Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
88:353-366, August 1976
PUBLICATIONS OF THE
ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC
Vol. 88 August 1976
STELLAR ABUNDANCES OF LITHIUM, BERYLLIUM, AND BORON*
ANN MERCHANT BOESGAARD
Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii
Received 24 May 1976
I. Introduction
There are at least two reasons why the study of the
rare light elements lithium, beryllium, and boron is of
interest: (1) We would like to know the origin of these
elements and why their abundances are so low com-
pared to their neighbors on the periodic table: H and
He and G, N, and O; (2) From the pattern followed by
the abundances of the light elements as stars evolve,
we can determine details of internal stellar structure.
Relevant to the origin of the light elements are ob-
servations of the cosmic (= initial = primordial =
universal) abundances found in stars, meteorites, or
the interstellar gas. (Where these three are in con-
flict, the abundances in young, stable stars are con-
sidered to be the most reliable because of the effects
of grain formation in the interstellar medium and
chemical fractionation in meteorites.) The cosmic
abundances of Li, Be, and Β are veiy low on the uni-
versal abundance curve: 10-9 to 10-11 relative to H.
These low abundances cannot be attributed to the
usual processes of nucleosynthesis, like nuclear fusion
in the interiors of stars. The light elements are de-
stroyed by nuclear fusion reactions at cooler tem-
peratures than those at which they can be created.
For example, Li7 is formed during the proton-proton
chain by He3 (α,γ) Be7{e~ v) Li7 at temperatures of
about 2 X 107° K, but will be destroyed by Li7 (ρ,α)
He4 at Τ ~ 2 X 106 0 Κ. Thus the stellar volume in
which light elements are destroyed is much larger
than the central region where they may be created. At
the end of its main-sequence lifetime a star of one solar
mass will preserve Li7 only in the outer 2.5% of its mass
(Iben 1967), Be9 only in the outer 4.8% (Boesgaard and
Chesley 1976), Β10 in the outer 18.8%, and B11 in the
outer 17.8% (calculated from reaction rate tables of
Zimmerman, Fowler, and Caughlan (1975) and 1 SK©
model of Iben (1967)).
*One in a series of review articles currently appearing in
these Publications.
© Astronomical Society of the Pacific · Provided by the NASA Astrophysics Data System
No. 524
The most successful theory for the origin of the light
elements — at least of Be and Β — is the galactic cosmic
ray (GCR) spallation theory of Reeves, Fowler, and
Hoyle (1970) and Meneguzzi, Audouze, and Reeves
(1971). A flux of galactic cosmic rays with an energy
spectrum in the form W~2 6 bombards atoms of C, N,
and O in the interstellar gas with sufficient energy to
break them into smaller atoms including Li, Be, and B.
This theory can account well for the observed cosmic
abundances of Li6, Be and B, but does not produce
enough Li7.
The surface abundances of the light elements in
stars also provide many clues about stellar interiors.
The surface abundances will be reduced by convec-
tive depletion — where the light elements are trans-
ported by convective mixing to temperatures at which
they are destroyed by nuclear fusion reactions — and
by convective dilution — where the thin surface layer
containing light elements is mixed through a larger
region of the star as the convective zone deepens.
Additional depletion may occur by convective over-
shoot, by microscopic diffusion, by turbulent diffusion
(e.g., from the effects of rotational braking), and from
mass loss. New Li may be created in the interiors of
some red giants and transported to the surface by con-
vective motion. Some additional quantities of light
elements may be made during flare-like activity on the
surfaces of stars. In some cases diffusion may act to
enhance the surface abundances.
Relevant observations on stellar structure are of
main-sequence stars and post-main-sequence stars.
For example, a slow depletion of Li in main-sequence
stars is seen from the work of Herbig (1965) on field
stars and from the work of several authors, most re-
cently Zappala (1972), on young clusters. Also, the
existence of Be-deficient main-sequence stars hotter
than Teñ — 6600° Κ probably can be explained as an
internal structure effect (Boesgaard 1976). Observa-
tions of both Li and Be in subgiants and giants can be
interpreted in terms of post-main-sequence dilution
354 ANN MERCHANT BOESGAARD
(e.g., Herbig and Wolff 1966; Alschuler 1975; Boes-
gaard and Chesley 1976) and serve as a test of stellar
models, particularly the predicted expansion of the
surface convective zone (e.g., Iben 1965fc, 1967). The
existence of the super Li-rich red giants (e.g., Torres-
Peimbert and Wallerstein 1966; Boesgaard 1970b)
caused new ideas for the structure of red-giant in-
teriors to be suggested by Cameron and Fowler 1971;
Scalo and Ulrich 1973; Iben 1973; Sackmann, Smith,
and Despain 1974).
A third reason for studying the light elements, or at
least the abundance of Li7, relates to cosmology. Some
Li can be produced in the Big Bang. However, ac-
cording to Reeves (1974), neither the Big Bang as it is
presently modeled nor GCR spallation can account
for the observed cosmic abundance of Li, which is
Li/H = 10~9 (Zappala 1972).* If, as Reeves suggests,
a case can be made for the Big Bang origin of Li, then
the observed Li abundances will put some important
constraints on cosmological models.
This review is concerned with the stellar abun-
dances of Li, Be, and Β that are relevant to both the
origin of the light elements and to the details of stellar
structure. It concentrates particularly on research
developments, both theoretical and observational,
that have occurred since the reviews by Wallerstein
and Conti (1969) on Li and Be in stars and by Reeves
(1974) on the origin of the light elements.
II. Observations
Since Li, Be, and Β are trace elements with low
abundances, we rely almost exclusively on the reso-
nance lines for abundance analyses. Table I gives the
wavelength(s) of the resonance lines for the neutral
and singly ionized species and the ionization po-
tential for each species listed. As can be seen in Table
I only Li ι and Ben have resonance lines in the
visible part of the spectrum. The ionization potential
of Li ι is so low that most Li is in the form of Li π even
in M stars. Most Be is Be n in solar-type stars, but the
ultraviolet spectrum is crowded and the stronger line
at 3130.4 Â is badly blended. In addition, the earth's
atmosphere transmits only about 30% of the light at
3130 A. In spite of these difficulties, Li abundances
have been determined in hundreds of stars of a variety
of masses and evolutionary ages and Be observations
have been made in nearly 100 stars. Boron has been
observed in only a few stars, primarily with the
Copernicus satellite.
III. Cosmic Abundances
To understand the origin of the light elements, it is
♦Throughout the paper the notation Element/Hydrogen
denotes the abundance ratio by number; where used,
X(Element/H), means the abundance ratio by mass.
© Astronomical Society of the Pacific · Provided by the NASA Astrophysics Data System
TABLE I
Resonance Lines and Ionization Potentials
of the Light Elements
Ion Resonance λ loniz. Pot.
 eV
Li ι 6707.7 5.39
6707.9
Li π 199.3 75.62
Be ι 2348.6 9.32
Be π 3130.4 18.20
3131.1
Βι 2497.7 8.30
Βπ 1362.5 25.16
useful to know, from the observations, what the uni-
versal or cosmic abundances are. The best source of
these abundances appears to be stellar atmospheres.
Each element will be discussed in turn and where the
stellar abundances conflict with those from other
sources the relevance of the nonstellar data will be
considered. Synthesis of the light elements will then
be discussed.
A. Lithium
Stellar Li was found in Τ Tauri stars (Sanford 1947;
Hunger 1957) and abundances were determined by
Bonsack and Greenstein (1960) and Bonsack (1961a).
More recently, Zappala (1972) has determined the Li
content of stars in several young clusters and redeter-
mined the Li content in the Bonsack-Greenstein Τ
Tauri stars. He derives "initial" Li values. For the
pre-main-sequence stars in NGC 2264, the Τ Tauri
stars and FU Orionis, the mean initial Li/H ratio is
9.8 X 10_1(). The upper main-sequence stars in the
Pleiades, Praesepe, and Hyades clusters give Li/H =
1.1 X 10~9. Meteorites — carbonaceous chondrites,
type I —give similar values: Li/H = 2 X 10-9 from
Nichiporuk and Moore's (1974) value of 60 per 106
Si atoms and Lambert and Warner's (1968) solar Si
abundance, Si/H = 3.5 X 10~5.
Lithium abundances have been determined for
main-sequence field stars by Herbig (1965) and Dan-
ziger and Conti (1966). Mean Li abundances as a func-
tion of spectral class can be determined for stars in
which Li has been detected. These values are given in
Table II. (Solar Li/H has been taken as 10-11.) The
dependence of Li on mass, as discussed by Herbig
(1965) and by Herbig and Wolff (1966) is shown clearly
by these data. A star arriving on the main sequence
at spectral type earlier than about F4 should not lose
more than a few percent of its original surface Li
through pre-main-sequence Li burning according to
Bodenheimer's (1965) theory. Some Li depletion ap-
parently takes place during the main-sequence phase
 STELLAR ABUNDANCES OF LITHIUM, BERYILLIUM, AND BORON 355

