item in the sentence to
change the adversative signification as made explicit by this linking word.
Things are different, however with copulative conjunctions, which are known to
be synsemantic in character and may lead to structural ambiguity if the necessary
meaning is not signaled by the meaning of other words in the sentence. This may be well
illustrated by the functional use of the conjunction and which may imply various shades
of meaning, such as result or consequence, cause or contrast.
Compare the following:
a) They really fitted him, - it was his first made-to-order suit, - and he seemed
slimmer and better modeled (J. London, Martin).
b) But he, who for the first time was becoming conscious of himself, was in no
condition to judge, and he burned with shame as he started at the vision of his infamy
(Ibid).
c) The act was done quietly, and the awkward young man appreciated it (Ibid).
d) She thought she was merely interested in him as an unusual type possessing
various potential excellences and she even felt philanthropic about it (Ibid).
In examples (a), (b), (c), (d) the co-ordinated sentences are suggestive of causal or
resultative meaning.
A prominent suggestion of contrast or adversative meaning may be observed in
cases like the following:
He frightened her, and at the same time it was strangely pleasant to be looked
upon (Ibid).
As a matter of fact most sentences are dependent on the context of preceding
sentences or of situation for some of their meaning.

2.2.The structure of a complex sentence

The complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle
 22
of subordination. It is derived from two or more base sentences one of which performs
the role of a matrix in relation to the others, the insert sentences [24, 303]. The matrix
function of the corresponding base sentence may be more rigorously and less rigorously
pronounced, depending on the type of subordinative connection realized.
When joined into one complex sentence, the matrix base sentence becomes the
principal clause of it and the insert sentences, its subordinate clauses.
There is much more to be said about the complex sentence than about the
compound. This is due to several causes, which are, however, connected with one
another.
For one thing, the semantic relations which can be expressed by subordination are
much more numerous and more varied than, with co-ordination: all such relations as
time, place, concession, purpose, etc. are expressly stated in complex sentences only.
Then again, the means of expressing subordination are much more numerous.
There is here a great variety of conjunctions: when, after, before, while, till, until,
though, although, albeit, that, as, because, since; a number of phrases performing the
same function: as soon as, as long as, notwithstanding that, in order that, according as,
etc. Besides, a certain number of conjunctive words are used: the relative pronouns who,
which, that, whoever, whatever, whichever, and the relative adverbs where, how,
whenever, wherever, however, why, etc. [29, 279]
We may note that the boundary line between conjunctions and relative adverbs is
not quite clearly drawn.
Historically speaking, conjunctions develop from adverbs, and one word or
another may prove to in an intermediate stage, when there are no sufficient objective
criteria to define its status [33, 174].
The classification of subordinate clauses offers special difficulties and remains the
area of syntax where we find different linguistic approaches with some important
disputable points open to thought and discussion [40, 144]. Much still remains to be
done in this field of grammar learning. This is one of many ranges of linguistic structure
 23
in which we find borderline cases where the lexico-grammatical organization of
complex syntactic units presents special difficulties.
Contexts are of extreme importance in understanding syntax.
Various kinds of contextual indication, linguistic or situational, and intonation in
actual speech resolve structural ambiguity in homonymic patterns on the syntactic level.
The significant order of sentence elements, as an important factor of syntax, will
also merit due consideration in describing the distributional value of various kind of
subordinate clauses.
It is to be noted that disagreement over the classification of sub-clauses is based
not on conflicting observations in language learning but rather on different linguistic
approaches to the study of syntax.
There are obvious reasons for describing sub-clauses proceeding from the
similarity of their functions with those of parts of the sentence, namely the classification
of clauses into subject, predicative, object, attributive, adverbial, appositional, and
parenthetical clauses. Analysis of clause patterns from this angle of view seems most
helpful and instructive.
In this way the general parallelism between parts of a simple sentence and
subordinate clauses within a complex sentence will be kept up; however, there is no
sufficient ground for believing that there will be complete parallelism in all respects and
all details: on the contrary, it is most likely that differences between the two will emerge
(especially in the sphere of adverbial modifiers and adverbial clauses). Subordinate
clauses may well be expected to have some peculiarities distinguishing them from parts
of a simple sentence [29, 284].
In terms of syntactic positions all the subordinate clauses are divided into three
groups:
1)clauses of primary nominal positions (subject, predicative, object clauses);
2)clauses of secondary nominal positions (attributive clauses);
3)clauses of adverbial positions.
 24

2.2.1.Clauses of primary nominal positions. Subject Clauses. Sub-clauses of this type

are best identified as performing within a complex sentence the same function as the
subject performs in a simple sentence [40, 145]. Subject clauses are known to be
introduced either by a relative or interrogative pronoun or adverb, or by the conjunction
that.
Not her fault she had loved this boy, that she couldn't get him out of her head no
more her fault that it had been his own for loving that boy's mother (J. Galsworthy,
Song, 293).
No satisfaction to Fleur now, that the young man and his wife, too, very likely,
were suffering as well (Ibid, 299).
The grammatical organization of the above sentences will hardly offer any
difficulties of syntactic analysis. That the dependent part of the complex sentences is a
subject clause seems abundantly clear: the position which might be occupied by a noun-
subject is occupied by a sub-clause. If the latter is cut off, there is no subject at all.
Things are different in other types of sentence-patterning such as, for instance:
It seemed utterly grotesque to him that he should, be standing there facing a
charge of murder in a court where the register, the shorthand writer and other officials
were all known personally to him (G. Gordon, Day, 250)
It was true that he had assisted Dr. Munro at the operation (G. Gordon, Day,
261).
Did it matter what people thought of her? (Ibid., 222)
It is manifest to me that his letter of May 20 he assented to a very clear
proposition (Ibid., 281).
It was strange how calm, how philosophical, he felt now (Ibid., 270).
What did it matter that it was useless to apply for a discharge at the close of the
Crown's case? (Ibid., 265)
As can be seen from the above examples, sub-clauses are used here as delayed
 25
appositives to it. Sentence patterning of this kind permits postponement of the
subordinate clause while it represents them in the positions which would otherwise be
normal for them. The grammatical organization of such structures gives every reason to
identify subordinate clauses of this kind as appositive sub-clauses referring to the subject
in the principal clause, namely the pronoun it.
Some grammarians prefer another angle of view, according to which the pronoun
it at the beginning of the main clause is referred to as a "formal subject" (sometimes
called a "sham subject"), and the sub-clause following the main clause - the real subject
[40, 146].
It is to be noted, in passing, that it can represent-not only this type of sub-clauses,
but is similarly used with great frequency in other types of composite sentences.
Familiar examples are:
I'll leave it i you which route we take.
In main interrogatives this it is sometimes inserted directly in front of clausal
appositives, as in "Why is it that we can't get together?"
Sometimes even in declaratives it precedes declarative-clause appositives directly,
and acts as a kind of buffer for them - after predicators and prepositions that do not
accept them as completers.
I resent it that such a thing is done.
I'll see to it that a good typewriter is available.
You can't rely on it that he will do this work without delay.
It often represents subordinate clauses, or nucleuses of subordinate clauses, which
are hardly in apposition with it.
He says he's been mistreated, but he shouldn’t take it out on you.
It might help if we did it.
He can't help it if he likes company.
It makes him unhappy when people think he's unfriendly.
 26
Predicative Clauses. Predicative sub-clauses have their own semantic traits and
structural features of arrangement [29, 280]. Variation in their grammatical organization
may be illustrated by the following examples:
This was what had happened to himself! (J. Galsworthy, Man, 254).
All I can say is that it is a very, very mysterious business (G. Gordon, Day, 281).
The chief hope was that the defense would not find it necessary to subpoena Jean.
That would be too much (Ibid., 238).
It seemed that he had been staring for several seconds into those slightly sunken,
bloodshot eyes behind the desk before the old man rose, came round and stood next to
him (Ibid. 91).
The question for me to decide is whether or not the defendant is liable to refund to
the plaintiff this sum (J. Galsworthy, Man, 281).
"The principle of this house", said the architect, "was that you should have room
to breathe - like a gentleman" (Ibid. 100).
Some grammarians are inclined to include here patterns with it is... that of the
following type:
"It's because he's weak that he needs me", she added (H.James).
What I am positive about is that he never expected a wife who would please the
family (Snow).
What I think is, you're supposed to leave somebody alone if he's at least being
interested and he's getting all excited about something (B. Salinger).
Disagreements in the analysis on this point remain a matter of subjective
approach.
There are such patterns of complex sentences as consist of a subject clause and a
predicative, the only element outside these clauses being the link verb:
What I prefer now is that you should not leave at all.
Predicative sub-clauses have sometimes a mixed or overlapping meaning. In some
cases there is a clear suggestion of temporal relations, in others the meaning of
 27
comparison.
Relations of time, for instance, are generally observed in clauses introduced by
when. This is often the case when the subject of the principal clause is expressed by
nouns denoting time:
Time had been when he had seen her wearing nothing (J. Galsworthy, To Let, 53).
Predicative sub-clauses introduced by as if and as are suggestive of the secondary
meaning of comparison:
My horses are young, and when they get on the grass they are as if they were mad
(W. Thackeray).

