Consolidated Nav Aids+Gyro Notes - PH2

BRIDGE EQUIPMENT NOTES
Consolidated Bridge Equipment Notes
CONTENTS
1. AIS 2
2. Autopilot 9
3. LRIT 13
4. VDR 17
5. BNWAS 22
6. Speed Measurements (Doppler, EM and Pressure Logs) 26
7. Rate of Turn Indicator 40
8. Global Positioning System 45
9. Echo Sounder 54
10. Gyro Compass 66
11. GLONASS 86
12. GALLILEO 90
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1. AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
BACKGROUND
In 2000, IMO adopted a new requirement (as part of a revised new Regulation 19 of chapter V of SOLAS)
for all ships, according to ship type, to carry automatic identification systems (AIS), through a phased
implementation period spanning from 1 July 2002 to 1 July 2008, capable of providing information
about the ship to other ships and to coastal authorities automatically.Resolution MSC.74(69) includes
Recommendation on Performance Standards for Universal Automatic Identification System (AIS)
The regulation requires that AIS shall:
 provide information - including the ship's identity, type, position, course, speed,
navigational status and other safety-related information - automatically to
appropriately equipped shore stations, other ships and aircraft;
 receive automatically such information from similarly fitted ships; · monitor and track
ships;
 exchange data with shore-based facilities.
SOLAS CARRIAGE REQUIREMENT

The carriage of AIS onboard ships is governed by SOLAS regulation V/19.2.4. The regulation requires AIS
to be fitted aboard all ships of
 300 gross tonnage and upwards engaged on international voyages,
 cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards not engaged on international voyages
and
 all passenger ships irrespective of size.
The requirement became effective for all ships by 31 December 2004.
PURPOSE:
AIS are intended to enhance:
- safety of life at sea
- safety and efficiency of navigation, and
- protection of the marine environment.
Therefore, the purpose of AIS is to help identify ships, assist in target tracking, assist in search and
rescue operation, simplify information exchange (e.g. reduce verbal mandatory ship reporting) and
provide additional information to assist situation awareness. In general, data received via AIS will
improve the quality of the information available to the OOW, whether at a shore surveillance station or
on board a ship.
WHAT IS AIS?
Very simply, the Automatic Identification System is a broadcast transponder system, operating in the
VHF maritime mobile band.
It is capable of sending information such as identification, position, course, speed and more, to other
ships and to shore.AIS operates principally on two dedicated VHF frequencies or channels:
AIS 1 - 161.975 MHz - channel 87B (Simplex, for ship to ship) and
AIS 2 - 162.025 MHz - channel 88B (Duplex for ship to shore).
AIS use Self-Organizing Time Division Multiple Access (SOTDMA) technology to meet this high
broadcast rate of 9600 bits per second and ensure reliable ship-to-ship operation. It normally works in
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an autonomous and continuous mode, regardless of whether it is operating in the open seas, coastal or
inland areas.
Although only one radio channel is necessary, each station transmits and receives over two radio
channels to avoid interference problems and to allow channels to be shifted without communications
loss from other ships.
Each station determines its own transmission schedule (slot), based upon data link traffic history and
knowledge of future actions by other stations.
A position report from one AIS station fits into one of 2250 time slots established every 60 seconds.
AIS stations continuously synchronize themselves to each other, to avoid overlap of slot transmissions.
Slot selection by an AIS station is randomized within a defined interval. When a station changes its slot
assignment, it pre-announces both the new location and the timeout for that location.
In this way, new stations including those stations which suddenly come within radio range close to other
vessels will always be received by those vessels.
WHAT DOES AISCONSIST OF?

Each AIS system consists of one VHF transmitter, two VHF TDMA receivers, one VHF DSC receiver, VHF
antenna, a GPS antenna if fitted with in-built GPS and a standard marine electronic communications link
to shipboard display and sensor systems.
HOW DOES AIS WORK?

Position and timing information is normally derived from a built-in or external global GPS receiver,
including a differential GPS receiver for precise position in coastal and inland waters.
Other information broadcast by the AIS, if available, is electronically obtained from shipboard
equipment through standard marine data connections.
Heading, course and speed over ground would normally be provided by all AIS equipped ships.
Other information, such as rate of turn, angle of heel, pitch and roll, and destination and ETA could also
be provided as detailed below.
DATA TRANSMITTED
AIS transmit following categories of information:
Static information
Dynamic information
Voyage related information
Short safety-related messages
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Static information: (Every 6 min and on request)
 MMSI
 IMO number (where available)
 Call sign & name
 Length and beam
 Type of ship and
 Location of the position-fixing antenna
Dynamic information: (Dependent on speed and on speed/course alteration)
 Ship’s position with accuracy indication and integrity status
 Position time stamp (in UTC)
 Course over ground (COG)
 Speed over ground (SOG)
 Heading
 Navigational status (e.g. at anchor, underway, aground etc. And
 Rate of turn (where available).
Voyage related information (Every 6 min, when is data amended, or on request)
 Ship’s draught
 Hazardous cargo (type)
 Destination and ETA and
 Route plan (waypoints)
Short safety-related messages: Free format text message (sent as needed) addressed to one or more
specified destinations or to all stations in the area. The content should be relevant to safety messages
e.g. buoy missing, ice-berg sighted etc.
REPORTING INTERVAL
SHIP MANOEUVRING REPORTING INTERVAL

At Anchor / Moored 3 minutes
At Anchor / moored and moving faster than 3 kts 10 secs
Speed 0 – 14 Kts 10 secs
And changing course 3 1/3 secs
Speed 14 - 23 Kts 6 secs
And changing course 2 secs
Speed > 23 Kts 2 secs
And changing course 2 secs
MODES OF OPERATIONS
There are 3 modes of operation of AIS:
Autonomous and continuous mode: In this mode AIS automatically defines its own reporting rate in
accordance with its navigational mode, speed and course. The unit also selects its own time slots. This
is normal mode for operation in all areas but the mode may be switched from/to Assigned or
Polled/Controlled mode by a competent authority via a base station on shore.
Assigned/ Controlled Mode: A competent authority responsible for traffic monitoring may remotely set
transmissions intervals and/or time slots for the vessel mobile stations. In Assigned mode the mobile
station does not change its reporting rate when changing course and speed.
Polled Mode: In this mode, mobile station will automatically respond to interrogation (polling)
messages from a ship or competent authority. The response is transmitted on the channel where the
interrogation message was received. Operation in Polled mode does not conflict with the operation in
other two modes.
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OPERATION OF AIS
AIS should always be on when underway or at anchor unless the Master feels the operation might
compromise with security, such as piracy areas. Entry in log book should be made stating time and
reasons. It must be switch on as soon as possible.
PSEUDO AIS AND VIRTUAL AIS

VTS centers may send information about vessels which are not carrying AIS and which are tracked only
by VTS radar, via the AIS to vessels equipped with AIS. These are Pseudo AIS. Any pseudo AIS target
broadcast by VTS should be clearly identified and particular care should always be taken when using
information which has been relayed by a third party. Accuracy of these targets may not be as accurate
as actual directly-received targets and the information content may not be as complete.
A VirtualAISaid to navigation (Virtual AtoN) does not physically exist but is a digital information object
promulgated by an authorized service provider that can be presented on navigational systems service
provider that can be presented on navigational systems.
AIS AID TO NAVIGATION
AIS as an aid to navigation (AtoN) provide an opportunity to transmit position and status of buoys and
lights through the same VDL, which can then show up on an electronic chart, computer display or
compatible radar. This message (message 21 of the AIS reports) is used by ships as an aid to navigation
(AtoN) AIS station. It is generally transmitted autonomously at a rate of once every three minutes and
should not occupy more than two slots.
AIS AS SURVEILLANCE TOOL
In coastal waters, shore side authorities may establish automated AIS stations to monitor the
movement of vessels through the area. These stations may simply monitor AIS transmissions from
passing ships, or may actively poll vessels via the AIS channels, requesting data such as identification,
destination, ETA, type of cargo and other information. Coast stations can also use the AIS channels for
shore-to-ship transmissions, to send information on tides, notices to mariners and local weather
forecasts.
Coastal nations may use AIS to monitor the movement of hazardous cargoes and control commercial
fishing operations in their territorial waters.
Multiple AIS coast stations and repeaters may be tied together into Wide Area Networks (WAN) for
extended coverage.
AIS data can be logged automatically for playback in investigating an accident, oil spill or other event.
AIS will also be a useful tool in search and rescue (SAR) operations, allowing SAR coordinators to
monitor the movements of all surface ships, aircraft and helicopters involved in the rescue effort.
AIS AS AN AID TO COLLISION AVOIDANCE
AIS have potential to significantly contribute to safety of navigation. It provides positive identification of
targets fitted with AIS along with their static and dynamic information.
This enhances the navigational effectiveness and it can greatly improve situational awareness and
decision making abilities.
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AIS also assist OOW in tracking and monitoring targets, as it also provides information on CPA and TCPA.
When using the AIS in the ship-to-ship mode for anti-collision purposes, the following should be borne
in mind:
1)Do not rely on AIS as the sole information system, making use of all safety-relevant information
available.
2)AIS is an additional source for navigational information. AISdoes not replace, but supports,
navigational systems such as radar target-tracking and VTS.
3)The use of AIS on board ship is not intended to have any special impact on the composition of the
navigational watch, which should continue to be determined in accordance with the STCW Convention.
The use of AIS does not negate the responsibility of the OOW to comply, at all times, with the Collision
Regulations.
AIS SART
Search and Rescue Transmitters using AIS can be used to assist in determining the location of a vessel in
distress. Search and Rescue Aircrafts may use AIS to assist in their operations.
LIMITATIONS OF AIS
1) The accuracy of AIS information received is only as good as the accuracy of the AIS information
transmitted.
2) Position of ships received on AIS display may not be referenced to WGS 84 datum.
3) Over reliance on AIS information for navigational safety should be avoided until steps can be taken to
ensure that all transmitting ships provide the necessary degree of data accuracy and integrity for all
connected sensors.
4) The users must be aware that transmission of wrong information implies a risk to other ships as well
as their own. The users remain responsible for all information entered into the system and the
information added by the sensors.
5) Certain elements of the dynamic information transmitted by AIS may be provided from sensors which
lack comprehensive integrity monitoring and whose accuracy has not been tested.
6) Not all ships will be fitted with AIS, particularly small craft and fishing boats. Other floating objects
which may give a Radar echo will not be detected by AIS.
Mariners should be aware of this Imitation when viewing information on ship borne navigational
display. Thus OOW should be on guard against making a picture of traffic scenario on the basis of AIS
alone.
7) The OOW should always be aware that other ships, fitted with AIS as a mandatory carriage
requirement, might switch off AIS under certain circumstances by professional judgment of the master.
8) It would not be prudent for the OOW to assume that the information received from other ships is of a
comparable quality and accuracy as that which might be available on own ship.
TYPES OF AIS
Class A mandated by the IMO for vessels of 300 gross tonnage and upwards engaged on international
voyages, cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards not engaged on international voyages and
passenger ships irrespective of size.
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Class B provides limited functionality and is intended for non-SOLAS vessels. It is not mandated by the
International Maritime Organization (IMO) and has been developed for vessels such as work craft and
pleasure craft.
AIS TYPES A/B - DIFFERENCES
The Class B is nearly identical to the Class A, except the Class B:
 Has a reporting rate less than a Class A (e.g. every 30 sec. when under 14 knots, as opposed to
every 10 sec. for Class A).
 Does not transmit the vessel's IMO number.
 Does not transmit ETA or destination.
 Does not transmit navigational status.
 Does not transmit rate of turn information.
 Is only required to receive, not transmit, text safety messages.
 Does not transmit maximum present static draught.
AIS BASE STATION (REPEATERS)
Base Stations are provided by an “aids to navigation authority” to enable the ship to shore / shore to
ship transmission of information.Networked AIS Base Stations can assist in providing overall maritime
domain awareness.
A virtual aid to navigation (Virtual AtoN) does not physically exist but is a digital information object
promulgated by an authorized service provider that can be presented on navigational Systems service
provider that can be presented on navigational systems.
COMPARISION BETWEEN AIS AND LRIT
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LRIT AIS
Satellite based System VHF based System
Near global coverage (INMARSAT) Only where AIS coverage is Provided
Secure Data Public Data
Transmits Transmits: Position, IMO Number, Date/ Time,
Position, IMN Number, Date/ Time Vessel Type, Speed, Course etc.
Unlimited range Line of sight, up to 40NM
Flag State Owns Data Anyone can see data

Purpose : Purpose :
Maritime Security and Awareness Navigation and Anti- collision Tool
Uses elaborate communication Simplified direct point-to-point communication
infrastructure (CSP/ASP/DC/IDE/ etc.)
Comparatively costlier equipment Cost effective equipment
Monitoring is done by flag state or Self-monitored system (SOTDMA)
appointed agency
No human intervention for data update Voyage Data and navigation status has to be
updated by the user
There is a recurring cost for maintaining Negligible operating cost after equipment
the system Installation
Mostly being satellite system, may not Being terrestrial system, always capable of being
work in A4 areas. in operation.
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2. AUTOPILOT
DESCRIPTION & PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The autopilot is equipment used to maintain the ship’s set course electronically and electrically for a
long period of time when alteration of course is not required.
This is achieved by comparing the course to steer with the ship’s heading obtained by gyro or magnetic
compasses. Any difference between the two will cause an error signal voltage to be created and
accordingly correcting helm will be applied to the rudder to bring the ship back to the set course.
The error signal is fed to the error amplifier which also gets feedback signals from the rudder regarding
the rudder’s current position and it’s movement. The output of the error amplifier is fed via telemotors
to the steering gear unit which in turn operates the rudder. The telemotor has two units- transmitter
(situated on the bridge) and receiver (in the steering compartment).
When the difference between the two signals, i.e., the course to steer and present gyro (or magnetic)
course, is nil, there will be no output from the control unit and hence no movement of the rudder.
THE AUTOPILOT CONTROL SYSTEM – THE PID CONTROL UNIT
In order to maintain the ship’s course accurately, the deviation signal has to be generated under the
following conditions:
a) When the set course is changed (by the navigator)
b) When the ship deviates from the set course (due to external factors)
For this purpose, the helm must be provided with data regarding the ship’s movement relative to the
course to steer line.
This is achieved by electronic circuits with the help of the following:

 Proportional control
 Derivative control
 Integral control
Proportional Control
The effect on steering, when only the proportional control is applied, causes the rudder to move by an
amount proportional to the off-course error from the course to steer.
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When the ship has gone off-course to port, an error occurs and helm, proportional to the deviation and
hence error signal, is used to bring her back to the set course. As the ship starts to return to the set
course, the helm is gradually eased and finally removed when the ship is back on the set course. The
rudder will be amidships when the ship reaches its set course and then the heading overshoots resulting
in the vessel to go more to starboard. Correcting helm is now applied causing the ship to return to port
and back to the original course. The vessel thus keeps on oscillating to port and starboard of the course
line.
Derivative Control
In derivative control, the rudder is shifted by an amount proportional to the rate of change of the ship’s
deviation from the course. Any deviation of course to port will cause correcting rudder to be applied to
starboard.
As the rate of change of course decreases, the automatic rudder control decreases and at a point X, the
rudder will return to midships before the vessel reaches its set course.
The ship will now make good a course parallel to the required course.
Integral Control
Certain errors due to the design of the ship (bow going to port due to transverse thrust, shape of the
hull, current draft, etc.) have an impact on the steering capabilities of the ship and have to be corrected
for effective overall steering performance.
In order to achieve this, signals are produced by sensing the heading error over a period of time and
applying an appropriate degree of permanent helm. The rudder used to correct the course will now be
about this permanent helm. That is, the permanent helm will now act as midships.
Additionally, there are various controls provided on the autopilot system along with a filter system for
the action of the winds and waves which supply more data to the autopilot which optimizes the
performance of integral control.
The output of these three controls is combined and the net resultant thus obtained drives the rudder
maintaining the ship on the set course. This type of auto pilot is referred to as PID auto pilot.
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Block diagram of an Autopilot PID system
USER CONTROLS ON THE PANEL
The autopilot system requires to steer the ship in varied conditions such as loaded/ballast, slow/fast
speeds, good and bad weather, open and confined seas and so on. The approach to steering by
autopilot changes with these conditions. Therefore there are controls provided in the PID autopilot for
the user to set them optimally for the optimum performance of the radar. Following are the user
controls provided in the autopilot system:
 Course selector knob– course to be steered is selected by this knob.
 Permanent helm – Used when the ship is being driven off-course by cross winds. Rudder angle
should be just enough to off-set the drift.
 Speed – Speed input usually given from the log or manually.
Speed of the ship determines the effectiveness of the rudder; lower the speed, less effective the
rudder and vice-versa.
 Rudder control– This control determines the amount of rudder to be used to correct the
slightest amount of deviation from the set course. The higher the setting, the larger the rudder
angle used to correct a course deviation and may result in over correcting. Lesser the setting,
lesser the rudder angle used and longer the time taken by the ship to return to the set
course.Hence the setting has to be optimum so that the ship quickly returns to the set course
with minimum overshoot.
 Counter rudder – This control determines the amount of counter action by the rudder to be
used to steady the ship on the set course keeping the overshoot to the minimum. Too low a
setting will allow the ship to overshoot and too high will bring the ship back to set course slowly.
Hence optimum setting is desired.
 Yaw – This setting depends on wind and weather conditions. In bad weather a higher value
should be selected; in calm waters a low value is preferred.
 Rudder limit – This setting specifies the maximum amount of rudder to be used when correcting
the ship’s head or when altering course on autopilot. That is, if a setting of 10° is applied for
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rudder limit, when altering course the rudder will move to a maximum of 10°. This limit can be
varied according to the requirements of the navigator.
 Off-course alarm – This alarm is activated when the ship deviates from the set course by more
than the preset value fed into the equipment. This alarm also serves as a warning if the
autopilot system fails and the ship deviates from her set course by more than the preset value.
Again, the setting is dependent on weather. Higher in rough seas and lower in calmer waters.
 Synchronization control – This control temporarily disconnects the gyro repeater from the main
gyro so that the heading of the repeater can be synchronized with the master compass.
 Auto/Follow-up/Non follow-up – This switch allows the navigator to switch between various
steering modes.
 Dimmer – As the name stands used for illuminating the panel according to ones’ requirements.
AUTO ADAPTIVE STEERING SYSTEM