TABLE II 10-11 based on center-to-limb observations in the solar

Lithium Abundances in Pre-Main-Sequence disk. Thus the sun is deficient in Li by two orders of
and Main-sequence Stars magnitude relative to the cosmic and meteoritic
Objects η Li/H abundance of 10-9. According to Bodenheimers
(1965) theory the sun would lose only about 50% of its
Pre-Main-Sequence
original Li by (ρ,α) reactions during the deeply con-
NGC 2264
vective stage of its pre-main-sequence evolution.
Τ Tauri Stars 13 9.8 X 10-10
Mechanisms that have been proposed to explain this
FU Ori
additional depletion will be discussed in the section
Upper-Main-Sequence on stellar structure and the light elements.
Pleiades The two stable isotopes Li6 and Li7 are present in
Praesep'e 1.1 X io-9 the ratio Li6/Li7 = 0.0813 for the earth (Hollander,
Hyades Perlman, and Seaborg 1953) and 0.0822 in chondrites
(Krankowsky and Müller 1967). Cohen (1972) has
Field Stars, Main Sequence
made interferometric observations of the Li ι λ6707
F0-F2 7 8.8 X 10-10
line profiles in eleven F and G dwarfs and three red
F3-F4 4 7.2 X 10-10
giants and concluded that for at least ten of the stars
F5-F6 10 4.1 X 10-10
there was no evidence for any Li6. The other four
F7-F8 8 2.3 X 10-10
stars had only marginal evidence for the presence of
F9-G0 11 2.6 X 10-10
Li6, with Li6/Li7 ^ 0.1; these latter stars had the high-
G1-G2 14 2.1 X 10-10
est ν sin i values (between 7 and 10 km s-1) which
G3-G4 5 8.8 X 10-11
cause greater uncertainties in the analysis.
An abundance ratio of Li6/Li7 = 0.04 ± 0.02 has
also, but on a long time scale (Herbig 1965; van den been estimated for the solar disk by Traub and
Heuval and Conti 1971). However, it is expected that Roesler (1971). The Li line is veiy weak and blended
F0-F2 dwarfs would reflect the initial Li content; so the determination of the isotopic ratio is uncertain.
within the errors of the determinations the Li abun- Li6 is destroyed more readily by (ρ,α) reactions than
dances of these field stars do agree with Zappala's Li7 so its virtual absence in solar-type stars is not sur-
initial Li values. The value for the cosmic Li abun- prising. An upper limit of Li6/Li7 < 0.14 was deter-
dance then is Li/H = 1.0 X 10-9. The observed scat- mined by Traub and Carleton (1973) for the inter-
ter about this mean of a ± factor of two could be due stellar gas in the ζ Oph cloud. This amount is con-
to intrinsic dispersion in initial values and/or due to sistent with the terrestrial/meteoritic value which may
observational errors. represent the cosmic ratio, i.e., Li6/Li7 = 0.082.
Lithium has been detected in the interstellar me- The following values are taken as the observed
dium by Traub and Carleton (1973) in front of ζ cosmic abundances: Li/H = 1.0 X IO-9, Li7/H = 9.2
Ophiuchi and by Vanden Bout and Grupsmith (1974) X 10-1(),Li6/H = 7.6 X 10-11.
in front of 55 Cygni. They find that Li is depleted
relative to its abundance in meteorites by 65-85% but
the ratio of Li/Na near ζ Oph, 7.0 X 10~4, is close to the B. Beryllium
solar-system value. (The meteoritic Li abundance is The abundance of Be was first determined in the
used since the sun has undergone Li depletion.) Li sun by Greenstein and Tandberg-Hanssen (1954).
and Na are alkali metals and are expected to behave Abundances of Be in normal A, F, and G stars have
similarly in forming chemical compounds; the way been found by Bonsack (1961b), Merchant (1966),
they fit into lattice structure may differ, however. The Conti and Danziger (1966) and Conti (1968). These
implication of the similar Li/Na ratios in present inter- results have been discussed in the review by Waller-
stellar gas and the material out of which the solar sys- stein and Conti (1969). As is shown in their Figure 4,
tem formed 5 X 109 years ago is that there has been these data appear to indicate that the Be abundance
little if any depletion of cosmic Li by processing in increased regularly from F0 to GO along the main
stellar interiors (astration). sequence by over an order of magnitude. However,
The abundance of solar Li has been determined in Boesgaard (1976) has recently redetermined Be
several investigations both of the solar photosphere abundances in F and G dwarfs from both old and new
and of sunspots. Grevesse (1968) has reviewed and Be observations with a model-atmosphere abundance
evaluated earlier results. Stellmacher and Wiehr analysis replacing the previous homogeneous-
(1971) find Li/H = 1.25 (±0.15) X 10-11 from analyses atmosphere approximation. These new results show
of sunspot spectra and Müller (1971) reports Li/H = no such temperature dependence, and yield an aver-

