Milan Stojanović1 milan.stojanovic@elfak.ni.ac.

rs (corresponding author)

Ljubomir Vračar1 ljubomir.vracar@elfak.ni.ac.rs

Dragana Živaljevic2 dragana.zivaljevic@elfak.ni.ac.rs

Ilija Neden Dimitriu3 ilija.nedendimitriu@putevi-srbije.rs

1
Department of Microelectronics, University of Niš, Faculty of Electronic Engineering, Niš, Serbia
2
Department of Theoretical Electrical Engineering, University of Niš, Faculty of Electronic Engineering, Niš,

Serbia
3
Public Enterprise ''Roads of Serbia'', 11000 Belgrade, Serbia.

Practical design of a vehicle magnetic signature generator

Abstract

Detection of vehicles and determination of their type, moving direction and velocity can be done using the

distortions of the Earth’s magnetic field. These distortions differ for each type of a vehicle and are called

magnetic signatures. Facilitating development of vehicle detector requires a generator of the same magnetic

field disturbances in laboratory conditions as produced by a specific vehicle. The experimental setup for

measuring the magnetic field distortion caused by a vehicle was presented and, based on the obtained values

the magnetic signature generator was designed. The generator consists of a solenoid with a copper wire

wound on the body made by the 3D printer, and an arbitrary function generator RIGOL DG1022Z.
Determination of the solenoid parameters, and a voltage level of a generator are described thoroughly.

Magnetic signatures of four different vehicles are generated and compared with measured ones by the

Pearson’s correlation coefficient, showing the correlation better than 0.993.

Keywords

magnetic field measurement, magnetic signature generator, vehicle detector, multilayer solenoid, signal

generator of an arbitrary shape

Introduction

Some of the first applications of magnetic sensors were navigation and direction-founding. Over time, they

expanded the field of application as they became more accurate and sophisticated. Due to the high sensitivity

and accuracy, they have found a significant place in Intelligent transportation systems (ITS). Vehicle

detection and counting is one part of the ITS that was designed to collect information about traffic status and

transmit this information to drivers and other traffic participants.

Vehicle can be detected by analyzing distortions of the Earth’s magnetic field, considering that the magnetic

field of the Earth is uniform over a wide area and that the presence of an object, made of ferromagnetic

materials, creates local disturbances in this magnetic field. For this purpose, the magnetic sensor is placed on

the road or the pavement (Wang et al., 2018) and as a vehicle approaching the sensor, the measured value of
the magnetic field is changing. When the measured value is above the predefined threshold that means there is

a vehicle on the road.

Beside the vehicle presence (whether it is moving or standing still), it is also possible to determine the type of

a vehicle, moving direction and velocity of a vehicle. The value of the magnetic field depends on the

environment, but this does not affect the changes caused by the ferromagnetic material when it is near the

sensor.

The vehicle detectors have to operate in different traffic conditions, such as slow-moving and congested

traffic zones (Yang and Lei, 2015). One way to detect a vehicle's presence is using a single-axis magnetic

sensor (Caruso and Withanawasam, 1999). The measurements that provide more information about the

magnetic field can be done by a 3-axis magnetometer (Vançin and Erdem, 2017). The sensor node equipped

with 3-axis magnetic sensor HMC5983L, is also used for vehicle detection and determining the type of the

vehicle. The vehicle presence can be detected based on the magnitude of the magnetic field, and the duration

of magnetic field distortion (proximity vehicle to the sensor) (Vançin and Erdem, 2018). There are different

types of magnetic sensors used for vehicle detection and determining the type of a vehicle, and one of them is

based on MEMS technology (Lan and Shi, 2009). The length estimation of a vehicle in real traffic condition

can be performed by magnetic sensor and accelerometer (Miklusis et al., 2021).

The device for vehicle detection and recognition has to provide accurate information regardless of the velocity

and type of the vehicle, as well as the environment and weather conditions. Considering these facts, it is clear

that designing of vehicle detectors represents a demanding task. Also, the installation process requires time
and material resources and causes traffic stops. In case that detector does not operate properly, uninstallation,

troubleshooting and reinstallation have to be performed, which additionally increases costs. Therefore, it is of

great importance to examine the reliability of the detector in detail before installation.

One way for that is creating the simulation environment. Simulation enables the development of new systems,

compares alternative designs, troubleshoot existing systems, and observes behavior before the prototype is

completed, thus saving resources (Hosseinpour and Hajihosseini, 2009). The virtual simulation environment,

described in (Belenguer et al., 2019), includes different complex models that characterize vehicles as multiple

metal plates of different sizes and heights, which simplifies analyzing the changes in the magnetic field.