This is an advanced version of the PID control which adapts to the steering capabilities of the ship as
well as the wind and weather conditions.
The ship’s hull dynamic characteristics keep changing with the change in the load condition, speed,
depth of water, wind and weather conditions etc. In the PID autopilot, the controls have to be re-
adjusted to get the optimum steering but in the adaptive autopilot, the estimation algorithm is
incorporated so that the optimum steering is obtained without re-adjusting the controls.
Processing Unit in the ADAPTIVE mode and the control algorithm is divided into three units as follows:-
 Estimation Unit
 Optimal Control Unit and
 Adaptive Kalman Filter
The ship’s hull dynamic characteristics keep changing with the change in the load condition, speed,
depth of water, wind and weather conditions etc. In the PID autopilot, the controls have to be re-
adjusted to get the optimum steering but in the adaptive autopilot, the estimation algorithm is
incorporated so that the optimum steering is obtained without re-adjusting the controls.
PRECAUTIONS TO EXERCISE WHEN USING AUTOPILOT
Check the following frequently:
 Master and Gyro compasses are synchronized

 Try out hand steering and emergency steering
 Optimum settings of controls
 Try off-course alarm
 Maintenance be carried out as per the manual
The ship should not be on autopilot mode under the following situations:
 In narrow channels
 At slow speeds
 In areas of heavy traffic
 In rough weather conditions
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 When vessel is under pilotage
 In poor visibility
The autopilot should not be used for following:

 For large alteration of course (unless the autopilot is designed for the purpose)
 Never for collision avoidance
Note:
Modern ships are being fitted with rate of turn indicators and large alteration of courses can be made
on autopilot by feeding a constant ROT or a constant radius turn technique.
.
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3. LONG RANGE IDENTIFICATION AND TRACKING
PURPOSE OF LRIT
The Long Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT) system is a designated International Maritime
Organization (IMO) system designed to collect and disseminate vessel position information received
from IMO member States ships. The main purpose of the LRIT ship position reports is to enable a
Contracting Government to obtain ship identity and location information in sufficient time to evaluate
the security risk posed by a ship off its coast and to respond, if necessary, to reduce any risks. LRIT has
also become an essential component of SAR operations and marine environment protection.
It is a satellite-based, real-time reporting mechanism providing almost worldwide coverage (Inmarsat

Coverage) that allows unique visibility to position reports of vessels that would otherwise be invisible
and potentially a threat.
CARRIAGE REQUIREMENT
Ships in international voyages
- Passenger ships
- Cargo ships over 300 t
- Mobile platforms
Ships fitted with AIS and sailing in sea A1 areas do not need to transmit LRIT data.
INFORMATION TRANSMITTED
 Identity (Ship’s LRIT Identifier)

 Position (Lat/Long)
 Date and time (UTC)
UPDATE INTERVAL
 Default value 6 hourly
 Update interval remotely selectable
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 Minimum interval 15 min
 May be switched off by the Master under certain conditions
THE LRIT SYSTEM CONSISTS OF:
1. The ship borne LRIT information transmitting equipment

2. Communications Service Providers (CSPs)
3. Application Service Providers (ASPs)
4. LRIT Data Centres (DC), including any related Vessel Monitoring System(s) (VMSs)
5. The LRIT Data Distribution Plan (DDP)
6. The International LRIT Data Exchange (IDE), and,
7. LRIT Co-Ordinator
THE SHIP BORNE LRIT: The LRIT system is independent of the means of transmission. It suffices so long
as the position report is transferred to the ASP via CSP. However, due to its polling feature, Sat-C, often
used for GMDSS, is used for LRIT data transmission. This option may be used when there is duplication
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of equipment under GMDSS. Only one equipment may be used as a LRIT to avoid duplication of report
(of the same ship) at the DC.
COMMUNICATION SERVICE PROVIDER (CSP):The Communication Service Provider (CSP) provides the
communications services which transfer LRIT data securely from ship to the ASP on shore.
APPLICATION SERVICE PROVIDER (ASP): The Application Service Provider (ASP) receives the LRIT
reports transmitted by the ship via the CSP, adds certain additional information to each report, and
forwards the reports to the Data Centre nominated by the ship’s Flag State. The information to be
added to each LRIT report by the ASP includes:
1. ASP Id
2. CSP Id
3. Message Type
4. Message Id
5. IMO number for the ship
6. MMSI number for the ship
7. Two Time stamps (Report received and transmitted) - used for tracking and audit purposes.
Additionally, ASP is also responsible for identifying the ships which fail in sending their automatic
position reports and reset the system if required.
LRTI DATA CENTRE (DC): The function of the Data Centre is to collect the position report data and
participate in proper dissemination of this information to authorized entities. Each contracting
government must nominate a DC to which all the ships flying their flag must send their position report.
The Data Centres may be –
National (NDC) – owned and operated by the contracting govt (CG).
RegionalData Centre (RDC) – providing services to a number of CGs through a regional entity of
some kind.
Co-Operative Data Centre (CDC) – Governments may form one DC for their ships e.g., EU CDC.
Additionally, there is International Data Exchange (IDC) for the ships of CGs not part of any of
the above DCs to send their position reports.
INTERNATIONAL DATA EXCHANGE (IDE):The LRIT Data Centres are the users of the International Data
Exchange (IDE). In order to be connected to the IDE, a Data Centre must be included in the LRIT Data
Distribution Plan. The IDE only routes the communication via Internet, but does access or use the ship
position reports. Only the message headers may be accessed for handling exchange.
By international agreement amongst the contracting governments, the governments are entitled to
receive LRIT data within 1000 miles of their coast, provided that this does not infringe the territory of
another country.
DATA DISTRIBUTION PLAN (DDP): Each contracting Govt specify and subimt their policy on data
exchange at the DDP. The DDP is consulted by any DC in order to determine whether a request for LRIT
information should be allowed under the rules for the distribution of LRIT data.
The DDP information includes:
1. A list of the unique identification codes assigned to key elements in the LRIT system;
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2. A list of the ports and port facilities within the territory and places under the jurisdiction of each
Contracting Government; and
3. The coordinates which define the various geographical areas declared by Contracting Governments
within which they wish to exercise their rights to receive or restrict the distribution of LRIT
information as a Flag or Coastal State
BENEFITS OF LRIT:
 As a Flag Administration, layout of higher security risk geographic areas, worldwide, and
associated ship notification
 As a Port State, more effective management of Port State control activity, including security risk
assessment
 Locating overdue ships
 As a Coastal State, to monitor coastal traffic for safety, security and environmental protection
needs
 Reducing risk of piracy attacks
 As a Flag Administration, locating ships for Flag and Class compliance surveys – safety, security,
environment
CERTIFICATION:
 There are number of steps in the process for any ship to be certified for LRIT participation,
including:
 Equipment type approval
 Equipment conformance testing
 Annual Radio
 Copy of Conformance Test Report on board, Record of Equipment (SEQ, Form-E)
amended
LRIT V/s AIS – COMPARISION
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LRIT AIS
Satellite based System VHF based System
Near global coverage (INMARSAT) Only where AIS coverage is Provided
Secure Data Public Data
Transmits Transmits: Position, IMO Number, Date/ Time,
Position, IMN Number, Date/ Time Vessel Type, Speed, Course etc.
Unlimited range Line of sight, up to 40NM
Flag State Owns Data Anyone can see data

Purpose : Purpose :
Maritime Security and Awareness Navigation and Anti- collision Tool
Uses elaborate communication Simplified direct point-to-point communication
infrastructure (CSP/ASP/DC/IDE/ etc. )
Comparatively costlier equipment Cost effective equipment
Monitoring is done by flag state or Self-monitored system (SOTDMA)
appointed agency
No human intervention for data update Voyage Data and navigation status has to be
updated by the user
There is a recurring cost for maintaining Negligible operating cost after equipment
the system Installation
Mostly being satellite system, may not Being terrestrial system, always capable of being
work in A4 areas. in operation.
********************************************
4. VOYAGE DATA RECORDER
WHAT IS A VDR?
A VDR or voyage data recorder is an instrument installed on a ship to continuously record critical
Information related to the operation of a vessel.
It consists of a recording system for a period of at least last 48 hours which is continuously overwritten
by the latest data. This recording is recovered and made use of for various purposes, especially for
investigation in the events of accidents.
Purpose/benefits of VDR
VDR data can be used for :
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1. Accident investigations
2. Response Assessment
3. Training support
4. Promotion of best practices
5. Reduction of insurance cost
HOW DOES A VDR WORK?

There are various sensors placed on bridge of the ship and on prominent location from which the
required data is continuously collected. The VDR has to be very flexible in order to be interfaced with
the existing equipment and sensors for recording of relevant data.
The unit should be entirely automatic in normal operation.

Means are provided whereby recorded data may be saved by an appropriate method following an
incident, with minimal interruption to the recording process.
The data collected by VDR is digitalized, compressed, and is stored in a protective storage unit which is
mounted in a safe place. This tamper proof storage unit can be a retrievable fixed or floating unit
connected with EPIRB for early location in the event of accident.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF VDR:
1. DATA MANAGEMENT UNIT (OR DATA COLLECTION UNIT)

2. AUDIO MODULE
3. FINAL RECORDING MODULE
4. REMOTE ALARM MODULE
5. REPLAY STATION
6. RESERVE SOURCE OF POWER
Data Management Unit: This data which comprises of voices, various navigational parameters, ships
location etc. are fed to a unit called Data management unit. The data collected by Data Management
Unit is digitalized, compressed, and is stored in a specified format in two protective storage units (called
“Final Recording Medium”) which are mounted in safe place. A copy of the data is also recorded in a
hard drive housed in the data management unit.
Audio Module: It consists of an audio mixer for recording audio from microphones placed in the
wheelhouse, bridge wings, ECR and various other locations. VHF audio signals are also interfaced with
this unit.
Bridge Audioshould be recorded through the use of at least two channels of audio recording.
Microphones positioned outside on bridge wings, should be recorded on at least one additional
separate channel.
VHF Communications audioVHF communications relating to ship operations should be recorded on an

additional separate channel to those referred to in point above.
Final Recording Medium: The final recording mediums, also sometimes called VDR CAPSULES,
comprises of two independent recording units (fixed and float-free) and an long term medium.
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a) Fixed recording medium:
 Should record data for at least 48 Hrs which is continuously overwritten with new data.
 should maintain the recorded data for a period of at least two years following
termination of recording.
 data should be electronically tamper-proof
This fixed tamper-proof electronic storage medium is encased in a protecting casing. A fixed VDR
Capsule is capable of withstanding heavy weather, collisions, fires and pressure conditions even when a
ship is at a depth of several meters in water. This unit is fixed with an underwater locator which can be
used to retrieved in case of sinking of the ship.
Properties of Final Recording Unit:
 Highly visible color

 Can withstand temp. up to 1100ºC
 Can sustain deep sea pressure of 6000 m
 Electronically tamper-proof data
 Easily accessible / Float-free
b) Float-free recording medium;

 data recorded for at least 48 Hrs and continuously overwritten with new data
 should maintain the recorded data for a period of at least six months following
termination of recording;
 data should be electronically tamper-proof
or floating unit with an in-built EPIRB for early location in the event of accident.
C) Long-term recording medium.

 Data recorded for 30 days / 720 Hrs and continuously overwritten with new data
 be capable of being accessed from an internal, easily accessible area of the ship;
Remote Alarm Module: This is a small panel connected to the Data Management Unit that will sound
an audio-visual alarm should any error or fault develop in the equipment or if the sensor inputs are
missing.
Replay Station: The VDR should provide an interface for downloading the stored data and playback the
information to an external computer. The interface should be compatible with an internationally
recognized format, such as Ethernet, USB, FireWire, or equivalent.
A playback software should be provided with VDR with the capability to to download the stored data
and play back the information. The software should be compatible with an operating system available
with commercial off-the-shelf laptop computers and where non-standard or proprietary formats are
used for storing the data in the VDR, the software should convert the stored data into open industry
standard formats.
WHAT DATA IS RECORDED BY VDR?

VDR installed before 1st July, 2014 must record following data:
DATA ITEM SOURCE
Date & time every 1s Preferably external to ship (e.g.GNSS)
Ship’s position Electronic Positioning system. The source of data is
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identified on playback.
Speed (through water or over ground) Ship’s SDME. Recorded every 1s to 0.1k resolution.
Heading Ship’s compass. Recorded at intervals of 1s to a resolution
of 0.1 deg.
Bridge Audio 1 or more bridge microphones. Recorded in real time, both
internal & external (150-6000Hz). The mic test beeps every
12 hrs& this is recorded.
Communications Audio From 2 VHFs is recorded for both transmitted and received
audio signals. Audio is compressed and labeled VHF 1 &
VHF 2
Radar / ARPA data- post display selection, Master radar display. Includes range rings, EBLs, VRMs,
every 15s radar maps, parts of SENC & other essential navigational
indications.
Water depth Echo Sounder. Recorded to a resolution of 0.1m
Rudder order & response Steering gear & autopilot
Engine order & response Telegraphs, controls and thrusters
Hull openings status All mandatory status information displayed on bridge
Watertight & fire door status All mandatory status information displayed on bridge.
Recorded every 1s and stored with time stamps.
Acceleration & hull stresses Hull stress and response monitoring equipment where
fitted. Recorded with time stamp.
Wind speed & direction Anemometer when fitted. Stored individually with time
stamps.
Auto pilot settings Autopilot - for speed, latitude, rudder limit, off-course
alarms etc.
Thruster status Bow/Stern thrusters - Can be recorded for their order and
response.
Rudder order Ship’s steering / wheel- response angle is recorded to a
resolution of 1º
Engine order Telegraph or direct engine control with shaft revolution
and ahead and astern indicators are recorded to a
resolution of 1 rpm
AIS target data (If radar picture is not AIS - Recorded as a source of information regarding other
recorded) ships
Alarms Bridge VDR Microphones- Recorded with time stamps. All
IMO mandatory alarms as well as other audible alarms are
stored individually.
VDR installed after 1st July, 2014 must record, in addition to, or alternately, following data:
DATA ITEM SOURCE
Bridge Audio should be recorded through the use of at least two
channels of audio recording. Microphones positioned
outside on bridge wings, should be recorded on at least
one additional separate channel.
VHF Communications audio VHF communications relating to ship operations should be
20
recorded on an additional separate channel to those
referred to in point above.
RADAR - Recording of the main displays of both ship's radar
installations as required by SOLAS regulations.
AIS - All AIS data should be recorded
ECDIS display in use at the time as the primary means of
navigation.
Rolling Motion - VDR should be connected to an electronic inclinometer if
installed.
Configuration data: In addition to the data items, a data block defining the
configuration of the VDR and the sensors to which it is
connected should be written into the final recording
medium during commissioning of the VDR.
Electronic logbook: Where a ship is fitted with an electronic logbook in
accordance with the standards of the Organization the
information from this should be recorded.
Additionally, following requirements shall be fulfilled by the VDRs installed after 01 st July, 2014:
RADAR -Recording of the main displays of both ship's radar installations as required by SOLAS
regulations.
AIS- All AIS data should be recorded .
ECDIS display in use at the time as the primary means of navigation.
Rolling Motion -VDR should be connected to an electronic inclinometer if installed
Configuration data: In addition to the data items, a data block defining the configuration of the
VDR and the sensors to which it is connected should be written into the final recording medium
during commissioning of the VDR.
Electronic logbook: Where a ship is fitted with an electronic logbook in accordance with the
standards of the Organization the information from this should be recorded.
S-VDR
An S-VDR (Simplified VDR) is the same as a VDR. There is no principle difference between a VDR and an
S-VDR except the amount of information required to be recorded by S-VDR is less.
DATA RECORDED BY S-VDR:

DATA ITEM SOURCE
Date and time Preferably external to ship (e.g. GNSS)
Ship's position electronic positioning system
Speed (Through the water or over the Ship's SDME
ground)
Heading Ship's compass
Bridge Audio 1 or more bridge microphones
Communications audio VHF communications
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Radar data: post-display selection Master radar display
AIS Data AIS to be recorded if it is impossible to record radar
data.
If radar is recorded AIS may be recorded as an
additional source of information.
Other items Additional items required for VDR when interfacing
available.
CARRIAGE REQUIREMENTS
The following vessels are required to carry a VDR:
• All Passenger ships and Ro-Ro passenger ships
• Ships of 3,000 GT and upwards constructed on or after 1 July 2002.
The following vessels are required to carry an S-VDR:

• Ships over 3,000 GT constructed before 1 July 2002
*******************************************
5. BRIDGE NAVIGATION WATCH ALARM SYSTEM
PURPOSE OF BNWAS
The purpose of a bridge navigational watch alarm system is to monitor bridge activity and detect
operator disability which could lead to marine accidents.
The system monitors awareness of the Officer of the Watch (OOW) and automatically alerts the Master
or another qualified person if, for any reason, the OOW becomes incapable of performing OOW duties.
This purpose is achieved by series of indications and alarm to alert first the OOW and, if he is not
responding, then to alert Master or another qualified person.
IMO REQUIREMENTS
OPERATIONAL MODES
22
The BNWAS should incorporate the following operational modes:
- Automatic (Automatically brought into operation whenever the ship.s heading

or track control system is activated and inhibited when this system is not activated)
- Manual ON (In operation constantly)
- Manual OFF (Does not operate under any circumstances)
OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE OF INDICATIONS AND ALARMS
Once operational, the alarm system should remain dormant for a period of between 3 and 12 min (Td).
At the end of this dormant period, the alarm system should initiate a visual indication on the bridge.
If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a first stage audible alarm on the bridge 15 s after
the visual indication is initiated.
If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a second stage remote audible alarm in the back-up
officer’s and/or Master’s location 15 s after the first stage audible alarm is initiated.
If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a third stage remote audible alarm at the locations
of further crew members capable of taking corrective actions 90 s after the second stage remote
audible alarm is initiated.
ALLOWABLE DEVIATIONS
23
In vessels other than passenger vessels, the second or third stage remote audible alarms may
sound in all the above locations at the same time. If the second stage audible alarm is sounded in this
way, the third stage alarm may be omitted.
In larger vessels, the delay between the second and third stage alarms may be set to a longer
value on installation, up to a maximum of 3 min, to allow sufficient time for the back-up officer and/or
Master to reach the bridge.
EMERGENCY CALL FACILITY

Means may be provided on the bridge to immediately activate the second, and subsequently third,
stage remote audible alarms by means of an .Emergency Call. push button or similar.
RESET FUNCTION
It should not be possible to initiate the reset function or cancel any audible alarm from any device,
equipment or system not physically located in areas of the bridge providing proper look out.
The reset function should, by a single operator action, cancel the visual indication and all audible alarms
and initiate a further dormant period. If the reset function is activated before the end of the dormant
period, the period should be re-initiated to run for its full duration from the time of the reset.
To initiate the reset function, an input representing a single operator action by the OOW is required.
This input may be generated by reset devices forming an integral part of the BNWAS or by external
inputs from other equipment capable of registering physical activity and mental alertness of the OOW.
A continuous activation of any reset device should not prolong the dormant period or cause a
suppression of the sequence of indications and alarms.
ACCURACY
The alarm system should be capable of achieving the timings stated in section containing dormant
period and alarm durations with an accuracy of 5% or 5 s, whichever is less, under all environmental
conditions.
SECURITY
The means of selecting the Operational Mode and the duration of the Dormant Period (Td) should be
security protected so that access to these controls should be restricted to the Master only.
MALFUNCTIONS, ALARMS AND INDICATIONS
4.4.1 Malfunction
If a malfunction of, or power supply failure to the BNWAS is detected, this should be
indicated. Means shall be provided to allow the repeat of this indication on a central alarm panel if
fitted.
5 ERGONOMIC CRITERIA
5.1 Operational controls

5.1.1 A protected means of selecting the operational mode of the BNWAS.
5.1.2 A protected means of selecting the duration of the dormant period of the BNWAS.
5.1.3 A means of activating the Emergency Call function if this facility is incorporated within the BNWAS.
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5.1.4 Reset facilities
Means of activating the reset function should only be available in positions on the bridge giving proper
look out and preferably adjacent to visual indications. Means of activating the reset function should be
easily accessible from the conning position, the workstation for navigating and manoeuvring, the
workstation for monitoring and the bridge wings.
5.2 PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION
5.2.1 Operational mode

The operational mode of the equipment should be indicated to the OOW.
5.2.2 Visual indications

The visual indication initiated at the end of the dormant period should take the form of a flashing
indication. Flashing indications should be visible from all operational positions on the bridge where the
OOW may reasonably be expected to be stationed. The colour of the indication(s) should be chosen so
as not to impair night vision and dimming facilities (although not to extinction) should be incorporated.
5.2.3 First stage bridge audible alarm
The first stage audible alarm which sounds on the bridge at the end of the visual indication period
should have its own characteristic tone or modulation intended to alert, but not to startle, the OOW.
This alarm should be audible from all operational positions on the bridge where the OOW may
reasonably be expected to be stationed. This function may be engineered using one or more sounding
devices. Tone/modulation characteristics and volume level should be selectable during commissioning
of the system.
5.2.4 Second and third stage remote audible alarm

The remote audible alarm which sounds in the locations of the Master, officers and further crew
members capable of taking corrective action at the end of the bridge audible alarm period should be
easily identifiable by its sound and should indicate urgency. The volume of this alarm should be
sufficient for it to be heard throughout the locations above and to wake sleeping persons.2
6 DESIGN AND INSTALLATION
6.1 General
The equipment should comply with IMO resolutions A.694 (17), A.813 (19), their
associated international standards3 and MSC/Circ.982 regarding Guidelines for Ergonomic Criteria for
Bridge Equipment and Layout.
6.2 Specific requirements
6.2.1 System physical integrity: All items of equipment forming part of the BNWAS should be tamper-
proof so that no member of the crew may interfere with the system’s operation.
6.2.2 Reset devices: Reset devices should be designed and installed so as to minimise the possibility of
their operation by any means other than activation by the OOW. Reset devices should all be of a
uniform design and should be illuminated for identification at night.
6.2.3 Alternative reset arrangements may be incorporated to initiate the reset function from other
equipment on the bridge capable of registering operator actions in positions giving proper look out.
6.3 Power supply

The BNWAS should be powered from the ship’s main power supply. The malfunction
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indication, and all elements of the Emergency Call facility, if incorporated, should be powered from a
battery maintained supply.
***************************************
6. SPEED MEASUREMENT
DOPPLER LOG
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Doppler log is based on the principle of “Doppler Shift

Effect”, i.e., apparent change in frequency received
(from what was transmitted) when the distance
between source and observer is changing due to the
motion of either source or observer or both. In
Doppler log an observer is moving with a source of
sound towards a reflecting plane, then the received
frequency:
fr = ft (c+v) / (c - v)
where,
fr = received frequency
ft = transmitted frequency
26
c= velocity of sound in seawater and
v = velocity of the vessel
By measuring the received frequency (fr) & knowing the value of transmitted frequency (ft) and
velocity of sound in seawater (C), the speed of the vessel y can be determined.
DESCRIPTIONOF BASIC DOPPLER LOG

A transducer is fitted on the ship’s keel which transmits a beam of acoustic wave at an angle c
usually 60° to the keel in the forward direction, this gives the component “ v cos 𝜶” of the
ship’s velocity towards the sea bed thus causing the Doppler shift and the received frequency
fr = ft ( c + v Cos 𝜶)/(c - v Cos 𝜶.) ................ (i)
Figure 1
Acoustic beam transmitted at an angle a towards seabed
If the waves are transmitted directly towards the seabed perpendicular to the keel, there will
be no Doppler shift and the transmitted and received frequency will be the same. This is
because the component of ship’s speed towards the seabed is zero (i.e. v cos 90º).
According to the Binomial expansion, we have

1 / (1 - x) = 1 + x2 +x3 ...xn ................ (ii)
Dividing numerator and denominator of equation (i) by C, we get
fr = ft {1 + v cos α} x 1 .
c (1 - v cos α)
c
By using the formula (ii) in this equation and on simplification we get,
fr = ft ( 1 + 2 v cos α / c + 2 v2 cos2 α / c2 + ...)
since v cos α << C, neglecting higher powers of v cos α/c we get,
fr = ft + 2 v ft cos α / c
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fr-ft = 2 v ft cos α / c ................(iii)
v=C (fr - ft) / 2 ft Cos a ............... (iv)
With the help of this formula we can calculate the speed of the ship, considering that there is
no vertical motion.
In practice the ship has some vertical motion and the Doppler shift measurement will have a
component of this vertical motion. In this case Doppler shift measurement will be
fr-ft = 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 vvft sin α / c ................
fr-ft = (2 v ft cos α + 2 vvft sin α) / c ................ (v)
whereVv represents the vertical motion of the ship.
This problem is overcome by installing two transducers, one transmitting in the forward
direction and another in the aft direction at the same angle. This arrangement is known as
Janus configuration as shown in figure 2. In this case the forward transducer will give Doppler
shift
i.e. frf- ft = 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 Vvft sin α / c
frf- ft = (2 v ft cos α + 2 Vvft sin α) / c ................(vi)
where frfis the frequency received by the forward transducer while the aft transducer
will have the component “v cos α” with negative sign since the transducer is moving away from
the reflecting surface i.e. the seabed and hence the Doppler shift measured will be
fra-ft = - 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 Vvft sin α / c

fra-ft = (- 2 v ft cos α + 2 Vvft sin α) / c ................ (vii)
wherefra represents frequency received by the aft transducer.
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In formula (vi) and (vii) Vv will have the same sign since both the forward and aft transducers
will move upwards or downwards together. By measuring the difference between the two
Doppler shift frequencies, the vertical component will cancel out while the horizontal will add
i.e.
(frf - ft) - (fra - ft) = (2 v ft cos α + 2 Vvft sin a ) / c
- (-2 v ft cos α + 2 Vvft sin α) / c
(frf - ft - fra + ft) = 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 Vvft sin α / c
+ 2 v ft cos α / c - 2 Vvft sin α / c
frf - fra = 4 v ft cos α / c
i.e. v = c (frf - fra) / 4 ft cos a ...........(viii)
Thus v, i.e., speed of the ship can be calculated. The speed of the ship as determined by the
above formula is the speed over ground, unaffected by set and drift since the echoes are
coming from the seabed. This is also referred to as bottom track or ground track.
The transmitted pulse has certain power and can go up to a limited depth usually 200 meters.
Beyond this depth, the echoes from the seabed become very weak and the strength is not
sufficient to calculate the Doppler shift. In such a case echoes are also available from water
layers between 10 and 30 meters below the keel and hence Doppler shift is possible, enabling
measurement of speed. But this will give us speed over water. This is referred to as water track
and does not allow for set and drift. The equipment automatically changes over to water track
when the echoes from the sea-bed are not strong enough.
When the ship moves at high seas at the usual sea speed it carries some mass of surrounding
water with it and thereby providing a distinct layer of water between 10 and 30 meters below
the keel and this depth depends on the draft and speed of vessel. Below this depth the water is
still and hence there is a distinct separation between the two layers of water which provides
the echoing surface of the acoustic waves. These echoes are of course weak since the echoing
surface is actually liquid, but stronger than the echoes coming from the depths of over 200
meters. The speed worked out does not depend on the depth from which the echoes are
received. The strength of the echoes indicates whether the ship is on bottom track or on water
track.
ATHWARTSHIP'S SPEED
Doppler log on ground track mode can provide athwartship speed as well which could be useful
especially during berthing and unberthing operations and for this purpose a similar Janus
configuration is used on the port and starboard sides. The athwartship speed is calculated in
the similar manner as mentioned above.
29
This four transducer configuration is called Duel-Axis Doppler Log.
EFFECT OF VARIOUS SHIP CONDITION AND SHIP MOTION

Heaving
Any vertical movement Vv will have component Vv sin α in the direction of the acoustic wave,
resulting in an error in Doppler shift
= 2 Vvft sin α / c.
Hence the Doppler shift measurement at forward transducer will be given by
frf - ft = 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 Vvft sin α / c
and that at the aft transducer will be given by
fra – ft = - 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 Vvft sin α / c
By measuring the difference between the two Doppler shift frequencies, the vertical
component will cancel out while the horizontal will add i.e.,
(frf - ft) - (fra - ft) = ( 2 v ft cos α + 2 Vvft sin α ) /c
- (- 2 v ft cos α + 2 Vvft sin c ) / c
frf - ft - fra + ft) = 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 Vvft sin α / c
+ 2 v ft cos α / c - 2 Vvft sin α / c
frf - fra = 4 v ft cos α / c
v = (frf - fra) c / 4 ft cos α
30
Therefore,
Thus any vertical movement has got no effect on the speed indicated.
Trim
The trim of the vessel has very less effect on fore and aft speed and no effect on athwartship
speed. Let’s check out how.
• When down by stern
When trimmed by an angle β, the forward transducer will transmit at an angle (α - β) while the
aft transducer will transmit at an angle (α + β) as shown in figure 4 and the Doppler shift
frequency measurement by the forward transducer will be
frf - ft = 2 v ft cos ( α – β ) / c
while the Doppler shift frequency measurement by the aft transducer will be: -
fra - ft = - 2 v ft cos (α + β ) / c
Thus frf - fra = 2 v ft[ cos (α - β) + cos ( α + β) ] / c
= 2 v ft[ Cos a Cos Β + Sin a Sin Β
+ Cos a Cos Β - Sin a Sin Β]/c
= 2 v ft (2 Cos α Cos β) / c
= 4 v ft Cos α Cos β / c
v = (frf - fra) c / 4 ft Cos α Cos β
Note: Cos (α + β) = Cos α Cos β - Sin α Sin β, and
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Cos (α - β) = Cos α Cos β + Sin α Sin β
Figure 4
Ship trimmed- down by stern at angle β
The above formula gives the actual speed in trimmed condition while the speed indicated is
calculated by given formula
v = (frf - fra) c / 4 ft Cos α
Hence Actual speed = Indicated speed / Cos β.
 When down by head
When trimmed by head at angle β, the forward transducer is now transmitting at angle (α + β)
while the aft transducer is transmitting at an angle (α - β) as shown in figure 5.
hence
frf - ft = 2 v ft Cos ( α + β ) / c and
fra - ft = - 2 v ft Cos ( α - β ) / c
Thus,
frf - fra =
= 2 v ft[ Cos (α + β) + Cos (α - β) ] / c
= 2 v ft[ Cos α Cos β - Sin α Sin β + Cos α Cos β + Sin α Sin β] / c
= 2 v ft (2 Cos α Cos β) / c
= 4 v ft Cos α Cos β / c
v = (frf - fra) c / 4 ft Cos α Cos β
Once again indicated speed is less than actual speed by factor of 1 / Cos β i.e. whether down by
head or down by stern,
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Actual speed = Indicated speed / Cos β
Maximum trim permitted under MARPOL Annex I Regulation 13 is 1.5% of ship’s length. Hence
β = Tan -11.5 /100,
β = 0.86° and Cos β = Cos 0.86 ° = 0.9998874.
Now if the indicated speed is 16 knots, the actual speed
= 16/0.998874 = 16.001689 kts.
Figure 5: Ship trimmed-down by head at angle β

We notice that the difference is only in the third and fourth decimal places. In other words it is
negligible difference. In fact this difference may not be indicated on the display, since the
display shows only up to two decimal places. Note that change of trim does not affect the
athwartship speed.
Pitching
The effect of pitching is similar to a vessel with trim changing continuously.
When the vessel is pitching, the indicated speed will fluctuate between actual speed and a
value lower than the actual speed depending on the angle at which it is pitching. Pitching does
not affect athwartship speed.
List and rolling
Effect of list on athwartship speed will be the same as the effect of trim on the forward and aft
speed i.e.
Actual speed (ath) = Indicated Speed (ath) / Cos list
This is irrespective of the side to which the ship is listed. When the vessel is rolling, the
indicated athwartship speed will fluctuate between the actual speed and the indicated lower
speed worked out by the above formula depending on the angle of roll. List and rolling does
not affect the fore and aft speed.
ERRORS OF DOPPLER LOG
Error in transducer orientation: The transducers should make a perfect angle of 60° with
respect to the keel or else the speed indicated will be inaccurate.
Error in oscillator frequency: The frequency generated by the oscillator must be accurate and
33
constant, any deviation in the frequency will result in the speed indicated being in error.
Error in propagation velocity of acoustic wave : The velocity of the acoustic wave at the temp
of 16°C and salinity of 3.4% is 1505 m/sec, but generally it is taken as 1500 m/sec for
calculation. This velocity changes with temperature, salinity or pressure. To compensate the
error due to temperature variation, a thermistor (i.e. a resistance whose value changes with
temperature) is mounted near the transducer and change in velocity of the acoustic wave
through water from the standard value due to the change in seawater temperature is
accounted for. In modern transducers the angle at which the beam is transmitted is controlled
with the help of phase difference and the factor c / Cosα is not used in calculating v.
Errors due to ship’s motion: During the interval between transmission and reception, the ship
may marginally roll or pitch and thereby the angle of transmission and reception can change
and for a two degree difference between the angle of transmission and reception, the net
effect will be an error of 0.10% of the indicated speed which is marginal and can be neglected.
Errors due to the effect of rolling and pitching : The effect of pitching will cause an error in the
forward speed but it has no effect on the athwartship speed. Similarly rolling will cause an error
in athwartship, but not in forward speed.
Actual Speed = Indicated speed / Cos β Where β is the angle of pitching for
forward speed and angle of roll in case of athwartship speed, e.g., if the ship is pitching at an
angle of 10° and the indicated speed is 15 knots, then the
Actual speed = 15/ Cos 10°
i.e. Actual speed = 15.23 kts.
This error will increase with angle of pitch i.e. in rough seas. The digital readout will fluctuate
between the actual speed (i.e. at the instant when the pitch angle is zero) and a value lower
than the actual speed (i.e. when the angle of pitch is maximum).
The athwartship speed assumes importance only at the time of berthing where the rolling is
negligible and hence the above formula is generally used in case of forward speed only.
Error due to inaccuracy in measurement of comparison frequency: The difference in the
frequencies received by the forward and aft transducers must be measured accurately as any
error in this will be directly reflected in the speed of the vessel.
Error due to side lobes: When the side lobe reception dominates over the main beam
reception, there will be an error in the speed indicated. This error is more pronounced on a
sloppy bottom, where the side lobe will be reflected at a more favorable angle and will have
path length less than the main beam.
34
Figure 6
Side Lobe error
This error cannot be eliminated with the help of Janus configuration and to reduce this error
the beam of the transmitted acoustic wave is reduced. However a minimum beam width of 4 to
6° is required.
CALIBRATION
It is very important for any instrument to be calibrated correctly before being used and in a
Doppler log the calibration has to be done in two steps:
Firstly the zero on scale should be set correctly and this can be done and checked whenever the
ship is berthed at a jetty or at anchor when the speed over ground is zero and the second is the
scale calibration and should be done during sea trial when time taken to cover a measured mile
is noted and the SI calculated. This calculated speed must match with the displayed reading and
in case of any discrepancy between the two, the equipment can be adjusted. Once these two
calibrations are done the Doppler log can be used effectively.
******************
35
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC SPEED LOG
Electro-Magnetic Log is a device used to calculate the velocity of the ship. The EM Log
calculates the speed of ship with respect to the water, i.e., speed through water.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
As the name itself indicates, the EM Log works on Michael Faraday’s principle of Electro-
Magnetic Induction.
The operation relies upon the principle that any conductor which is moved across a magnetic
field will have induced into it a small electromotive force (e.m.f.). Alternatively, the e.m.f. will
also be induced if the conductor remains stationary and the magnetic field is moved with
respect to it. Assuming that the magnetic field remains constant, the amplitude of the induced
e.m.f. will be directly proportional to the speed of movement.
The e.m.f. induced is directly proportional to strength of magnetic field, length of conductor
cutting the magnetic flux and velocity of conductor (rate of change of magnetic flux cutting the
conductor) and the direction of the induced e.m.f. is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
PRACTICAL INSTALLATION AND WORKING:
In a practical installation, a constant e.m.f. is developed in a conductor (seawater flowing past