© Astronomical Society of the Pacific · Provided by the NASA Astrophysics Data System
356 ANN MERCHANT BOESGAARD
age Be/H abundance of 1.31 (±0.36) X 10-11 for 27
stars (see Fig. 2 below). As is the case for Li, the ob-
served scatter can be due to intrinsic dispersion in
initial Be and/or observational errors. The primary
reason for the differences in the two sets of results is
that all the stars in the newer investigation were ana-
lyzed with the same technique.
There is little hope of determining Be abundances
in pre-main-sequence objects like Τ Tauri stars since
the spectral lines are broad and near 3130 Â the lines
are crowded at best, and the continuous radiation at
that wavelength is weak.
Calculations by Bodenheimer (1966) predict that no
appreciable depletion of Be should occur from (ρ,α)
reactions at the base of the outer convection zone dur-
ing pre-main-sequence or main-sequence evolution in
stars hotter than K5. The atmospheres of those stars,
then, should reflect the cosmic Be abundance. There-
fore the average abundance for the F and G stars found
by Boesgaard (1976) is assumed to represent the cosmic
abundance, Be/H = 1.3 X 10-11.
Observations of the surface Be content of both
dwarfs and giants in the Hyades cluster have been
made by Boesgaard, Heacox, and Conti (1977). They
find that for six F and G main-sequence stars the
average Be/H is 1.0 Χ ΙΟ-11, consistent with the value
for the dwarfs in the field. The abundance of Be in
Vega (type AO V) has been determined (Boesgaard
et al. 1974) to be 1.0 X 10-11 also. This indicates that
the same value for cosmic Be extends to the hotter
main-sequence stars, i.e., that no temperature de-
pendence exists.
The known solar-system Be-abundances cluster
about these same values. An analysis of the solar-disk
spectrum, by Ross and Aller (1974) using the method
of spectrum synthesis gives Be/H = 1.2 X 10-11. With
the aid of high-resolution, center-to-limb observations,
Chmielewski, Müller, and Brault (1975) have done a
more refined, non-LTE analysis and obtained Be/H =
1.4 (±0.6) X 10-11. In meteorites, the Be/Si ratio is
usually between 5 and 10 X 10-7 according to a re-
view by Buseck (1971). With Lambert and Warner s
(1968) value for solar Si/H, the corresponding meteor-
itic value for Be/H is about 2 X 10~1 ^
Lines of Be have not been seen in interstellar ab-
sorption. The lowest values for an upper limit on the
Be/H ratio are Be/H < 5 X 10-11 found as the average
from seven stars by Boesgaard (1974) and Be/H < 6.8
X 10-11 in front of ζ Oph derived by Morton (1974).
These upper limits are not at variance with the stellar
initial Be abundances.
The only stable Be isotope is Be9; the half-life of Be7
is 54.5 days and Be10 is 2.7 X 106 years. Boesgaard
and Heacox (1973) measured the central wavelengths
© Astronomical Society of the Pacific · Provided by the NASA Astrophysics Data System
of the Be π reasonance doublet in the Be-rich star, κ
Cancri, on four spectrograms of 6.8 Â mm-1. The
ultraviolet region near the Be π lines in this Ap star of
type B8 is relatively free of line blending and the Be
lines are quite strong: 140 m and 105 mÂ. They
concluded that neither short-lived isotope is present
in this Hg-Mn peculiar-Α star. According to Iben
(1965α) the pre-main-sequence lifetime for a star of
this mass (^-4 9Ko) is about 1 X 106 years. The lifetime
of the star could be less than the Be10 half-life, but it is
more likely greater so no firm conclusions can be
drawn about the presence (or absence) of Be10 in the
interstellar gas. (However, conclusions based on ob-
servations of Ap stars may not be relevant since some
mechanism, perhaps diffusion, has to be invoked to
explain the Be overabundance in these stars.)
The observed cosmic Be abundance is 1.3 X 10-11.
There is no evidence for Be isotopes other than Be9.
C. Boron
Boron has long been sought in stellar spectra, both
in the weak, subordinate atomic lines or in molecular
form such as BH or BO. Table I demonstrates the
difficulty of observing the resonance lines of Β ι and
Β h. Now, however, with the advent of high-resolution
spectroscopy above the earth's atmosphere, Β has
been detected.
The resonance line of Β π has been found in Vega
(Boesgaard et al. 1974) and possibly a Andromedae
(Stalio 1974), and suspected in η Canis Majoris (Under-
bill 1974). With observations from the Copernicus satel-
lite at 0.2 A resolution, Boesgaard et al. (1974) deter-
mined the Β abundance in Vega by two independent
methods which yielded nearly identical results. They
made an estimate of the effect of departures from LTE
and derived B/H = 1 X 10 ~10. They suggested that this
represents the cosmic Β abundance since Β is not ex-
pected to be destroyed during pre-main-sequence or
main-sequence evolution. Praderie et al. (1977) have
studied high-resolution (0.05 Â) Copernicus spectra of
Vega and Sirius in the Β π region. Sirius shows no
line at the wavelength of Β π (nor does it show the
Be π resonance lines), but it does have a clean profile
of a V m line which blends with the Β π line in Vega.
The resulting Β abundance in Vega is still about 1 X
10_10, after correction for this blend.
An upper limit for solar Β of 1.2 (±0.6) 10-10 has
been obtained by Hall and Engvold (1975) from the
absence of Β ι λ16240 in the solar photosphere. The
Β ι resonance lines in the sun have been observed by
Kohl, Parkinson, and Withbroe (1976) with a photo-
electric detector in a rocket-borne instrument. They
identify the Β ι line at 2496.772 Â with a spectral
resolution of 0.028 Â and derive B/H = 1.6 X 10-10.
Since Β compounds are volatile when gaseous and
 STELLAR ABUNDANCES OF LITHIUM, BERYILLIUM, AND BORON 357

