Combinepdf

Heating, Ventilation, and
Air-Conditioning (HVAC)
System
Glyzza Marie Bayot ✴ Danelle Beltran ✴
Krisha Lorraine Brusola ✴ Martin Cardines
BSCE 2-1
WHAT IS HVAC
01. SYSTEM?
Introduction, History, Objectives
CLASSIFICATION OF
04. HVAC SYSTEMS
02. AIR CONDITIONING
PROCESS
Central and Decentralized
DISTRIBUTION
BASIC COMPONENTS OF 05. COMPONENTS AND

SYSTEMS
03. HVAC SYSTEMS Air-Side and Water-Side
HEATING SYSTEMS
06. AND COMPONENTS
Firing fossil fuels, Furnaces, Boilers,
Hydronic, and Steam
07. SPACE COOLING AND
VENTILATION EQUIPMENT
FACTORS AFFECTING
AIR HUMIDIFICATION
11. THE SELECTION OF
08. AND
DEHUMIDIFICATION
HVAC SYSTEM
EQUIPMENT
HVAC ELECTRIC 12. BUILDING
09. HEATING SYSTEMS

CODES/STANDARDS
10. AIR TEMPERING AND

DISTRIBUTION
01
HVAC SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION, HISTORY, OBJECTIVES
HVAC SYSTEM
A heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)

system refers to the system or systems that
condition air in a building. It includes heating,
cooling, humidifying, dehumidifying, and cleaning
or filtering air in building spaces.
History of HVAC
Early humans wandered into a cave to escape summer heat and winter
cold. The need for ventilation was likely recognized when early humans
desired to air out a smoky cave.
Space Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning

Only means of cooling a building
Prehistoric: used campfires as Started by natural ventilation through
was by natural ventilation,
early as 1.5 million years ago. openings and was the only means of
ventilating with fans, or blowing
Then, campfire was brought ventilating buildings prior to the
air across large chunks of ice
inside caves and huts for development of the steam engine and
before introducing the cooled air
cooking and space heating electric power industry in the 1800s.
into the building space.
Air-Conditioning Timeline
AIR-CONDITIONER
1902 1911 - 1930
New York Stock Movie theaters were
1 Exchange’s new building 2 air conditioned to
was equipped with a provide comfort
central cooling and from a hot and
heating system humid environment
Then…
REFRIGERATOR Industries and some office
Controlling humidity in 1 buildings and schools 3
manufacturing plants, were the primary focus of
preserve meat and air conditioning in
perishable foods, or to buildings
chill beer
History of HVAC
Modern HVAC
Advanced equipment are particularly
used such as the boilers, heat pump, air
conditioner, evaporative cooler, humidifier,
dehumidifiers, and etc
The primary goal for any HVAC system is to help maintain
good indoor air quality through adequate ventilation with
filtration, provide thermal comfort, and maintain
productivity, and health of the occupants.
PRIMARY GOAL OF HVAC SYSTEM
Secondary HVAC
System Goals
Goal 1 Goal 2
Minimize the energy burden Minimize the system’s
imposed by the system. ASHRAE overall negative impact on
standards, energy conservation the environment, not limited
building codes, and simply good to just consumption, making
design stewardship are all it more “sustainable”
imposed to meet this goal.
AIR-CONDITIONING PROCESS
Air is the engineering science of
designing means of managing the
air in the human environment for
comfort and health. Heating, cooling,
humidifying, dehumidifying, and
cleaning air are all part of the
process.
02
03
BASIC COMPONENTS OF
AN HVAC SYSTEM
1. Mixed-air plenum and 9. Heating and cooling
outdoor air control coils
2. Air filter 10. Self-contained
3. Supply fan heating or cooling unit
4. Exhaust or relief fans 11. Cooling tower
and an air outlet 12. Boiler
5. Outdoor air intake 13. Control
6. Ducts 14. Water chiller
7. Terminal devices 15. Humidification and
8. Return air system dehumidification
equipment
04
Classification of HVAC
Systems
Types of a system depend on addressing
the primary equipment location to be
centralized as conditioning the entire
building as a whole unit or decentralized
as separately conditioning a specific
zone as part of a building.
Classification of HVAC Systems
01
TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY, AND SPACE PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS
CENTRAL DECENTRALIZED
Fulfilling any or all of Fulfilling any or all of
the design parameters the design parameters
02
CAPACITY REQUIREMENTS
Considering HVAC diversity factors to Maximum capacity is required for
reduce the installed equipment capacity each equipment
Significant first cost and operating cost Equipment sizing diversity is limited
03
REDUNDANCY
Standby equipment is
No backup or standby
accommodated for troubleshooting
equipment
and maintenance
04
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
An equipment room is located outside the
Possible of no equipment room is
conditioned area, or adjacent to or remote
needed
from the building
Installing secondary equipment for the air Equipment may be located on the roof
and water distribution which requires and the ground adjacent to the building
additional cost
05
FIRST COST
High capital cost
Considering longer equipment services Affordable capital cost
life to compensate the high capital cost
06
OPERATING COST
Less energy efficient primary equipment
More significant energy efficient primary
equipment Various energy peaks due to occupants’
A proposed operating system which saves preference
operating cost Higher operating cost
07
MAINTENANCE COST
Accessible to the equipment room for Accessible to equipment to be
maintenance and saving equipment in located in the basement or the living
excellent condition, which saves space. However, it is difficult for roof
maintenance cost location due to bad weather
08
RELIABILITY
Central system equipment can be an Reliable equipment, although the
attractive benefit when considering its estimated equipment service life
long service life may be less
09
FLEXIBILITY
Selecting standby equipment to
Placed in numerous locations to
provide an alternative source of
be more flexible
HVAC or backup
05
HVAC
Distribution
Components
and Systems
AIR-SIDE COMPONENTS
Ductwork
Ducts, fittings, and
Air-handling units
dampers Fans To balance out air intake/exhaust
HVAC system’s blower rate and direction
Terminal units Diffusers, registers, and grilles

Regulate volume of To balance out air intake/exhaust
conditioned primary air rate and direction
WATER-SIDE COMPONENTS
Pumps
Creates pressure Terminal units
enabling water to flow
Valves through pipes Regulate volume of
Piping Control amount of conditioned primary air
Delivers water, steam, refrigerant
refrigerant, etc.
Expansion tanks Heat exchangers

Absorb expanding fluid Transfer thermal energy from one
and limit pressure medium to another
05
Heating
Systems and
Components
Firing Fossil Fuels,
Furnaces, Boilers, Hydronic,
and Steam
FIRING FOSSIL FUELS
Oil-Fired
Systems
Oil burner
is a mechanical device for preparing fuel oil to combine with air under
controlled conditions for combustion.
Air for Combustion may be supplied by the
following:
Natural Draft Burners

It depends on the hot stack gases rising, creating
a low-pressure region that “sucks” combustion
air in from the space.
Mechanical Draft Burners

For mechanical draft burners, a fan “forces” or
“induces” air into the combustion chamber.
Oil-Firing System
Oil Storage
Burner
Tank
Piping Pump
Oil pump
the pump must be sized on the basis of the firing rate required (gph [L/h])
and the pressure required at the burner, plus piping losses and static head.
Fuel Storage Tank
Standard oil storage tanks range in the size from 50 gal [200 L] to over 60,000
gal [230,000 L]. Fuel oil storage tanks should be designed for aboveground
installation with fuel transfer pumps located within the boiler room.
Gas-Fired
Systems
Gas burner
the fuel is already in a vapor state and at least for natural gas, no storage
system is required. Gas must be mixed with air and ignited in a gas burner. It
is generally referred to as “atmospheric” or “power.”
Gas-Fired Systems
Atmospheric Burners Power Burners
• utilize mechanical draft to
• operates with supply and control combustion
natural draft and air. The power burner fan
are simple tube- moves air through the burner
type burners where and forces it through the heat
the gas is exchanger.
introduced at the • A stack is required to release
center nozzle and the flue gas products at a
the combustion air is height above a nuisance level
induced around it. and the combustion process
• used in furnaces, occurs under pressure.
smaller boilers, fired • Fuel gas is introduced into a
unit heaters, and so controlled airstream designed
on to produce thorough gas–air
mixing but still capable of
maintaining a stable flame
front.
FURNACES
• It is a direct-combustion air-heating device.
• The air to be heated is circulated by a fan around the
outside surface of a combustion chamber, which serves as
the heat exchanger.
• Hot flue gases transfer their heat to the circulating air.
• It has a widest application in residential but has specialized
HVAC applications in the industrial/ commercial sector.
BOILERS
• It is a pressure vessel designed to transfer the
heat produced by combustion to a fluid.
• It also includes the transfer of heat from
electrical resistance elements to the fluid or
by direct action of electrodes on the liquid.
• In the HVAC industry, the fluid is as liquid hot
water or as steam.
Boiler Types
Conventional
Boilers
Condensing
Boilers
Boiler Types
Conventional Boilers
● operate without condensing within the flue gas leaving
the boiler to prevent corrosion of the metals used in
the boiler construction.
● the latent heat contained in the water vapor is allowed
to escape with the flue gases.
Condensing Boilers
● achieve higher efficiencies by condensing water
vapor contained in flue gases. When fuel gas is
combusted in a boiler, approximately 90% of the
energy contained in the fuel is converted into sensible
heat and approximately 10% is converted into latent
heat that is stored in the water vapor by-product of
the combustion process.
Sensible Heat Latent Heat
heat that causes a
heat involved in phase change
change in temperature
Boiler Types
Boilers are constructed to meet the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code, Section IV, for heating boilers (low-pressure
boilers) and Section I for power boilers (medium- and high-
pressure boilers).
Every boiler is rated at the maximum working

pressure determined by the ASME Boiler Code (or other code)
under which it is constructed and tested and is equipped with
safety controls and pressure-relief devices mandated by
code requirements.
HYDRONIC HEATING
SYSTEMS
Steps of Heat Transfer
(1) water is heated by the boiler(s) and;

(2) this hot water is circulated through finned-tube heating coils, where
it gives up heat to the air.
● The heating rate is dictated by the water flow rate and the
temperature drop of the water through the heating coils
and/or radiation. In this system, the heating requirement
is known from the heat-loss calculations.
● Direct radiation heating systems can take advantage of
higher leaving air temperatures, are rarely utilized in
nonresidential construction.
● Control Devices boiler supply line requires:
● Flow limiters. These are installed before the inlet to each
boiler in the system, prevent any overpumping of the
boiler. It is acceptable to vary flow through larger, flexible
watertube condensing boilers.
● Two-way isolation valves stop the flow through a boiler
when it is not running. Each valve must be timed to open
and close based on the boiler volume and the boiler
control response time. These valves must also be
interlocked with the primary flow pumps so they are never
running unless at least one boiler isolation valve is open.
The pumps need to run for 2–5 min after boiler is shutoff
in order to remove the residual heat from the boilers,
therefore, the valve must remain open for a short period
even after the boiler stops.
STEAM HEATING
SYSTEMS
Steam Boiler Capacity
It is presented as boiler horsepower (BHP) [kW], a
measure of boiler energy output. One boiler horsepower is
equivalent to 34.5 lbs/h (PPH) of steam production (33,472
Btu/h) [9.8 KW] and/or 139.5 ft2 [13 m2] of equivalent direct
radiation (EDR).
Steam Quality
Required Higher Quality Steam
High Quality Higher Quality Clean Stream

Steam Steam
is required for general hospitals require the use of steam produced from
health care higher quality steam for feedwater made up of
humidification and humidification of operating 100% domestic water
other applications rooms, delivery rooms, that contains minimal
and can be produced intensive/acute care, and contamination. It is
by typical steam other critical care areas. formed by removing
boilers Museums, libraries, dissolved solids and
laboratories, and so on other contaminants
normally require higher from the domestic
quality steam to prevent supply before it enters
contamination. a steam generator.
Steam Quality
Required Higher Quality Steam
Steam for Steam for