Information about traffic occupancy, obtained by vehicle detectors, can be used to control traffic lights. The

process of calculation and simulation of traffic light timing operation should be performed in the simulator

before practical realization (Dissanayake et al., 2009). The functional tests can be done using the simulation.

It includes test patterns applied to the inputs and the evaluation of the outputs.

The main goal of this paper is to present the real simulation environment (magnetic signature generator) for

testing the functionality of the vehicle detectors, composed of the solenoid and an arbitrary signal generator.

The input parameters are different types of vehicles moving with different velocities, and the output

parameters are magnetic signatures identical to the vehicle signatures.

This paper is organized as follows. First, a short introduction to the measurement of the Earth’s magnetic field

is provided. Then, based on these measurements the parameters of a solenoid as well as a shape of a signal

generator are determined. Further, magnetic field distortions introduced by vehicles and produced by our
generator are compared by a Pearson's correlation coefficient and a root mean square error. Finally, a short

conclusion and plans for the future research are presented.

Measurement of a distortion of Earth's magnetic field introduced by a vehicle

The block diagram of the experimental setup for measurement of the magnetic field of the Earth’s is shown in

Figure 1.

Figure 1. The block diagram of the experimental setup for magnetic field measurement.

The magnetic field was measured by the digital magnetic field sensor BM1422AGMV (ROHM

Semiconductor, 2016). The new data was sampled every 20 ms by the microcontroller PIC18F45K22

(Microchip, 2010-2021), and transmitted via RS485 communication lines to the PC computer. The

experimental setup positioned on the road and the vehicle that passed over it, are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The placement of the experimental setup on the road during the measurement.

Measured values induced by the vehicle are shown in Figure 3. The vehicle model was VW Polo9N.

Figure 3. The distortion of the Earth’s magnetic field induced by the vehicle VW Polo9N.

In this case the maximum changes of magnetic field per x, y and z-axis are |ΔBX|=22.17 μT, |ΔBY|=24.32 μT,

|ΔBZ|=40.23 μT, respectively. Thus, the magnetic field generator has to generate the same or higher values of
the magnetic field. These values are essential for determining parameters of the solenoid geometry. In other

words, the solenoid should generate a magnetic field of 100 μT at point A, when the current is maximum. The

maximum value of current, that was considered in this research is 20 mA. This current intensity is chosen

because practical reasons. It can be generated by professional signal generators or a simple signal generator

based on a microcontroller.

Design of a solenoid

The intensity of the magnetic field generated by the solenoid depends on the current, and the geometric

parameters. The magnetic field generated by the solenoid is directly proportional to the current intensity, both

for DC and AC (Cai et al., 2019), and its intensity for multilayer solenoids depends on several factors, such as

inner radius, outer radius, length, and the number of turns (Supardiyono and Saptaaji, 2007; Bowtell and

Robyr, 1998; Datta, 2007; Wang et al., 2018).

Point A is located on the radial axis of the solenoid, and the distance from this point to the center of the

solenoid is z. So, the values of geometric parameters of the solenoid have to be calculated. Three solenoids are

necessary to generate changes per all axes, and the process of calculation and construction of all solenoids is

the same.

The windings are wound on the body of solenoid of cylindrical shape that is limited by two boundary surfaces

(Figure 4). The body of the solenoid was made of PLA material using a 3D printer. Inside the solenoid body
is a cavity of diameter d=4 mm. The solenoid was formed by wrapping wire around the body. To get a higher

value of magnetic field intensity, the multilayer solenoid was formed by wild winding.

Figure 1. The shape and the geometrical parameters of the wild winding solenoid.

The diameter of a wire is d0=0.12 mm. The length of a solenoid l=12 mm enables 100 wire turns per layer.

The inner radius is r1=3 mm and the outer radius can be calculated using equation (1):

d02 N
r2 = r1 + , (1)
l

where N denotes the number of turns. The intensity of the magnetic field at a multilayer solenoid axis can be

calculated by equation (2) (Basharat et al., 2017):

 l 
2
l 
2 
 r2 + r22 +  − z  r2 + r22 +  + z  
0 NI  l  2  l  2  
B( z ) =  − z  ln +  + z  ln ,
2l (r2 − r1 )  2
(2)
  l 
2
 2  l 
2

 r1 + r1
2
+  − z  r1 + r1
2
+  + z  
 2  2  

where intensity of the current through the solenoid is denoted by I, and 0 = 4 10 −7 H/ m is magnetic

permeability of a vacuum.
The number of layers ranging from one to ten assures the number of turns ranging from 100 to 1000,

respectively. If solenoid has different values of turns (different outer radius) it generates different intensities

of the magnetic field on the radial axis. These values were calculated using equation (2) and shown in

Figure 5.