are refractory when solid, meteoritic Β abundances no

longer reflect the cosmic abundance. The isotope I ι
Χ Ο
ítl 1—1
o
r—i o
y—i
ratios may be representative though; Baedecker (1971)
ä Χ X X O
reports Β1VB10 ~ 4 in both carbonaceous and en- oq
statite chondrites. οο CM
Only a small amount of Β depletion is expected in
the interstellar gas (Field 1974). Morton, Smith, and
I
Stecher (1974) made a careful search at a spectral Χ ο o o
^ 1—ι 1—I
PQ Χ
resolution of 0.05 A with the Copernicus satellite X o
spectrometer for the Β π resonance line in the inter- Γ-
stellar gas in front of ζ Oph. An upper limit on the ΟΟ
equivalent width of 1.3 m A gives an abundance ratio,
B/H, of less than 7.6 X 10-11 on the assumption that
I ι
all the Β is singly ionized. They also report that Ο 0 o
Ε r—i r—I
similar scans of ζ Ori A give an upper limit of 1.1 m S χ χ X o
and an abundance of B/H < 1.7 X 10_1(). Field (1974) oo
predicts that interstellar Β should not be depleted by CO
more than a factor of two in the presence of grains.
The interstellar upper limits on the Β abundance are Η
ίζ 1 I
thus consistent with the observed stellar and solar B. W
o
ι—( o
i—( T5
W>-] 5 2 o
The value of B/H = 1 X 10"10 is taken as the çQ Χ χ o
ω X O
cosmic Β abundance with Β1VB10 ~ 4. Η CO CO
οΧ
CM
IV. The Origin of the Light Elements
Μ
Κ
Since Reeves (1974) has recently published a de- ω Η
b
tailed review of the origin of the light elements, a H-l Ο
PQ inω o o
lengthy discussion of the production mechanisms will υ £ S o
Η S Χ χ
not be given here. The observed cosmic abundances
Q oq cq 00I
are compared to the predictions of the galactic-cosmic- ai
Ρ Γ-
ray (GCR) spallation theoiy in Table III. New pre-
dictions by Reeves (private communication) from GCR
spallation are given in the third line; the theory is \ ι I
o o
able to predict light element ratios better than the Ο 5 s f-H rH o
o
absolute abundances and here Reeves uses Be/H = U J X Χ X o
ςο
1.3 X 10-11 as the standard. It is apparent that this οο ίο
theory can explain the abundances of Li6, Be, and prob-
ably Β10 and B11. The GCR theory appears to produce
too much Β10 and Β11, but the agreement is within the ι ι
o o
uncertainties in the observations and the theory. Other Κ ^ r—ι o
3 χ Χ -Mo
mechanisms are needed to account for the observed
X
cosmic abundance of Li7. Some quantities of this oq m
isotope can be produced in the Big Bang (e.g.. t-
o
Wagoner 1973,1974), in the interiors of red giants (e.g.,
Cameron and Fowler 1971), and by low-energy
spallation reactions (Meneguzzi and Reeves 1975; «
Bodansky, Jacobs, and Oberg 1975). T3CD * T50
On the assumption that Li7 is produced in the Big O .o
0
Ο
Bang and by GCR spallation only, some constraints
0 ^
-½0) og o3
can be put on the baryonic density, pb, for standard ^ £2. Ä> ε 3
Big Bang models. Figure 1 is adapted from Wagoner ^ rrT Q-)O C/aiD ΝΝ CU
(1974) and shows final abundances (in mass fractions) S ο 05 ö0 3 C/5
03 Ph S bJD ^
as a function of present density. The observed cosmic
δ ε G O
T;
ö
rn
^ α;ε I £
Li7/H is 9.2 Χ 10-10, within a factor of two, of which £ &0 rO .tí Í-HCD
á
O O
GCR spallation (as modeled by Meneguzzi et al. 1971) < ^