Pure Steam Sterilizers Processes
Using a direct-fired or In health care facilities and Or conventional steam.
steam-to-generator, laboratories it is required to Steam for direct use
“clean” steam is meet the requirements of in the production of
steam produced from the Centers for Disease pharmaceuticals,
feedwater made up of Control (CDC’s) “Guideline food products, and
100% distilled, reverse for Disinfection and so on have specific
osmosis, Sterilization in Healthcare requirements that
ormdeionization Facilities.” must be met.
purified water.
Steam-to-steam heat exchangers are used to produce higher
quality or pure steam using conventional or higher quality steam as the
heating medium. These may “stand-alone,” producing steam for a
number of imposed sizing, the load imposed on the heat exchanger must
be determined based on the anticipated peak simultaneous steam
demand of connected humidifiers, sterilizers, and so on. Size the heat
exchanger for at least 150% of the computed peak load to account for
instantaneous loads that may be imposed.
Steam Heat Transfer
The steam gives up its enthalpy of vaporization, together

with a small fraction of its sensible heat due to some subcooling
of the condensate. The quantity of heat transferred from the
steam is a function of the rate of flow, its specific heat, and the TD
of the medium being heated.
Significant advantages 1. Steam heat content, per pound, is much
for heating energy higher than for water, reducing pipe sizes and
initial distribution system cost.
distribution of Steam: 2. Steam pressures provide for transport of the
heating medium without the need for pumps.
Steam-to-Water Heat Exchangers
• Heat is transferred to a smaller, individual hot-water heating systems for

local distribution since control of a hot water system is simpler and better
than for the steam system.
• Converter is a simple steam-to-water heat exchanger that allows to
accomplish heat transfer.
• These are typically shell and tube type, consisting of a number of tubes
mounted inside a cylindrical shell, with steam within the shell, flowing over
the outside of the tubes, as the second fluid (typically water) flows through
the tubes. Heat to liquid state, creating a temperature increase on the
water side. Heat transfer efficiency approaches 97%–98%.
Steam-to-Water Heat Exchangers
Feedwater System
It is required to provide a mix of returned

condensate and makeup water to
the boiler(s).
Steam Pressure Reducing Valves
Steam is produced at relatively high pressure (80–100 psig)
[550–690 kPa] for high efficiency transport in the steam distribution
system. This pressure is reduced, an adiabatic process, to a lower
pressure to one better suited to the type of load and for better flow
control.
Steam Condensate Receivers and Pumps
These are required to collect steam condensate and

provide pumped return of that condensate to the boiler(s) feedwater
system.
06
SPACE
COOLING
EQUIPMENT
IT’S A EQUIPMENT WE USED
TO MAINTAINED AMBIENT
WORKING TEMPERATURE.
SPACE COOLING EQUIPMENT
HEAT PUMP
is a type of heating and/or cooling
device that draws heat into a building
from outside during the heating season.
If designed with cooling capability also,
the heat pump expels heat from the
building to the outside during the
cooling season. Heat pumps are direct
expansion systems whose indoor–
outdoor coils are used reversibly as
condensers or evaporators, depending
on the need for heating or cooling.
PACKAGED UNIT
Is a type of heating and/or
cooling equipment that is
assembled at a factory and
installed as a self-contained unit.
Packaged units are in contrast to
engineer-specified units built up
from individual components for
use in a given building. A rooftop
unit (RTU) is a packaged heating
and/or cooling unit that
conditions a structure. An RTU is
mounted on the roof and requires
adequate support by the roof
structure.
VAPOR COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION
process also known as the direct
expansion (DX) refrigeration cycle is a
method of transferring heat from a
low-temperature region to a high
temperature region, essentially driving
heat in a direction that is opposite to
the direction it naturally flows. In this
process, the refrigeration or cooling
segment of a building air conditioning
system absorbs heat from within the
building and transfers it to the outside.
COMPONENT OF VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION
REFRIGERANT EVAPORATOR CONDENSER

A NETWORK OF TUBE THAT
A NETWORK OF TUBE THAT
DISCHARGE UNWANTED
IT’S A SUBSTANCE THAT FILLED WITH REFRIGERANT
HEAT FROM A REFRIGERANT
PRODUCE REFRIGERATING THAT ABSORB HEAT FROM
TO A MEDIUM. AS HEAT
EFFECT, BEST EXAMPLE IS AIR OR LIQUID AND MOVE IT
DISCHARGE REFRIGERANT
AMMONIA OUTSIDE THE REFRIGERATED
CONDENSE AND BECOME
AREA
LIQUID AGAIN
COMPONENT OF VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION
COMPRESSOR EXPANSION VALVE

BY SENSING TEMPERATURE OF THE
EVAPORATOR ITS CONTROL THE
OFTEN REFERRED AS HEART OF
REFRIGERANT PASSING THROUGH
THE SYSTEM, IT PUMP THE
ARY SMALL ORIFICE WHICH CAUSE
REFRIGERANT THROUGHOUT THE
THE REFRIGERANT TO A LOW
CLOSED SYSTEM
PRESSURE( THUS A LOW
TEMPERATURE)GAS
TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
➧ Central Air Conditioner
is a DX(direct expansion) refrigeration

cooling system. It has four basic parts: a
condensing unit (containing the
compressor, condenser, and expansion
valve), a cooling coil (an evaporator in
the air-handling unit or ductwork near
the furnace), ductwork (to distribute the
cooled air), and a control mechanism
such as a thermostat.
PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS
FOR HIGH-EFFICIENCY
RESIDENTIAL CENTRAL AIR
CONDITIONERS

(SPLIT SYSTEM)
split system has the condensing unit

(containing the compressor, condensing
coil and fan, and expansion valve)
located outside and a cooling coil (an
evaporator in an air-handling unit or in
the ductwork near the furnace) located
inside. The outdoor condensing unit is
connected to the indoor evaporator coils
by two pipes that carry refrigerant
between the two units.
➧ Individual Air
Conditioner
frequently called a room air conditioner, is a

cooling device that is installed in either walls
or windows and exposed to the outdoor air.
These self-contained units are characterized
by a lack of pipes or ductwork for
distributing the cool air. Through-the-wall
models are installed in an outside wall,
usually during construction or remodeling.
Individual air conditioners condition air only
in the room or areas where they are located.
They typically range in output capacity from
4000 to 36 000 Btu/hr (1.2 to 10.5 kW).
➧ Central chilled water

systems
are used in large buildings and are

bigger and more complex than standard
split or packaged DX systems. These
systems typically consist of a central
chiller to cool water. The chilled water is
then distributed by the appropriate fan
coil or air handling system.
➧ Chiller
➧ is a large piece of cooling equipment
that produces chilled water, which is
used to remove heat from the building.
Chillers generally use the vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle to
extract heat from water and reject it to
either outdoor air or water. Selection of
a chiller depends upon availability and
cost of fuel/electricity and the size of the
cooling load.
➧ Air-Cooled Condensers
➧ pass outdoor air over a dry surface coil
to condense refrigerant contained
inside the coil. This results in a higher
condensing temperature and lower
performance under peak conditions in
comparison to water-cooled
condensers. An air-cooled condenser
is preferred, however, on the systems
noted previously because of their
simplicity and low maintenance
requirements. An air-cooled
condenser should be avoided with
larger central chilled water systems
because chiller efficiency is reduced
significantly
COOLING TOWER
expels heat from a chilled water system

when water is cooled by directly or
indirectly contacting the atmosphere.
Cooling towers are used as the
condenser on large-scale air
conditioning installations because they
are most efficient. Cooling tower systems,
however, increase water use, have
extensive maintenance requirements,
require freeze protection, and close
control of water treatment to function
successfully
06
VENTILATION
EQUIPMENT
NATURAL VENTILATION
Natural ventilation works well when the

outdoor air temperature and humidity
levels are below the indoor air conditions.
Outdoor air can flow through windows,
creating an air exchange with warm and
moist, indoor air.
CEILING FAN
or a paddle-blade ceiling fan can be

used to provide air motion, improving
comfort and allowing a higher
thermostat set point during the cooling
season.However, ceiling fans may create
problems with air motion on papers and the
potential distraction from moving shadows
caused by fan blades moving below recessed
ceiling luminaires
WHOLE-HOUSE FAN
is located in the ceiling separating the

attic from the occupied space and is
operated when outdoor air temperature
and humidity levels are below the indoor
air conditions. Cooler outdoor air is
drawn into the building through open
windows and exhausted through the fan
into the attic space at an air exchange
rate of several times per hour
EXHAUST FAN
in the home are very beneficial for
maintaining ideal temperature and air
quality. They are used to pull excess
moisture and unwanted odors out of a
particular room or area. They are
commonly found in bathrooms and
kitchens, where moisture can build up due
to activities such as showering, washing, or
cooking. They provide ventilation to areas,
reducing chemical fume buildup and
removing other contaminants that can be
harmful when breathed in.
TYPE OF EXHAUST FAN
CEILING-MOUNTED
Usually installed in a room that is not adjacent to an

open space. It requires an air exhaust duct called the
Mechanical Ventilation Heat Recovery System (MVHR).
This duct is installed on the ceiling or inside the ceiling
which serves as a distributor of air to the outside of the
house. The size of the ceiling exhaust fan usually ranging
from 8 inches, 10 inches, to 12 inches. You have to make
sure that it matches the size of the room and the size of
the ventilation ducts.
MVHR (Mechanical Ventilation with Heat Recovery)
provides fresh filtered air into a building whilst
retaining most of the energy that has already been
used in heating the building. Heat Recovery
Ventilation is the solution to the ventilation needs of
energy efficient buildings.
TYPE OF EXHAUST FAN
WALL EXHAUST FAN
most often used in homes, especially homes

that have walls directly opposite an open area.
can be easily installed with a simple installation
method. It does not require a Mechanical
Ventilation Heat Recovery System (MVHR) or
special exhaust ducts unlike the ceiling-
mounted exhaust fan. They are suitable for
installation in the bedroom or living room as well
as in the kitchen or bathroom/toilet.
TYPE OF EXHAUST FAN
EXHAUST FAN EXTERIOR
SIMILAR to a wall-mounted fan,

this type of fan actually draws air
inside the building and pull it out.
This is placed outside the room
therefore it is preferable for those
who do not want noise problems
coming from the fan.
TYPE OF EXHAUST FAN
WINDOWS EXHAUST FAN
Window fans are designed to fit

snugly against an open window,
and often have side panels that
can be expanded to cover the
entire window opening. Most
units have one large fan, or two
smaller fans mounted side by
side. A more powerful window fan
can be used to circulate air
throughout the house, acting as
a whole house fan.
TYPE OF EXHAUST FAN
INLINE EXHAUST FAN
They are powerful blower fans

and can move large volumes of
air. The Inline Exhaust Fan can
produce up to 1500 CFM (cubic
feet per minute) on the 12-inch
model. However, this fan
consumes less energy than other
fans. It used to dissipate heat and
moisture from a tent or large
room. They are designed to cool
and ventilate large spaces.
TYPE OF EXHAUST FAN
Exhaust Fan Cooker Hood
pump the air generated when

cooking in the kitchen through
the exhaust air duct. They
effectively remove cooking odors
and gases from combustion
when cooking. This equipment
uses a filter to remove cooking
odors, this air is then recirculated
into the room. All of these hoods
feature an oil filter as well as a
carbon or activated charcoal
filter that can neutralize odors
while you cook
07
Air Humidification - Air is mixed with
water vapor, in proportions that vary
AIR
with climate, season, and daily
weather conditions.To maintain a HUMIDIFICATION
good air quality in a building interior,
water vapor must be added to indoor SYSTEM
air in a process called air
humidification
A humidification system introduces
moisture to building air to maintain a
AIR
healthy environment for building
occupants and allow proper HUMIDIFICATION
operation of equipment, such as
electric equipment. SYSTEM
Residential humidifiers are the
evaporation or atomization type.
AIR
They rely upon heated air flowing
across a water surface, air circulating HUMIDIFICATION
over or through a wetted media, or
small particles of water introduced SYSTEM
into the airstream.
Types of Residential Humidifiers
Pan-type humidifiers
are installed in the ductwork directly

above a furnace. Heated air exiting the
furnace passes across a shallow pan
containing water. As air moves across
the water surface, water is evaporated
into the airstream, where it is
distributed to the indoor spaces.
Electrically heated humidifiers
heat the water, increasing its

temperature and improving the
rate of heat transfer. Water-
absorbent wicking plates can be
added that extend from the pan
into the airstream. These plates
wick water from the pan and
increase the wetted area, which
improves the rate of evaporation.
WETTED MEDIA humidifiers
Rely upon a heated airstream

flowing across a fixed pad that is
moistened by trickling water or a
spray, or through a paddle,
wheel, or drum that is wetted by
rotating it through a water
reservoir. A small electric motor
drives rotation of the paddle,
wheel, or drum-type media.
FAN TYPE humidifiers
air is drawn from the furnace

plenum into the humidifier by a
fan; it passes through a fixed or
moving pad and then is returned
to the plenum.
BYPASS humidifiers
are installed between the return

air duct and the supply air duct
and rely upon the pressure
difference to drive air across a
wetted pad.
DUCT MOUNTED humidifiers
are installed in the supply air

duct, where heated air passes
across a fixed or moving pad.
ATOMIZING humidifiers
introduce small droplets of water

into the airstream by using
specially designed spray nozzles;
by dropping water on a spinning
disc, which slings the water into
the airstream; or by ultrasonically
vibrating water to break it up into
small particles.
PORTABLE humidifiers
packaged, stand-alone units

located directly in the space or room
requiring humidification. They rely
upon the humidification principles
described in the humidifiers
previously. Most common is the fan
type with a fixed pad or rotating
wheel setting in or passing through a
reservoir of water. Water in the
reservoir is typically filled manually.
Some units are equipped with an
automatic fill requiring a float valve,
shut-off valve, and tubing for
connection to the water supply.
Commercial systems tend to be more
complex than residential humidifiers.
COMMERCIAL
Types of humidification systems used
in large buildings include the following:
HUMIDIFICATION
SYSTEM
Types of COMMERCIAL Humidifiers
Spray Atomization Systems
The compressed air spray atomization

system uses compressed air and specially
designed nozzles to aid in atomization of water.
The air causes additional turbulence in the nozzle
that breaks the droplets into smaller sizes that
evaporates better into the airstream.
STEAM INJECTION Systems
In direct steam injection system, steam is

evaporated into an airstream by steam injection
manifolds that are mounted in ductwork. Steam
may be provided by the building’s space or water
heating boiler or by a dedicated boiler.
Disposable Electrode Steam