the sensor) and a minute current, proportional to the relative velocity, is induced in a collector.
The magnetic field created in the seawater is produced by a solenoid which may extend into
the water or be fitted flush with the hull. As the vessel moves, the seawater (the conductor)
flowing through the magnetic field has a small
36
e.m.f. induced into it. This minute e.m.f., the amplitude of which is dependent upon the rate of
cutting the magnetic lines of force, is detected by two small electrodes set
into the outer casing of the sensor.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VESSEL’S SPEED

AND SENSOR OUTPUT:
The induced e.m.f. in an EM Log setup is very small, typically l00 μV per knot, but the change
with respect to the flow of seawater is very liner (proportional) as depicted in the figure below.
This indicates the speed of the vessel with very good uniformity.
37
Relationship between the vessel’s speed and the output from the sensors.
Limitations of EM Log
However, it should be noted that the EM log suffers from following limitations:
1. The induced e.m.f. and hence the speed indication will vary with the conductivity of the water
and hence speed indication in waters of different salinity will vary.
2. The device measures the speed of the water flowing past the hull of the ship. This flow can vary
due to the non-linearity of a hull design. Therefore the flow sensor should be installed at a
location where three is minimum chance of uneven water flow which is not indicative of actual
speed of water past the hull of the ship.
3. The unevenness of water flow may be experiences in case of shallow waters having uneven
seabed, causing error in the indicated water speed.
4. The log does not show athwartship speed truly. This because the sensor is placed in fore-aft
direction. Any sideways flow of water will not be detected. If the current is at an angle to the
motion of ship, only a component of the current may be detected giving rise to water track.
******************
SPEED MEASUREMENT USING WATER PRESSURE
When a tube, with an opening at its base, is vertically submerged in water, a pressure, proportional to
the depth to which the tube is submerged, will be developed in the tube. If the tube is held stationary
the pressure remains constant and is termed ‘static’ pressure. If the tube is now moved through the
water, whilst keeping the depth to which it is submerged constant, a second pressure called ‘dynamic’
pressure is developed. The total pressure in the tube, called a Pitot tube, is therefore the sum of both
the static and dynamic pressures.
To ensure that the dynamic pressure reading, and thus speed, is accurate, the effect of static pressure
must be eliminated. This is achieved by installing a second tube close to the first in such a way that the
static pressure produced in it is identical to that created in the Pitot tube but without the pressure
increase due to movement through the water (see Figure 3.1).
In a practical installation, tube B, the Pitot tube, extends below the vessel’s hull to a depth d,
whereas tube A, the static pressure intake tube, is flush with the hull. With the vessel stationary, the
static pressures from tube A to the top of the diaphragm and tube B to its underside almost cancel. The
unequal pressures, which cause a small indication of speed to be displayed when the vessel is
stationary, are compensated for in the log electromechanical system and the erroneous indication is
38
cancelled. As the vessel moves through the water, in the direction shown, water is forced into tube B
producing a combined pressure in the lower half of the chamber equal to both the static and dynamic
pressures. The difference in pressure, between upper and lower chambers, now forces the diaphragm
upwards thus operating the mechanical linkage. Obviously the greater the speed of the vessel through
the water, the more the diaphragm will move and the greater will be the speed indicated.
Unfortunately, the dynamic pressure developed in tube B, by the relative movement through the
water, is proportional to the square of the vessel’s speed. Pitot’s Law states that this pressure p is
proportional to the square of the ship’s speed v multiplied by the coefficient K.
p = K × v2
where the constant K is derived from the vessel’s tonnage, shape of hull, speed of the ship, and the
length of the protruding part of the Pitot tube (distance d).
As the speed indication produced is not linear, it is necessary therefore to eliminate the non-linear
characteristics of the system and produce a linear speed indication. This is achieved mechanically, by
the use of precisely engineered cones or electronically using CR (capacitive/resistive) time constant
circuitry.
CONFIGURATION OF LOG DATA TO REMOTE DISPLAYS AND OTHER EQUIPMENT
39
The Speed and distance given by the log is required at various key locations in the bridge for safe
navigation. Hence it is required that the master display of the log is dstributed to those location by
means of repeaters. This is done using standard marine electronic communications protocols over 9-pin
RS232 ports.
Thses ports can also be used for other comm protocols, such as NMEA. NMEA interfacing standard
ensures that conforming instruments all speak the same language. This language can be understood by
PC programs and data from many different instruments can be logged to one time-stamped file. For
example, depth data from sonar and position data from a GPS receiver can be combined to plot a
contour map for example.
The standard was developed by the US-based National Marine Electronics Association(NMEA) in the
1980s. The NMEA 0183 standard uses ASCII messages which can be sent over RS232 serial links. In 2000
a new standard was released - NMEA 2000. This uses CAN, or, Controller Area Networks. (Refer
diagram, above.)
******************
7. RATE OF TURN INDICATOR
INTRODUCTION:
IMO Recommendations on passage planning lay stress on controlled navigation. The passages in narrow
channels or harbors are either along straight courses or along arcs of circles.
As per SOLAS 2000 Amendment Chapter V Regulation 19.2.9, it is mandatory for ships over 50,000 GRT
to have a rate of turn indicator. IMO recommends that large alteration of courses have to be planned
along circular tracks with wheel over point marked.
The Rate of Turn Indicator (ROTI) is a device which indicates the instantaneous rate at which the ship is
turning. It is fitted on ship as an independent fitment integrated with the steering gear/auto pilot.
40
Figure – 1
When the wheel is turned over, the ship actually traverses along a curved track rather than
performing a sharp turn about a point. It is very useful knowing the nature of this traversed path
the ship takes which can help in planning:
1. The desired turn with given radius
2. Desired speed of the vessel to execute the planned turn.
3. When to apply the turn (wheel over point)
RATE OF TURN FORMULAE:
ROT = v/R
Where,
v - Speed of the vessel,
R - Radius from a fixed point around which to turn the ship.
Note: ROT is directly proportional to the speed.

ROT is inversely proportional to radius.
41
Figure -2
TURNING WITH CONSTANT RADIUS

d =Rxα (α in Radian)
d = R qº / 57.3 …… …… …… …… …… …… (i) (1 Rad = 57.3º)
if vessel speed = “v” knots

Then, time taken ‘t’ to cover distance “d” (Ref figure above)
t = d/v hrs
= ( d / v ) x 60 minutes (Hrs converted to minutes)
t = R x q x 60 / v x 57.3 minutes…… …… (ii) (Because, d = R qº / 57.3)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Relation between DEGREES &RADIANS ?
e.g., 180º in radians? Just divide by 57.3.
180 / 57.3 = 3.14 (The value of π) A half circle has an angle of π radians.)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Vessel has to turn through qº in the time (t) given above and has to move along the arc (d).
ROT = Angle in degrees / time in minutes to cover the angle. Therefore,
ROT =q / (R x q x 60 / 57.3 x v )
= 57.3 x v / 60 R
= 0.96 v/R deg/min
Therefore, ROT = v / R deg/min (Approx)
Example:
Speed = 8 knots
42
Radius = 4 cables
ROT = 8 / 0.4
= 20o / min
When turning with Constant Radius, wheel, and hence ROT, is constantly adjusted so that the turn
maintains desired radius. (4 cables as in example)
TURNING WITH CONSTANT RATE
Alternative method of planning a turn is by maintaining constant rate of turn, instead of constant
radius. Since the speed of the ship varies during the turn, an average of the initial and final speed is used
to calculate the ROT.
When turning with Constant Rate, wheel is constantly adjusted so that the rate of turn stays constant.
(20º/min as in previous example)
Figure -3
Both methods are governed by the same formulae, i.e., ROT = v/R. or R = v/ROT
Since speed (v) variation during turn is not practical,
For constant Radius – Adjust ROT !!!
For constant ROT – Adjust Radius !!!
In both cases, ROTI is invaluable equipment.
ADVANTAGES OF ROT
 The turn and rate of turn can be pre-planned; execution becomes simple.
 Turn can be monitored easily.
 As pre-planned, use of helm is minimized.
 Even if the ship has drifted to ‘Port’ or ‘Stbd’, turn can be amended to join the course on
completion of turn.
WHEEL OVER POINT

When the wheel is turned, the ship moved on her initial course before beginning the turn. This is
primarily due to her inertia, denoted by ‘F’ and depends on various ship parameters, such as:
 Length > Beam
 Displacement > Speed
43
 Trim and > Type of vessel
Therefore, the wheel should be given at some point before the actual commencement of the desired
turn. The Point at which the wheel is to be turned over is known as WHEEL OVER POINT.
WHEEL OVER POINT- THE FORMULAE
T= R (1- Cos q) + F Sin q

Where:
T= Perpendicular distance of WOP from the new course
R = Radius of Turn
q = Angle of alteration of course
F = Depends on type & size of vessel
Small ships - 0.1,
Large ships – 0.15, and
Very large ships – 0.2
Figure - 4
Refer to the above diagram. The length ‘T’ is the sum of two components – AG and BD. T can be
calculated by finding the values of AG and BD.
In triangle OMD, angle OMD is right angle. Therefore,

OM = R cos Θ
But OE = R (radius of the turn)
Therefore: EM = OE – OM
= R- R cos Θ
= R (1-CosΘ) = BD ….. …... (i) (OE, BD & BE, GM are parallel)
44
In triangle AGD, angle AGD is right angle. Angle ADG is Θ, angle between initial and final courses.
Therefore,
Sin Θ = AG / AD
AG = AD sin Θ
However, the distance AD, travelled by ship after wheel over, denoted by letter ‘F’, depends on various
ship parameters as explained above. The following values are assumed for F:
Small ships - 0.1 NM

Large ships – 0.15 NM
Very large ships – 0.2 NM
ThusAD sin Θ = F sin Θ = AG….. ….. ….. (ii)
Now, T = AG + BD.
From (i) and (ii) above we get,

T= R (1- Cos q) + F Sin q
ADVANTAGES – USES OF WHEEL OVER

 Transiting confined channels
 Conning a large vessel
 Elimination of cross track error (XTE) on the new course
 Can be plotted on the reflection plotter
 Can be plotted electronically on the ARPA
 Turning predictions can be made for a moderate value of helm (100 to 150)
PRECAUTIONS WHILE USING RATE OF TURN INDICATOR
 The speed of the vessel for calculating ROT is “Speed over Ground” and not “speed through
Water”.
 Initially a large helm is required in order to achieve the desired ROT. Approaching desired
ROT, helm must be eased, to just enough to maintain the ROT.
 In case of constant radius turn, ground speed must be monitored carefully so that if the
speed reduces, ROT can be adjusted (reduced) accordingly.
 For large ships, it is easier to reduce ROT than to increase it. Therefore, it is safer to over-
estimate ROT than under-estimate it. This way if the vessel turns faster, ROT can be reduced
in order to control the vessel in more effective manner.
*****************************************
8. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

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OVERVIEW
 Official name of GPS is NAVigational Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System
(NAVSTAR GPS). Global Positioning Systems (GPS) is a form of Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS). First developed by the United States Department of Defense
 Consists of two dozen GPS satellites in medium Earth orbit (The region of space between
2000km and 35,786 km)
GPS FUNCTIONALITY
GPS systems are made up of 3 segments:
 Space Segment (SS)
 Control Segment (CS)
 User Segment (US)
SPACE SEGMENT
It consists of 24 operational satellites evenly placed in 6 different orbits. The satellites have their own
propulsion system to maintain their orbital path and can be controlled remotely. The angle between
each of the 6 orbital planes and the equatorial plane i.e., Inclination, is 55°. GPS satellites fly in circular
orbits at an altitude of 20,200 km and at a speed of 3.9 km/s. It takes 12 hours to complete one orbit.
Each satellite makes two complete orbits each sidereal day. It passes over the same location on Earth
once each day. The satellites continuously orient themselves to point their solar panels toward the sun
and their antenna toward the earth. Orbits are designed so that at the very least six satellites are always
within line of sight from any location on the planet.
CONTROL SEGMENT
The CS consists of 3 entities:
 Master Control System
 Monitor Stations
 Ground Antennas
Master Control Segment
The master control station, located at Falcon Air Force Base in Colorado Springs, Colorado, is
responsible for overall management of the remote monitoring and transmission sites.
Monitor Stations
Six US Air Force monitor stations
are located at Falcon Air Force
Base in Colorado Springs (MCS),
Hawaii, Cape Carnival (Florida),
Ascension Island, Diego Garcia,
and Kwajalein Island.
There are aditional monitor

stationa from NGA (National
Geospetial-Intelligence Agency)
are located at Alaska, Australia,
Bahrain, Argentina, Washington (USA), Equador, United Kingdom, South Africa, South Korea and New
Zeeland.
46
Each of the monitor stations checks the exact altitude, position, speed, and overall health of the orbiting
satellites. A station can track up to 11 satellites at a time. This "check-up" is performed twice a day, by
each station, as the satellites complete their journeys around the earth.
The monitoring stations track the satellites, obtain the data and pass the information to the MCS.
The MCS uses the data to compute and predict the future path of all the satellites. The MCS also
determines the error of the atomic clocks in all the satellites.
The ephemeris and clocks parameters are usually updated every two hours while Almanac data is
updated every six days through the upload station and ground antennas.
Ground antennas:
Ground antennas monitor and track the satellites from horizon to horizon and send/transmit navigation
data uploads and processor program loads, and collect telemetry through S-Band communication links.
There are four dedicated GPS ground antenna sites co-located with the monitor stations at Kwajalein
Atoll, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Cape Canaveral.
USER SEGMENT:
It consists of a receiving antenna, receiver with built-in Computer and display unit. The receiver locks on
to one satellite and from this satellite it obtains the almanac of all other satellites and thereby selects
the four most suitable for position fixing. The fix obtained is displayed on the screen along with the
course and speed made good. Receivers designed to receive only one frequency are known as single
frequency receivers. To enhance position accuracy, there are dual frequency receivers that can receive
both frequencies.
SATELLITE NAVIGATION DATA STRUCTURE

GPS satellites broadcast three different types of data.
Almanac – The almanac contains information about the status of the satellites and their
approximate orbital information. The GPS receiver uses the almanac to calculate which satellites are
currently visible. This tells the GPS receiver where each satellite should be at any time through the day.
However, the almanac is not accurate enough to let the GPS receiver get a fix.
Ephemeris – To get a fix, GPS receiver requires additional data for each satellite, called the
ephemeris. This data gives very precise information about the orbit of each satellite and current date &
time. GPS receiver can use the ephemeris data to calculate the location of a satellite to within a metre
or two. The ephemeris is updated every 2 hours and is usually valid for 4 hours.
Pseudo Random Code –Each satellite broadcasts what is called pseudo random codes (Coarse
Acquisition code and Precision code) for timing
purposes (each satellite has its own distinct and
unique pseudo random code). GPS satellites and
receivers are synchronized so they're generating
the same code at exactly the same time. The
distance (or range) between the receiver and
the satellite can be calculated from the time it
takes for the satellite signal to reach the
receiver. To determine the time delay, all we
have to do is receive the codes from a satellite and then look back and see how long ago our receiver
generated the same code. The time difference is how long the signal took to get down to us.
47
P Code and C/A Code: Each satellite transmits two codes, i.e. the Precision (P) code and the Coarse
Acquisition (C/A) code. These codes are a very complex series of data bits in the form of ‘0’ and ‘1’ and
hence referred to as Pseudo Random Codes or Pseudo Random Noise!
All civilian GPS receivers decode the C/A code and it also helps the military receivers to access the more
accurate, encrypted, P code. These codes are modulated by phase modulation technique on two carrier
frequencies, L1 and L2. The L1 signal consists of both the codes i.e. the P and the C/A codes while the L2
consists of only the P code. Data transmitted are as follows:
 L1 (1575.42 MHz) - Mix of coarse-acquisition (C/A) code, encrypted precision (P) code and
Navigation Message.
 L2 (1227.60 MHz) – Precision (P) code only and Navigation Message.
C/A Code:
 C/A-Code is modulated over L1 carrier frequency by phase modulation.
 It is transmitted at the rate of 1.023 Mbps in the form of ‘0’ and ‘1’ called a ‘Chip’.
 Length of a Chip is 1 micro-sec, and terms of length measures 293 metres.
 1023 chips make a complete C/A code.
 Thus a complete C/A code is of 1 millisecond, and terms of length measures about (1023 x 293
~) 300 km.
 Each Satellite has its own unique C/A code.
 The GPS receiver locks on to this C/A code, synchronizes itself with code and then uses it for
timing and ranging purposes.
P-Code:
 P-Code is modulated over L1 and also L2 carrier frequency by phase modulation.