© Astronomical Society of the Pacific · Provided by the NASA Astrophysics Data System
358 ANN MERCHANT BOESGAARD
(gm cm
Fig. 1 — The mass fraction of H2 and Li7 produced in "stan-
dard" Big Bang models as a function of the present baryonic
density adapted from Wagoner (1974). The observed values
of Li7 (with the GCR component revoved) and of H2 are indi-
cated on the y-axis along with the predicted value of the initial
abundance of H2. The values for ρ and the corresponding error
bars are shown in the central part of the graph. The value p
= 6 Χ 10"31, shown by the arrow on the x-axis, fits the obser-
vations of Li7 and initial H2 within the error bars. This value
is 10 times smaller than the density required to close the uni-
verse.
can produce 1.2 X 10~10. The Big Bang must make
Li7/H = 8 X 10~10 or, in mass fraction, X(Li7) = 4 X
10~9. This abundance of Li and its error bars are in-
dicated on the vertical axis of Figure 1*. This Li
abundance indicates a value of pb = 8 X 10-31 and a
spread in possible values of 5-14 X 10-31 gm cm-3.
The abundance of interstellar deuterium can also be
used to estimate pb. The recent results of York and
© Astronomical Society of the Pacific · Provided by the NASA Astrophysics Data System
Rogerson (1976) from observations with the Coper-
nicus satellite, give a mean D abundance in front of
five stars of X(D) = 2.4 X 10-5. They state that this
could not be more than a factor of two larger or a
factor of four smaller. That abundance and that error #
bar are indicated on the horizontal axis of Figure 1 as
X(H2)present. The corresponding values of pb are
3-10 X 10-31 gm cm-3. According to the evaluations
by Audouze and Tinsley (1974) the present D is ~0.4
of the primoidial D for two different models of galactic
evolution. This corrected value (and the same error
range) is plotted in Figure 1 and corresponds to a value
of pb of 2-7 X 10~31 gm cm-3.
The estimate of pb from both D and Li7 involves
assumptions, for example: 60% of the D has been
destroyed since the Big Bang; Li7 is made predomi-
nantly by the Big Bang but does have a GCR spalla-
tion component. The good agreement between the
two results is encouraging. One can conclude that the
present density of the universe is ~6 X 10-31 gm cm-3
from the overlapping values for primordial D and Li7.
Or one can conclude that ρ is actually closer to 3 X
10~31gm cm~3 and search for another source of pro-
duction of Li7. (At ρ = 3 X 10-31 gm cm-3 the de-
ficiency of Li7 is a factor of 7.) I prefer the former con-
clusion since both the observed abundances and the
assumptions involved are equally questionable or
equally certain for Li7 and D. This observed value of
ρ = 6 X 10-31 is a factor of 10 below the value re-
quired for closure, pcrit = 5 X 10_30 (H0/50)2, i.e..
Pent = 6 X 10-30 with the Hubble constant, H0 =
55 km s_1 Mpc-1, which indicates that the universe is
open and expanding.
V. Stellar Structure and Evolution
Some features of the internal structure of stars — at
various stages of evolution — are revealed by the sur-
face abundances of the light elements. In some cases
the abundances can be used to test stellar models, for
example, the post-main-sequence convective dilution
predicted by Iben's models. In other cases the
abundance information has necessitated the develop-
ment of new theoretical ideas to explain, for example,
the low abundance of Li in the sun, or the super-Li-
rich red-giant stars. Information on the evolution of
stars in young clusters and of pre-main-sequence stars
is revealed by their Li abundances. In this section of
this review the observations are discussed in a se-
quence of stellar evolutionary age. The physical
mechanisms, which are thought to be responsible for
the observed abundances, are described. Convective
*1 assume there has been no detectable depletion of cosmic
Li by nuclear processing in stars (astration) since the meteorites
(age — 5 X 109 years) have the same Li abundance as the Τ
Tauri stages (age ~ 106 years).
 STELLAR ABUNDANCES OF LITHIUM, BERYILLIUM, AND BORON
depletion is discussed in section Al. The observations
described in sections A2 and A3 relate to convective
overshoot and diffusion below the outer convective
zone in main-sequence stars. Convective dilution in
post-main-sequence stars is discussed in sections Bl,
B2, and B3. Enrichment of Li in late-type giants is
considered in section B4.
A. Pre-Main-Sequence and Main-Sequence Stars
1. Pre-Main-Sequence Li Depletion
During pre-main-sequence evolution destruction of
the light nuclei occur as these atoms are transported
by convective motions to regions in the stellar interior
where proton fusion reactions take place. This pro-
cess continues in the fully-convective late-main-
sequence stars. The critical temperature for proton