Generators
A disposable electrode steam generator is a

self-contained canister unit that makes steam
with electrodes immersed directly in water. In
addition, the unit does not have a disposable
canister system. Instead, it relies on an automatic
flushing system to remove minerals from the
boiling chamber.
08
AIR DEHUMIDIFICATION
EQUIPMENT
CONVENTIONAL AND DESICCANT
WHAT IS DEHUMIDIFICATION?
• The process of removing atmospheric moisture.
• It is useful in controlling the atmosphere’s relative
humidity and dew point.
• Properly sized and engineered dehumidification
systems can preserve product quality and make
difference between successful and failed
operations.
DEHUMIDIFIER
APPLICATIONS
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION
Controls a product’s moisture

content, ensure smooth process
operations, and increase production
efficiency.
COMMERCIAL APPLICATION
Helps regulate room temperature,

and manages condensation that
can lead to mold or mildew
formation.
DEHUMIDIFIERS:
CONVENTIONAL VS. DESICCANT

CONVENTIONAL DESICCANT
DEHUMIDIFICATION DEHUMIDIFICATION
SYSTEMS SYSTEMS
https://m.made-in-china.com/product/10L-Day-Mini- Mechanical-and-electrical-systems-in-architecture-
Smart-Home-Compressor-Dehumidifier-Light-Weight- engineering-and-construction.pdf
with-Cheap-Price-1900772125.html
CONVENTIONAL DESICCANT
DEHUMIDIFICATION DEHUMIDIFICATION
SYSTEMS SYSTEMS
• Reduce humidity by sending supply • Reduce the latent cooling load by

air through a cooling coil set at a absorbing moisture from ventilation
temperature below the air's dew air using a desiccant.
point, causing water vapor to • In the cooling season, reducing can
condense as liquid on the coils. improve indoor air quality and reduce
Excess moisture (condensate) is the spread of microorganisms.
drained away from the coil. • Types of a desiccant system are
• DX units are more effective than liquid desiccant and dry desiccant.
chilled water systems at removing
moisture.
LIQUID AND DRY DESICCANT SYSTEMS
1 LIQUID (SORBENT) DESICCANT SYSTEM

• Has two chambers with air/liquid contact surfaces like
sprayed coils and includes a desiccant pump, level controls,
and heat exchanger.
→Conditioning chamber = ventilation air is dehumidified as the
concentrated desiccant absorbs moisture from the air.
→Regeneration chamber = building exhaust air is humidified as
moisture is transferred from the dilute desiccant to the exhaust
air. The exhaust air and/or desiccant are usually heated to
promote desiccant regeneration.
• Remove more moisture from ventilation air.
2 DRY DESICCANT SYSTEM

• Has a desiccant coating on a rotary enthalpy heat
1 exchanger and does not require energy for desiccant
regeneration. It also produce warmer air.
An electric resistance heating
09
system comprises individual electric
heaters or cables that employ
resistance to electrical current flow to
generate heat. The system has low
installation cost, individual room
management, quiet operation, and
HVAC ELECTRIC
cleanliness. In addition, there are no
exposed heating units when cables
HEATING
SYSTEMS
or panels are utilized.
10
AIR TEMPERING
AND
DISTRIBUTION
ROOM AIR DIFFUSION
Room Air Diffusion
Room air diffusion is the

composite of space air
needs that will determine
the size and characteristics
of the duct and fan system
required.
Considers typical air

distribution patterns that
occur with various types and
placement of supply outlets.
Sneak Peek
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zephL3PidMI
11
FACTORS AFFECTING THE
SELECTION OF HVAC
SYSTEMS
WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE
HVAC SYSTEM?
• The selection of the hvac system is one of the decisions made

by owners, architects, engineers, and contractors during the
design and construction phases of a building that is frequently
revisited during the life of the facility.
PREFERENCES OF BUILDING OWNER
• It becomes more personal in selecting the HVAC system when the owner will
occupy the building.
• In the decision making-process, the life-cycle cost, maintenance cost, system
reliability, and a productive workplace may be given emphasis.
HVAC SYSTEM?
AVAILABLE CONSTRUCTION BUDGET
• The design team should provide an HVAC system that satisfies the requirements
of the building with the available budget.
• Mismatch of the budget to the desired requirements often results in sacrificing
some of the stated requirements.
SIZE, SHAPE, AND FUNCTION OF THE BUILDING
• The limitations in the building space affect the location of the HVAC system, and
the requirements may be differently prioritized due to varying building functions.
There are creative ways to conceal equipment for aesthetic considerations due
to architectural limitations.
HVAC SYSTEM?
EASE OF OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
• The presence of an on-site operator in maintaining the HVAC system impacts

the system choice because this kind of code requirement may cause the
selection of a system that uses several smaller pieces of equipment than a few
large pieces.
AVAILABLE TIME FOR CONSTRUCTION
• It is imperative for the HVAC system design engineer to be involved early in the
design process to reduce the time to be consumed in the analysis and
evaluation of many system choices.
12
BUILDING
CODES/STANDARDS
WHAT ARE BUILDING CODES/STANDARDS
IN HVAC SYSTEMS?
• HVAC systems must be properly sized to maximize occupant comfort even

in the harshest outdoor conditions.
• An oversized unit may result in the increase of energy costs, and oversizing
also escalates initial cost of the equipment.
• Industry organizations that establish standards are the ASHRAE, SMACNA,
NFPA, IMC, and IECC.
ASHRAE
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING, REFRIGERATING,
AND AIR-CONDITIONING ENGINEERS
- It has been around for over 120 years and continues to
have a significant impact on the modern HVAC industry.
It federally recognized commercial HVAC standards and
ensure compliant HVAC system design.
SMACNA
SHEET METAL AND AIR CONDITIONING
CONTRACTORS’ NATIONAL ASSOCIATION
- Their standards are crucial in HVAC installations that
use air ducts, since they include design specifications for
both sheet metal and fiberglass ducts. HVAC engineers
can verify that air ducts have suitable size, while meeting
airflow and static pressure requirements through
calculation procedures in SMACNA guidelines.
NFPA
NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION

- One of the NFPA standards is the National Electrical Code
(NEC) which applies for all circuits that deliver power to HVAC
installations, as well as associated protection systems.
INTERNATIONAL ENERGY INTERNATIONAL
CONSERVATION CODE MECHANICAL CODE
• Based on the
• A publication of the ICC
requirements of ASHRAE
and is updated every
Standard 90.1 and
three years to include the
Standard 90.2.
most updated technology
• It creates regulations for energy- and safest HVAC
efficient buildings by prescriptive and practices.
performance-related provisions.
• Establish the minimum requirements
for the design, installation, and
• It is a design document that has a
inspection of all building heating,
considerable impact on the design
cooling, and ventilation systems.
decisions of the HVAC designer.
INTERNATIONAL ENERGY
CONSERVATIVE CODE
REQUIREMENTS:
• Heating/cooling load calculation software must be “approved” by the
building official.
• Minimum equipment efficiency requirements should be incorporated into

equipment schedules on the drawings.
• Each individual outdoor air connection to an AHU must have an automatic

shutoff damper that closes when the AHU is off. Motor-operated dampers are
generally required, but gravity dampers are acceptable when the AHU’s
outdoor airflow is ≤300 cfm [140 L/s].
• Incorporate demand control ventilation for any space 500 sf [46m2 ] or

larger that has a design occupancy load, based on the IMC, that is, ≥40
occupants/1,000 sf [92m2 ].
REQUIREMENTS:
• Exhaust air heat recovery is required for any AHU rated at ≥5,000 cfm [2300
L/s] supply air, with a minimum outdoor airflow ≥70% of the total airflow.
• Fan horsepower limits apply.
• Fan motors of 5 hp [3.7 kW] or greater or DX units with 110,000 Btu/h [32.2 kW]
cooling capacity are required to be VAV.
• Airside economizer cycles are required for all AHUs with ≥65 Mbh [18 kW]
cooling capacity in all U.S. Climate Zones except 1A, 1B, 2A, 7, and 8 (see
Chapter 1).
Specified control sequences include the following:

• Auto changeover thermostats must have 5°F [2.8°C] deadband within which
no heating or cooling energy is expended.
• Air source heat pumps must have controls that prevent supplemental heat
operation “when the heat pump can meet the heating load.”
• Control systems, including stand-alone thermostats, must include

“setback” control to ≤55°F [13°C] for heating and ≥85°F [29°C] for cooling.
Setback humidity set point, typically 60% relative humidity, may override
temperature set points as needed.
• For VAV multiple-zone systems, provide reset of supply air pressure set point
based on maintaining at least one VAV unit damper 100% open.
• Reheat-type air systems serving multiple control zones are required to have
supply air temperature reset of at least 25% of the temperature difference
between the design supply air temperature and the design zone air
temperature. Note that humidity conditions can be used to limit temperature
reset.
Thank you
for
listening!
CREDITS: This presentation template was
created by Slidesgo, including icons by
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References
Bryair. (n.d.). Dehumidification - A brief introduction. Nearby Engineers. (n.d.). Technical Standards Used By An
Retrieved from https://www.bryair.com/news-and- HVAC Engineer. Retrieved from https://www.ny-
events/articles/dehumidification-a-brief- engineers.com/technical-standards-used-by-an-hvac-
introduction/#:~:text=Air%20Conditioning%20%E2%80%93%2 engineer
0Dehumidification%20by%20increasing,the%20airstream%
20to%20remove%20moisture The Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National
Association. (1995). HVAC duct construction standards metal
Building Codes Assistance Project. (n.d.). Retrieved from and flexible. United States: SMACNA Inc.
https://bcapcodes.org/tools/code-
builder/residential/hvac/ Stanford, H. W., & Spach, A. F. (2019). Analysis and Design of
Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Systems. Boca
Davis, G. (2016, August). HVAC codes and standards: Raton: CRC Press.
cooling and energy efficiency. Retrieved from
https://www.csemag.com/articles/hvac-codes-and- Trane. (2012). Introduction to HVAC systems: One of the
standards-cooling-and-energy- systems series. https://www.tranebelgium.com/files/book-
efficiency/#:~:text=IECC%20and%20ASHRAE%20Standard%2 doc/17/fr/17.wlzvwi1e.pdf
090.1,efficiency%20and%20system%20design%20requireme
nts Wujek, J. B., & Dagostino, F. R. (2010). Mechanical and Electrical
Systems in Architecture, Engineering, and Construction.
Dehumidifier Corporation. (2018, December). Retrieved Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
from https://www.dehumidifiercorp.com/blog/industrial-
uses-dehumidification-systems/ Khayata, O. (2014, March 5). 4 - Fundamentals of HVAC -
Space Air Diffusion.
Krysiak, M. (2022, February). Complete guide to ASHRAE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zephL3PidMI
standards for commercial HVAC manufacturers. Retrieved
from https://www.mpofcinci.com/blog/complete-guide-
to-ashrae-standards-for-commercial-hvac-
manufacturers/
ACOUSTICS IN BUILDING
ACOUSTIC
Acoustic is the science of sound, including the generation, transmission and effects of sound waves. The
control of acoustical problems if of prime concern, and the best results are achieved by anticipating the problem
before they occur.
HISTORY
• Pythagoras
❖ Pythagoras noticed that some combination of sounds seemed more beautiful than others, and he found
answers in terms of numerical ratios representing the harmonic overtone series on a string.
• Aristotle
❖ Aristotle correctly suggested that a sound wave propagates in air through motion of the air— a hypothesis
based more on philosophy than on experimental physics.
• Vitrivius
❖ Vitrivius, a Roman architectural engineer of the 1st century BC, determined the correct mechanism for
the transmission of sound waves, and he contributed substantially to the acoustic design of theatres.
❖ He described the ascending seats in ancient theaters as designed to prevent this deterioration of sound
and also recommended bronze vessels of appropriate sizes be placed in theaters to resonate with the
fourth, fifth and so on, up to the double octave, in order to resonate with the more desirable, harmonious
notes.
SOUNDS
• Sound is defined as a rapidly varying pressure wave within a fluid medium such as air or water that is capable
of being detected by the human ear. Sound is produced when the air is disturbed in some way (e.g., by
speaking, by clapping hands, or by a vibrating object).
• Sound that is audible by a normal human ear is in a frequency range of 20 and 20 000 Hertz (Hz)—that is,
the waves occur between 20 and 20 000 times per second
ACOUSTICS IN BUIDING
• Building acoustics is the science of controlling sound in buildings. With acoustics services, sound is controlled
within specific spaces and noise transmission from one space to the other is minimized. This can be achieved
with materials, design and acoustic techniques.
• Building acoustic can be influenced by:
❖ The geometry and volume of a space.
❖ The sound absorption, transmission and reflection characteristics of surfaces enclosing the space and
within the space.
❖ The sound absorption, transmission and reflection characteristics of materials separating spaces.
❖ The generation of sound inside or outside the space.
❖ Airborne sound transmission.
❖ Impact noise
REVERBERATION TIME
• The ‘reverberation time’ of a space changes the way the space ‘sounds’ and can affect the acoustic
information. It is the time, in seconds, taken for the sound to decay by 60dB after a sound source has been
stopped.
• To control reverberation time, acoustic absorption is needed. Absorbent materials convention ally takes two
forms; fibrous materials or open-celled foam.
SOUND ABSORPTION
• Sound absorption is the loss of sound energy when sound waves come into contact with an absorbent
material such as ceilings, walls, floors and other objects, as a result of which, the sound is not reflected back
into the space.
SOUND INSULATION
• Sound insulation describes the reduction in sound across a partition. The sound insulation across a good
conventional, lightweight, office to office const ruction is typically in the order of 45 dB Dw.
THE PRINCIPLES OF BUILDING ACOUSTICS