 It is transmitted at a faster rate of 10.23 Mbps in the form of ‘0’ and ‘1’ also called a ‘Chip’.
 Length of a Chip is 0.1 micro-sec, and terms of length measures 29.3 metres.
 A complete P-code is of 267 days, and is of 2.35 × 10 14 bits in length (approx. 26.716 Terra
Bytes).
 The code length being so large, each satellite is assigned only a weekly segment of the master P-
Code (of 267 days length).
 In order to facilitate GPS receivers to synchronize faster with this long code, the start time of
the code is transmitted every 6 seconds.
 This helps the GPS Rx to identify which part of the code is being transmitted currently (and
synchronize) .
 However, P-Code is same for all the satellites as against the C/A codes which are unique for
each satellite.
Navigation Message:Essential purpose of the navigation message transmission by satellites is to

determine its position by the GPS receiver. Each satellite transmits a navigational message of 30
seconds in the form of 50 bps data frame. This data, which is different for each satellite, is previously
supplied to the satellites by master control station and is divided into 5 sub-frames. Each sub-frame
commences with telemetry word (TLM) containing satellite status followed by hand over word (HOW)
data for acquiring P code from C/A code. The sub-frames are:
The 1st sub-frame contains data relating to satellite clock correction.

The 2nd and 3rd sub-frames contain the satellite ephemeris defining the position of the satellite.
48
The 4th sub-frame passes the alpha-numeric data to the user and will only be used when upload station
has a need to pass specific messages. Otherwise it contains the almanac and health data of the standby
satellites (SV25 to 32) to be used by monitoring stations and master control stations.
The 5th sub-frame gives the almanac of all the other satellites which includes the identity codes thus
allowing the user the best choice of satellites for position fixing.
OPERATION OVERVIEW
A GPS receiver can tell its own position by determining the ranges to three satellites and using
Trilateration. To get the distance, each satellite transmits a signal.
These signals travel at a known speed. The system
measures the time delay between the transmission of the
signal by the satellite and its reception by the receiver.
The signals are carrying information about the satellite’s
location. The GPS receiver determines the position of and
distance to, at least three satellites (to reduce error) and
computes the position using Trilateration.
POSITION CALCULATION:
The coordinates are calculated according to the World
Geodetic System WGS84 coordinate system.
The satellites are equipped with atomic clocks while GPS receiver uses an internal crystal oscillator-
based clock that is continually updated using the error correction signals from the satellites. To make
the measurement we assume that both the satellite and our receiver are generating the same pseudo-
random codes at exactly the same time. Receiver identifies each satellite's signal by its distinct C/A code
pattern, then measures the time delay for each satellite.
The distance is obtained by multiplying the travel time by the speed of light. Orbital position data from
the Navigation Message is used to calculate the satellite's precise position. Knowing the position and
the distance of a satellite indicates that the receiver is located somewhere on the surface of an
imaginary sphere centered on that satellite and whose radius is the distance to it.
When distances from four such satellites are measured at the same time, the point where the four
imaginary spheres meet is recorded as the location of the receiver. This method is called Trilateration.
Pseudo Range: In order to obtain range of satellites with accuracy, the exact position of the satellite has
to be known to the GPS Rx and also the clocks of the satellite and the Rx has to be perfectly
synchronized. Both of these are obtained from the Navigation Message of the satellite transmission.
However, some error remains in the synchronization of the two clocks. As a result, the range of satellite
49
calculated by the GPS Rx has an element of error due to the clocks difference. This range (with time
error) is called Pseudo Range.
The following range equation eliminates the error from the pseudo range:
R1 = C x t – C x Δt = √ (x1 –x)2 + (y1-y)2 + (z1-z)2

Where,
R1 = True range of satellite no.1
C= Speed of radio waves
t = total time taken by the signals to reach (includes clock error)
Δt = clock error (difference in satellite and user clocks)
x1, y1, z1 = 3D co-ordinates of the satellite-1
x, y, z = 3D co-ordinates of the GPS receiver
Similar process is repeated for three more visible satellites and with four such equations the values of x,
y and z are computed by the receiver. As can be seen, true position can be calculated despite error in
range due to clock error.
THE WORLD GEODETIC SYSTEM

A geodetic datum is a tool used to define the shape and size of the earth, as well as the reference point
for the various coordinate systems used in mapping the earth. Throughout time, hundreds of different
datums have been used - each one changing with the earth views of the times.The horizontal datum is
the one that is used in measuring a specific position on the earth's surface in coordinate systems such as
latitude and longitude. Because of the different local datums (i.e. those having different reference
points), the same position can have many different geographic coordinates so it is important to know
which datum the reference is in.
There are many datums in use around the world today. Some of the most commonly used datums are:
 World Geodetic System,
 the North American Datums,
 Ordinance Survey of Great Britain,
 European Datum,
 Russian datum (PZ90), etc.
Within the World Geodetic System (WGS), there are several different datums that have been in use
throughout the years. These are WGS 84, 72, 70, and 60. The WGS 84 is currently the one in use for this
system. The GPS uses World Geodetic System 84. In addition, it is one of the most widely used datums
around the world.The modern GPS receivers have many in-built datums, the WGS 84 being the default
one. Therefore, it is important to match the datums of the GPS and that of the chart before plotting GPS
position on the chart.
If the two datums are different, the plotted position may refer to some other position than the actual
position.
SPEED DETERMINATION
The carrier frequency is also used to determine the speed of the user by the measurement of Doppler
shift, i.e. change in the frequency of radio waves received when the distance between the satellite and
50
user is changing due to the relative motion between the two. The position and velocity of the satellite as
well as the position of the user are known to the user’s receiver.
The velocity vector of the satellite can be resolved in two ways:
i) In the direction towards the user
ii) In the direction perpendicular to (i).
nd
The 2 component is not considered as speed in this direction will not cause Doppler shift.
The receiver calculates the velocity vector of the satellite in the direction towards the user.
If the relative approach speed between the satellite and the user’s speed (based on the Doppler shift
measurement) is not equal to the satellite speed vector towards the user; the difference can only arise
due to user’s speed towards or away from the satellite.
Similarly with the help of the other two satellites, the receiver can calculate two additional speed
vectors and these speed vectors will be towards or away from their respective satellites. These velocity
vectors are resolved into three other vectors, i.e. x, y and z co-ordinates and with these three vectors
the course and speed of the user is calculated.
ERRORS OF GPS
1. Atmospheric Error:Changing atmospheric conditions change the speed of the GPS signals as they
pass through the Earth's atmosphere and this affects the time difference measurement and the fix
will not be accurate.
Each satellite transmits its message on two frequencies and hence a dual frequency receiver receives
both the frequencies and correction is calculated and compensated within the receiver thus
increasing the accuracy of the fix.
 Effect is minimized when the satellite is directly overhead.
 Becomes greater for satellites nearer the horizon. The receiver is designed to reject satellites with
elevation less than 9.5 degrees.
2. User Clock Error: This is the third largest factor causing error in GPS fix. If the user clock is not
perfectly synchronized with the satellite clock, the range measurement will not be accurate.
GPS receivers are usually equipped with quartz crystal clocks, which are relatively inexpensive and
compact. For these types of clocks, the frequency is generated by the piezoelectric effect in an oven-
controlled quartz crystal. Their reliability ranges from a minimum of about 1 part in 108 to a
maximum of about 1 part in 1010, a drift of about 0.1 nanoseconds in 1 second. Even at that, quartz
clocks are not as stable as the atomic standards in the GPS satellites and are more sensitive to
temperature changes, shock, and vibration. Both a receiver’s measurement of phase differences and
its generation of replica C/A codes depend on the reliability of this internal frequency standard. Such
an error in a GPS receiver’s clock oscillator is also termed as receiver clock bias error.
The range measurement along with the clock error is called pseudo range. There are four unknowns
(x, y, z, and time) and, therefore, four observations to make the solution. This error can be
eliminated within the receiver by obtaining pseudo range from four satellites and is done
automatically within the receiver.
3. Satellite Clock Error: This error is caused due to the error in

the satellite’s clock w.r.t. GPS time. Satellite clock error is
about 8.64 to 17.28 ns per day. The corresponding range
error is 2.59m to 5.18m, which can be easily calculated by
multiplying the clock error by the speed of light. This is
51
monitored by the ground based segments and any error in the satellites clock forms part of the 30
seconds navigational message.Applying the satellite clock correction in the navigation message can
correct the satellite clock errors.
4. GDOP Error: GDOP (geometric dilution of precision) describes error caused by the relative position
and thus the ‘angle of cut’ of the GPS satellites at the receiver. Basically, the more signals a GPS
receiver can “see” (spread apart versus close together), the more precise it can be. Wider the
angular separation between the satellites, better the accuracy of the fix. Or, conversely said, the
lower the GDOP value, the greater the accuracy of the fix.The GDOP value is indicated on the display
unit.
Poor
Geometry of
satellites,
higher
GDOP, poor
accuracy
5. Multipath Error:This error is caused by the satellite signals arriving at the ship’s antenna both
directly from the satellite and those that get reflected by some objects such as gravel roads,
open water, snow fields, rock walls, buildings. Thus two signals are received simultaneously
which will cause the distortion of signal from which range measurement is obtained.Siting the
antenna at a suitable place can minimize this error.
6. Orbital Error: The satellites are monitored and their

Good
paths are predicted by the ground based Low
segment.However, between two consecutive
monitoring of the same satellite, there may be minor
drifts from their predicted paths resulting in small
position inaccuracy.
Receiver Channel Noise
All receivers have internal equipment noise. If the receiver noise is high in comparison to the satellite
signal received, the usability of the those signal is reduced in the same ratio. This comparison is
expressed as “Signal-to-Noise” Ratio, denoted by “SNR”. The current S/N should be displayed by the GPS
Rx.
Situation of poor SNR develops if either the receiver noise is high (a low quality Rx) or if the satellite
signal level goes down (Satellites nearing the horizon). A value of above 20 is good SNR.
A GPS Rx can be configured to a pre-set value of SNR below which it will not use the satellites’ signals, as
low SNR degrades the accuracy of the position fix.
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Following is the average values of range errors on account of various sources:
Error Source Typical Range Error DGPS Range Error

(<100km ref-remote)
Satellite vehicle clock 1 mtr -
Satellite vehicle Ephemeris 1 mtr -
Selective availability 10 mtr -
Troposphere 1 mtr -
Ionosphere 10 mtr -
Pseudo range error 1 mtr 1 mtr
Receiver noise 1 mtr 1 mtr
Multipath 0.5 mtr 0.5 mtr
Error *PDOP = 4 60 mtr 6 mtr
*PDOP = Position Dilution of Precision (3-D); value of 4 is typical
ACCURACY OF GPS
The accuracy of the position your GPS reports is influenced by a number of factors, such as the positions
of the satellites in the sky, atmospheric effects, satellite clock errors and ephemeris errors etc., as
explained above. Under ideal conditions, this may be 5, or even 3 metres. GPS units often show on the
screen an accuracy figure.
The accuracy of a GPS can be improved by using secondary data from external reference stations. One
such method is Augmented GPS called Differential GPS.
DIFFERENTIAL GPS (DGPS)
DGPS uses a network of ground stations located at precisely knownpositions. The DGPS reference
station is situated at a fixed location and from this position the GPS receiver tracks all the satellites
within its sight, obtains the data from them and calculates the corrections for each satellite.
These corrections are then broadcast by

the DGPS stations on MF frequencies
for use by the DGPS receivers in the
vicinity.
There are two methods employed for

enhancing DGPS position accuracy.
1. Position Correction
2. Range correction.
In the first method, the reference station knows its exact position and compares it to the position
obtained by the GPS and determines the corrections based on the actual and GPS calculated positions.
These corrections are then broadcast to the users in terms of co-ordinates (i.e. x, y and z). The accuracy
decreases as the distance of the user from the reference station increases.
Besides, the reference station and the user must select the same satellites, which is practically not
possible as the user does not have the option of manually selecting the satellites.
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In the second method, the reference station receives signals from all the visible satellites and measures
the pseudo range to each of them. The reference station also calculates the true range to all the
selected satellites. By comparing the calculated true range and the measured pseudo range, corrections
to each satellite can be determined. These corrections are then broadcast to the users and applied to
their pseudo range measurements before calculation of the position.
As the above explanations warrants, the DGPS will be working only in coastal areas where such services
are provided.
INSTALLATION AND INITIALIZATION OF SHIPBOARD GPS RECEIVER
Installation
The GPS receiver display unit should be installed in a place where clear view is available from all
practical angles. The shipboard receiver also provides data to various other equipment, such as the VDR,
AIS, ECDIS, Sat-C, Radar/ARPA, etc. There are communication interfaces provided in a shipboard for this
purpose. Other such equipment should be connected with GPS using NMEA electronic communication
protocol which is a standard in marine electronic communication.
The antenna of the received should be installed in a location where there is no obstruction to the clear
view of the sky.
Initialization
Once the physical installation is complete, the system should be powered up. The remaining process in
the TTFF (time to first fix) takes time depending on the satellite information available to the receiver at
the start. Since this is first start of the receiver, it may take fifteen to twenty minutes as there is no valid
almanac or ephemeris data available to the receiver. This type of GPS initialization is called Cold Start.
It locks on to the first available satellite and begins downloading the almanac data and subsequently
ephemeris data and navigation message from the best suited satellites to take a fix. Completed
downloading of navigation message from all satellites may take about 12.5 minutes which comprising of
25 frames of 30 seconds each. Once the process is complete, the GPS receiver should display the
position, COG and SOG on the display.
*************************
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9. ACOUSTIC ECHO SOUNDER
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Acoustic depth measurement systems measure the elapsed time that an acoustic pulse takes to travel
from a generating transducer to the waterway bottom and back. The travel time of the acoustic pulse
depends on the velocity of propagation (v) in the water column. This is illustrated in the figure below
where the measured depth (D) is between the transducer and some point on the acoustically reflective
bottom.
If the velocity of sound propagation in the water column is known, along with the distance between the
transducer and the reference water surface, the corrected depth (d) can be computed by the measured
travel time of the pulse. This is expressed by the following general formula:
Depth corrected to referenced water surface d = ½ (v · t) + k + d r

where:
d = corrected depth from reference water surface
v = average velocity of sound in the water column
t = measured elapsed time from transducer to bottom and back to transducer
k = system index constant
dr= distance from reference water surface to transducer (draft)
55
IMPORTANT FACTORS AFFECTING ACCURACY
Velocity of sound in water:The sound velocity varies with the density and elastic properties of the
water. These properties are primarily a function of the water temperature and suspended or dissolved
contents, i.e., salinity, and pressure. Due to these effects, the velocity (v) can range from about 1400
m/sec to 1525 m/sec.
At a temperature of 16º and salinity of 3.4% the velocity of sound in water is 1505 m/sec. If the echo
sounder is correctly calibrated for sea water, then it will show a 3% increase in depth in fresh water. A
10-ppt salinity change can vary the velocity by some 12 m/sec.
For calculation purposes value of v is taken to be1500 m/sec.
Time of wave travel (t): The elapsed time, t, is dependent on the reflectivity of the bottom and related
signal processing methods used to discern a valid return. It cannot be perfectly determined during the
echo sounding process.
System index constant (k): k must be determined from periodic calibration of the equipment.
The Nature of Seabed: The shape, or sharpness, of the returning pulse shown in Figure 9-1 will play a
major role in the accuracy and detection capabilities of depth measurement which very well depend on
the nature of the seabed.
The Angle of Incidence of the beam: If the signals strike the seabed vertically, the energy of reflected
echoes will be more than when the signals strike at an angle. It also adds to decrease in accuracy of the
depth measurement during rolling and pitching of the vessel.
Attenuation: Attenuation is loss of acoustic wave energy as it travels through the water and depends on
various factors such as the frequency of the wave, beam width, reflecting surface, shoals of fish etc.
Attenuation is more for higher frequencies and low for lower frequencies.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ECHO SOUNDER
1. Pulse Length (PL): The duration of the pulse in an echo sounder is generally from 0.2 to 2
milliseconds. The pulse length changes with range scale. For shallow depths, short pulse is used
and long pulse for greater depths.
The stylus is rotating at a scale speed equal to half the speed of the acoustic wave. That is, the time
taken by the stylus to move from top to bottom on the paper is exactly equal to the time taken by the
wave to travel twice the distance of the range scale selected.
The theoretical minimum measurable depth is half the pulse length and is calculated by the formula:
Dmin= v x l/2, Where,
D = minimum measurable depth

v = velocity of acoustic wave
l = pulse length in seconds
For example, if pulse length is 2 milliseconds, then minimum depth will be