fusion is lower for Li than for Be than for B, so main-
sequence convective destruction of Li persists to
earlier spectral types than that of Be or of B. Boden-
heimer (1965, 1966) has made calculations which give
the amount of destruction of D, Li, and Be during
pre-main-sequence evolution.
The pre-main-sequence destruction of Li can be
tested by observations of Li in stars that are post-T
Tauri but pre-main-sequence stars. Catchpole (1971)
has observed a KO Ve star in Scorpius-Centaurus that
is somewhat above the zero-age main sequence. On
an 82 Â mm-1 spectrogram of this 10.8 magnitude
star he measured a Li equivalent width of 280 m and
determined an abundance of Li/H = 6.3 X 10~10 —
somewhat less than Zappala's initial Li values. The
G-K dwarfs in the Pleiades cluster (age 6 X 107 years)
show Li abundances of 4 X 10-10 (Danziger 1967).
Zappala (1972) finds two cooler (K3) dwarfs in the
Pleiades to have lower Li abundances: 2-5 X 10-11.
Herbig (1975) has reported observations of several
post-T Tauri, pre-main-sequence stars in regions like
the Taurus-Auriga clouds, with ages of no more than
3-5 X 107 years, in which he finds a Li ι feature and
Ha weakly in emission. He cited evidence to show
that the low-mass stars lose their Li faster than higher-
mass stars: Li is found in Τ Tauri stars as cool as
spectral type M2, in the Pleiades consistently to K3,
and occasionally in K5, K6 stars, but not at all in the
vast majority of Κ and M main-sequence stars. Pre-
main-sequence destruction of Li is therefore a function
of both stellar mass and age.
2. Main-Sequence Li Depletion
Both Figure 1 in the paper by Herbig and Wolff
(1966) and Figure 2 in the review by Wallerstein and
Conti (1969) show the range in the Li abundances in
main-sequence stars at each spectral type and the
decrease in the maximum (or average) Li abundance
with decreasing surface temperature. For nearly half
© Astronomical Society of the Pacific · Provided by the NASA Astrophysics Data System
359
of the stars observed (at each spectral class) the Li line
is too weak to be detected.
Herbig (1965) has found an empirical correlation of
Li abundance with age for field stars in the sense that
the younger main-sequence stars have more Li. Work
on Li abundances in the Hyades, Pleiades, Praesepe,
and Ursa Major clusters (Wallerstein, Herbig, and
Conti 1965; Danziger and Conti 1966; Danziger 1967;
Zappala 1972) confirm this trend in cluster stars.
Zappala finds an e-folding time for Li depletion of
1.5 X 109 years for solar-type stars and 5 X 108 for
K0 stars.
Standard models for main-sequence stars show that
the outer convection zone does not extend to high
enough temperatures to destroy Li by (ρ,α) reactions.
Convective overshoot has been suggested as a possible
mechanism to transport Li to hotter temperatures.
Weymann and Sears (1965) have estimated that it is
energetically possible to reach depths where Τ ~
3 X 106 0 Κ if the convective cells start at the very top
of the convective envelope. But they estimate that the
penetration that actually occurs is negligible for stars
in the mass range 0.55-1.2 SW©. Recently Straus, Blake,
and Schramm (1976) have reexamined this problem.
Using a dynamical description for the overshoot
process, they find that the amount of overshoot that is
energetically possible increases with stellar mass — a
requirement if the overshoot mechanism is to be effec-
tive in those higher-mass, F-type stars that show little
or no surface Li. This is necessary also to account for
the gradual (rather than rapid) decrease of Li with
stellar mass. Again the amount of overshoot that
actually occurs is difficult to estimate. It may be
difficult for this mechanism simultaneously to explain
the observed main-sequence Li depletion and to ac-
count for the Be-deficient stars hotter than 6600° Κ
(see next section).
Diffusion can occur below the convection zone, and
Vauclair (1972) and Schatzman and Vauclair (1973)
have discussed this as an explanation of the Li deple-
tion. According to them, microscopic diffusion can
account for the observed dependence of Li abundance
on stellar mass and age. The diffusion velocity is due
to a number of factors, e.g., gravitation, radiation pres-
sure, temperature, and composition gradients. The
effectiveness and duration of diffusion could account
for the spread in Li abundances at a given tempera-
ture. More detailed discussion of these effects appear
in the thesis of S. Vauclair (Meudon Observatory 1976).
Schatzman (1969) has made calculations relevant to
the turbulent diffusion of Li; this mechanism could
produce additional Li depletion in main-sequence
stars.
Mass loss can contribute to the surface depletion of
the light elements, because mass lost from the surface
360 ANN MERCHANT BOESGAARD