• It’s all in the design
✓ Sound planning at the design stage is crucial. An acoustic consultant creates an acoustic climate which
ensures that noise transmission levels are agreeable with the specific usage of the room.
• Insulate and Absorb
✓ Building acoustics need to factor in both internal and external sound transmission, sound insulation and
sound absorption needs to be taken into consideration.
✓ Sound insulation design needs to consider two forms of sound energy - passes through a divider and
passes through surrounding structure, also known as flanking transmission.
✓ Sound absorption refers to loss of sound energy when interacts with a surface.
• Reverberant Energy
✓ The extent to which a sound can be heard after an initial sound has been made. In an enclosed space,
echoes can occur, before the noise is absorbed by the surrounding features.
✓ The length of the period from the original sound being made, to echoing, decaying and then dying away,
is known as the reverberation time.
• Go for Guidance
✓ There are several relevant standards pertaining to acoustic performance in some countries. It includes
what should be considered a reasonable level of sound insulation between domestic properties.
✓ Acoustics of buildings can have a direct impact on life of their inhabitants. It is always best to seek the
advice of a professional acoustic consultant when undertaking building construction.
BASIC FACTORS OF BUILDING ACOUSTICS
• Shape
The room proportions used will affect the sound reflection within the space. Room shapes to be avoided are
long, narrow rooms or corridors with high ceilings and rooms that are nearly cubical. Each of these room
proportions will cause excessive reverberation (sound reflection or echoing).
• Materials
Hard surfaces reflect sound waves while soft surfaces absorb.
• Size
Large buildings have different acoustical properties than small ones.
OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING ACOUSTICS IN BUILDINGS
• Reverberation Time
Reverberation is the phenomenon of persistence of sound after it has been stopped as a result of multiple
reflections from surfaces such as furniture, people, air, etc. within a closed surface.
Reverberation time can be maintained at an optimum value:
✓ By providing windows and openings.
✓ by having full capacity of audience in hall or room.
✓ by using heavy curtains with folds.
✓ by covering the floor with carpets.
✓ by decorating walls with wallpapers.
✓ by covering ceiling with good sound absorbing
✓ Materials like felt, fibre board, false roofing, etc.
• Loudness
The degree of sensation produced on the ears which determines the intensity of sound waves. Necessary
as its uniform distribution is an important factor for satisfactory hearing.
If loudness of the sound is inadequate, it can be increased by:
✓ Using suitable absorbents at places where noise is high.
✓ Using large sounding boards behind the speaker and facing the audience.
✓ Using public address system like loudspeaker.
• Echo
A sound or series of sounds caused by the reflection of sound waves from a surface back to the listener.
Echoes may be desirable (as in sonar) or undesirable (as in telephone systems). It can be avoided by
covering long distance walls and high ceiling with suitable sound- absorbing material
• Echelon Effect
The combination of multiple echoes and formation of new sound that affects the original quality.
To avoid echelon effect is to cover such surfaces with sound absorbing materials.
• Noise
By definition, noise is any disagreeable or undesirable sound that interferes with rest, sleep, mental
concentration, or speech communication. Simply, noise is sound that is not part of what a person is trying to
hear. A sound, especially one that is loud or unpleasant or that causes disturbance.
Unnecessary noise can be avoided by:
✓ Using doors and windows with proper sound absorbing material between frames and panel.
✓ Using double walls with air space between them.
✓ Using anti vibration mounts.
✓ Covering floors and walls with proper sound absorbing material.
BUILDING ACOUSTICS: THE DESIGN PROCESS

• Choose a Maximum Noise Level Goal
Determine the maximum ambient noise level criterion and modify it to meet the needs of particular users.
• Design to Meet Noise Criteria
Set the maximum noise level criteria for mechanical systems. Room boundaries must be adequate barriers
to intruding noise from outdoors and from adjacent spaces.
• Determine the Required Total Sound Absorption and Amount of Material to be Added
Requires knowledge of the sound absorption of various products and an estimate of the absorption of the
expected room occupants.
• Consider the Room Shape and the Location of the Sound-Absorbing Material
In smaller rooms, sound- absorbing material should usually be distributed evenly over the room surfaces but
avoiding the center portion of the ceiling and surfaces close to talker locations such as fixed podiums.
BUILDING ACOUSTICS: EQUIPMENTS

• Sound Level Meters
From inspection sound level meters to octave band and third octave band spectral analyzers for advanced
measurements.
• Loggers Limiters
Allows you to control any musical activity and guarantee that the sound levels reached will never be high
enough to disturb people in neighboring buildings.
• Building Acoustic Testing Equipment
This includes amplifier, omni-directional loudspeaker and tapping machine.
• Noise Measuring Sensor
Displays and dynamically analyses the noise measured by a mixed network of sensors and terminals that
can monitor the entire area affected by noise-generating activities.
• PC Software
Software applications to download and record measured data. It also displays this data in graphical and
numerical formats and creates reports.
• Microphones & Pre-amplifiers
Acoustic precision measurement, high input impedance and delivering signal with a low output impedance.
• Vibration Calibrators
All acoustic instruments need constant verification of their performance, Vibration calibrators are a simple
means by which to carry out this verification.
• Vibrometers and Accelometers
Occupational Vibration of whole body and hand arm vibration. Measures vibration transmission through
solids.
• Noise Dosimeters
Pocket devices that allow the measurement of noise dose to which workers are exposed.
• Acoustic Calibrators
Portable equipment for checking sound level meters and dosimeters on the measurement site or in the
laboratory.
BUILDING ACOUSTICS: FIXTURES

• Walls and Partitions
Rigid and homogenous partitions: Thickness of wall affect the sound insulation property.
• Floor & Ceilings
Floor and ceilings are the horizontal barrier to noise, resilient materials should be used on floors.
• Windows and Doors
Noise can be reduced when you choose a good windows and doors. Some of these noises are from traffic
and neighboring noise.
• Insulating Sanitary Fittings
Pipe noises are also problems in buildings. There are airborne sounds and structure-borne sound.
SAFETY AND PRECAUTIONS

Regulations on technical precautions and conditions for sound protections in building or any type of
structures are essential for the reason that safety of people that use the building or structures is always the first
thing to consider when planning and executing a project. This includes the proper placement and use of different
devices and materials for the acoustics of a structure.
IMPORTANCE OF BUILDING ACOUSTICS

The importance of building acoustics can be simplified as ABC. These are:
• Absorption
• Blocking
• Coverage
GROUP 6
Fire Detection and Alarm Systems (FDAS)

MAGBAGO, MILAGROSO, MONDIGO, PANGANIBAN
INTRODUCTION
Fire Detection and Alarm Systems (FDAS) is a system that detects fire at the earliest stage, and gives
an alarm to alert the occupants so that appropriate action can be taken.
Fire detectors are designed to detect one or more of the three characteristics of fire-smoke, heat and
flame. Besides it every fire detection system must include manual call points (break glass), so that in the
event of fire can be of immediate help. During a fire, importance of activation of the occupants through
alarm or bell is of at most vital and this can be performed through the alarm system.
HISTORY OF FIRE ALARM

The first fire alarm system ever was invented way back in 1852 by Dr. William F. Channing and Moses
Farmer. The system consisted of two fire alarm boxes that each had a telegraphic key and a handle. If a
fire was detected in a home or business, someone would have to reach inside one of the boxes and crank
the handle in order to send an alert about the fire to a nearby alarm station. An operator at the station
would then take the message and alert a fire department about it so that they could send help.
The first electric fire alarm system was invented almost four decades later in 1890 by Francis Robbins
Upton. He recognized that, in most cases, people wouldn’t have time to stand around and crank a handle
inside of a box when a fire started. Therefore, his electric system eliminated the need for this step.
Surprisingly, the design for his system wasn’t all that popular when it was first introduced, but over time,
people started to realize the need for a more advanced fire alarm system like this one.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF FIRE ALARM & DETECTION SYSTEMS
BASIC FIRE ALARM SYSTEM COMPONENTS

1. Fire Alarm Control Unit (FACU). Formerly called the Fire Alarm Control Panel (FACP). The fire
alarm control panel is the central hub of the fire alarm and detection system. It acts as the brain of the
alarm system by monitoring and managing the initiation devices.
2. Primary Power Supply. The primary electrical power supply usually comes from the building’s main
power connection to the local utility provider. The primary power supply is typically 120- or 240-volt
AC power sources.
3. Secondary Power Supply. All fire alarm systems must have a secondary power supply. This
requirement is designed so that the system will be operational even if the main power supply fails.
The backup power supply includes 6- or 12-volt batteries to keep the system running when a power
failure happens.
4. Initiating Devices. (Manual pull stations, Smoke detectors, Flame detectors, Heat detectors,
Combination detectors, Waterflow devices). The role of the alarm initiating devices in a fire alarm
system is to activate the system when a fire occurs. There are two types of fire alarm initiating
devices:
● Manual initiating devices – These devices include pull stations, break glass stations or buttons
that need to be manually activated by someone in the building when they identify a fire. Manual
initiating devices need to be well marked and accessible to make it easy to identify and use.
● Automatic initiating devices – automatic initiation devices trigger the fire alarm system
automatically when a fire happens. These devices include heat, flame and smoke detection.
When heat, flames or smoke is detected, the devices send a signal to a central control panel that
activates the system.
5. Notification Appliances Audible notification signaling appliances are the most common types of
alarm-signaling systems used for signaling a fire alarm in a structure. Once an alarm-initiating device
is activated, it sends a signal to the FACU, which then processes the signal and initiates actions. The
primary action initiated is usually local notification, which can take the form of: bells, buzzers, horns,
speakers, strobe lights, and other warning appliances. Notification appliances fall under the following
categories:
• Audible – Approved sounding devices, such as horns, bells, or speakers, that indicate a fire or
emergency condition.
• Visual – Approved lighting devices, such as strobes or flashing lights, that indicate a fire or
emergency condition.
• Textual – Visual text or symbols indicating a fire or emergency condition.
• Tactile – Indication of a fire or emergency condition through sense of touch or vibration.
OTHER IMPORTANT COMPONENTS

● Sprinkler systems – When a fire is detected, the fire sprinkler system is activated to suppress or
extinguish a fire.
● Exit lighting – When a fire occurs, people need to be able to get out safely. Having a lights to
show people how to exit safely is very important.
● Alarm monitoring – Having a monitored fire alarm system alerts the authorities when the fire
alarm system is activated.
● Voice communication systems – Voice communication systems give verbal commands to
building occupants telling them what to do during an emergency situation. Voice communication
is especially helpful in high rise buildings, arenas and hospitals.
● Remote controls and display panels – In a larger building such as a high rise building with a lot
of floors, having remote controls and display panels throughout the building can be helpful. These
devices allow personnel to easily check, activate, and deactivate alarms from remote part of the
building.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FIRE ALARM DETECTORS https://youtu.be/cVjyDgFrb2g

At the core of a fire alarm system are the detection devices, from sophisticated intelligent smoke
detectors to simple manually operated break glass units, there are a wide array of different types, but we
can divide them into groups including:
– Heat detectors – Multi-sensor detectors
– Smoke detectors – Manual Call Points
– Carbon Monoxide detectors
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS

Fire Alarm Systems can be broken down into four main types;
– Conventional – Intelligent
– Addressable – Wireless
ALARM SYSTEM FUNCTIONS

The fire detection and alarm system can be designed to initiate the following actions:
• Turn off the heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system
• Close smoke dampers and/or fire doors
• Pressurized stairwells and/or operate smoke control systems for evacuation purposes
• Unlock doors along the path of egress
• Provide elevator recall to the designated floor and prevent normal operations.
• Operate heat and smoke vents
• Activate special fire suppression systems, such as preaction and deluge sprinkler systems or a
variety of special-agent fire extinguishing systems
ALARM SIGNALING SYSTEMS
Fire detection and alarm systems are equipped with three types of specialty signals, depending on the
type and nature of the alarm they are reporting:
• Alarm Signal – Signal given by a fire detection and alarm system when there is a fire condition
detected.
• Supervisory Signal – Signal given by a fire detection and alarm system when a monitored
condition in the system is off-normal.
• Trouble Signal – Signal given by a fire detection and alarm system when a power failure or other
system malfunction occurs.
HOW TO INSTALL A FDAS?
WHY FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEM REQUIRED

Fire detection and protection system is required for the following reasons:
● To detect fire in the area during the initial stage.
● To alert occupants, so that they escape the building safely.
● Summon trained personnel to take charge of controlling the fire as quickly as possible.
● To initiate automatic fire control and suppression systems.
● To support and supervise the fire control and suppression system.
IMPORTANCE OF FDAS
Early fire detection is crucial and plays a very important role in protecting and saving lives and properties.
Having a fire detection system can significantly reduce damages and maximize fire control efforts. It is
also one of the most fundamental steps you can take for fire safety measures. Even if you are sleeping or
busy working, early fire detection will warn you and help you respond quickly so you’ll be out of danger.
Here are some good reasons why you need fire detection systems at home or your business.