Object Clauses. Object clauses present a great variety of patterns but less
difficulty on the point of their grammatical analysis [24, 356].
The simplest case of such clauses are patterns in which a sub-clause can be
replaced by a noun which could be then an object in a simple sentence. Familiar
examples are:
We could buy what she liked.
You may do whatever you choose.
Did the accused mention who this girl friend of his was... (G. Gordon, Day, 257).
He suggested that Bossman seemed unduly zealous in calling for paper for the
statement to be taken down (Ibid. 264).
He was anxious that they should realize he was an Englishman (Ibid. 43).
Antony wondered whether they would ever meet again (Ibid. 127).
He remembered that the waltz was in three-time, remembered the waltz of olden
days - too well - That dance at Rodger's, and Irene, his own wife, waltzing in the arms of
young (J. Galsworthy, Song, 209).
And alter, on a sleepless pillow, she puzzled, as she had puzzled of late, as to how
it was that she loved so strange a man, and loved him despite the disapproval of her
people (J. London, Martin, 227).
 28
There are cases when an object clause comes before the main clause, as in:
He heard the rapid murmur of their talk; but what they said he could not catch (J.
Galsworthy, Man, 254).
This position changes the functional sentence perspective: the object clause in the
theme of the sentence, whereas the rheme is represented by the main clause.
Object sub-clause may be introduced by prepositions.
She had stood before her mirror between eight and nine - it was nine-fifteen
before she was really ready - and pondered over what she should wear (T. Dreiser,
Financier, 147).
Structural synonyms of object clauses are infinitival and gerundial phrases:
He stood stubbornly by the cab step, waiting for her to come back (J. Galsworthy,
Man, 198).
Only vaguely did she see the judge shake his head in disagreement and hear
Turner mumbling something (G.Gordon, Day, 264).
The Darties saw Bosnney spring out, and Irene follow, and hasten up the steps
with bent head (J. Galsworthy, Man, 200).
Soames had ever resented having had to sell the house at Robin Hill; never
forgiven his uncle for having bought it, or his cousin for living in it (J. Galsworthy,
Chancery, 153).
They all approved of his not being beaten by that cousin of his (Ibid., 152).
He's going to begin farming, you know; he'll make an excuse. Men hate being
painted (J. Galsworthy, Song, 224).
... he could not see Irene shivering, as though some garment had been torn from
her, not her eyes, black and mournful like the eyes of a beaten child. He could not hear
Bosinney entreating, entreating, always entreating; could not hear her sudden, soft
weeping, nor see that poor, hungry looking devil, awed and trembling, humbly touching
her head (J. Galsworthy, Man, 200).
You know that Anabel Nazing came here and said that she didn't mind Walter
 29
flying to Paris with Marjorie Ferrar, but that she did object to not having been told
beforehand so that she herself could have flown to Paris with somebody else (J.
Galsworthy, Spoon, 97).

2.2.2.Clauses of secondary nominal positions. The grammatical content of attributive

sub-clause does not call for much to explain [29, 324]. Clauses of this type as they
function in the complex sentence go parallel with attributive adjuncts in simple
sentences. Their duty is to qualify the meaning denoted by its head word through some
actions, state or situation in which the thing is involved.
It has been customary to make distinction between two types of attributive sub-
clauses: 1) restrictive (or limiting) and 2) non-restrictive, or descriptive, the former limit
or define more clearly the antecedent, the latter give some additional information about
the antecedent that is already sufficiently defined [24, 367]. Non-restrictive clauses may
be omitted without affecting the precise understanding of the sentence as a whole. The
following examples will illustrate restrictive attributive clauses abundantly clear:
There are a number of points on which I should like to confer with him from time
to time (G. Gordon, Day, 221).
It made me write that letter to you which kept up apart for so many years (Ibid.,
225).
He made frequent references to the plan that had already been put in (Ibid, 255).
And to think of it, I dreamed in my innocence that the persons who sat in the high
places, who lived in fine houses and had educations and bank accounts, were worth
while! (J. London, Martin, 349).
Here are a few examples of non-restrictive attributive clauses:
Soames, who had never studied the question and was hampered by not knowing
whether he wanted an Englishman to do, was hesitating (J. Galsworthy, Song, 193). A
he only started at Michael, who was gazing out of the window (Ibid. 125).
Up on the lawn above the fernery he could see his old dog Balthasar. The animal,
 30
whose deem eyes took his master for a stranger, was warning the world against him (J.
Galsworthy, Chancery, 154).
A sensation of comfort would pass through Winton, which would last quite twenty
minutes after the crunching of the wheels and the mingled perfumes had died away (J.
Galsworthy, Beyond, 128).
Non-restrictive attributive clauses may well illustrate the statement that it is
impossible to draw a rigid line of demarcation between subordination and -co-
ordination. This is made abundantly clear in the so-called continuative clauses which
are used to continue the narrative associated with the previous statement [40; 149]: She
i most enthusiastic about her studies, which gladdens my heart (Syn. She is most
enthusiastic about her studies and it gladdens my heart).
Structural synonyms of attributive clauses are: infinitival, gerundial and
participial phrases:
Cowperwood was not the man to loose a chance of this kind! (T. Dreiser,
Financier, 515).
There is nothing to prevent you from making a great a success as Mr. Butler has
made (J. London, Martin, 143).
But I had no thought. I didn't even have the words with which to think (Ibid, 208).
The idea of its being barbarous to confine wild animals had probably never even
occurred to his father, for instance (J. Galsworthy, Man, 165).
Only vaguely did he see the judge shake his head in disagreement and hear
Turner mumbling something about the point of being reserved later for the Court of
appeal at Bloemfontein (G. Gordon, Day, 244).