would be replenished in the convection zone by Li-
poor material that was once deeper in the star. How-
ever, Weymann and Sears (1965) found that the solar-
mass-loss rate would have to be about 3 orders of
magnitude higher than the observed rate to deplete
the solar Li7 by a factor of 30. It appears unlikely that
this mechanism can be responsible for main-sequence
Li depletion, but it may contribute in later stages of
stellar evolution.
Spiegel (1967) has reviewed other mechanisms, in-
cluding the effect of rotational braking, which might
account for main-sequence Li depletion. Of the
mechanisms considered — diffusion, turbulent con-
vection, convective overshoot, mass loss — none is
completely adequate. It is certain that the observed
dependence of Li on mass and age is intricately con-
nected with the details of stellar structure and evolu-
tion.
3. Be-Deficient Stars
Main-sequence stars having no detectable Be have
been reported by Bonsack (1961^), Merchant (1966),
and Conti and Danziger (1966). New observations
and analysis by Boesgaard (1976) show that these Be-
deficient stars have upper limits on their Be abun-
dances about an order of magnitude less than the
cosmic Be abundance. Figure 2 shows the Be abun-
dance in F and G dwarf stars as a function of surface
temperature. The Be-deficient stars are plotted as
open circles. (Two additional stars could be added to
that plot: a Lyrae (AO V) with normal Be abundance
and a Canis Majoris (Al V) which is Be deficient.) All
the Be-deficient stars are hotter than 6600° K; in fact
one-third (6 of 18) of the stars hotter than 6600° Κ are
Be deficient. Since all the stars without detectable Be
are also Li-deficient, the same mechanism is probably
responsible for the deficiency of both elements. The
fact that the separation is so marked between the stars
with Be and those without argues that in the Be-
deficient stars the surface material has been trans-
ported to temperatures where Be has been readily
destroyed by (ρ,α) reactions. But apparently this does
not happen in the cooler stars. Both Be and Li must
be mixed to temperatures of ~4 X 106° Κ and de-
stroyed in some of the hotter stars, while only Li is
destroyed in the cooler stars. A more detailed discus-

F2 F4 F6 F8 GO G2
ι ι ι—π—ι—ι ι r
+ 0.5-

* ·
• · ·

0.0 - • ·
10HI
[Be] • * · ^

-0.5
Be/H

% Î
-1.0 - ,-12
10

-1.5 -

I I I ι ι I I I L
7400 7000 6600 6200 5800 5400
"^eff

Fig. 2 — The Be abundance for F and F dwarfs as a function of effective temperature. Filled circles are stars with the cosmic Be
content; there is no dependence on temperature. Open circles with arrows show the upper limit abundances for the Be-deficient
dwarfs. All the stars are hotter than 6600° K.