• SAVE LIVES: The very reason why there’s a need to install a fire alarm is to make all individuals
at home or inside a building safe and alive. Alarms like smoke detectors, sirens, and strobe lights
can detect fire and notify all occupants, giving them enough time to evacuate.
• REDUCE LOSS OF PROPERTY: While these alarm systems do not necessarily put out fires,
they can alert people who can. Fire alarm systems also notify the responders automatically, and
fire trucks can be dispatched quickly. The faster all these things are in place, the lesser the
damage and loss of property.
• SHORTEN RECOVERY TIME: The lesser the property’s damage, the shorter the downtime until
you can reopen for business. This will reduce losses from the fire and allow you to return to
‘business as usual’ quickly.
RA 9514 THE FIRE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
SECTION 10.2.6.6 FIRE DETECTION, ALARM, AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
A. General
1. Fire detection, alarm, and communication systems if required by Division 8 through 20 of this Chapter
shall be in accordance with the NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code, or latest edition of
Philippine Electronics Code and Philippine Electrical Code (PEC).
2. When a required fire alarm system is out of service for more than four (4) hours in a twenty-four hour
(24-hr) period, the C/MFM having jurisdiction shall be notified within twenty-four (24) hours, and a fire
watch shall be assigned until the fire alarm system has been returned to service.
3. To ensure operational integrity, the fire alarm system shall have an approved maintenance and testing
program which shall be developed by the building management in accordance with internationally
accepted standards. Records of conducted maintenance and testing should be maintained and
submitted together with the FSMR when required by the C/MFM having jurisdiction.
B. Signal Initiation
1. As provided in Divisions 8 through 20 of this Chapter, activation of the complete fire alarm system
shall be initiated by, but not be limited to, any or all of the following means:
a. Manual initiation
b. Automatic detection
c. Extinguishing system operation
2. Manual fire alarm boxes shall be used only for fire protective signaling purposes.
3. A manual fire alarm box shall be provided in the natural path of escape from fire, near each exit from
an area, and shall be readily accessible, unobstructed and at visible points.
4. Additional fire alarm boxes shall be so located that from any part of the building not more than thirty
meters (30 m) horizontal distance on the same floor must be traversed in order to reach a fire alarm
box.
5. For fire alarm systems using automatic fire detection or water flow detection devices, at least one
manual fire alarm box shall be provided to initiate a fire alarm signal. This manual fire alarm box shall
be located where required by the C/MFM having jurisdiction.
6. Where a sprinkler system provides automatic detection and alarm initiation, it shall be provided with
an alarm initiation device which will operate when the flow of water is equal to or greater than that
from a single automatic sprinkler.
7. Where a complete smoke detection system is required by another Section of this Code, automatic
detection of smoke shall be provided in all occupiable areas, common areas, and work spaces in
those environments suitable for proper smoke detector operation.
C. Smoke Alarms
Where required by Division 8 through 20 of this Chapter, single station smoke alarms and multiple station
smoke alarms shall be in accordance with NFPA 72.
D. Occupant Notification
1. Occupant notification shall provide signal notification to alert occupants of fire or other emergency as
required by other Sections of this RIRR.
2. A pre-signal system may be permitted where the initial fire alarm signal is automatically transmitted
without delay either to the nearest fire station, a fire brigade, or to an on-site staff person trained to
respond to fire emergency.
3. A positive alarm sequence may be permitted, provided that it is in accordance with NFPA 72.
4. Notification signals for occupants to evacuate shall be by audible and visible signals in accordance
with NFPA 72, or other means of notification subject to the determination and approval of the C/MFM
having jurisdiction.
5. The general evacuation alarm signal shall operate throughout the entire building.
E. Emergency Forces Notification

1. When required by Division 8 through 20 of this Chapter, emergency forces notification shall be
provided to alert the nearest fire station and fire brigade in case of fire or other emergency.
2. Where fire department notification is required by another Section of this RIRR, the fire alarm system
shall be arranged to transmit the alarm automatically via any of the following means which shall be in
accordance with NFPA 72:
a. auxiliary fire alarm system
b. central station connection
c. proprietary system
d. remote station connection
3. Automatic fire department notification shall be mandatory in the following types of occupancy:
a. All high rise buildings;
b. All hospitals;
c. All educational institutions, hotels, and apartment buildings (condominium) of at least four (4)
storeys in height;
d. All highly hazardous occupancies; and
e. All mall buildings.
F. Emergency Control
1. A fire alarm and control system shall be arranged to activate automatically the control functions
necessary to make the protected premises safer for building occupants.
2. Where required, the following functions shall be activated by the complete fire alarm system:
a. release of hold-open devices for doors or other opening protectives;
b. stairwell or elevator shaft pressurization;
c. smoke management or smoke control systems; and
d. unlocking of doors
3. The functions specified in para 2 above shall be permitted to be activated by any fire alarm and
control system, where otherwise not required by RA 9514 and its RIRR. Additionally, such a fire alarm
and control system shall be permitted to recall elevators, if the activation of the system for this
purpose comes only from elevator lobby, hoist way, or associated machine room detectors.
G. Location of Controls
Operator controls, alarm indicators, and manual communications capability shall be installed in a control
center at a convenient location acceptable to the C/MFM having jurisdiction.
H. Annunciation
1. Where alarm annunciation is required by another Section of this RIRR, it shall comply with the
requirements of para 2 through para 7 below.
2. Alarm annunciation at the control center shall be by means of audible and visible indicators.
3. For purposes of alarm annunciation, each floor of the building, other than floors of existing buildings,
shall be considered as not less than one zone, unless otherwise permitted by another Section of this
Code.
4. Unless otherwise permitted by another Section of this Code, if a floor area exceeds one thousand
eight hundred sixty square meters (1,860 m2), additional zoning shall be provided, and the length of
any single zone shall not exceed ninety-one meters (91 m) in any direction.
Exception: Where the building is provided with automatic sprinklers throughout, installed in
accordance with Section 10.2.6.7 of this RIRR, the area of the alarm zone shall be permitted to
coincide with the allowable area of the sprinkler zone.
5. A system trouble signal shall be annunciated at the control center by means of audible and visible
indicators.
6. A system supervisory signal shall be annunciated at the control center by means of audible and
visible indicators.
7. Where the system serves more than one building, each building shall be considered separately.
http://www.bfpcalabarzon.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/RA9514-RIRR-rev-2019-webcopy_c.pdf
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
http://www.bfpcalabarzon.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/RA9514-RIRR-rev-2019-webcopy_c.pdf
https://www.electrical4u.com/fire-detection-and-alarm-system/
https://www.ifsta.org/sites/default/files/Chapter14_FICE8.pdf
https://www.lifesafetycom.com/the-history-of-fire-alarms/
https://www.olympia-electronics.com/en/blog/editorials/why-it-important-have-fire-detection#:~:text=Havin
g%20a%20fire%20detection%20system,ll%20be%20out%20of%20danger
https://www.wsfp.com/blog/what-are-the-basic-components-of-fire-alarm-detection-systems/
https://youtu.be/cVjyDgFrb2g
https://youtu.be/eQplE7bHkJI
VELUNTA, Kyla
VICENTE, Kaeleigh Gabrielle B.
VIDALLO, Paul
BSCE 2-1
Group 10- Civil Engineering Manufacturing Processes
The construction industry uses a variety of building materials for different aspects of a home
build. Architects consult with structural engineers on the load-bearing capabilities of the materials with
which they design, and the most common materials are concrete/cement, steel, wood, asphalt, sand,
and stone. Each has different strength, weight, and durability, which makes it right for various uses.
There are national standards and testing methods that govern the use of building materials in the
construction industry, so that they can be relied on for providing structural integrity. Architects and
engineers also choose materials based on cost and aesthetics.
Building materials are usually categorized into two sources: natural and manmade. Materials
such as stone and wood are natural, and concrete, tiles, and steel are manmade. But both must be
prepared or treated before they’re used in building.
What are the Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials?
Therefore, producing a product from the raw materials involves a number of operations. These
all operations come under the manufacturing processes. The knowledge of the manufacturing processes
is the backbone of engineering. There are different manufacturing processes, and here are the general
ones.
Manufacturing Processes
The following are the different manufacturing processes in mechanical engineering.
1. Casting
2. Moulding
3. Forming
4. Machining
5. Joining
These are the main manufacturing processes in mechanical engineering that every design engineer
should have the knowledge in depth. Let’s go with one by one.
 Casting
Casting is one of the important manufacturing processes among all processes. Casting is pouring a
molten metal into the moulds.
What are the moulds/ Mold?
A hollow shape that gives a shape to the poured molten metal. This shape will be the final shape of the
component what we want to make.
This hallow shapes will be prepared with the help of patterns or the model of the final component.
Examples: crankshafts, connecting rods, engine blocks, gearbox housing
 Moulding
Moulding is the process of making objects by shaping liquid or pliable raw materials using a mould.
But really they are not the same. Moulding is the manufacturing process of non-metallic objects when
further machining is not required. But casting is referred to the metallic objects where further
machining is required. This is the difference between Casting and Moulding.
Examples: household plastic components such as bottles, toys, water tanks, buckets etc.
 Forming
In this forming process, the metal objects are subjected to heavy loads for a permanent deformation
without adding or removing the material. And this forming process is operating on the plastic
deformation of the material. Hence the objects are permanently deformed.
Examples: Some of the components need further machining, some are not required Like wires, tubes
which are made by extrusion forming process.
The forming process has different categories based on the applied loads.
 Machining
Machining is a Material removal process where the raw material is converted into a desired final object
with required dimensions. This type of material removal process is called Subtractive manufacturing. In
this process, there are many operations involved.
Instead of the material removal process by adding the material layer by layer to make components out
of raw materials under the computer control is known as the Additive Manufacturing. 3D printing is the
current populated Additive manufacturing process.
 Turning
 Milling
 Drilling
These are the machining operations. There are so many other machining operations are there. But they
come under these main operations.
 Joining
Joining of components together either permanently or temporarily is an essential task to build
machines.
Joining of any two components together can be done with the help of following operations either
permanently or temporarily.
 Welding
 Brazing
 Soldering
 Adhesive Bonding
 Fastening
Welding, Brazing, soldering and Adhesive bonding are permanent joining methods whereas Fastening is
the temporary joining, method.
In conclusion, Casting, Moulding, Forming, Machining, and Joining are the different manufacturing
processes available in manufacturing. There are many more operations are there but the above-listed
operations are the major manufacturing processes.
COMMON ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND THEIR MANUFACTURING