Figure 2. Magnetic field on the radial axis of a solenoid for different number of turns.

The magnetic field has the maximum value at the center of the solenoid. The amplitude of the magnetic field

intensity increases with the number of turns. However, the larger number of turns induces more

inhomogeneity into the distribution of the magnetic field intensity.

Due to the small size of the solenoid, the sensor cannot be placed in its cavity. The boundary surface of a

thickness db=2 mm imposes a sensor at minimal distance of z=l/2+db=8 mm with respect to the center of the

solenoid. Therefore, a magnetic field intensity of 100 μT has to be produced at z greater or equal 8 mm by the

solenoid observed above. Hence, the intersection points between 100 μT magnetic field intensity and curves
that represent the magnetic field generated by the solenoids of the different numbers of turns should be found,

which is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 3. The magnetic field on the part of the radial axis of the solenoid, for different number of turns.

The magnetic field at all presented points A-I is equal to 100 μT. The value of z represents the distance from

the center of the solenoid to the point on the radial axis of the solenoid where the magnetic field has the

specified intensity. It can be seen that solenoids made of 100 and 200 turns can generate the magnetic field of

100 μT only at a distance smaller than 8 mm (the grey part of Figure 6). The solenoids with 300 or more turns

can generate 100 μT outside the cavity, and the distance from the center of the solenoid, where the magnetic

field has desired intensity, increases when the solenoid has more turns.

For experimental measurement of the magnetic field, generated by the described solenoids, it is necessary to

make the holder for the solenoid and the magnetic sensor. The solenoid should be placed over the sensor, in a

way that the radial axis of the solenoid and the z-axis of the sensor should be in the same line. Also, it should
be possible to change the distance between the sensor and the solenoid. It is performed with 3D printer

(Figure 7) and using the same material as it was used for the body of the solenoids.

Figure 4. The holder for the solenoid and the magnetic field sensor, made with 3D printer.

The sensor is fixed to the bottom of the holder. The solenoid can be moved up and down by moving the upper

supporter. With the presented setup, it is possible to measure the magnetic field outside the solenoid at the

same distance as it was done in the theoretical part. The obtained results are shown in Figure 8.
Figure 5. The magnetic field on the part of the radial axis of the solenoid for different number of turns,

obtained by experimental measurements.

These results show that it is not possible to generate the magnetic field of 100 μT outside the solenoid, if the

number of turns is 100, 200 or 300, in real conditions. With this number of turns, the magnetic field has

desired intensity at the points inside the solenoids. The intensity of the magnetic field, when the distance is

z=8 mm and the number of turns 900 and 1000, is higher than 340 μT (the maximum value that sensor

BM1422AGMV can measure). Because of that, two values are missing on the part of Figure 10 that is framed

by the dashed line. The magnetic field at points D’-I’ has the same intensity as in case with theoretical results

(points D-I). The values of z for all presented points, for both theoretical calculation and the experimental

measurement, are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. The distances from the center of the solenoid to the points on the radial axis at which the generated

magnetic field is equal to 100 µT.

Number of turns The distance from the center of the solenoid - z[mm]

Calculated by equation (2) Measured

100 6.0427 - inside the cavity Cannot be measured - inside the

cavity

200 7.80197 - inside the cavity Cannot be measured - inside the

cavity

300 8.8069 Cannot be measured - inside the

cavity

400 9.57161 8.69503

500 10.24865 8.9

600 10.85018 9.75848

700 11.40636 10.43522

800 11.93202 10.95974

900 12.4535 11.75774

1000 12.92126 12.31712

The solenoid generates smaller magnetic field intensity in real conditions than the value calculated in theory,

at the same distance from its center. The theoretical model is based on ideal, layer winding solenoid and in

practical design the solenoids were made by wild winding. Considering this, and also the finite thickness of
the lacquer on the wire, the outer radius of the solenoid is larger than in theory, as is shown in Figure 9.