Dmin = v x l/2
= 1500 x (2/1000) x (½) = 1.5 m
2. Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF): The number of pulses transmitted per second is called Pulse
Repetition Frequency (PRF) and this determines the maximum depth which can be measured.
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Maximum depth (R) = v x t/2
Where, v = the velocity of acoustic wave
t = time between two successive pulses in seconds
For example, if the PRF is 1 per second, i.e., t = 1, then

R = v x t/2
= 1500 x 1/2
= 750 mtrs (max measurable)
Similarly, for a PRF of 2 per second, i.e., t = 1/2, i.e 0.5 seconds, R = 375 mtrs
In other words, as the PRF increases the max depth that can be measured decreases and vice-versa.
Thus, in shallow waters, the PRF is high and low in deeper waters.
3. Beam Width: Energy concentration of a wide beam is less as compared to narrow beam and
hence directly affects the performance of the device.
Each transducer ping ensonifies an area of the bottom. The size of this ensonified area is a function of
the transducer beam width and transducer characteristics (i.e., side lobes). The narrow beam ensonify a
smaller area of the bottom; resulting in less distortion or smoothing of bottom features within this area.
4. Transmission Frequency / Wavelength: If the frequency is within the audio frequency range,
then the receiving transducer will pick up the other audible noises such as the engine noise,
vibrations, waves hitting the hull etc. Therefore, transmission frequency must be outside the
audible range.
Higher frequency transducers (100 kHz to 1,000 kHz) provide more precise depth measurement, due to
both the frequency characteristics and more-concentrated (i.e., narrow) beam widths but are subject to
severe attenuation. Narrow beam transducers (i.e. less than 8 deg) may require roll and pitch correction
since the more-focused beam will measure a slope distance at non-vertical points. However, the side
lobes shown in Figure below could provide a vertical return in shallow water.
Lower frequency transducers (below 50 kHz) tend to have larger beam widths, which can cause
distortion and smoothing of features in irregular bottoms or on side slopes. However, lower frequencies
are less subject to attenuation, which allows greater depth measurement and penetration of suspended
sediments.
Modern echo sounders are often dual frequency for shallow and deep water depth measurements.
The frequency range of commercial echo sounders is between 30 to 55 KHz.
57
BLOCK DIAGRAM AND FUNCTIONS
SEA - BED
Oscillator Unit
This unit produces a high voltage oscillation of desired frequency and the output is given to the
transmitting transducer.
Transmitting Transducer
This may be a electrostrictive (pierced hull) or magnetostrictive (internal installation) type. It converts
the electrical signals into acoustic waves and transmits them towards the seabed.
Receiving Transducer
This receives the echoes from the seabed and converts them into electrical signals, which are then sent
to the amplifier unit.
Amplifier Unit
This unit amplifies the weak electrical signals received from the transducer and gives it to the recorder
unit.
Recorder Unit
This unit controls the transmission of the acoustic pulses and records the depth on the paper.
Power Supply Unit

This unit gives the required voltages to the different stages of the echo sounding equipment.
MORE ABOUT TRANSDUCERS
The function of the transducer is to convert the electrical energy to acoustic energy during the
transmission and reconvert into electrical energy during reception of the echo.
There are 2 types of transducers:
1. Electrostrictive, and
2. Magnetostrictive
ELECTROSTRICTIVE TRANSDUCER
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This type of transducer works on the basic principle of piezo-electric effect, i.e., certain crystals such as
quartz, have a property that when pressure is applied to the two opposite faces, a difference of
potential is created which is proportional to the applied pressure or when an alternating voltage is
applied, the crystals start vibrating or oscillating. This type of transducer is also known as Piezostrictive
transducer.
The electrostrictive transducer uses the property of a crystal for transmission and reception of acoustic
waves in water. The crystal is firmly fixed between two steel plates so that they act as a single unit.
The purpose of the steel plates is to provide solid and robust housing for the crystal as well as a suitable
contact surface for seawater.
When an alternating voltage is applied between the steel plates, the quartz and the steel plates start
vibrating together. The vibration will be of very high amplitude, if the frequency of the alternating
voltage is equal to the resonance frequency of the crystal. The lower of the two steel plates is in direct
contact with the water, which will cause the vibration in the seawater. The vibration is always
perpendicular to the plate and hence always kept horizontally.
Generally only one transducer is used for transmission and reception of the signals and this transducer
is always mounted as pierced hull.
MAGNETOSTRICTIVE TRANSDUCER
This transducer works on the basic principle of magnetostriction, i.e. when a bar of ferromagnetic
material is wound with a coil in which an alternating voltage is applied, the length of this material will
always contract regardless of the direction of the current and it comes back to its original length when
the current is zero.
In the nickel ring type magnetostrictive transducer, a large number of thin annular disc of Nickel are
held together by well insulated windings of thick flexible wire. When an alternating current is passed
through the windings of the coil, the contraction and the subsequent expansion in the Nickel plates
takes place circumferentially.
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Thus the whole outer area of the cylindrical pack is set in motion at its natural resonant frequency and
the vibrations are passed on to the surrounding medium i.e. water (transducer fitted in water tank).
These vibrations are transmitted to the seabed through the ship’s hull plate and similarly the echoes are
also received through the ship’s hull plate.
Two transducers are used; one for transmission and the other for reception. It is fitted as Internal
installation.
Advantages and disadvantages of Internal Installation
 Ship’s hull is not cut hence continuity of the hull is maintained

 The transducer can be fitted and repaired whenever necessary without going to dry-dock.
 Only 15% of total power output passes through the ship’s hull
 The loss occurs twice per sounding resulting in weak echoes.
SITING OF TRANSDUCER
The siting of the transducer will vary according to the size of the ship but it should be away from any
sound/noise source and away from any air bubbles.
 On large ships, between 1/4 and 1/8 of the ship’s length from bow
 On medium size ships, the foremost position is best or 3/4 length if vessel has light draft.
 On slower ships, 3/4 length from the bow
 On very large ships, two transducers are fitted, one at forward and the other well aft.
 On oil tankers, the transducer should be fitted at the forward end of E/R
 In case of pierced hull, the transducer is fitted near the centre line and flush with the keel plate.
TYPES OF INDICATORS (RECORDERS)
Echometer: In an echometer, the depth is indicated by a neon lamp rotating at a constant speed over a
circular scale. A pulse is transmitted when the lamp passes the zero mark and the arriving echo lights up
the lamp indicating the depth on the circular scale.
Echograph: In an Echograph, the stylus is rotating at a certain constant speed and transmission of the
pulse takes place when it passes the zero mark. The
speed of the stylus is such that the time taken for the
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stylus to travel from top to bottom of the paper is exactly equal to that for the pulse to travel twice the
distance of the range selected.
The received echo is converted into an electrical signal and a current is given to the stylus which burns
the coating on the paper (black mark) indicating the depth on the scale.
Digital Recorders: Modern Echographs are now digital devices. The

principle of operation however, remains the same.
The paper is replaced by the screen, the stylus by a tracing spot which
moves from top of the screen to the bottom at half the speed of the
sound waves in water. This is performed by the display processer of the
echo sounder.
As the echo is received, the tracing spot brightens on the screen

indicating the depth on the range scale as selected.
The historical recordings are stored in the memory which can be reviewed and/or printed out through a
normal printer, if a dedicated printer is not provided.
ADVANTAGES OF ECHOGRAPH OVER ECHOMETER
 Permanent recording
 All echoes are displayed
 Rate of change of depth can be seen clearly
RANGING
In an echo sounder, the stylus is rotating at a certain constant speed and the transmission takes place
when the stylus passes the zero mark.
When a higher range scale is selected, the transmission will still take place when the stylus passes the
zero mark but the stylus speed is reduced because the stylus has to remain on the paper for a longer
period of time since the echoes are returning from a greater depth.
This system is known as ranging and the range scales are generally provided as
0 - 50 m
0 - 100 m
0 - 200 m and so on.
Since the same length of paper now covers a larger depth, the graduations become closer and it
becomes difficult to read the depths accurately. Phasing arrangement is used to avoid this.
PHASING
In phasing, the speed of the stylus motor is kept constant but the transmission point in advanced.
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Four sensors are positioned around the stylus belt and the stylus is rotating at a constant speed. A
magnet mounted on the belt generates the pulse when it passes the sensor which in turn activates the
transmitter.
When 0-100 m range is selected, sensor 1 is used and the delay circuit arrangement is such that the
transmission occurs exactly when the stylus passes the zero mark.
On selecting the higher scale (100-200 m), sensor 2 is used for activating the transmission and the zero
of the scale is so shifted that the top of the paper corresponds to 100 m.
Similarly for other ranges, different sensors are used and the transmission time will be accordingly
advanced.
The speed of the stylus will remain same as long as each range scale corresponds to similar difference of
depth, i.e. 0-100, 100-200 etc.
ECHO SOUNDER CONTROLS
 On-Off switch
 Range selector switch
 Paper speed control knob
 Stylus speed control adjustment
 Sensitivity control knob
 Draft setting control knob
 Fix marker
 Transducer selector switch
 Panel brilliance control knob
CROSS NOISE
If the sensitivity of the amplifier is high, several irregular dots appear near the zero line and this is called
cross noise. This is caused as part of the transmitted energy is picked up by the transducer in addition to
the aeration present. If cross noise is high, then shallow depths close to the zero line will not be seen.
To avoid this, amplification should be less after transmission and gradually increased so that weak
echoes can be marked with clarity. This is done automatically by the swept gain control unit.
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AERATION
Vibration causes air bubbles in the water and echoes caused by these appear as dots. This is called
Aeration.
The density of air bubbles under the transducer varies along the length of the vessel and the echoes
suffer tremendous loss before reaching the receiver.
Sometimes the density of air bubbles is so high (e.g. going astern) that no penetration takes place and
hence no echo appears.
ERRORS
Equipment Errors
 Stylus speed error:

The stylus speed should be such that it travels from the top of the paper to the bottom in
exactly the time required for the acoustic waves to travel twice the distance of the range scale
in use. In case of voltage fluctuations, or for any other reasons, if the motor speed changes, it
will record wrong depth. Therefore the stylus speed should be periodically adjusted as per the
instruction manual.
 Pythagoras error:
This error occurs when two transducers are used, one for transmission and the other for
reception. It is a function of the distance between the two transducers. The error can be found
out by the formula-
----------------------
e = d- √ (d2 – x2 / 4)
where ‘d’ is the recorded depth and ‘x’ is the distance between the transducers.
The error is very prominent is shallow waters but not so significant in deep waters.
 Zero line adjustment error:
The stylus must be adjusted so that it is at zero mark when the transmission begins. If there is
any advance or lag, the depth recorded will be in error.
 Instrument Drift:
Once the zero line is adjusted, and speed of the stylus is also set, it is possible that over a period
of time the stylus will drift from the zero line and so no longer is aligned with the zero-line. This
kind of error will therefore show a flat horizontal seabed as slanting slope.
Operational Errors
 Velocity of propagation in water:

The velocity of acoustic waves changes with water temperature, salinity and pressure of the
water. In practical situation, these conditions are subject to changes and this affects the
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accuracy of the recorded depth. The depth can be corrected to true depth from the tables of
the velocities of sound in pure water and seawater (Nautical Publication NP139 (HD282))
 Multiple echoes:
The echoes, in right conditions can be reflected number of times between the keel of the ship
and the seabed. On each return the echoes are picked up by the receiving transducer giving
multiple depth marks on the recorder. Each depth mark will be at multiple of the actual
distance, the lowest depth being the correct one.
This situation can also happen when a range scale is selected which is more than the depth of
the seabed, e.g., range scale of 100-200 m while the depth is actually only 60 m. In this case the
depth will be marked at 120 m and 180 m. To avoid this, the equipment should be started at the
minimum depth when Phasing facility is provided.
 Thermal and density layers:

At sea there are layers of water having different temperatures and/or salinity which serve as a
reflecting surface to the acoustic waves. These result as a faint lines on the recorder which are
in between the zero mark and actual depth.
 Secondary Echo interference:

The PRF of the echo sounder depends of the range scale. When the range scale selected is less
than the depth of seabed, the pulses are being transmitted at a rate faster than that would be
required for the actual depth. Hence the echo of a pulse may be received at the transducer after
the second pulse has been transmitted. This echo would be printed on the recorder at a wrong
range.
Dynamic Errors
 Error due to roll and pitch

 Error due to Heave
 Error due to draught, settlement and squat
 Error due to Trim
Above errors (except trim) are dynamic in nature. Exact reading of these error values may not
be possible and hence cannot be corrected. However, on account of above factors, caution
needs to be exercised while using the echo sounder reading.
MAINTENANCE
Maintenance and adjustments of Echo Sounder
Print-head / Stylus Cleaning

This is most important maintenance required on an echo sounder. As the printer is used, small particles
of dirt and grit can accumulate on the print head surface. If too much debris collects on the printing
surface, the printing quality deteriorates.
Printer or recording paper:

Sounder should be maintained with adequate Printer or recording paper level for the intended voyage.
Normally there is a water mark on the paper as it nears the end.
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Cleaning of Transducer:
The transducer should be cleaned periodically as the deposits of the surface contributes to
deterioration of the performance of the recorder. Care should be taken not to damage it or paint over
it.
User Calibration
The only user calibration required is a DRAFT and SPEED OF SOUND modification where such means are
provided.
Zero-line adjustment:
The stylus should match with the zero mark on the paper when the pulses are transmitted. Controls are
provided to adjust the zero-mark by advancing or delaying the stylus.
Range Selection:
The range of the echo-sounder should be selected as per the depth of the water available otherwise
depth displayed/recorded will be in error.
Contrast adjustments:
Depending sometimes on the quality of the paper, the voltage level of the contrast control should be
maintained such that the sounder prints well on the paper.
Frequency Selection:
Where multi-frequency echo-sounders are installed on board, proper frequency should be selected for
different depths range as per the manufacturers instruction.
Gain Control:
Gain may have to be adjusted as per the depth of the water.
CALLIBRATION
Echo sounder need to be calibrated to make corrections in measuring the depth due to sources of errors
such as errors caused by position of transducer, errors due to varied sound speed, errors caused by
floating vehicle, etc. Some errors are systematic the effects of which can be corrected calibrating the
instrument. Underwater sound speed value which input to echo sounder for measuring sea depth are in
error due to difference in conditions of salinity, temperature & pressure in the sea depth which affect
the accuracy of deep sounding.

There are three common methods to calibrate an echo sounder:
1. Bar-check is used for shallow range scale.