PROCESS:
ASPHALT
Asphalt is a black or brown petroleum-like material that has a consistency varying from viscous
liquid to glassy solid. It is obtained either as a residue from the distillation of petroleum or from natural
deposits. Asphalt consists of compounds of hydrogen and carbon with minor proportions of nitrogen,
sulfur, and oxygen. Natural asphalt (also called brea), which is believed to be formed during an early
stage in the breakdown of organic marine deposits into petroleum, characteristically contains minerals,
while residual petroleum asphalt does not.
Asphalt cement is a dark heavy mixture of hydrocarbons, also called bitumen, that is extracted
as a byproduct of gasoline production (crude oil distillation). Asphalt cement is a durable material
resistant to harsh chemicals and extreme weather. Different grades of asphalt cement are used to
increase the performance of asphalt pavements.
Asphalt pavements are widely used for roads, parking lots, industrial surfaces, recreational
surfaces, and walking trails. These are made by combining rocks and sand to a particular recipe and then
adding asphalt cement as the black sticky glue that holds the pavement together.
The combination of rocks and sand is very important to the structure and strength of the
pavement. The recipe needs to allow for the pavement to be densely compacted and provide enough
strength to resist heavy traffic loads.
The use of asphalt is very old, dating back to its use as a water stop between brick walls of a
reservoir at Mohenjo-Daro (about the 3rd millennium BC) in Pakistan. In the Middle East, it was
extensively used for paving roads and sealing waterworks, these are important applications even today.
What are the benefits of asphalt pavements?
Safe. Asphalt surfaces are perfect for driving on because they provide a safe, smooth, and quiet surface
for vehicles traveling at higher speeds. Asphalt can also reduce splashing and spraying from tires during
precipitation, reducing collisions on the highway.
Low-cost. When compared to other types of hard surfaces, asphalt is far more cost effective. It lasts
longer and requires less maintenance. Smoother roads also reduce the wear and tear on vehicles.
Therefore, they save vehicle owners money on maintenance.
Eco-friendly. Asphalt is a recyclable product. In the United States, the asphalt industry recycles almost
100 million tons of asphalt pavement annually for reuse in other areas. This saves taxpayers nearly $2
billion per year in road costs.
Durability. Asphalt pavements can be designed for low, medium or high-volume traffic. With routine
maintenance, asphalt can last 15-20 years.
Flexibility. Asphalt can be used for a wide range of projects. In addition to roads, parking lots, and trails,
it's also used for roofing material, ramps, bicycle paths, and even on bridges.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF ASPHALT
As said, Asphalt is a black liquid substance that’s a byproduct of processing crude petroleum. It
is a key component of waterproofing and insulation materials. It’s also used for roofing shingles, but it’s
best known use is for paving roads. Asphalt cement is a byproduct of crude oil, that’s mixed with
crushed rocks and other minerals to make paving asphalt.
Production begins at the paving plants quarry, where in some 15 meters below ground, workers drive
heavy machinery to collect boulders of granite that have been blasted off the rock walls. Trucks
transport the rocks to the paving plant, which is right on the quarry site. They let these cargo into the
primary crusher, a machine whose steel jaw crushes these big rocks into pieces smaller than 20
centimeters. It takes a huge amount of force to crush solid rock. The flywheels that amplify the motors
energy weigh more than six metric tons. The primary crusher empties onto a mobile conveyor belt,
which transports the crushed rocks to an outdoor storage area.
When it’s time to make the asphalt the rocks travel via a conveyor belt from the storage area to a
screaming building to be classified by size. The rocks tumbled downward over a series of inclined
screens whose largest holes at 10 centimeters across. Pieces too large drop through and go to a
secondary crusher that reduces the rocks to 10 centimeters or smaller, then send them to a third or
tertiary crusher that further reduces them to two centimeters or smaller.
Rocks small enough to pass through the screens bypass the secondary crusher and go directly to the
tertiary crusher. After this last crushing stage, the largest stones are two centimeters in size. Everything
smaller than 5 millimeters goes in one pile that includes stone dust created by the crushing process.
Stones 10 to 14 millimeters in size go into another pile, Stones 5 to 10 millimeters into another. Trucks
transfer material from each pile to separate compartments called feed bins. Exactly what goes into the
paving asphalt depends on what’s being paved, but generally these are the four ingredients: sand, Stone
dust, 5 to 10 millimeter stones, and 10 to 14 millimeter stones. The ingredient proportions vary
according to what the paving asphalt will be used for.
Stones, along with sand and stone dust as fillers usually make up about 95% of the mix, the remainder
added later will be liquid asphalt cement. Each bin releases a specific amount of material onto a
conveyor belt running underneath. The belts lead to a main collecting belt that dumps the combined
ingredients onto yet another belt that leads to a dryer.
The drying process, which takes about a minute, removes all traces of humidity. This will enable the
materials to bond better with the asphalt cement, screening equipment then re-separates the dried
ingredients, making it possible to weigh out precisely the required amount of each one. Everything then
goes into a mixer.
As this demonstration shows, the mixer blends everything thoroughly. Then it’s time to pump in hot
asphalt cement. Oil refineries make asphalt cement from what’s leftover after they’ve processed crude
oil. The paving mix contains about 5% asphalt cement. So if you want to make yourself a paving asphalt
cake, take one healthy portion of hot asphalt cement and stir well. The ingredients should bind in
around 30 seconds. The mixer empties directly into trucks destined for the paving site. There, a paving
machine will spread the hot asphalt on the road bed then a compactor roller will pack it down. After
about an hour, the asphalt will have cooled and hardened, and it’s then time to hit the road.
TILES
Tiles in building construction are thin plates or elements used to cover surfaces like roofs, floors, and
walls. Tiles in the present scenario are a primary element in bringing building interior as well as exterior
finishing and beauty. They are mainly made up of clay material or any form of inorganic raw material.
Nowadays tiles are also manufactured from recycled materials, making the element eco-friendlier. The
shape of the tiles is obtained by the different processes like extrusion or pressing at room temperature
or any other method. After the shaping, they are allowed to dry. These dried elements are subjected to
fire. This stage of firing is to ensure that they gain the required properties that they are meant to
acquire when they are in the market and in the building application. Different types of tiles used in
building construction are available in glazed or unglazed form. They are incombustible in its nature. Tiles
are unaffected under the light.
Characteristics of a Good Tile:
Following are the characteristics of a good tile:
 It should be free from any cracks, flaws or bends.

 It should be regular in shape and size.
 It should be sound, hard and durable.
 It should be well burnt.
 It should give a clear ringing sound when struck with hand or with one another or with light
hammer.
 It should fit in properly, when placed in position.
 It should give an even and compact structure when seen on its broken surface.
 It should possess uniform colour.
Types of Common Tiles:
Depending upon the use to which the tiles are put, the following are their different types:
o Drain tiles
o Floor or paving tiles
o Roof tiles.
 Drain Tiles
These tiles are prepared in such a way that they retain porous texture after burning. Hence, when such
tiles are laid in the water-logged areas, they allow subsoil water to pass through their skeleton.
 Floor or Paving Tiles
The floor or paving tiles may be square or hexagonal in shape. These are flat tiles and their thickness
varies from 12 mm to 50 mm. The size of square tiles varies from 150 mm to 300 mm. The floor tiles
should be hard and compact so that they can resist wear and tear in a better way.
 Roof Tiles
These tiles are used to serve as covering for pitched roof. They are designed mainly to keep out rain, and
are traditionally made from locally available materials such as terracotta or slate. Modern materials such
as concrete, metal and plastic are also used and some clay tiles have a waterproof glaze. The various
types of roof tiles are available in the market.
MANUFACTURE OF COMMON TILES:
Following four distinct operations are involved in the general process of manufacturing the common
tiles:
 Preparation of clay
 Moulding
 Drying
 Burning.
 Preparation of Clay
The selected clay is taken and it is made free from any impurity such as grit, pebbles, etc. Such clay is
then pressed and converted into fine powder in pug mills. For tiles of superior quality, a large quantity of
pure water is added to the powdered clay and it is well mixed in a tank.
 Moulding
The clay is placed in moulds which represent the pattern or shape in which the tile is to be formed. The
moulding may be done either with the help of wooden moulds or mechanical means or potter’s wheel.
The wooden moulds should be prepared from well-seasoned timber. The clay is pressed into such
moulds and tiles are ready for drying when clay is taken out of moulds. The care should be taken to
preserve the shape of tiles during the removal of moulds. Also, the moulding with the help of
mechanical means includes the provision of machines and the clay is pressed into such machines to get
tiles of desired section and shape.
 Drying
The tiles, as they come out of moulds, are placed flat one above the other in suitable number. The
different heaps are thus formed. They are stacked on edge under a shade to dry for days. The drying
under a shade prevents warping and cracking of tiles due to rain and sun.
 Burning
The regulation of heat is important to achieve better results. The process of slackening the fire for 6
hours and then raising the temperature to white heat is repeated.
However, a new automatic process known as the single firing technology has been found out and it has
resulted in the drastic reduction of the firing cycle from 72 hours in the old double firing conventional
method to a stunning average of just one hour.
This new technology has reduced the fuel consumption and lowered the total cost of production. The
new technology has increased the quality, design and versality of tiles and thus a new chapter of
discovery has opened for the ceramic industry.
CEMENT
Cement, one of the most important building materials, is a binding agent that sets and hardens
to adhere to building units such as stones, bricks, tiles, etc. Cement generally refers to a very fine
powdery substance chiefly made up of limestone (calcium), sand or clay (silicon), bauxite (aluminum)
and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast furnace slag, slate. The raw
ingredients are processed in cement manufacturing plants and heated to form a rock-hard substance,
which is then ground into a fine powder to be sold. Cement mixed with water causes a chemical reaction
and forms a paste that sets and hardens to bind individual structures of building materials.
Cement is an integral part of the urban infrastructure. It is used to make concrete as well as
mortar, and to secure the infrastructure by binding the building blocks. Cement mixed with water
silicates and aluminates, making a water repellant hardened mass that is used for water-proofing.
TYPES OF CEMENT:
Cement is mainly classified into two categories depending on the hardening and setting mechanism.
These are
1. Hydraulic Cement hydraulic cement is those which harden by hydration in the presence of
water.
2. Non-hydraulic Cement which require water to get harden. It gets with the help of carbon
dioxide (CO2) from the air. This type of cement needs dry conditions to harden.
Along with these main types, depending on the composition and characteristics there are many
types of cement. Followings are the other cement types:
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) it is used for general construction purposes and in most of
the masonry works.
2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) Pozzolans are natural or synthetic materials that contain
silica in reactive forms. usually used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction
near the seashore, dam construction
3. Rapid Hardening Cement is mostly used where rapid construction is needed like the
construction of pavement. It also gives high strength. Its initial Setting Time 30 minutes and
Final Setting Time 600 minutes.
4. Quick Setting Cement it is used in underwater construction and in rainy & cold weather
conditions. The initial setting time is 5 minutes and the final setting time is 30 minutes.
5. Low Heat Cement t is used for the construction of dam’s large footing, large raft slabs, and
wind turbine plinths. Also used for the construction of chemical plants.
6. Sulphate Resisting Cement is used to resist sulfate attacks in concrete.
7. Blast Furnace Cement It is highly sulfate resistant. Frequently used in seawater construction.
8. High Alumina Cement used where concrete structures are subjected to high temperatures
like workshops, refractory, foundries, etc., also used where the concrete is subjected to
frost and acidic action.
9. White Cement it is usually used in decorative work. Can also use for traffic barriers, tile
grouts, swimming pools, roof tiles patching materials, and terrazzo surfaces.
10. Colored Cement Colored cement is used for different decorative work.
11. Air Entraining Cement is a special type of cement which entrains tinny air bubbles in
concrete. Especially it is used in areas where the temperature is very low.
12. Expansive Cement In the hydration process, the expansive cement expands its volume. It
can be possible to overcome shrinkage loss by using expansive cement. It is also used for
sealing joints and grouting anchor bolt.
13. Hydrophobic Cement Usually, it is used in the construction of water structures such as
dams, spillways, or other submerged structures. Also used in the construction of
underground structures like tunnel etc.
MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT:
There are six main stages of cement manufacturing process.
 Raw Material Extraction/Quarry

 Grinding, Proportioning and Blending
 Pre-heating Raw Material
 Kiln Phase
 Cooling and Final Grinding
 Packing and Shipping
1. Raw Material Extraction/Quarry

The raw cement ingredients needed for cement production are limestone (calcium),
sand and clay (silicon, aluminum, iron), shale, fly ash, mill scale and bauxite. The ore rocks are
quarried and crushed to smaller pieces of about 6 inches. Secondary crushers or hammer mills
then reduce them to even smaller size of 3 inches. After that, the ingredients are prepared for
pyro processing.
2. Grinding, Proportioning and Blending

The crushed raw ingredients are made ready for the cement making process in the kiln
by combining them with additives and grinding them to ensure a fine homogenous mixture.
The composition of cement is proportioned here depending on the desired properties of the
cement. Generally, limestone is 80% and remaining 20% is the clay. In the cement plant, the raw
mix is dried (moisture content reduced to less than 1%); heavy wheel type rollers and rotating
tables blend the raw mix and then the roller crushes it to a fine powder to be stored in silos and
fed to the kiln.
3. Pre-heating Raw Material