Further, based on equation (2), the increased value of the outer radius contributes to a smaller value of

generated magnetic field. PLA is not a magnetic material, and it does not contribute to increasing the

generated magnetic field in real conditions.

Figure 6. The outer radius of the solenoid for different number of turns.

For the further design of the magnetic field simulator, the solenoid with 800 turns was selected. The resistance

of this solenoid is 38.22 Ω.

Design of a signal generator

As it already said, the magnetic field generated by the solenoid should have the same shape as the vehicle’s

signature. For that purpose, the voltage generator RIGOL DG1022Z was used, because it can generate an
arbitrary waveform voltage signal reading the values from a file. Hence, the task is to create a file with

appropriate values of voltage level to drive the solenoid, and generate the same magnetic signature as the

vehicle. This file contains 8192 points that represent voltage values V[n], where n is the serial number of a

voltage level (one of 8192 points). These values are obtained by dividing the measured changes of the

magnetic field by coefficient k1, as is shown in equation (3).

Bm  n 
V  n = ,1  n  N . (3)
k1

Value ΔBm[n] denotes the difference between the measured value of the magnetic field and the previous

baseline value or Bm[n]- Bbase[n-1]. The baseline value is calculated based on the measured, using the slow

rate limiter filter (Microchip, 2010-2013). All values of ΔBm[n] are inserted into the array, and 8192 points

were obtained by linear interpolation. The vehicle’s signature, shown in Figure 3, consists of increasing and

decreasing the magnetic field per z-axis. Therefore, the current through the solenoid is alternating current, and

the signal generator produces alternating voltage. Because of that, the effective values of the voltage and the

current have to be used in observation. So, the intensity of the current through the solenoid is described by

equation (4):

Veff  n keff  V [n]

I  n = = , (4)
Rtotal Rtotal

where keff represents the ratio between maximum and effective values of voltage, and Rtotal represents the sum

of all series resistance in the RL circuit. That includes RL, R, and RW that represent the resistance of the

solenoid, resistance connected in series with the solenoid, and the resistance of the wires, respectively. The

resistance Rtotal should limit the current through the solenoid up to the 20 mA, when the voltage of the signal
generator is 5 V. In this case, the measured value of current was 20.05 mA, and the generated magnetic field

was 99.5 µT (Figure 10), when the total resistance is Rtotal=249.27 Ω.

The change of the magnetic field is not equal to 100 µT because the distance from the center of the solenoid

to the sensor is not exactly 10.95974 mm (as presented in Table 1), but the obtained change has satisfactory

precision.

Figure 7. The magnetic field generated by the solenoid (V=0 V, I=0 mA; V=5 V, I=20.05 mA).

Substituting the right part of equation (3) into equation (4), equation (5) was obtained:

keff Bm  n 
I  n =  . (5)
Rtotal k1

If this current flows through the solenoid, the generated magnetic field, Bg[n], can be described by

equation (6).
 Bg  n = I  n  k2 . (6)

Coefficient k2 describes the proportionality of the generated magnetic field and the geometrical parameters of

the solenoid. Since selected solenoid produces 99.5 µT for the current intensity of 20.05 mA, it can be

considered that the value of k2=5 mT/A. The generated magnetic field Bg[n] should be equal to the measured

ΔBm[n]. Based on that fact, and equations (5) and (6), it can be written:

keff Bm  n Bg  n
 = , or
Rtotal k1 k2

keff  k2 = Rtotal  k1

Thus, for the calculation of the value k1, it is necessary to know the value of keff. The voltage signal is directly

proportional to the magnetic signature and it has an arbitrary shape, so the ratio between the maximum and

effective level of voltage cannot be calculated mathematically. Because of that, the value of k1 has to be found

experimentally. The idea is to find the best matching between the measured and the generated magnetic field

for the different values of k1. Some of the generated signatures, that correspond to the different value of k1 are

shown in Figure 11.

Figure 8. The generated magnetic signature for different values of coefficient k1.

All generated signatures have a shape that is very similar to the measured one, but their intensity depends on

the coefficient k1. The best matching between the measured and the generated magnetic signature is obtained

when the coefficient k1 is 16 µT/V. Finally, the values of coefficient keff can be calculated using the values of

k1, k2, and Rtotal:

k1  Rtotal
keff = = 0.7912 .
k2

Results

The parameters of four vehicles whose magnetic signatures were measured are shown in Table 2. Also, the

described process of creating appropriate files for the signal generator for all noted vehicles was done.
Table 2. The characteristics of the vehicles whose magnetic signatures were measured.