2.2.3.Clauses of adverbial positions. We must start the discussion of adverbial clauses

by pointing out that the term "adverbial" should not be taken as an adjective derived
from the noun "adverb" (which would make it a morphological term), but as a
syntactical term, in the same way that it is used in the phrase "adverbial modifier"
 31
denoting a secondary part of the sentence [27, 298].
Some adverbial clauses can be easily grouped under types more or less
corresponding to the types of adverbial modifiers in a simple sentence. Others are more
specific for the complex sentence and do not fit into "pigeonholes" arranged in
accordance with the analysis of the simple sentence. Among those that will easily fit into
such "pigeonholes" are clauses denoting place, those denoting time (or temporal
clauses), clauses of cause, purpose, and concession, and also those of result. There are
also clauses of comparison and of degree [24; 338].
Clauses of Cause. Causal clauses will be illustrated by the following examples:
And because they were all laughing it seemed to Leila that they were all lovely.
(K. Mansfield, Ball, 99).
… You remember the other time I was here I said I couldn’t talk about book s and
things because I didn’t know how? (J. London, Martin, 79).
Introduced by the causal conjunction because clauses of this kind indicate purely
causal relations [40, 150]. Things are different with clauses introduced by as and since
where we often find overlapping relationships: cause and time. The meaning of such
patterns may vary. And it is only the lexical context that can be considered relevant
here. Observe at this point the following causal clauses suggestive of the secondary
meaning:
Poring out a pot he drank it neat and, as its warm glow spread through him, he
felt he could face the evening more easily (G. Gordon, Day 151).
Later when they had managed to compose themselves they went to the theatre.
Since he gave her free choice she selected “Saint Joan” (A. Cronin, Citadel, 310).
In some cases a purely causal meaning will leave no doubt:
As Paul had not considered the subject in that light, and had founded his
conclusions on the alleged lunacy of the bull, he allowed himself to be put down for the
present (Ch. Dickens, Dombey, 148).
Soames was alone again. How long, alone, he didn’t know, for he was tired, and
 32
in spite of his concern, he dozed (J. Galsworthy, Spoon, 125). (for he was tired =
because he was tired).
In other contexts there is a clear suggestion of time relations.
Causal relations may find their expression in clauses introduced b the conjunction
for. Only in some contexts of their use for-clauses come to be synonymous and go quite
parallel with causal clauses included by because [24, 360].
He had to be cautious, for he was so rapidly coming to be influential and a
distinguished man (T. Dreiser, Financier, 162).
In most cases clause-patterns with for differ essentially from clauses introduced
by because. They generally give an additional thought to the completed part of sentence
to extend the meaning of the utterance; they often come after a full stop and seem to
function as separate sentences having much in common with clauses introduced by the
conjunction but and and.
Subordinate clauses of cause have their synonymic alternatives – gerundial and
infinitival phrases:
Cursed was the day he had met her, and his eyes for seeing in her anything but the
cruel Venus she was (J. Galsworthy, Chancery, 184).
You don’t blame me for requesting that Miss Dombey might not be present. May I
hope so? (Ch. Dickens Dombey, II, 230).
He was proud to have been privileged to publish a poem which in psychological
content, quality of workmanship, and direct human interest, was by far the most striking
of this generation (J. Galsworthy, End, I, 459).
She was angry now to think her father would make a public spectacle of her.
Cowperwood started to follow (T. Dreiser, Financier, 336).
There are also reduced-sub-clauses of cause presented by “predicatives without a
verb”, like the following:
Would they like him? They would not – too unshackled, too fitful, and too bitter;
all that was best in him he did away, as if ashamed of it; and his yearning for beauty
 33
they would not understand! (J. Galsworthy, End, I, 372).
Observe also the syntactic organization of the following sentence:
Not much give and take about Desert restless, disharmonic, and a poet! And
proud – with that inner self-depreciative pride which never let upon a man! (J.
Galsworthy, End, I, 554).

Clauses of place. Clauses of place do not offer any difficulties of grammatical

analysis; they are generally introduced by the relative adverb where or by the phrase
from where, to where [23, 150].
They passed alongside the Royal Enclosure where book-makers did not seem to be
admitted (J. Galsworthy, Song, III).
The sun-blinds were down, for the sun was streaming on its front, past the old oak,
where was now no swing (Ibid. 77).
Where there’s a will, there is a way (Proverb).
“… Show me”, he said, and moved in the tail-light of the car to where the
chauffer stood pointing (J. Galsworthy, Spoon, 210).
Like in other types of complex sentences, clauses introduced by the adverb where
are sometimes on the borderline between subordination and co-ordination, meant to
continue the narrative associated with the previous statement rather than indicate the
place where the action took place:
… And a sob that shock him from head to foot burst from Soames’ chest. Then all
was still in the dark, where the houses seemed to stare at him, each to each with a
master and mistress of its own, and a secret story of happiness or sorrow (J. Galsworthy,
Man, 313).