A pre-heating chamber consists of a series of cyclones that utilizes the hot gases
produced from the kiln in order to reduce energy consumption and make the cement making
process more environment-friendly. The raw materials are passed through here and turned into
oxides to be burned in the kiln.
4. Kiln Phase
The kiln phase is the principal stage of the cement production process. Here, clinker is
produced from the raw mix through a series of chemical reactions between calcium and silicon
dioxide compounds. Though the process is complex, the events of the clinker production can be
written in the following sequence:
1. Evaporation of free water which ranges from 100°C (212°F):

2. Evolution of combined water in the argillaceous components, temperature reaches from
100°C (212°F) to 430°C (800°F):
3. Calcination of the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to calcium oxide (CaO), temperature
reaches 900°C (1650°F)-982°C (1800°F):
4. Reaction of CaO with silica to form dicalcium silicate
5. Reaction of CaO with the aluminum and iron-bearing constituents to form the liquid
phase
6. Formation of the clinker nodules reaching 1510°C (2750°F)
7. Evaporation of volatile constituents (e. g., sodium, potassium, chlorides, and sulfates)
8. Reaction of excess CaO with dicalcium silicate to form tricalcium silicate
The kiln is angled by 3 degrees to the horizontal to allow the material to pass through it,
over a period of 20 to 30 minutes. By the time the raw-mix reaches the lower part of the kiln,
clinker forms and comes out of the kiln in marble-sized nodules.
5. Cooling and Final Grinding

After exiting the kiln, the clinker is rapidly cooled down from 2000°C to 100°C-200°C by
passing air over it. At this stage, different additives are combined with the clinker to be ground
in order to produce the final product, cement. Gypsum, added to and ground with clinker,
regulates the setting time and gives the most important property of cement, compressive
strength. It also prevents agglomeration and coating of the powder at the surface of balls and
mill wall. Some organic substances, such as Triethanolamine (used at 0.1 wt.%), are added as
grinding aids to av oid powder agglomeration. Other additives sometimes used are ethylene
glycol, oleic acid and dodecyl-benzene sulphonate.
The heat produced by the clinker is circulated back to the kiln to save energy. The last
stage of making cement is the final grinding process. In the cement plant, there are rotating
drums fitted with steel balls. Clinker, after being cooled, is transferred to these rotating drums
and ground into such a fine powder that each pound of it contains 150 billion grains. This
powder is the final product, cement.
6. Packing and Shipping
Cement is conveyed from grinding mills to silos (large storage tanks) where it is packed
in 20-40 kg bags. Most of the product is shipped in bulk quantities by trucks, trains or ships, and
only a small amount is packed for customers who need small quantities.
Storage of cement is predominate for constructional works. Hence, correct
arrangements for storing the cement for constructions come are needed. It preserves its quality
and fitness of cement to be used.
Cement may be an absorbent construction material. It reacts with wetness either in
liquid or in vapor forms quickly. In the presence of wetness, cement undergoes a chemical
process termed as hydration. Cement becomes useless once the hydration method has taken
place. Cement will stay in shape as long because it encounters wetness. Moisture may be a huge
enemy of cement and thus cements luggage never keep for an extended amount.
For the sake of the building materials’ higher quality, each material ought to have a
godown or warehouse for storage. Below are the subsequent characteristics of a godown or
warehouse to stored cement at work sites. Such as:
REQUIREMENTS OF A GODOWN OR WAREHOUSE USED FOR CEMENT STORAGE:
 A godown would not allow dampness to urge to cement.

 Godown or warehouse itself ought to be sited in a very strategic purpose that
will create it simple for providers to urge to get the good condition of cement.
This implies the storeroom ought to be sited solely wherever it will not be tough
for trucks to urge merchandise to employees.
 Space ought to be created accessible so, throughout stocking, loaders will
simply drop off bags with ease.
 Lighting ought to be created accessible also.
 Godown or warehouse should not be specified moisture would emerge from the
ground to satisfy the equipped products.
 The warehouse should have enough workforces to facilitate the movement of
products in and out of the warehouse.
SAND & GRAVEL

Sand is a loose, fragmented, naturally-occurring material consisting of very small particles of
decomposed rocks, corals, or shells. Sand is used to provide bulk, strength, and other properties to
construction materials like asphalt and concrete. It is also used as a decorative material in landscaping.
Specific types of sand are used in the manufacture of glass and as a molding material for metal casting.
Gravel on the other hand is composed of various kinds of rock, the most common constituent
being the mineral quartz. Deposits of gravel are formed as a result of the weathering of rocks and the
erosive and concentrating action of rivers and waves. Sometimes gravel becomes consolidated into the
sedimentary rock called conglomerate. Gravel is used extensively in building roads and in making
concrete.
TYPES OF SAND:
It is not possible to classify the sand. Because there is no such thing as an official sand
classification. Sand is a highly variable substance and therefore it is possible to make an attempt to
classify it into separate categories.
1. Pit Sand It is sharp, angular, porous and free from harmful salts. Clay & other impurities
should be washed and screened before using for engineering purposes
2. River Sand: Normally available in pure condition and hence can be used for all kinds of
Civil Engineering works.
3. Sea Sand: Worst of the three types of sand because of containing a lot of salts. Salts
absorb moisture from the atmosphere and cause permanent dampness and
efflorescence in the structure. Sea salt also retards the setting action of cement. Sea
sand should as far as possible be discarded
4. Continental Sand: This sand is a common whole over the world for the formation of
various structures.
TYPES OF GRAVEL:
1. Fine Gravel are small size filler materials in construction. These are the particles that
pass through 4.75 mm sieve and retain on 0.075 mm sieve. River sand or machine sand,
crushed stone sand, crushed gravel sand are the major sources of fine gravel. Fine gravel
are used in mortar, plaster, concrete, filling of road pavement layers, etc.
2. Course Gravel are larger size filler materials in construction. These are the particles that
retain on 4.75 mm sieve. Dolomite aggregates, crushed gravel or stone, natural
disintegration of rock are the major sources of coarse gravel. Coarse aggregates are
mainly used in concrete, railway track ballast, etc.
MANUFACTURE OF SAND & GRAVEL:
The processing plant is located in the immediate vicinity of the natural deposit of material to
minimize the costs of transportation. If the plant is located next to a sand dune or beach, the plant may
process only sand. If it is located next to a riverbed, it will usually process both sand and gravel because
the two materials are often intermixed. Most plants are stationary and may operate in the same
location for decades. Some plants are mobile and can be broken into separate components to be towed
to the quarry site. Mobile plants are used for remote construction projects, where there are not any
stationary plants nearby.
The preparation of sand consists of five basic processes: natural decomposition, extraction,
sorting, washing, and in some cases crushing. The first process, natural decomposition, usually takes
millions of years. The other processes take considerably less time.
1. Natural Decomposition
Solid rock is broken down into chunks by natural mechanical forces such as the
movement of glaciers, the expansion of water in cracks during freezing, and the impacts of rocks
falling on each other.
The chunks of rock are further broken down into grains by the chemical action of
vegetation and rain combined with mechanical impacts as the progressively smaller particles are
carried and worn by wind and water.
As the grains of rock are carried into waterways, some are deposited along the bank,
while others eventually reach the sea, where they may join with fragments of coral or shells to
form beaches. Wind-borne sand may form dunes.
2. Extraction
Extraction of sand can be as simple as scooping it up from the riverbank with a rubber-
tired vehicle called a front loader. Some sand is excavated from under water using floating
dredges. These dredges have a long boom with a rotating cutter head to loosen the sand
deposits and a suction pipe to suck up the sand.
If the sand is extracted with a front loader, it is then dumped into a truck or train, or
placed onto a conveyor belt for transportation to the nearby processing plant. If the sand is
extracted from underwater with a dredge, the slurry of sand and water is pumped through a
pipeline to the plant.
3. Sorting
In the processing plant, the incoming material is first mixed with water, if it is not
already mixed as part of a slurry, and is discharged through a large perforated screen in the
feeder to separate out rocks, lumps of clay, sticks, and other foreign material. If the material is
heavily bound together with clay or soil, it may then pass through a blade mill which breaks it up
into smaller chunks.
The material then pass through several / perforated screens or plates with different
hole diameters or openings to separate the particles according to size. The screens or plates
measure up to 10 ft (3.1 m) wide by up to 28 ft (8.5 m) long and are tilted at an angle of about
20-45 degrees from the horizontal. They are vibrated to allow the trapped material on each level
to work its way off the end of the screen and onto separate conveyor belts. The coarsest screen,
with the largest holes, is on top, and the screens underneath have progressively smaller holes
4. Washing
The material that comes off the coarsest screen is washed in a log washer before it is
further screened. The name for this piece of equipment comes from the early practice of putting
short lengths of wood logs inside a rotating drum filled with sand and gravel to add to the
scrubbing action. A modern log washer consists of a slightly inclined horizontal trough with
slowly rotating blades attached to a shaft that runs down the axis of the trough. The blades
churn through the material as it passes through the trough to strip away any remaining clay or
soft soil. The larger gravel particles are separated out and screened into different sizes, while
any smaller sand particles that had been attached to the gravel may be carried back and added
to the flow of incoming material.
The material that comes off the intermediate screen(s) may be stored and blended with
either the coarser gravel or the finer sand to make various aggregate mixes.
The water and material that pass through the finest screen is pumped into a horizontal
sand classifying tank. As the mixture flows from one end of the tank to the other, the sand sinks
to the bottom where it is trapped in a series of bins. The larger, heavier sand particles drop out
first, followed by the progressively smaller sand particles, while the lighter silt particles are
carried off in the flow of water. The water and silt are then pumped out of the classifying tank
and through a clarifier where the silt settles to the bottom and is removed. The clear water is
recirculated to the feeder to be used again.
The sand is removed from the bins in the bottom of the classifying tank with rotating
dewatering screws that slowly move the sand up the inside of an inclined cylinder. The
differently sized sands are then washed again to remove any remaining silt and are transported
by conveyor belts to stockpiles for storage.
5. Crushing
Some sand is crushed to produce a specific size or shape that is not available naturally.
The crusher may be a rotating cone type in which the sand falls between an upper rotating cone
and a lower fixed cone that are separated by a very small distance. Any particles larger than this
separation distance are crushed between the heavy metal cones, and the resulting particles fall
out the bottom.
STEEL
What is Steel in construction?
Structural steel is a common building material that is frequently used alongside with concrete to
create strong and long-lasting structures. Its adaptability, durability, and flexibility, as well as the fact
that it is a very cost-effective material, are some of the key reasons for its use. Steel may often give a
solution when other materials are inadequate due to its high strength-to-weight ratio.
Advantages of steel as a structural material:
1. High strength to low weight - steel is good for long span bridges, tall buildings.
2. Lightweight compared to concrete - it can be handled and transported more easily.
3. Properly maintained have a long life.
4. Uniformity properties do not change with time.
5. A ductile material, does not fail suddenly, but gives visible evidence of failure by large
deflections.
6. Additions and alterations can be made easily.
7. They can be erected at a faster rate compared to reinforced concrete.
8. Steel has the highest scrap value.
9. Can be even reuse on demolition.
Types of steel
There are four major groupings of steel alloys: carbon, tool steel, alloy, and stainless steels.
Carbon Steel—Mild, medium, and high carbon steels vary mostly by hardness and ductility. Mild
or low carbon steels tend to be more ductile compared to other steels, but also offer lower hardness. On
the other end of the range, high carbon steels are harder. However, high carbon steel usually has lower
ductility.
Tool Steel—High carbon steel with added elements like tungsten, vanadium, or molybdenum,
heat treated and quenched to superior hardness, are used for tool steels.
Alloy Steel—This family of steels generally refers to steels mixed with specific elements for
extraordinary material properties, outside of those that commonly fall in other families. All steels are
alloys and many have extra elements. However, alloy steels are unusual steels built for a specific
application, and can range from value formulations to exotic alloys used for jet engines.
Stainless Steel—These steels are alloyed with chromium to make them rust resistant
through passivation.
Where to use Steel?
There are many uses of steel in construction, almost every part of the infrastructure has steel on
it. In building and other structures, they use steel as:
Structural sections - these provide a strong, stiff frame for the building it sometimes uses
alongside with the concrete.
Reinforcing bars - these add tensile strength and stiffness to concrete in buildings. Steel is used
because it binds well to concrete, has a similar thermal expansion coefficient and is strong and relatively
cost-effective. Reinforced concrete is also used to provide deep foundations and basements.
Sheet products - such as roofing, purlins, internal walls, ceilings, cladding, and insulating panels
for exterior walls.
Internal fixtures and fittings - such as rails, shelving and stairs are also made of steel.
Transport networks - steel is required for bridges, tunnels, rail track and in constructing
buildings such as fueling stations, train stations, ports and airports. About 60% of steel use in this
application is as rebar and the rest is sections, plates and rail track.
Utilities (fuel, water, power) - the used of steel for this application is in underground pipelines
to distribute water to and from housing, and to distribute gas.
Steel Manufacturing Process
Steel Manufacturing Process is a process of making steel from raw material of iron ore and coal.
Steel manufacturing methods have evolved dramatically since the processes of the industrial
revolution began in the mid 19th century. However modern methods are still based on the Bessemer
process which was practiced over 150 years ago. This was a way to introduce oxygen into molten iron in
order to reduce the amount of carbon contained within.
Modern-day steel production makes use of both traditional raw materials (iron) and recycled
materials to turn them into steel.
There are three STEP process of Steel Manufacturing which are:
1. The iron making process: a process of smelting iron ores into hot metal
Iron ore and coal are gathered from all around the world and unloaded onto the raw materials
dock.
For proper heat transfusion in the blast furnace, iron and coal must be solidified from their
powder form. The process of solidifying iron and coal is called sintering and coking, respectively. The
pretreated iron and coal are stacked into layers in a 100m tall blast furnace. Then hot air at 1,200
degrees Celsius is blown into the furnace, causing the coal to burn which melts iron ore into molten iron.
2. Steelmaking: a process of removing impurities from hot metal to create crude steel.
The molten iron created in the blast furnace contains various impurities that diminish its
strength and durability once it is hardened into steel. The molten iron from the blast furnace is
transported into a torpedo car and poured into a converter furnace.
In the converter furnace, pure oxygen is added to burn off substances such as carbon,
phosphorous and sulfur to create purified molten steel. At this point, the temperature and substance
composition is precisely adjusted to customer’s various demands.
Pouring the molten steel into molds and cooling into solid creates a semi-finished material
called slabs which are used to make finished steel products.
Solid steel is categorized based on shape. Slabs are wide and flat. Blooms are rectangular bars
and billets are thinner, square bars.
3. Rolling: a process of pressure forming crude steel into various finished products.
The final stage of the steelmaking process involves continuous casting where steel is forged into
various steel products. Through the process of rolling, steel can be treated differently to be put to a
variety of uses.
WOOD (LUMBER)
What is Wood in construction?
Wood is a hard, fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody
plants. It has been used for thousands of years for construction material. It is an organic material, a
natural composite of cellulose fibres (which are strong in tension) embedded in a matrix of lining which
resists compression.
Wood’s qualities make it the most outstanding material for construction. As