2. Using velocimeter to measure underwater sound speed is for practical use.
3. Computation method with some equation of sound speed.
The bar-check method is the effective one to calibrate depth sounding. Bar-check is made from thick,
square or circle metal which is hung in with the scaled rope and tied after a transducer. Scaled rope
readings are compared with the results of measured values from echo sounder. Values are compared in
every depth of water with interval of 1m. It starts after setting the start pulse to zero and after the bar-
check roped in 1 metre. Every 1m interval until the seabed depth, values from bar-check and echo
sounder is compared to give corrections to the result of measurements.
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Data which had been corrected after calibration, the instrument must be given again correction errors
caused by:
1. Proper position of transducer with measuring vertical position of transducer due to surface of the sea.
2. Compared vertical position of transducer in the moment of moving ship and motionless one.
3. Tide with mean sea level correction in terms of MSL references which acquired from tabulated tide
data.
CORRECTIONS TO BE APPLIED:
Echo Sounder readings are subject to a number of errors. Once calibrated, following corrections must
be applied to these readings before using the data against charted depth:
 Static draft (depth of transducer when the vessel is at rest).
 Sound velocity correction (discrepancy between actual and constant velocity used by the
sounder to derive depth).
 Dynamic draft correction, which is the sum of :
a) Settlement (difference between rest and underway positions).
b) Squat (change in trim when underway)
 Water level (tidal correction).
 Sea and swell: Average values of see and swell should be taken into account.
**********************************
Marine Gyro
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Compass
10. MARINE GYRO COMPASS
PRINCIPLES OF THE FREE GYROSCOPE
A gyroscope consists of a spinning wheel or rotor contained within gimbals which permit movement
about three mutually perpendicular axes, known as the horizontal axis, the vertical axis, and the spin
axis. The mounting base is called the phantom. The arrangement renders the gyroscope free to move
about three axes. Such a gyroscope is called a “free Gyroscope.”
A free gyroscope therefore is said to possess three degrees of freedom.
i. Spin Axis: freedom to spin about a spin axis.

ii. Precession Axis: freedom to turn in azimuth about a vertical axis.
iii. Torque Axis: freedom to tilt about a horizontal axis.
Properties of a free gyro
1. Gyroscopic inertia (Rigidity in space)

This is the property that keeps the gyro spin axis direction fixed in space, even though
the gimbals are moved. (When no force is exerted on spin axis direct)
2. Precession
Precession is the term used to describe the movement of the axle of a gyro under the influence of an
external force. The direction of torque (force) on a free gyro rotor will be 90 degrees different to the
direction of its effect, i.e. if we apply a torque about horizontal axis, the direction of movement will be
around vertical axis. Here is said that gyre is precessed around vertical axis or vice versa.
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Gyro axis movement at different locations on the earth
At poles
1. With gyro spin axis settled parallel to earth’s surface: Gyro drifts at the rate of 15°/h (360° in 24
hours) and no tilt.
2. With spin axis settled vertical to the earth’s surface: There will be no apparent movement of gyro spin
axis (no drift & no tilt).
Drift=15°/h sin (latitude)
On equator
1. With spin axis parallel to earth and at E-W direction: There will be maximum tilt (15°/h)
& no drift.
2. With spin axis in N-S direction pointing the pole star: There will be no tilt and no drift.
Tilt=15°/h cos (latitude) sin (azimuth)
Remarks
Note 1: Drift in northern hemisphere is always eastward and in south hemisphere is westward.
Note 2: If spin axis points east of the meridian the rate of tilt is upwards and if it points west of
meridian rate of tilt is downwards.
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Control Forces
1. Top Heavy Control Force
When spin axis is parallel to the earth’s surface then Gw and gR are in one direction and no force is
applied to rotor south end or north end.
If the gyro spin axis tilts up, then Gw and gR are no more in one line. A force is applied to the south end
of axis. The precession of north end of axis will be towards the paper. (Westwards)
2. Bottom Heavy Control Force
When spin axis is parallel to earth’s surface, then Gw and gR are in one line, no force is exerted to spin
axis.
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If the gyro tilts up, then Gw and gR are no more in one line. As seen it is like a force is applied to north
end of gyro axle. The precession will be inside the paper. (Westwards)
Top heavy control using Liquid Ballistic Method
Simple methods of control are not practical in commercial compasses, because of the problems
encountered with ship’s movement. An improvement is to use a LIQUID BALLASTIC to give a form of
gravity as shown below. (Used in Sperry)
Liquid flows between the north and south ends of the rotor under the influence of gravity,
when the gyro has an angle of tilt.
The principle is similar to that of top heavy gyro. The rotor spin direction is clockwise, as seen from
north end, and hence when the gyro tilts up, it will produce a precession which moves the north end of
spin axis to the west. The advantage of the system is that the liquid is chosen such that it is slow
to respond to sudden changes caused by ship’s movement but will still respond to gradual changes
produced by the earth’s movement.
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Movement of the controlled or north seeking gyro The figure shows the movement of the projection of
the spin axis of a controlled gyro in the northern hemisphere. The gyro was initially set up parallel
to the earth’s surface pointing slightly east of the meridian. The following abbreviations are used in
the figure:
Pc: Represents the gyro’s precession due to the control force. This depends on the gyro’s angle of tilt.
Dr: Represents the gyro’s rate of drift due to the earth’s rotation. Nearer the gyro’s angle of tilt to the
elevation of the pole star, the less rate of drift.
Tg: Represents the rate of change and direction of tilt. It depends on how far in azimuth the gyro is from
the meridian.
Point 1: This is where the gyro was initially set up, slightly to the east of meridian, but parallel to the
earth’s surface. The control precession Pc will be zero. Dr &Tg will be the same as for the free gyro.
Point 2: The gyro has now gained an angle of tilt, therefore a control force is developed which will
produce precession Pc opposing the eastward drift. The rate of drift “Dr” will have decreased because
the gyro is closer to the elevation of pole star. The rate of tilt upwards will have increased, because
the gyro is pointing further east of the meridian.
Point 3: The angle of tilt has increased such that Pc now equals Dr, so there is no further
eastward drift. The rate of tilt is therefore at its maximum upwards.
Point 4: The angle of tilt is now such that Pc is greater than Dr, which is still reducing as the gyro
approaches the elevation of the pole star. The gyro moves westward towards the meridian. This reduces
the rate of tilt increase upwards.
Point 5: The westward movement has brought the gyro to the meridian, which means there is no
increase in tilt. The angle of tilt is now a maximum and therefore Dr is a minimum and Pc is a maximum.
The gyro therefore continues its westward movement past the meridian.
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Point 6: The gyro is west of the meridian, therefore the rate of change of tilt Tg is increasing, but in a
downwards direction, reducing the angle of tilt. The reduction in angle of tilt reduces Pc and increases
Dr, thus reducing the rate of westward movement.
Point 7: The angle of tilt has decreased such that Pc equals Dr. This is the most westward the gyro will
travel. Therefore the rate of decrease in tilt Tg is at its maximum.
Point 8: The angle of tilt has decreased such that Pc is less than Dr, and the gyro drifts eastwards. This
movement towards the meridian reduces the rate of decrease in angle of tilt.
Point 9: The gyro is again parallel to the earth’s surface, so Pc is zero. The spin axis is pointing west of
the meridian, so the movement of tilt is still downwards. The drift Dr is to the east and increasing as the
spin axis moves away from the pole star.
Point 10: The gyro has again reached the meridian, so there is no further change in tilt. The angle of
tilt is downward, so Pc now assists the eastward drift. This is a maximum since the gyro’s elevation
is as far below the pole star as it will reach. The gyro therefore moves past the meridian back to point 1.
The gyro will then repeat its path around the ellipse, continuously moving around the meridian. The
controlled gyro is therefore said to be NORTH SEEKING.
The size of the ellipse depends on where the gyro was initially set up, the closer to the meridian, the
smaller ellipse. (Refer to the figure below)
It also depends on latitude, being smaller closer to the equator.
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Damping the ellipse
The north seeking gyro is still unsuitable as a gyro compass because it does not indicate north
continuously. In order to make a gyro settle, and point to a fixed direction on earth and not space, it is
necessary to impose a further precession which will damp out the gravity controlled elliptical path,
traced only by spin axis, i.e. damping makes the gyro “NORTH INDICATING” or “NORTH SETTLING”.
Each diagram represents the apparent movement of the north end of the gyro axle on a vertical
backcloth.
There are two methods of damping:
1. Damping in tilt
In this method a force is applied in the horizontal plane (a torque to the vertical axis) which
results in a precession in the vertical plane, reducing the tilt. This is the method used in the
Sperry MK 20.
2. Damping in azimuth
In this method a precession is developed which assists the movement in the azimuth plane
when the axis moves towards the meridian, and opposes the movement when the spin axis
moves away from the meridian.
Damping in tilt
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In this method of damping, the damping precession Pd opposes the movement of the spin axis
when the spin axis is moving away from the horizon and assists it when moving towards the
horizon. A torque about the vertical axis causes damping precession in tilt, i.e. up or down.
Damping precession depends on the angle of tilt, greater the tilt, the greater the
damping precession.
Effect of damping in tilt on the ellipse
As the controlled gyro follows the first part of the ellipse, the damping precession will oppose the tilting.
This means the gyro’s angle of tilt when reaching the meridian, is not as great as for the undamped
gyro. Thus the control precession is less and the eastward drift is greater, therefore the gyro spin
axis will not travel as far west. As the gyro spin axis returns to the horizon the damping
precession will assist its return. As the axis tilts below horizon the damping precession will
oppose it, reducing the maximum angle of tilt downward and thus reducing the eastward drift and
control precession. The gyro therefore does not travel as Far East. Next time around the ellipse, the
damping precession will again appose movement away from the horizon, so again the maximum angle
of tilt will be reduced making the ellipse smaller. Eventually the gyro will settle where the control
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precession cancels the drift and the damping precession cancels the movement of tilt, i.e. Pc=D and
Pd=T.
Damping error (Latitude error)
From the above it can be deduced that in the northern hemisphere, an angle of tilt must exist to provide
the control precession to cancel the drift. This angle of tilt produces a damping precession which must
be controlled by the movement of the tilt. For this movement of tilt to exist, the gyro spin axis must
be pointing east of the meridian. Therefore in the northern hemisphere the spin axis settles with an
angle of tilt upwards and pointing slightly to the east of the meridian. The small amount the gyro axis
settles out of the meridian called “Damping Error” or “Latitude Error”. In the southern hemisphere
the gyro will settle with an angle of tilt downwards and pointing the west of the meridian. On the
equator there will be no error.
The magnitude of damping error is a function of latitude. This is because as the latitude increases, so
does the value of the drift (D ~ Sin (Latitude)). Therefore a greater control precession is required to
balance the drift. To obtain a greater control precession a larger angle of tilt is required which in turn
will give a bigger damping precession. To balance this damping precession the axle must move further
out of the meridian to produce a bigger rate of tilting, hence the damping error increases.
It can be shown that: Sin (Damping error) ~ tan (Latitude)
For small angle of damping error:
Damping error ≈ tan (Latitude)
The error can be very large in high latitudes. Typical values are 1.5 degrees at 45 degrees (north or
south) and over 5 degrees at 75 degrees (north or south).
Applying damping in tilt
Damping in tilt is achieved in the Sperry MK 20 gyro compass by adding a small weight (17 gr) on the top
of the rotor case. The weight is offset to the west of the vertical axis.
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With the spin axle horizontal, weight is directly above the tilt bearings and hence causes no
precession. When the axle tilts, the weight has a tipping effect on gyro. Since the weight is offset,
the tipping will have a vertical and horizontal component. The vertical component generates a torque
around horizontal axis which causes a precession around vertical axis at the same direction of Pc. this
component is seen / calculated within the control force. The horizontal component generates a torque
about vertical axis which causes a precession (Pd) around horizontal axis. This opposes the tilt and
brings the spin axis towards horizon.
How to compensate the damping error?
The damping error in gyro compasses which utilize damping in tilt is to be removed. (Like Sperry gyro
compasses)
1. First method is by a mechanical means in which the latitude is set. The whole phantom ring turns
according to the set latitude therefore the compass card turns to eliminate the damping error.
2. By using a torque motor which produces a precession to cancel the drift at settling point and hence
causing the spin axis to point north. This is the same motor used for correcting the speed error.
3. In digital gyro compasses, this error is simply corrected by feeding (inputting) the latitude to
the microcomputer unit.
Damping in azimuth
In this method of damping, the damping precession opposes the movement of the gyro spin axis
when it is moving away from the meridian, and assists the movement when moving towards the
meridian.
A torque about the horizontal axis will cause a damping precession in azimuth. It depends on the rate of
tilting, greater the rate of tilt, the greater the damping precession.
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At the beginning of the ellipse, as the gyro spin axis is moving east, the damping precession opposes the
movement. Therefore the spin axis will not move as far East. This reduces the rate of tilt, so that the
maximum angle of tilt is reduced. This will reduce the westward movement which is also reduced by the
damping precession. In this way the size of the ellipse is steadily reduced until the gyro settles.
The settling point will be on the meridian, i.e. there will be no damping error (Latitude error). The gyro
will settle with an angle of tilt upwards in the northern hemisphere and downwards in 12 the southern
hemisphere. This angle of tilt is required to develop a control precession to cancel the drift.
Applying damping in azimuth
Anschutz gyro compasses use this form of damping. It is usually achieved by a liquid ballistic. This
ballistic is similar to the control liquid ballistic; by delays the liquid flow by means of a
restriction. This restriction delays the precession as shown below producing the required damping
precession.
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Fc is the force due to control weight which causes Pc, but here another force is added which causes a
precession (Pd).
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Within the upper part of the sphere, an annular damping vessel is fixed which contains high viscosity oil.
This vessel is divided into sections by partitions. The sections are connected by small bore pipes under
them to each other. These pipes allow the oil to flow from one section to other when spin axis tilts up or
down.
Compass errors
Static errors
1. Alignment error
 An alignment error can be:  An error existing between the indicated heading and the
vessel’s lubber line.
 An error existing between the indicated lubber line and the fore and aft line of the vessel.
Both of these errors can be accurately eliminated by critically aligning the compass
with the ship’s lubber line at installation.
Transmission error
An error existing between the indicated heading on the master compass and the heading produced by
any remote repeater is a transmission error. Transmission errors are kept to a minimum by the use of
multispeed pulse transmission.
Variable errors (Dynamic errors)
LCS (Latitude, speed, course) error (or speed error)
This error is due to earth’s rotation and the apparent tilting effect it produces, which is
responded by the gyro’s gravity control system. The gyro tries to align itself at right angle to its motion
through space. When the vessel is moving across the earth, the spin axis tries (Seeks) to align itself at
right angle to the resultant motion of the earth and the ship.
Now let’s consider the ship movement at different directions:
A. Vessel moving at E-W direction.
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At these two courses the amount of LCS error is zero and no error.
B. Vessel moving on a northerly course (Exactly on zero degrees heading).
Here we have maximum error. The gyro error is westerly.
C. Vessel moving on southerly course (Exactly on 180 degrees heading).
Here we have maximum easterly error.
D. Now calculate the magnitude of error at any course.
From the above formula it is evident that the N-S component of the ship’s motion (V cos φ)
causes a tilting of the gyro which it is unable to distinguish from the tilting due to earth’s
rotation.
An examination of above equation shows:
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1. The error is directly proportional to the speed of the ship. For example if the speed is doubled,
the error also will be doubled.
2. The error is directly proportional to the cosine of the course. The error is maximum on 0° and 180°,
zero when steering 90° and 270°.
3. On all northerly courses the error is westerly, and on all southerly courses the error is easterly.
4. It is inversely proportional to the cosine of the latitude. It means that any error on equator will
become twice when in latitude 60° and would become larger at higher latitudes. At latitudes near to
90° the cosine will be very small and therefore the error is very high and gyro is useless.
Compensation of LCS errors
1. Leave uncompensated (like Anschutz), Find the error either by tables provided by
manufacturer and apply it to the bearing (Or determine by its formula).
2. In Sperry MK 20 gyro compasses, a torque motor is employed to provide sufficient precession

to counteract V cos φ and hence eliminates the error. This motor is the same motor used to eliminate
damping error.
Change in course and speed error
If course and speed errors are not eliminated (Anschutz gyro), then if the vessel changes its
course or speed, or both, the gyro axle moves to a new direction. Suppose the vessel has increased
the speed in a northerly course. Initial speed is V 1 and increased speed is V2:
Change in error due to speed variation: e2 – e1 The gyro axle does not move directly to its new position.
But it traces out a small damped spiral before it finally settles, meaning that during alterations (and just
after) the gyro is unsteady and not accurate.
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Ballistic deflection error
When a vessel alters her course and / or speed, the gyro will be subjected to horizontal
acceleration. These accelerations act on the gravity control element producing top or bottom heavy
effect which causes the gyro to precess. Suppose the vessel has accelerated (increased speed) in a
northerly course. This will cause the increase of westerly error due to speed increase. But at the
same time due to ballistic deflection the gyro becomes south heavy producing a force on spin axis
which will makes the gyro precessing further west. Fortunately this is the same direction as change
of course and speed error. If the magnitude of ballistic deflection is made equal to the change
of course and speed error, then the gyro is pushed instantaneously into its new position and it
does not make spiral. The gyro is not wonder and is nearly steady during alterations of course and
speed. This is achieved by making the undamped period 84.5 minutes in Anschutz.
In Sperry gyro compasses where the speed error is compensated, then the ballistic deflection causes
the gyro to wonder during alterations. This is minimized by making the undamped period about
120 minutes.
Rolling error
The gyrocompass is made to settle on the meridian under the influence of weights. Thus it will also be
caused to shift due to other forces acting upon those weights. When a vessel rolls, the compass is swung
like a pendulum causing a twisting motion that tends to move the plane of the sensitive element
towards the plane of the swing. For a simple explanation of the error consider the surge of mercury
caused in both the north and south reservoirs by a vessel rolling. If the ship is steaming due north or
south, no redistribution of mercury occurs due to roll and there will be no error (see Figure below).
But with a ship steaming due east or west, maximum lateral acceleration occurs in the
north/south direction causing precession of the compass. However, rolls to port and starboard are
equal, producing equivalent easterly and westerly precession. The resulting mean-error is therefore
zero, as illustrated in Figure below.
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If the ship is on an inter-cardinal course the force exerted by the mercury (or pendulum) must be
resolved into north/south and east/west components (see Figure below).
The result of the combined forces is that precession of the compass occurs under the influence of an
effective anticlockwise torque. Damping the pendulum system can dramatically reduce rolling error. In a
top-heavy gyrocompass, this is achieved by restricting the flow of mercury between the two pots. The
damping delay introduced needs to be shorter than the damping period of the compass and much
greater than the period of roll of the vessel. Both of these conditions are easily achieved.
Electrically-controlled compasses are roll-damped by the use of a viscous fluid damping the
gravity pendulum. Such a fluid is identified by a manufacturer’s code and a viscosity number. For
example, in the code number 200/20, 200 refers to the manufacturer and 20 the viscosity. A higher
second number indicates a more viscous silicon fluid. One viscous fluid should never be substituted for
another bearing a different code number. Additionally since roll error is caused by lateral
acceleration, mounting the gyrocompass low in the vessel and as close as possible to the center of
roll will reduce this error still further.
FOLLOW UP SYSTEM
The spin axis of the gyro rotor will align itself with the meridian and will remain in this position
irrespective of the ship’s movements.
The follow up system is used to maintain the phantom ring in line with the spin axis of the gyro rotor.
Since the compass card is attached to the phantom ring, it will therefore indicate north. Should the
vessel change its heading (FIG2) the phantom ring, horizontal and vertical rings will instantaneously
move with the vessel. This movement causes the secondaries of the follow up transformer to move with
respect to the primary, thus one secondary winding will have a larger EMF induced into it than the
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other, resulting in an error signal. This signal is amplified by the follow up amplifier and fed to the
control winding of a two phase servo motor, known as the AZIMUTH MOTOR. The amplified error signal
causes the Azimuth motor to rotate, moving the Phantom ring and therefore compass card, via a
gearbox. The movement of the Phantom ring is such that the secondaries of the follow up transformer
move in such a direction as to reduce the error signal.
The error signal will disappear when the secondaries of the follow up transformer are again
symmetrical about the primary. This will occur when the Phantom Ring and therefore compass card are
in line with the rotor spin axis and therefore again indicating NORTH (FIG3)
The follow up system
The follow up system maintains the vertical ring in the same plane as the rotor, and as the
phantom ring is always at right angles (in Azimuth) to the vertical ring it keeps the phantom ring in the
same plane as the spin axis. Remember that the spin axis is designed to point North, so the phantom
ring will always point north and hence the attached compass card will always point north. So by
taking a reading off the compass card at the lubber line indicator we are given an accurate
bearing of our course. The vertical ring must follow the rotor as the spin axis seeks and settles in the
meridian and must remained aligned with the rotor when the ship alters course in order that the
wire suspension does not twist and apply a torque to the rotor.
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The rotor case is supported within the vertical ring which surrounds the rotor case in the East-West
plane that is the plane of the rotor. The rotor case is suspended within the vertical ring by a six
stranded stainless steel suspension wire, carefully adjusted to be free of any tortion or twisting.
The vertical ring and the rotor case carry the secondary and primary coils of the follow up
transformer. The vertical ring also carries the liquid ballistic pots. (not shown) The diagram below
shows the rest of the master compass assembly, illustrating how the degrees of freedom are
produced.
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11. GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System)
BRIEF HISTORY
GLONASS was developed by the Soviet Union as an experimental military communications
system during the 1970s. When the Cold War ended, the Soviet Union recognized that
GLONASS had commercial applications, through the system’s ability to transmit weather
broadcasts, communications, navigation and reconnaissance data.
The first GLONASS satellite was launched in 1982 and the system was declared fully
operational in 1993. After a period where GLONASS performance declined, Russia committed
to bringing the system up to the required minimum of 18 active satellites. Currently, GLONASS
has a full deployment of 24 satellites in the constellation.
GLONASS satellites have evolved since the first ones were launched. The latest generation is
the GLONASS-M.
GLONASS System Design
The GLONASS constellation provides visibility to a variable number of satellites, depending