Temporal Clauses. Temporal clauses cover a wide and varied range of meanings.
Relations of time between the action of the main clause and that of the
subordinate may differ: the two actions or states may be simultaneous, one may precede
 34
or follow the other, or, say, one may last until the other begins [29, 301].
When she moved to put a chair for him, she swayed in a curios, subtle way, as if
she had been put together by some one with a special secret skill (J. Galsworthy,
Chancery, 30).
As he passed through the stray groups of couples, he was conscious of a pair of
pale grey eyes peering at him through a cloud of blue tobacco smoke (G. Gordon, Day,
179).
Sit down, when I’ve taken off my things we shall go into the next room and have
tea and be cosy (K. Mansfield, Tea, 130).
When he had finished his tea Andrew withdrew (A Cronin, Citadel, 68).
She had always been used to music, and she had enjoyed opera ever since she was
a child, and all her world had enjoyed, it, too (J. London, Martin, 227).
Reduced sub-clauses of time will be illustrated by such patterns as:
When at Rome, do as the Roman do (proverb).
When angry count a hundred (proverb).
Back in his study, he sat in thought (J. Galsworthy, End, I, 554).
Back with her accounts, she could not settle to them; and pushing them into
a drawer, when to find her husband (Ibid. 555).
Synsemantic in their character, temporal clauses have often a mixed meaning. In
some patterns there is only a suggestion of the secondary meaning, in others it is fairly
prominent.
In different contexts of their use sub-clauses of time may change their primary
meaning. In some patterns there is only a suggestion of the secondary meaning, in others
it is fairly prominent.
In different contexts of their use sub-clauses of time charge their primary
meaning. In some patterns there is a suggestion of conditional relations, as in:
Women did strange things when they were driven into corners (J. Galsworthy,
Chancery, 116).
 35
When the pinch comes, you remember the old shoe (proverb).
Instances are not few when temporal clauses are suggestive of causal relations:
She made a little curtsy as he bowed (M. Mitchell, Wind, 76).
It is to be noted that secondary meanings are generally signaled not so much by
the grammatical organization of the sentence as by the lexical context which is the first
to be considered relevant.
Studying syntax in relation to lexis presents here its own point interest.
Not less characteristic are the secondary meanings implied in a sub-clause of time
in such contexts when it comes to indicate an action or state as contrasted to that of the
main clause.
Examples of such sentences may be found in numbers.
She neared her father’s house, driven this way and that all the time the Forsyte
undertow was drawing her to deep conclusion that after all he was her property, to be
held against a robbing.
“So you came, didn’t you?” he went on, looking at her steadily, while she fronted
his gaze boldly for a moment, only to look evasively down (T. Dreiser, Titan, 303).
White Mackenty mediated as to how in two years he should be able to undo this
temporary victory, and Cowperwood was deciding that conciliation was the best policy
for him, Schryhart, Hand and Arneel, joining hands with young Macdonald, were
wondering how they could make sure that this party victory would cripple Cowperwood
and permanently prevent him from returning to power (Ibid., 347).
Why should he be put to the shifts and the sordid disgraces and the lurking defeats
of the Divorce Court, when there was she like an empty house only waiting to be retaken
into use and possession y him who legally owned her (J. Galsworthy, Chancery, 94).
He turned about again, and there stood with his back against the door, as hers
was against the wall opposite, quite unconscious of anything ridiculous in this
separation by the whole width of the room.
The implication of contrast is often clear in reduced clauses of time:
 36
His manner, while warmly generous at times, was also easily distant, except
when he wished it to be otherwise (T Dreiser, Titan, 380).
Relations of time may be expressed by infinitival, participial and gerundial
phrases, which function as structural synonyms of sub-clauses of time [40; 153].
Examples follow:
The door was not fastened within, and yielded smoothly to her hesitating hand.
She was surprised to find a bright light burning; still more surprised, on looking in, to
see that her Mama, but partially undressed was sitting near… (Ch. Dickens, Dombey,
206).
His head, now grey, was enriched by her arm, and he growned to think that never,
never had it rested so before (Ibid. 476).
Being released, his face discovered to be very hot, and red, and damp; and Miss
Tox took him on her lap, much exhausted (Ibid., 123).
Dartie, on being told, was pleased enough (J. Galsworthy, Man, 372).
The crime seems to have been committed late in the evening, and the body was
found by a gamekeeper about eleven o’clock, when it was examined by the police and by
a doctor before being carried up to the house (A. Doyle, Bridge Stories, 235).
Then after having Kathleen tighten her corsets a little more, she gathered the train
over her arm by its train-band and looked again (T. Dreiser, Financier, 148).
Arrived, however, at this other white house, also desirably situated on the slope
above the river, he almost had a fit while waiting for them in the car (J. Galsworthy,
Spoon, 294).

Clause of Condition. Clauses of this type are generally introduced by such

connectives as: if, unless, provided, on condition that, in case, suppose (supposing), but
that, once [29, 306].
What has immediate relevance here is the grammatical organization of the
conditional sentence, the verb-forms of its predicate, in particular.
 37
If it hadn’t been for his blinders, he would have finished the article in three days
(J. London, Martin, 98).
If he doesn’t comply we can’t bring proceedings for six months. I want to get on
with the matter, Bellby (J. Galsworthy, Chancery, 121).
And if Holy had not insisted on following her example, and being trained too, she
must inevitably have “cried off”.
Suppose he talked to Mitchael? No! worse than useless. Besides, he couldn’t talk
about Fleur and that boy to anyone – thereby hung too long a tale (J. Galsworthy, Song,
82).
Mr. Pinch stood rooted to the spot on hearing this, and might have stood there
until dark, but that the old cathedral bell began to ring for vesper service, on which he
tore himself away (Ch. Dickens, Chuzzlewit, 107).
The traditional classification of conditional sentences seems quite reasonable: (1)
If he finds me “dressed” already, it’ll put too much point on it (J. Galsworthy, Monkey,
64); (2) If he saw him at the window she would think him fussy… (Ibid); (3) If he had
done his duty as a perfectly straightforward director, indeed, he would never have
become a director of the P.P.R.S. (Ibid., 172).
Subordinate clauses of condition have their structural synonyms among
infinitival, gerundial, and participial phrases [24, 340].
To have followed their meal in detail would have given him some indication of
their states of mind (J. Galsworthy, End, II, 113).
(Syn. If she had followed their meal – it would have given him…)
To record of Mr. Dombey that he was not in his way affected by this intelligence,
would be to do him an injustice (Ch. Dickens, Dombey , I, 31).
(Syn. If we record of Mr. Dombey that…)
Similarly. Say what you will, to take the love of a man like Cowperwood away
from a woman like Alien was to leave her high and dry on land as a fish out of its native
element, to take all the wind out of the sails – almost to kill her (T. Dreiser, Titan, 160).
 38
Pattern of this sort are fairly common. It is important to remember that sometimes
they also have a mixed or overlapping meaning, suggesting relations of condition and
time, as in:
No one would believe, to look at her, that she was over thirty (F. Huxley, Stories,
303).
(Syn. If you look at her or When you look at her)
But for this having helped us we should not have been successful in this work.
Weather permitting, we shall start tomorrow.
A word must be said at this point about stylistic transposition of imperatives
coordinated with following declaratives to which they have the meaning relationship
that clauses of condition would have [26, 155].
Pay this woman, and she tells her friends (J. Galsworthy, Spoon, 160).
Out the thread, separate a man from that which is rightfully his own,
characteristic of him, and you have a peculiar figure half success, half failure, much as
a spider without its web… (T. Dreiser, Financier, 126).
Make me do such things, make me like those other men, doing the work they do,
breathing the air they breathe, developing the point of view they have developed, and
you have destroyed the difference, destroyed me, destroyed the thing you love (J.
London, Martin, 293).
There are also reduced sub-clauses of condition. Examples are commonplace.
What would one of her own people do if called a coward and a cad-her father, her
brother, uncle Adrian? What could they do? (J. Galsworthy, End, 489).
It was clear to him that she could not take her Dsrtie seriously, and would go back
on the whole thing if given half a chance (J. Galsworthy, Chacery, 12).
And, if true, what was the director's responsibility? (J. Galsworthy, Monkey, 114).
She was seldom or never at a loss; or if at a loss, was always able to convert in
into again (J. Galsworthy, Man, 193).
Once in, you couldn't get out (J. Galsworthy, Spoon, 81).
 39
Conditional clauses may sometimes neutralize their primary meaning. In some of
these instances there is only a suggestion of the secondary meaning, in others it is fairly
prominent.
The if-clause may be used, for instance, as a rhetorical device to express the
reason why something was rejected [40, 156]. Familiar examples are:
She is sixty, if she's a day (often contracted to if a day).
If this was done, it is because you are inattentive.
Not less characteristic are such contexts where the if-clause comes to express
wish:
If only Jean's physical response were like Dots.
If only Jean would say things like that!
If that spiritual and social compatibility that existed between them, could only find
its physical counterpart! (G. Gordon, Day, 189).
If only there were a joyful future to look forward to (J. Galsworthy, Chancery,
157).
Like in some other types of sentence-patterning such contextual variations are not
specifically English and may be traced in many languages.