a renewable building resource, wood is environmentally friendly and consumes the least amount of
energy during manufacture. The latter two are those that make each piece of wood unique, giving the
product a beautiful finish and surface in terms of both touch and appearance. In addition, wood has
excellent sound absorption. Stopping sound waves therefore provides greater acoustic comfort. In the
same way, wood also acts as a thermal insulator, which not only gives the material a pleasant touch but
reduces energy consumption.
There are two types of woods considered in construction:
Hardwoods- are type of woods that is commonly used in the construction of walls, ceilings and
floors. Some examples of the most popular hardwoods include oak, maple, mahogany, cherry, walnut,
and teak.
Softwoods - are often used to make doors, furniture and window frames.
There are many uses of woods in building and other structure, almost every part of the
infrastructure has wood on it. In building and other structures, they use wood as a support, main
column and sometimes they use it as beam. Wood is used commonly like the flooring, frames of doors
and windows for its strength and internment quality. In small construction like houses woods use as
second floor flooring and truss made up of woods.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
There are 8 stage processes for Wood Manufacturing Process Felling, Debarking and Buckling, Headrig
sawing Large logs, Bandsawing small logs, Resawing, Drying or Seasoning, Planning, Grade Stamping
and Banding
1. Felling
Selected trees in an area are visually inspected and marked as being ready to be cut down, or
felled. Most tree felling is done with gasoline-powered chain saws. Once the tree is down, the limbs are
trimmed off with chain saws, and the tree is cut into convenient lengths for transportation. The trucks
make their way down the graded road and onto public highways on their way to the lumber mill. Once
at the mill, giant mobile unloaders grab the entire truck load in one bite and stack it in long piles, known
as log decks. The decks are periodically sprayed with water to prevent the wood from drying out and
shrinking.
2. Debarking and bucking
Logs are picked up from the log deck with rubber-tired loaders and are placed on a chain
conveyor that brings them into the mill. The logs are carried into the mill on the chain conveyor, where
they stop momentarily as a huge circular saw cuts them into predetermined lengths. This process is
called bucking.
3. Headrig sawing large logs
If the log has a diameter larger than 2-3 ft (0.6-0.9 m), it is tipped off the conveyor and clamped
onto a moveable carriage that slides lengthwise on a set of rails. Optical sensors scan the log and
determine its diameter at each end, its length, and any visible defects. The headrig sawyer sits in an
enclosed booth next to a large vertical bandsaw called the headrig saw. The log is fed lengthwise
through the vertical bandsaw. The outer surface of the slab has the curvature of the original tree trunk.
Depending on the size of log, it may be cut in different ways to optimize the size and number of resulting
boards. After boards are cut, they are dried and planed.
The headrig sawyer must constantly review the log for internal defects and modify the cutting
pattern accordingly as each successive cut opens the log further. In general, thinner pieces destined to
be made into boards are cut from the outer portion of the log where there are fewer knots. Thicker
pieces for dimension lumber are cut next, while the center of the log yields stock for heavy timber
pieces.
4. Bandsawing small logs
Smaller diameter logs are fed through a series of bandsaws that cut them into nominal 1 in (2.5
cm), 2 in (5 cm), or 4 in (10 cm) thick pieces in one pass.
5. Resawing
The large cut pieces from the headrig saw, called cants, are laid flat and moved by chain
conveyor to multiple-blade bandsaws, where they are cut into the required widths and the outside
edges are trimmed square.
7. Drying or seasoning
The cut and trimmed pieces of lumber are then moved to an area to be dried, or "seasoned."
This is necessary to prevent decay and to permit the wood to shrink as it dries out.
The dried pieces of lumber are passed through planers, where rotating cutting heads trim the
pieces to their final dimensions, smooth all four surfaces, and round the edges.
8. Grade stamping and banding
Each piece of lumber is visually or mechanically inspected and graded according to the amount
of defects present. The grade is stamped on each piece, along with information about the moisture
content, and a mill identification number. The lumber is then bundled according to the type of wood,
grade, and moisture content, and the bundle is secured with steel bands. The bundle is loaded on a
truck or train and shipped to a lumber yard for resale to customers.
GLASS
What is glass in construction?
Glass, an inorganic solid material that is usually transparent or translucent as well as hard,
brittle, and impervious to the natural elements. Glass has been made into practical and decorative
objects since ancient times, and it is still very important in applications as disparate as building
construction, housewares, and telecommunications. It is made by cooling molten ingredients such as
silica sand with sufficient rapidity to prevent the formation of visible crystals.
There are six types of Glass Used in Construction:
1. Soda Lime Glass
Soda Lime Glass or Float Glass is a mixture of sodium silicate and calcium silicate. It is smooth at
low temperature and it can be blown or welded easily when infusion condition. It is colorless and it is
mainly used for window panes and for the laboratory tubes and other apparatus.
2. Potash Lead Glass
A type of glass with a mixture of potassium silicate and lead silicate. Its properties possess bright
luster and great refractive power. It is mostly used in the manufacturing of artificial gems, electric bulbs,
and lenses.
3. Common Glass
A mixture of sodium, calcium, and iron silicate. It is brown, green, and yellow in color and mainly
used for in manufacturing medicine bottles.
4. Shatterproof Glass
It is used for windows, skylights, floors etc. Some type of plastic polyvinyl butyral is added in the
making process so it cannot form sharp-edged pieces when it breaks.
5. Double Glazed Units
This type of glass is made by providing an air gap between two glass panes in order to reduce
heat loss and gain. Normal glass can cause an immense amount of heat gain and 30% of the loss of heat
or air conditioning energy. Green, energy efficient glass can reduce this impact.
6. Special Glasses
Some properties of glasses can be suitably altered by changing basic ingredients and adding a
few more ingredients. It is now emerged as a versatile material to meet any special requirement
in engineering.
Where to use Glass?
Glass is now being used in the building industry as insulation material, structural component,
external glazing material, cladding material; it is used to make delicate looking fenestrations on facades
as well as conventional windows.
Glass is another very common material in construction. Glass is primarily used for windows, but
also for indoor partitions, mirrors, skylights, floors, and staircases. In addition, glass fibers can be found
in insulation products, ceiling panels, and roofing shingles. They are also added as a reinforcement to
concrete.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Glass is a solid-like and transparent material that is used in numerous applications in our daily
lives. Glass is made from natural and abundant raw materials (sand, soda ash and limestone) that are
melted at very high temperature to form a new material: glass. At high temperature glass is structurally
similar to liquids, however at ambient temperature it behaves like solids. As a result, glass can be
poured, blown, press and molded into plenty of shapes.
The primary raw materials in glass are sand, soda, limestone, clarifying agents, coloring and
glistening glass. Glass sand is about ¾th of the entire glass composition.
There are 5 steps of manufacturing a window which are Batching of raw Materials, Melting of
raw materials in the furnace, Drawing the molten glass onto the tin bath, Cooling of the molten glass in
the annealing lehr, Quality checks, automatic cutting, and storage.
1.Batching of raw materials:
The main components, comprising silica sand, calcium oxide, soda & magnesium are weighed
and mixed into batches to which recycled glass (cullet) is added. The use of ‘cullet’ reduces the
consumption of energy. The materials are tested and stored for mixing later under computerized
control. The superior clarity offered by Saint-Gobain Clear Glass, is a result of purity in raw materials,
precision in composition and strict adherence to high quality standards in the manufacturing process.
The company has a dedicated sand beneficiation plant in Tada where silica sand (to be used in
manufacturing) is purified, and excess iron content is removed from the material.
2.Melting of raw materials in the furnace:
The batched raw materials pass from a mixing silo to a five-chambered furnace where they
become molten. Temperatures in the furnace reach upto 1600°C.
3.Drawing the molten glass onto the tin bath:

The molten glass is then "floated" onto a bath of molten tin at a temperature of about 1000°C. It
forms a “ribbon” which is normally between 5 and 6 mm. By suitably drawing the glass through a
complex process involving top roll machines, ribbon thickness in the range of 1.9mm to 19mm can be
achieved. The glass, which is highly viscous, and the tin, which is very fluid, do not mix and the contact
surface between these two materials is perfectly flat, giving the term “flat” glass to the final product.
4.Cooling of the molten glass in the annealing lehr:
On leaving the bath of molten tin, the glass - now at a temperature of 600°C - has cooled down
sufficiently to pass to an annealing chamber called a lehr. The glass is now hard enough to pass over
rollers and is annealed, which modifies the internal stresses, enabling it to be cut and worked in a
predictable way and ensuring flatness of the glass. As both surfaces are fire finished, they need no
grinding or polishing
5.Quality checks, automatic cutting, and storage:
After cooling, the glass undergoes rigorous quality checks. It is then cut into sheets of sizes
varying upto a maximum of 6000mm x 3660 mm which are, in turn, automatically stacked, stored and
ready for transport.

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Heating, Ventilation, and

BASIC COMPONENTS OF 05. COMPONENTS AND

09. HEATING SYSTEMS

10. AIR TEMPERING AND

A heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)

Space Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning

Terminal units Diffusers, registers, and grilles

Expansion tanks Heat exchangers

Natural Draft Burners

Mechanical Draft Burners

Boilers are constructed to meet the American

Every boiler is rated at the maximum working

(1) water is heated by the boiler(s) and;

High Quality Higher Quality Clean Stream

Steam for Steam for

The steam gives up its enthalpy of vaporization, together

• Heat is transferred to a smaller, individual hot-water heating systems for

It is required to provide a mix of returned

These are required to collect steam condensate and

REFRIGERANT EVAPORATOR CONDENSER

COMPRESSOR EXPANSION VALVE

➧ Central Air Conditioner

is a DX(direct expansion) refrigeration

➧ Central Air Conditioner

➧ Central Air Conditioner

split system has the condensing unit

frequently called a room air conditioner, is a

➧ Central chilled water

are used in large buildings and are

expels heat from a chilled water system

Natural ventilation works well when the

or a paddle-blade ceiling fan can be

is located in the ceiling separating the

Usually installed in a room that is not adjacent to an

WALL EXHAUST FAN

most often used in homes, especially homes

EXHAUST FAN EXTERIOR

SIMILAR to a wall-mounted fan,

WINDOWS EXHAUST FAN

Window fans are designed to fit

INLINE EXHAUST FAN

They are powerful blower fans

Exhaust Fan Cooker Hood

pump the air generated when

are installed in the ductwork directly

Electrically heated humidifiers

heat the water, increasing its

WETTED MEDIA humidifiers

Rely upon a heated airstream

FAN TYPE humidifiers

air is drawn from the furnace

are installed between the return

DUCT MOUNTED humidifiers

are installed in the supply air

introduce small droplets of water

packaged, stand-alone units

Spray Atomization Systems