Vehicle Length Ground Weight [kg] Velocity

[mm] clearance (approximately)

[mm] [km/h]

VW Polo 9N
3743 165 960 20

Peugeot 307
4202 120 1243 30

Fiat Grande

Punto 4030 195 1155 40

KIA Stonic
4140 180 1157 50

The magnetic signature of a vehicle depends on several vehicle parameters. The duration of the magnetic

signature is denoted by the vehicle’s length and vehicle’s velocity. The intensity of magnetic signature (value

of maximum distortion) depends on the vehicle’s weight (amount of ferromagnetic material) and the vehicle’s

ground clearance (the gap between the road and the vehicle). Finally, the distribution of ferromagnetic

material inside the vehicle influences the shape of the magnetic signature. The measured signatures of four
selected vehicles and the magnetic signatures generated using the described magnetic field generator are

shown in Figure 12.

Figure 9. The measured and generated magnetic signatures of the different types of vehicles.

As can see, the generated signature is almost identical to the measured for all four vehicles. The duration of

the magnetic signature of Peugeot 307 is longer than VW Polo9N, even the velocity was higher. It can be

concluded that the duration of the magnetic signature does not depend only on the vehicle’s velocity but also
on vehicle’s length. That is the consequence of the different distribution of ferromagnetic materials inside the

vehicles.

The equality between the measured and the generated signatures can be approved by calculating the

correlation and difference between them. Equation 7 represents the Pearson’s correlation coefficient rX,Y, and

describes the degree of linear correlation between these two data sets (Kundrata et al., 2020). If the value of

the correlation coefficient is 1, it means that there is a perfect positive correlation between values.

N
 N  N 
N  X [n]Y [n] −   X [n]   Y [n] 
rX ,Y = n =1  n =1  n =1  . (7)
2 2
N
 N  N
 N 
N  X 2 [ n] −   X [ n]  N  Y 2 [ n] −   Y [ n] 
n =1  n =1  n =1  n =1 

In this case, X[n] represents the generated magnetic field and the Y[n] is the measured values, and N is the

total number of samples. The sampling period, as during the first measurement was 20 ms. The obtained

values are presented in Table 3, and they confirm the high level of correlation between the measured and

generated magnetic signatures.

Table 3. The linear correlation and difference between the measured and the generated signatures.

Vehicle Pearson’s correlation coefficient RMSE

VW POLO 9N 0.993241 2.057693

Peugeot 307 0.999598 0.470547

Fiat Grande Punto 0.998859 0.840754

KIA Stonic 0.999746 0.499693

Nevertheless, the correlation describes the relationship between generated and measured field, and it does not

provide a guarantee that two presented curves are equal. To approve equality between curves, the Root Mean

Square Error (RMSE), described by equation 8, was used (Chai and Draxler, 2014).

( X [ n] − Y [ n] )
2
N
RMSE = 
n =1 N
(8)

The values X[n], Y[n], and N represent the same quantities such in equation (7). The calculated values show

that there is a high degree of equality between all generated and measured values. So, the described principle

of creating the solenoid, and the signal generator can be applied to generate the magnetic signatures of

different types of vehicles.

Conclusion

Vehicles tend to distort the Earth’s magnetic field lines due to their metal skeletons. This distortion is called a

vehicle signature. Using this signature, we can detect a vehicle on a road or determine its type or velocity.

Design and testing of such a detector in a laboratory environment require a generator of the same distortions

of a magnetic field as introduced by a specific vehicle.

We produce the magnetic signatures using a solenoid supplied by a generator of arbitrary shaped signals. The

parameters of a solenoid, and a signal are determined by measured values of magnetic field intensity

distortions introduced by different vehicles at specific points.

The magnetic signature of four different vehicles was generated, and compared with the corresponding

measured values. The presented results show the high matching level between signatures obtained in these

two ways for all four vehicles, so the described magnetic field simulator can generate magnetic signatures of

different vehicles in a laboratory environment.

The main goal is creating this generator using the microcontroller, and we aim to obtain magnetic signatures

for a lot of different vehicles. Based on that, a vehicle detector and identifier will be developed.

Acknowledgements

The described research is done in cooperation with Public Enterprise ''Roads of Serbia'', Serbia.

Funding

This work was supported by the Serbian Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development

[grant number 451-03-9/2021-14/200102].

Data availability

All data included in this study are available upon request by contacting the corresponding author.
Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or

publication of this article.

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