Clauses of Result. Clauses of result of consequence will also exemplify the

synsemantic character of syntactic structures. Their formal arrangement is characterized
by two patterns:
1. clauses included by the conjunction that correlated with the pronoun
such or the pronoun so in the main clause;
2. clauses included by the phrasal connective so that [29, 307].
Her mystery was so terrible that she pinned on her hat, put on her jacket and
walked out of the flat like a person in a dream (K. Mansfield, Parker, 73).
He did not, however, neglect to leave certain matters to future considerations,
which had necessitated further visits, so that the little back room had become quite
 40
accustomed to his spare not unsolid but unobtrusive figure... (J. Galsworthy, Chancery,
31).
Variation in the lexico-grammatical organization of such clauses is generally
associated with variation in their meaning.
Instances are not few, for instance, when a clause of result is suggestive of the
degree or the state of things indicated by the main clause. The meaning of such clauses
is always made clear by the contextual indication.
Examples of such clauses of result are:
The moon had passed behind the oak-tree now, endowing it with uncanny life, so
that it seemed watching him - the oak-tree his boy had been so fond of climbing, out of
which he had once fallen and hurt himself, and hadn't cried! (J. Galsworthy, Chancery,
207).
When he told her that he would take care of her so that nothing evil should be fall,
she believed him fully (T. Dreiser, 120).
Structural synonyms of sub-clauses of result presented by infinitival phrases may
be illustrated by such patterns as:
It was too wonderful to be anything but a delirium (J. London, Martin, 195).
(Syn. It was so wonderful that it could be anything but a delirium).
A woodpecker’s constant tap was the only sound, for the rain was not heavy
enough for leaf-dripping to have started (J. Galsworthy, End, 372).
(Syn. … the rain was not so heavy that …).
Then, just when they were old enough to go to school her husband’s sister came to
stop with them to help things along … (K. Mansfield, Parker, 77).
(Syn. Then, just when they were so old that they could go to school…).

Clauses of Purpose. The grammatical organization of sub-clauses of purpose

does not take long to explain.
What merits consideration here is the syntactic organization of the constituents of
 41
the complex sentence and the verb-forms in the structure of predication.
Clauses expressing purpose are known to be introduced by the conjunction that or
lest and by the phrase in order that [40, 158].
That has, perhaps no rivals among connectives. It is well known to have a
particularly wide range of structural meanings, but no ambiguity arises in actual usage.
As always in language, the context will remove in each case all the other significations,
as potentially implicit in that which in subordination may do the duty of a relative
pronoun and conjunction [43, 154].
Purpose clauses introduced by that may be illustrated by the following examples:
… she had softly moved her chair into its present place: partly as it seemed from an
instinctive consciousness that he desired to avoid observation: and partly that she might,
unseen by him, give some vent to the natural feelings she had hitherto suppressed (Ch.
Dickens, Martin, I, 56).
And lest the sun should break this charm too eagerly, there moved between him
and the ground a mist like that which waits upon the moon on summer nights... (Ibid.,
98).
Infinitival phrases implying purpose relations are commonplace. Familiar
examples are:
This action has been brought by the plaintiff to recover from the defendant the sum of
three hundred and fifty pounds, alleged by the plaintiff to have been fixed by this
correspondence... (J. Galsworthy, Man, 281).
She made a movement to cross into the traffic (Ibid., 223).