on receiver’s location. A minimum of four satellites in view allows a GLONASS receiver to
compute its position in three dimensions and to synchronize with system time.
GLONASS Space Segment
The GLONASS space segment consists of 24 satellites, in three orbital planes, with eight
satellites per plane.
The GLONASS constellation geometry repeats about once every eight days. The orbit period of
each satellite is approximately 8/17 of a sidereal1 day so that, after eight sidereal days,
the GLONASS satellites have completed exactly 17 orbital revolutions.
Each orbital plane contains eight equally spaced satellites. One of the satellites will be at the
same spot in the sky at the same sidereal time each day.
The satellites are placed into nominally circular orbits with target inclinations of 64.8
degrees and an orbital radius of 19,140 km, about 1,060 km lower than GPS satellites.
The GLONASS satellite signal identifies the satellite and includes:
 Positioning, velocity and acceleration information for computing satellite locations.

 Satellite health information.
 Offset of GLONASS time from UTC (SU) [Coordinated Universal Time Russia].
 Almanac of all other GLONASS satellites.
GLONASS Control Segment
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 The GLONASS control segment consists of the system control center and a network of
command tracking stations across Russia. The GLONASS control segment, similar to that
of GPS, monitors the satellites health, determines the ephemeris corrections, as well as
the satellite clock offsets with respect to GLONASS time and UTC (Coordinated Universal
Time). Twice a day, it uploads corrections to the satellites.
GLONASS Signals
The following table summarizes the GLONASS signals.
Designation Frequency Description

1598.0625 - L1 is modulated by the HP (high precision) and
L1
1609.3125 MHz the SP (standard precision) signals.
1242.9375 - L2 is modulated by the HP and SP signals. The SP
L2
1251.6875 MHz code is identical to that transmitted on L1.
Each GLONASS satellite transmits on a slightly different L1 and L2 frequency, with the P-code
(HP code) on both L1 and L2, and the C/A code (SP code), on L1 (all satellites) and L2 (most
satellites). GLONASS satellites transmit the same code at different frequencies, a technique
known as FDMA, for frequency division multiple access. Note that this is a different technique
from that used by GPS which uses CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access – a technique where
same same frequency is used for different codes).
GLONASS signals have the same polarization (orientation of the electromagnetic waves) as

GPS signals, and have comparable signal strength.
The GLONASS system is based on 24 satellites using 12

frequencies. The satellites can share the frequencies by
having antipodal satellites transmitting on the same
frequency. Antipodal satellites are in the same orbital
plane but are separated by 180 degrees. The paired
satellites can transmit on the same frequency
because they will never appear at the same time in view of
a receiver on the Earth’s surface, as shown in figure.
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Comparision between GLONASS and GPS Systems
Specification GLONASS GPS

Owner Russian Federation United States
Coding FDMA CDMA
No. Of Satellites At least 24 24 Operational, 8 Back-up
Orbit height 19140 Km 20200 Km
Accuracy Position: 5-10 Metre Position: 3-8 Metre
Orbital plane inclination 64.8 degree 55 degree
No. of plane 3 6
No. of satellites in a plane 8 4
Orbit period 11 Hrs 16 Minutes 11 Hrs 58 Minutes
1598.0625 - 1609.3125 MHz
L1 Signal 1575.42 MHz
(SP)
Frequencies
1242.9375 - 1251.6875 MHz
L2 Signal 1227.60 MHz
(SP)
Modulated by the HP (high
Phase modulated C/A Code,
precision) and the SP
P-Code, and Nav Message
L1 Signal (standard precision) signals.
Data content Modulated by the HP and SP
L2 Signal signals. The SP code is Phase modulated P-Code,
identical to that transmitted and Nav Message
on L1.
GLONASS Modernization
 As the current GLONASS-M satellites reach the end of their service life, they will be
replaced with next generation GLONASS-K satellites. The new satellites will provide the
GLONASS system with new GNSS signals.
L3
 The first block of GLONASS-K satellites (GLONASS-K1) will broadcast the new civil
signal, designated L3, centered at 1202.025 MHz. Unlike the existing GLONASS signals,
L3 is based on CDMA which will ease interoperability with GPS and Galileo.
 The first GLONASS-K1 satellite was launched in February 2011.
L1 and L2 CDMA
 The second block of GLONASS-K satellites (GLONASS-K2) adds two more CDMA

based signals broadcast at the L1 and L2 frequencies. The exiting FDMA L1 and L2
signals will continue to be broadcast as well to support legacy receivers. GLONASS-K2
satellites was planned to be launched starting in 2015.
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L5
 The third block of GLONASS-K satellites (GLONASS-KM) will add an L5 signal to

the GLONASS system.
Limitations of GLONASS
The existing system of GLONASS has four major limitations preventing their use in applications
such as civil aviation where safety is a high priority. These are:
 lack of integrity
 lack of availability and continuity of service
 lack of accuracy (for critical phases of flight)
 no control by an international civil body
********************
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12. GALLILEO
INTRODUCTION
Galileo is Europe’s own global navigation satellite system (GNSS), providing a highly accurate,
guaranteed global positioning service under civilian control. By offering dual frequencies as
standard Galileo is set to deliver real-time positioning accuracy down to the meter range.
Independent measurements and evaluation of the system show that the European system is
currently the best satellite positioning system in the world.
One of the reasons given for developing Galileo as an independent system was that position
information from GPS can be made significantly inaccurate by the deliberate application of
universal Selective Availability (SA) by the US military. GPS is widely used worldwide for civilian
applications; Galileo's proponents argued that civil infrastructure, including air, sea and land
navigation, should not rely solely upon a system with this vulnerability
While European independence is a principal objective of the program, Galileo also gives Europe
a seat at the rapidly expanding GNSS global table. The program is designed to be compatible
with all existing and planned GNSS and interoperable with GPS and GLONASS. In this sense,
Galileo is positioned to enhance the coverage currently available – providing a more seamless
and accurate experience for multi-constellation users around the world.
Initial services became available on 15 December 2016. Then as the constellation is built-up
beyond that, new services will be tested and made available, with system completion
scheduled for 2020.
GALILEO SERVICES
As against GPS and GLONASS, which are primarily of military background, Galileo is a civilian
and commercial oriented system. The Galileo system will have five main services:
 Open access navigation:

This will be available without charge for use by anyone with appropriate mass-market
equipment; simple timing, and positioning down to 1 meter.
 Commercial navigation (encrypted):
Accuracy to 1 centimeter and guaranteed service for which service providers will charge
fees.
 Safety of life navigation:
Open service; for applications where guaranteed precision is essential. Integrity
messages will warn of errors.
 Public regulated navigation (encrypted):
Continuous availability even if other services are disabled in time of crisis. Government
agencies will be main users.
 Search and rescue:
System will pick up distress beacon locations; feasible to send feedback, e.g. confirming
help is on its way.
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 Other secondary services will also be available.
Once completed, the Galileo navigation signals will provide good coverage even at latitudes up
to 75 degrees north, which corresponds to Norway's North Cape - the most northerly tip of
Europe - and beyond. The large number of satellites together with the carefully-optimised
constellation design, plus the availability of the three active spare satellites per orbital plane,
will ensure that the loss of one satellite should have no discernible effect on the user.
THE SAR FUNCTION
Galileo is to provide a new global search and rescue (SAR) function as part of the MEOSAR
system. Satellites will be equipped with a transponder which will relay distress signals from
emergency beacons to the Rescue coordination centre, which will then initiate a rescue
operation. At the same time, the system is projected to provide a signal, the Return Link
Message (RLM), to the emergency beacon, informing them that their situation has been
detected and help is on the way. This latter feature is new and is considered a major upgrade
compared to the existing Cospas-Sarsat system, which does not provide feedback to the user.
Tests in February 2014 found that for Galileo's search and rescue function, operating as part of
the existing International Cospas-Sarsat Program, 77% of simulated distress locations can be
pinpointed within 2 km, and 95% within 5 km.
GALILEO SYSTEM ARCHTECTURE
Space segment
The fully deployed Galileo system will consist of 24 operational satellites plus six in-orbit
spares, positioned in three circular Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) planes at 23 222 km altitude
above the Earth, and at an inclination of the orbital planes of 56 degrees to the equator. To
summarize:
 30 in-orbit spacecraft (24 in full service and 6 spares)

 Orbital altitude: 23,222 km (MEO- Medium Earth Orbit)
 3 orbital planes, 56° inclination, ascending nodes separated by 120° longitude (8
operational satellites and 2 active spares per orbital plane)
 Satellite lifetime: >12 years
 Satellite mass: 675 kg
 Satellite body dimensions: 2.7 m × 1.2 m × 1.1 m
 Span of solar arrays: 18.7 m
 Power of solar arrays: 1.5 kW (end of life)
Ground segment
Two Galileo Control Centers (GCCs) have been implemented on European ground to provide for
the control of the satellites and to perform the navigation mission management. The data
provided by a global network of Galileo Sensor Stations (GSSs) are sent to the Galileo Control
Centers through a redundant communications network. The GCCs use the data from the Sensor
Stations to compute the integrity information and to synchronize the time signal of all satellites
with the ground station clocks. The exchange of the data between the Control Centers and the
satellites is performed through up-link stations.
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The system's orbit and signal accuracy is controlled by a ground segment consisting of:
 2 Ground Control Centers, located in Oberpfaffenhofen and Fucino for Satellite and
Mission Control
 5 telemetry, tracking & control (TT&C) stations, located in Kiruna, Kourou, Nouméa,
Sainte-Marie, Réunion&Redu
 Several worldwide distributed mission data uplink stations (ULS)
 Several worldwide distributed reference sensor stations (GSS)
 A data dissemination network between all geographically distributed locations
Galileo IOT L-band antenna at

ESTRACK Redu Station
User Segment
As the Galileo is compatible with other GNSS systems, the same receivers, with some
modifications by the manufacturers, can be used for receiving Galileo signals.
The difference will lie in receiving the additional frequency E5 and processing of the data.
THE DUAL FREQUENCY STANDARD OF GALILEO
The GPS satellites transmitted signals on two carrier frequencies, L1 and L2, of which only L1
provided SPS and was used by the civilian users. Owing to various error sources, the accuracy
correction was not achieved to higher degree.
Galileo offers both the E1 and E5 frequencies as a standard feature. With E5/L5 (L5 is the future
GPS frequency) capability added to the E1/L1, chipsets and receivers benefit from better
accuracy, ionosphere error cancellation, improved code tracking pseudo range estimates, and
faster transition from code tracking to phase tracking, among other benefits. The strength of
the Galileo signal, together with advanced code modulations, makes Galileo better at mitigating
multipath effects – especially in E5.
The Galileo Signals characteristics
Band/ Carrier Bandwidth Modulation Chip Rate Data Rate
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[Mcps] (samples per
Signal Frequency
sec)
E1 1575.42 Hz 40.92 MHz MBOC 1.023 250 sps
E5a 1176.45 MHz 92.07 MHz AltBOC(15,10) 10.23 50 sps
E5b 1207.14 MHz 92.07 MHz AltBOC(15,10) 10.23 250 sps
THE DUAL ATOMIC CLOCK SYSTEM
Each Galileo satellite has two master passive hydrogen maser atomic clocks and two secondary
rubidium atomic clocks which are independent of one other.
As precise and stable space-qualified atomic clocks are critical components to any satellite-
navigation system, the employed quadruple redundancy keeps Galileo functioning when
onboard atomic clocks fail in space. The Galileo satellites are configured to run one hydrogen
maser clock in primary mode and a rubidium clock as hot backup.
The onboard passive hydrogen maser clocks' precision is four times better than the onboard
rubidium atomic clocks and estimated at 1 second per 3 million years (a timing error of a
nanosecond or 1 billionth of a second (10−9 or 1/1,000,000,000 s) translates into a 30 cm (11.8
in) positional error on Earth's surface), and will provide an accurate timing signal to allow a
receiver to calculate the time that it takes the signal to reach it.
Under normal conditions, the operating hydrogen maser clock produces the reference
frequency from which the navigation signal is generated. Should the hydrogen maser
encounter any problem, an instantaneous switchover to the rubidium clock would be
performed. In case of a failure of the primary hydrogen maser the secondary hydrogen maser
could be activated by the ground segment to take over within a period of days as part of the
redundant system. A clock monitoring and control unit provides the interface between the four
clocks and the navigation signal generator unit (NSU). It passes the signal from the active
hydrogen master clock to the NSU and also ensures that the frequencies produced by the
master clock and the active spare are in phase, so that the spare can take over instantly should
the master clock fail.
The NSU information is used to calculate the position of the receiver by trilaterating the
difference in received signals from multiple satellites.
********************************************
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BRIDGE EQUIPMENT NOTES

Consolidated Bridge Equipment Notes

1. AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

SOLAS CARRIAGE REQUIREMENT

The requirement became effective for all ships by 31 December 2004.

WHAT DOES AISCONSIST OF?

HOW DOES AIS WORK?

SHIP MANOEUVRING REPORTING INTERVAL

PSEUDO AIS AND VIRTUAL AIS

AIS AID TO NAVIGATION

AIS AS SURVEILLANCE TOOL

AIS AS AN AID TO COLLISION AVOIDANCE

AIS TYPES A/B - DIFFERENCES

The Class B is nearly identical to the Class A, except the Class B:

AIS BASE STATION (REPEATERS)

COMPARISION BETWEEN AIS AND LRIT

Flag State Owns Data Anyone can see data

DESCRIPTION & PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

THE AUTOPILOT CONTROL SYSTEM – THE PID CONTROL UNIT

This is achieved by electronic circuits with the help of the following:

Block diagram of an Autopilot PID system

USER CONTROLS ON THE PANEL

 Course selector knob– course to be steered is selected by this knob.

 Speed – Speed input usually given from the log or manually.

AUTO ADAPTIVE STEERING SYSTEM

PRECAUTIONS TO EXERCISE WHEN USING AUTOPILOT

Check the following frequently:

 Master and Gyro compasses are synchronized

The autopilot should not be used for following:

3. LONG RANGE IDENTIFICATION AND TRACKING

It is a satellite-based, real-time reporting mechanism providing almost worldwide coverage (Inmarsat

 Identity (Ship’s LRIT Identifier)

THE LRIT SYSTEM CONSISTS OF:

1. The ship borne LRIT information transmitting equipment

The DDP information includes:

LRIT V/s AIS – COMPARISION

Flag State Owns Data Anyone can see data

4. VOYAGE DATA RECORDER

HOW DOES A VDR WORK?

The unit should be entirely automatic in normal operation.

MAIN COMPONENTS OF VDR:

1. DATA MANAGEMENT UNIT (OR DATA COLLECTION UNIT)

VHF Communications audioVHF communications relating to ship operations should be recorded on an

Properties of Final Recording Unit:

 Highly visible color

b) Float-free recording medium;

C) Long-term recording medium.

WHAT DATA IS RECORDED BY VDR?

DATA RECORDED BY S-VDR:

The following vessels are required to carry an S-VDR:

5. BRIDGE NAVIGATION WATCH ALARM SYSTEM

- Automatic (Automatically brought into operation whenever the ship.s heading

- Manual ON (In operation constantly)

- Manual OFF (Does not operate under any circumstances)

OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE OF INDICATIONS AND ALARMS

EMERGENCY CALL FACILITY

MALFUNCTIONS, ALARMS AND INDICATIONS