Clauses of Concession. Sub-clauses of concession with all their grammatical

complexity and variety of syntactic patterning as well as their synsemantic character will
engage our attention next. The component grammatical meanings in sentence-patterns of
this kind are often not so clear-cut as it might be suggested.
 42
It is very important to distinguish between the following types of concessive sub-
clauses [40, 158]:
a) clauses giving the information about the circumstances despite or against
which what is said in the principal clause is carried out.
Though she did not know it, she had a feeling in him of proprietary right (J.
London, Eden, 89).
I always understood you did so as a form of expiation, even though you had asked
Dinny to marry you (J. Galsworthy, End, 537).
b) clauses which give some additional information associated with the content
of the principal clause, the idea of concession in such patterns is somewhat weakened.
He mopped his forehead dry and glanced about him with a controlled face, though
in the eyes there was an expression such as wild animals betray when they fear the trap
(J. London, Martin, 18).
c) clauses with overlapping relationship. In patterns of this type there is a
suggestion of the secondary adversative meaning:
He extracted great happiness from squelching her, and she squelched easily these
days, though it had been different in the first years of their married life (J. London,
Martin, 51).
Complex sentences of this kind are on the borderline between subordination and
co-ordination; though might be easily replaced by the adversative conjunction but.
d) inserted and parenthetical concessive clauses are more or less independent
syntactic units and are generally set off by a comma, colon or semi-colon:
Shannon was not a financier neither was Steger. They had to believe in a way,
though they doubted it, partly — particularly Shannon (T. Dreiser, Financier, 389).
...but being a Forsyte, though not yet quite eight years old, he made no
mention of the thing at the moment dearest to his heart... (J. Galsworthy, Man, 91).
The conjunction though may introduce independent sentences.
 43
I’ve got a father; I kept him alive during the war, so he's bound to keep me now.
Though, of course, there's the question whether he ought to be allowed to hang on to his
property (J. Galsworthy, To Let, 114).
It will be observed, in passing, that concessive relations are, in point of fact,
logically associated with causal and resultative meaning, the latter being to some extent
inseparably present in any sub-clause of this type.
The implication of pure concession is fairly prominent in prepositive subclauses
included by although, though (often intensified by nevertheless in the principal clause)
[24, 316].
Although he was dealing privately for Edward Butler as an agent, and with the
same plan in mind, and although he had never met either Mollemhauer or Simpson, he
nevertheless felt that in so far as the manipulation of the city loan was concerned he was
acting for them (T. Dreiser, Financier, 131).
Clauses of concession introduced by though and even though have much in
common with sub-clauses introduced by if and even if.
The more cautious members of Chicago society, even if they did not attend, would
hear, and then woidd come ultimate comment and decision (T.Dreiser, Titan, 77).
If all the world hated you, and believed you wicked, while your own conscience
approved you, and absolved you from guilt, you would not be without friends (Ch.
Bronte, Eyre, 93).
Intensity of concessive meaning is generally produced by putting the nominal
parts or the adverbial adjunct at the head of the sentence.
Young though she will always seem to me, she is...
Similarly, in sentence-patterns with the conjunction as:
Taking his glass from the table, he held it away from him to scrutinize the colour;
thirsty as he was, it was not likely that he was going to drink thrush (J. Galsworthy,
Man, 135).
 44
Crafty and cruel as his face was at the best of times, though it was a sufficiently
fair face as to form and regularity of feature, it was at its worst when he set forth on this
errand (Ch. Dickens, Dombey, II, 195).
Harmless as this speech appeared to be, it acted on the traveller's distrust, like oil
on fire (Ch. Dickens, Martin, 58).
Much as I admire the film, I'll not go to see it again.
But the conjunction though may stand at the end of a simple sentence, following
another simple sentence, closely connected in sense. In such end- position though will
be synonymous with nevertheless, nonetheless, all the same [40, 160].
He did not tell me where he had been, but I knew though (=but I knew all the
same).
In sentences introduced by the conjunction as there is sometimes a fairly
prominent suggestion of causal relations.
Uncommunicative as he was, some time elapsed before I had an opportunity of
ganging his mind (Ch. Bronte, Eyre, 444).
Concessive clauses may be introduced by the phrasal conjunction for all that:
And Jon could not help knowing too, that she was still deeply in love with him for
all that they had been married two years (J. Galsworthy, Song, 235).
A special type of complex sentences is presented by patterns with concessive sub-
clauses suggestive of the secondary alternative meaning. Here belong clauses introduced
by however, whoever, whatever, whenever, wherever and such phrasal conjunctions as no
matter what, no matter how. Examples are:
" I doubt if Wilfred will go before the Committee", said Michael, gloomily. Fleur
confirmed him.
"Of course he won't, Michael".
"Then what will happen? "
"Almost certainly he'll be expelled under rule whatever it is (J. Galsworthy, End,
483).
 45
The secondary alternative meaning in clauses of this kind is so prominent that
some grammarians are inclined to identify them as a special type of subordination. Such
is, for instance, Jespersen's point of view in "Essentials of English Grammar" where
these clauses are classified as "clauses of indifference" [32, 372].
Mention must also be made of reduced sub-clauses of concession that are not
infrequent both in informal spoken English and literary prose.
Their abode, though poor and miserable, was not so utterly wretched as in the
days when only good Mrs. Brown inhabited it (Ch. Dickens, Dombey, II, 337).
His wife, whatever her conduct, had clear eyes and an almost depressing amount
of common sense (J. Galsworthy, To Let, 266).
...His case was different from that of the ordinary Englishman as chalk from
cheese. But whatever his case, he was not a man to live with (J. Galsworthy, End, 554).
Concessive relations overlapping with alternative meaning find their linguistic
expression in syntactic patterns with functional transpositions of the Imperative Mood
forms:
Say what you may (might) I shall have my own way.
Try what you will (would) there is no helping here.
Say what one will, to take the love of a man like Cowperwood away from a
woman like Aileen was to leave her high and dry on land, as a fish out of its native
element... (T. Dreiser, Titan, 160).
Economize as he would, the earnings from hack-work did not balance expenses (J.
London, Eden, 101).
Attention must also be drawn to the use of verb-forms in concessive subclauses,
which naturally vary depending on the context. The Indicative Mood is fairly common
in all types of clauses implying concession, Present and Past tense- forms, in particular.
The Subjunctive Mood, is common in complex sentences with hypothetical concession.
Concessive clauses may be included by the conjunction while which in such
patterns comes to function parallel with though (although) [40, 161].
 46
While he was yet in unspeakable agonies, the dwarf renewed their conversation
(Ch. Dickens, Curiosity Shop, 535).
Concessive relations may also be expressed by such patterns with verbless
predicatives as:
How could you behave like that, and your mother present there? (though your
mother was present there).
It will be helpful to remember the use of the prepositions in spite of despite for
and with in phrases implying concession. Examples are:
Winifred sighed. In spite of all she had been through, the sense of loss was heavy
on her (J. Galsworthy, Chancery, 28).
The outward relations between James and his son were marked by a lack of
sentiment peculiarly Forsytean, but for all that the two were by no means unattached (J.
Galsworthy, Man, 82).
The following sentence imply concession:
But Brissenden was always an enigma. With the face of an ascetic, he was, in all
the failing blood of him, a frank voluptuary (J. London, Martin, 107).
(in all the failing blood of him = in spite of his failing health).

Clauses of Manner and Comparison. Clauses of manner and comparison are

used to characterize the action of the principal clause by comparing it to some other
action. Patterns of this sort are also synsemantic in their value. Sometimes the
implication of comparison seems quite prominent, in other cases the clause is clearly one
of manner [29, 311].
The meaning of comparison makes itself quite evident in cases like the following:
You can lead men, I am sure, and there is no reason why you should not succeed
at anything you set your hand to, just as you have succeeded in grammar (J. London,
Martin, 143).
 47
It followed inevitably upon the work, as the night follows upon the day (J. London,
Martin, 179).
She was not exactly as daring as she seemed, but she loved to give that impression
(T. Dreiser, Financier, 142).
In patterns like She did it as best as she could the implication of comparison is
hardly felt at all.
The conjunction as has a wide and varied range of structural meanings. It is often
used to introduce subordinate clauses of time and cause, and it is only the context that
makes the necessary meaning clear.
Further examples of sub-clauses of comparison are:
His father's face, dusky red, twitching as if he were going to cry, and words
breaking out that seemed rent from him by some spasm in his soul (J. Galsworthy, Man,
289).
And all that passed seemed to pass as though his own power of thinking or doing
had gone to sleep (Ibid., 132 ).
The complexity of sub-clauses, their synsemantic character and overlapping
relations observed in various types of complex sentences bear immediate relevance to
their lexico-grammatical organization the potential valency of connectives introducing
subordinate clauses, in particular. Conjunctions, adverbs and conjunctive phrases
perform major and contained syntactic functions of a remarkable variety of types.
That is well known, for instance, as a clause-marker introducing subject, object,
predicative, attributive clauses and adverbial sub-clauses of purpose; in adverbial
clauses of result, time and concession that is fairly common as correlated with other
pronominal or adverbial formative words: so ... that, for all that, now that, but that [40,
163].
The use of that is common in emphatic patterns with it is ... that.
It is to be noted that the traditional classification of conjunctions into coordinative
and subordinative must be taken with some points of reservation. Instances are not few
 48
when clauses introduced by subordinative connectives and clauses to which they are
joined seem to be equal in their functional level. This is the case, for instance, with
descriptive attributive clauses or, say, clauses introduced by the co-ordinative
conjunction for that very often functions as absolutely synonymous with the
subordinative because.
In some patterns with the subordinative conjunction though the opposition
between co-ordination and subordination comes to be neutralized. The conjunction
though may introduce independent sentences. Terminal punctuation and initial capital
letters will show it in the written language [24, 282].
The potential meaning of a given category is, in fact, the sum of the common parts
of its actual meanings in various contexts of use. An attempt to identify some potential
meaning without considering all the actual occurrences of the category will always be
futile.
Certain specialized parts of actual meaning will naturally not be covered by a
potential meaning statement, although in characterizing the distributional value o a given
category these parts will be just as as significant as the more general components.
It is also important to remember that not all the general potential meaning of a
category will be relevant in each occurrence.
This, however, must be taken with much reservation, for indeed it is hardly
possible to make potential meaning statements that would apply to each occurrence of a
certain category. The meaningful segmentations may vary from sentence to sentence.
A distinction that is relevant to one occurrence of the pattern may sometimes have
no bearing at all on another use.
Borderline cases will be found in clauses introduced by the conjunctive word
while used in some contexts with the implication of contrast rather than temporal
relations.
Difficulties of grammatical analysis sometimes arise in sentences with the
coordinative conjunctions yet and so [24, 305].
 49
Difficulties of grammatical analysis sometimes arise in sentences with the
coordinative conjunctions yet [24, 305].
Variation in the functional level of clauses introduced by such connectives is
always signaled by the lexico-grammatical organization of the whole sentence, the
meaning of the connective word itself, in particular. What may sometimes be ambiguous
in the written language is made clear in spoken language by the terminal pauses of
intonation which always show the components of the utterance group themselves in each
context.
It goes without saying that a sentence need not necessarily be either only
compound or only complex. It may combine both types of clause connections within
structure. Thus, for instance, there may be a compound sentence in which each of the
main clause has one or more subordinate clauses (possibly of different degrees) attached
to it. Besides, the subordinate clauses may be attributive while another is adverbial and
so forth [29, 329]. Only a detailed investigation of all these varieties as they actually
occur in texts will give an adequate idea of the structure of the composite sentence in
Modern English.
Of course, various groupings are possible here: the sentence may be basically
compound, with each of the coordinated clauses having one or more subordinate clauses
(eventually of different degrees) attached to it, or it may be essentially complex, that is,
consisting of a main clause and several subordinate clauses, some of which may be
homogeneous and coordinated with one another, so that co-ordination appears here, as it
were, on a lower level than subordination [29, 330]. The number of types is probably
very great. However, much remains to be done in this sphere before the actual picture of
composite sentences in Modem English is cleared up.
 50

CHAPTER 3. The Functioning of Structural Sentence Types in “His Last Bow”

by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle

The well-known collection of stories His Last Bow by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
was investigated in order to see what structural types of sentences are used by author. A
 51
minute analysis of the stories shows that almost all structural types of sentences are
present in the work in different correlation.
Two-member simple sentences are used the most frequently. The following
examples will illustrate two-member simple sentences abundantly clear:
"But the landlady had the pertinacity, and also the cunning, of her sex." [41, 62]
In this sentence there obviously are two main parts: the landlady, which denotes the doer
of the action and is called subject, and had, which denotes the action performed by the
subject and is called predicate. The further examples are:
"I can't sleep for fright." [41,117]
"I leave that paper with his breakfast every morning. " [41, 187]
"Printing is a clumsy process."[41,38]
"It opens a pleasing field for intelligent speculation." [41, 198]
"He had one big brown bag with him. " [41, 25]
One-member simple sentences are not used so widely in the collection of stories.
They are presented by nominal and infinitival sentences. The following examples will
illustrate nominal sentences.
"Dear me, Watson, " said Holmes, staring with great curiosity at the slips of
foolscap. " [41, 45]
"Now I see it! My Gennaro!" [41, 77]
"A cipher message. Holmes. " [41, 166]
"High red house with white stone facings " [41, 166]
In this sentence nominal elements are extended by attributive adjuncts.
The next sentences are the examples of the infinitival sentences:
''Wait a bit, Mrs. Warren. Do nothing rash." [41, 69]
"Beware! Beware! Beware!" [41, 72]
As to the elliptical sentences, they are mainly used in dialogue:
“Well, sir, there’s the box-room opposite. In could arrange a looking-glass, maybe,
and if you were behind the door -”
 52
“Excellent!” said Holmes. “When doe the lunch?”
“About one, sir” [41, 69].
“He gave no name?”
“No, sir.”
“And has had no letters or callers?”
“None”. [41, 137].
As regards composite sentences, they are divided into compound and complex
sentences. In His last Bow compound sentences are expressed either syndetically or
asyndetically. It is clearly illustrated by the following examples:
“Then the door crashed to, the key turned once more, and all was silence. Holmes
twitched my sleeve, and together we stole down the stair.” [41, 70]
“It is not an easy problem, but he solved it in an original fashion, and so
effectively that her presence was not even known to the landlady who supplies her with
food.” [41, 152]
“The light had suddenly gone out, the glimmering square of window had
disappeared, and the third floor formed a dark band round the lofty building, with its
tiers of shining casements.” [41, 23]
There is much to be said about the complex sentences. In the collection of stories
His Last Bow they are presented by all types of sub-clauses.
Subject clauses perform within a complex sentence the same function as the
subject performs in a simple sentence:
“That night – the night that I read his terror – I put my arms round him.” [41, 79]
“It was his particular direction that we should always, when he rang, leave his
meal upon a chair, outside the door.” [41, 15]
“It was a deadly enemy that we made last night.” [41, 80]
Predicative clauses are not frequently met in the collection of stories, but there are
some examples of them:
 53
"But what I can't make head or tail of, Mr. Holmes, is how on earth you got
yourself mixed up in the matter. " [41, 82]
"In that case, " said Holmes, "my suggestion is that we lock this door, leave things
as we found them, go with this lady to her room, and form our opinion after we have had
what it is that she has to say to us." [41, 148]
"What I did not foresee is that we should find a woman, and no ordinary woman,
Watson. " [41, 70]
Object clauses present a great variety of patterns. The following examples will
illustrate them:
"I rather think that will be helpful, " said he. [41, 16]
"I knew that I had only to flash "Vieni" and you would surely come. " [41, 134]
"I thank God that he is dead" [41, 79]
Attributive clauses go parallel with attributive adjuncts in simple sentences. These
sub-clauses qualify the thing through some actions, states or situations in which the
thing is involved. All of above-mentioned is confirmed by the following examples:
"What was his horror one evening to meet in the streets the very man who had
initiated him in Naples, the giant Gorgiano... " [41, 80]
"Gennaro said nothing, but I who knew him so well could read in his face some
emotion which I had never seen there before. " [41,79]
Adverbial clauses are grouped under types more specific for the complex
sentences. They are clauses denoting place, time, clauses of cause, purpose, result,
concession, comparison and of degree. All these types are presented in His Last Bow
more or less frequently.
Causal clauses are illustrated by the following examples:
"...the giant Gorgiano, a man who had earned the name of "Death" in the South of
Italy, for he was red to the elbow in murder !" [41, 80]
"As I did so, and as the flicker steadied into a flame, we all gave a gasp of
surprise. " [41, 15]
 54
Clauses of place are introduced by the relative adverb where and the phrases from
where, to where. They are rarely found in His Last Bow:
“I did not myself know where he lived, or how.” [41, 124]
“Holmes sprang up from where he crouched by the window.” [41, 173]
Temporal clauses may be illustrated by such patterns as:
“Gennaro had not yet returned when he came.” [41, 81]
“I wad struggling and screaming when Gennaro entered and aattacked him” [41;
84]
“When we had fled to America Gennaro thought that he had cast it all off for
ever.” [41, 90]
Clauses of condition are introduced by such connectives as if, unless, on condition
that, suppose, but that, and others. It is seen in such examples:
“If we hurry, we might be in time for the second act.” [41, 182]
“What could it mean except that from the window he had suddenly either caught
sight of us in the street, or in some way come to understand how close the danger was,
and that he must act right away if he was to avoid it?” [41, 75]
Clauses of result are not numerous in His Last Bow. Here is an example of such
clause:
“You will observe that the paper is torn away at the sight here after the printing
was done, so that the “s” of soap is partly gone.” [41, 64]
Clauses of purpose are introduced by the conjunction that or by the phrase in
order that and also rarely found in the text:
“For his own part, he wished to be free that he might communicate both with the
American and Italian police.” [41, 92]
“The laconic style may be to conceal the absence of knowledge of English.” [41,
66]
Clauses of concession are presented by the following examples:
“What you say may be used in evidence.” [41, 78]
 55
“But if you think that he has acted from motives which are not criminal, and which
he would wish to have known, then you cannot serve him better than by telling us the
whole story.” [41, 23]
Clauses of manner and comparison are used to characterize the action of the
principal clause by comparing it to some other action:
“I had noticed for some time that when Gorgiano came to us, as he constantly did,
in the evening, he spoke much to me.” [41, 80]
“Signor Castalotte was a bachelor, and I believe, that he felt as if Gennaro was
his son, and both by husband and I loved him as if he were our father.” [41, 79]
All of the above-mentioned examples show that the author used all structural
types of sentences in his work. Analysis of the number of certain sentence types used in
one chapter will help to see which sentence structures dominate in the work. The results
of the analysis are given in the table below:

Simple sentence Composite sentence

Complex
compoun
elliptical
member

Adverbial clauses
objec

attrib
subje

predi
One-

two-
 nominal

44 8
infinitival

52
6
r
e
e

18
m
m
d

132
29
ct
14

cative
68

t
45

utive
18

of cause

CONCLUSION
6

of place
37

temporal
22

of condition
4

of result
8

of concession
6

of result
17

of mnner &
56

comparison
 57
It was repeatedly shown throughout the present work that sentences in continual
speech are not used in isolation; they are interconnected.
Inter-sentential connections have come under linguistic investigation but recently.
The highest lingual unit which was approached by traditional grammar as liable to
syntactic study was the sentence; scholars even specially stressed that to surpass the
boundaries of the sentence was equal to surpassing the boundaries of grammar.
In particular, such an outstanding linguist as L. Bloomfield pointed out that the
sentence is the largest grammatically arranged linguistic form, it is not included into any
other linguistic form by a grammatical arrangement.
It has been shown that sentences in speech do come under broad grammatical
arrangements, do combine with one another on strictly syntactic lines in the formation of
larger stretches of both oral talk and written text.
Generally speaking, sentences in a stretch of uninterrupted talk may or may not
build up a coherent sequence, wholly depending on the purpose of the speaker.
The primary division of sentences sequences in speech should be based on the
communicative direction of their component sentences. From this point of view-
monologue sequences and dialogue sequences are to be discriminated.
In a monologue, sentences connected in a continual sequence are directed from
one speaker to his one or several listeners. Thus, the sequence of this type can be
characterized as a one-direction sequence.
It would be vain to expect that every sentence we can meet with in a text is bound
to be either syndetic or asyndetic, either compound or complex. Several or indeed all of
these characteristics may be found in a sentence at the same time. It may, for instance,
consist of several clauses, some of them connected with each other syndetically, i. e. by
conjunctions or connective words, while others are connected asyndetically, i. e. without
any such words; it is also possible that some of the clauses are coordinated with each
other, so that a certain part of the whole sentence is compound, while others are
subordinate, so that another part of the whole sentence is complex, etc. The amount of
 58
variations is here probably boundless. Such diversity of sentences makes English
language rich and colourful. All the relations in speech, are effected by no other unit
than the sentence, and by no other structure than the inner structure of the sentence; the
sentence remains the central structural-syntactic element in all the formations of topical
significance.

Summary
Об’єкт дослідницької уваги дипломної роботи становить складнопідрядне
 59
речення в рамках гіперпарадигми речення в англійській мові. Досліджено
структурні та функціональні ознаки простого та складного речення. Основну
увагу зосереджено на особливостях складнопідрядного речення і
функціонуванні різних типів підрядних речень. Складнопідрядним реченням
називається таке складне речення, в якому одне просте речення за змістом,
граматично залежить від іншого і з’єднується з ним за допомогою підрядного
сполучника або сполучного слова. Складнопідрядне речення складається з
головного речення і одного або декількох підрядних, що пояснюють головне в
цілому або один з його членів. Від головного речення до підрядного в більшості
випадків можна поставити питання. Підрядне речення може стояти перед
головним, після нього і в середині нього.
Підрядні сполучники служать для зв’язку підрядного речення з головним і
не бувають членами речення. Сполучні слова є повнозначними словами, вони
не лише з’єднують підрядне речення з головним, а й виступають членами
підрядного речення.
Метою дослідження є встановлення основних структурних та
функціональних властивостей складнопідрядних речень.
Об’єктом дослідження є підрядні речення в англійській мові.
Предмет дослідження становлять структурні та функціональні ознаки
підрядних речень в англійській мові.
Дипломне дослідження складається зі вступу, трьох розділів, загальних
висновків та списку використаних джерел.
Загальний обсяг дипломної роботи становить 63 сторінки, з них 55 сторінок
основного тексту.
 60
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Fiction
 63
Ch. Bronte. Jane Eyre, 1847.-234p.
Ch. Dickens. Dombey and Son, 1848.-133p.
T. Dreiser, Financierhttp://www.forex.ua/liter/drizer/td00.shtml
T. Dreiser, Titan,

J.Galsworthy.In Chancery,1920.-132p.
J. Galsworthy. The White Monkey, 1924.-121p.
Ch. Dickens. Martin Chuzzlewit,1844.-213p.
Ch. Dickens, Curiosity Shop, 1841.-98p.
Ch. Dickens, Hard Times, 1854.- 112p.
J.Galsworthy, To Let
J.Galsworthy, End
Ch. Dickens David
A. Cronin, Citadel
Dreiser American Tragedy
G. Gordon, Day
S. Maugham Cakes and Ale
K. Mansfield, Parker
K. Mansfield, Tea
http://www.forex.ua/liter/drizer/td00.shtml
http://www.e-reading.org.ua/chapter.php/79968/4/
Galsworthy_1_The_Man_of_Property.html
http://www.e-reading.org.ua/book.php?book=79963
http://www.e-reading.org.ua/book.php?book=79972