© Astronomical Society of the Pacific · Provided by the NASA Astrophysics Data System
 STELLAR ABUNDANCES OF LITHIUM, BERYILLIUM, AND BORON
sion appears in Boesgaard (1976). It appears that
microscopic and turbulent diffusion may be able to ac-
count for the Li depletion and Be deficiencies. The
temperature demarcation observed for the Be-deficient
stars may be difficult to explain by the convective
overshoot theory. But more work on the stellar struc-
ture theoiy needs to be done with the constraints in
mind provided by both the Li and Be observations.
4. Be and Β in Ap Stars
Be has been found to be overabundant by two
orders of magnitude in four of ten Ap stars of the Μ η
type; see Sargent, Searle, and Jugaku (1962) and a
review article by Sargent (1964). Boesgaard and
Heacox (1973) find Be/H = 2.5 X 109 for one of these
stars, κ Cnc, from four high-dispersion ultraviolet
spectrograms^ They tentatively identify a weak fea-
ture at 3451 A with a high excitation line of Β n and
find a large Β overabundance, B/H = 2 X 10 ~7.
Further ground-based and Copernicus satellite ob-
servations of Hg-Mn-Ap stars are now underway to
determine Be and Β abundances. Bonsack (1961b)
found the Be/H abundance in the Ap star a2 Canum
Venaticorum to be 1.6 X 10~9. The ideas of Michaud
(1970) on diffusion in Ap stars may be able to account
for the observed Be and Β abundances according to
preliminary calculations of S. Vauclair (private com-
munication).
Li upper limits in this temperature range are not
very significant. Wallerstein (1968) has found Li/H —
10~9 for two Ap stars of eight observed. While this
amount is comparable to that found in Τ Tauri stars,
it may result from other mechanisms operating in Ap
stars.
B. Post-Main-Sequence Stars
1. Dilution in 3 Sî© Stars
Wallerstein (1964, 1966α) discovered a strong Li
line in the GO III component of Capella, but saw no Li
in the G5 III companion. He estimated that the hotter
star had 60-100 times more Li than the cooler one.
Iben (1965fc) explained this difference by proposing
that the cooler star was further advanced in its post-
main-sequence evolution and had therefore diluted its
surface Li abundance by mixing surface material
throughout the deepening convection zone. (The
temperature at the base of the convective zone is never
high enough to destroy Li by nuclear reactions, how-
ever.) On higher-dispersion spectrograms, Boesgaard
(1971) found a weak Li line in the G5 III star. The
difference in Li content between the two components
is a factor of 15-40 (Boesgaard 1971; Alschuler 1975).
The dilution of Li takes place in two stages according
to Iben; the lower difference between the two com-
ponents implies that the GO III star need not have
© Astronomical Society of the Pacific · Provided by the NASA Astrophysics Data System
361
reached the red-giant tip yet nor entered into the
second phase of Li dilution after Ν14 α-burning takes
place in the core.
To further test the predictions of Li dilution in 3 SÎq
stars, Alschuler (1975) detennined Li abundances in
64 F4-G5 giants believed to be moving from left to
right across the H-R diagram for the first time. On the
assumption that all these the stars have the same mass
(3 Sî©), Alschuler concluded that the observed dilu-
tion is a much more gradual function of temperature
than predicted. The observed onset of dilution oc-
curs at about spectral type F6 while the predicted
onset is near type GO. Better agreement between ob-
served and predicted Li abundances would have been
achieved on the assumption that the mass actually in-
creases systematically from F4 III to G5 III (i.e., F5 is
1.9 3)Ϊθ, GO is 2.4 Sî© and G5 is 3.2 SK©). The Li his-
tory of these stars is unknown (and may be compli-
cated). No pre-main-sequence depletion is expected
in stars of this mass, and presumably no main-
sequence depletion. But the main-sequence predeces-
sors of these stars are too hot to show detectable Li i,
so their Li content and range in abundances is un-
known.
Figure 3 shows the Li abundances that have been
determined in giant stars of spectral types F, G, K,
and M. Data from several papers (Bonsack 1959;
Danziger and Conti 1966; Wallerstein 1966a,b; Mer-
chant 1967; Boesgaard 1970a; Alschuler 1975) have
been combined and scaled to a solar abundance of
Li/H = 10-11. Except for Τ Sagittarii (see section 4
below), the heavy-metal-rich stars (Ban, MS, and S)
studied by Boesgaard (1970¾) follow the same trends
and fit well with their normal counterparts. The
lower envelope in Figure 3 results partly from the fact
that the upper limit abundance value to which Li can
be detected decreases with temperature. The general
decline observed can be attributed to increasing con-
vective dilution. The gradualness of the decline, or
the range at a given spectral type, can be due to the
range of mass and evolutionary age of stars in the
giant phase of evolution. Mass loss — on the main se-
quence and during the red-giant phase — may also
contribute to the observed range in Li content. The
progenitors of these stars were upper-main-sequence
stars. Late A and F stars leaving the main sequence
show considerable range in Li content (Herbig 1965;
Herbig and Wolff 1966) at that point in their evolution,
and that range surely contributes to the observed
spread in the red giants.
The observations of Be in main-sequence stars show
that the history of Be is more uniform and better un-
derstood than that of Li. Since Be is also confined to a
thin shell in the outer layers of a star, it too will un-
362 ANN MERCHANT BOESGAARD

dergo post-main-sequence convective dilution. The
next section discusses Be dilution 1-1.5 SW©? but ob-
servations of the Hyades dwarfs and giants are rele-
vant here. Boesgaard, Heacox, and Conti (1977) have
found that two Hyades yellow giants have 25 times
less Be and the other two have upper limits of 50 times
less than the main-sequence Hyades stars. They show
that Iben's (1965b) model for a 3 äft© star predicts a
dilution of Be by a factor of 25 at the tip of the red-
giant branch. If the Hyades giants are on their second
crossing, their position in the H-R diagram indicates
that their masses are somewhat less than 3 Sî©. Dilu-
tion plus post-main-sequence mass loss can explain the
observed Be and Li abundances. A study is currently
underway of Be in G and Κ giants.
2. Dilution in 1-1.5 Sí© Stars
Herbig and Wolff (1966) compared Li observations
of 21 subgiants with the predictions of Iben (1967) for
post-main-sequence Li dilution in 1.0,1.25, and 1.5 Sí©
stars. No dilution is predicted for stars bluer than
(B—V) = 0.75 so the surface Li abundances for these
stars should be equal to their main-sequence values.
The range in Li shown in the subgiants is large and is
similar to the range in main-sequence stars. Except
for δ Eridani, the stars in the Li-dilution region show
no detectable Li ι line and have only upper limits for
their Li abundances so no firm conclusions can be
drawn about the effect of Li dilution. The position of
δ Eri indicates that its surface Li has been diluted by
a factor of 7. Thus its main-sequence abundance is
predicted to have been 2 X 10_1() (with solar Li/H =
10-11) as an F7 dwarf in good agreement with the
value of 2.3 X 10-10 given in Table II for F7-F8 stars.
Boesgaard and Chesley (1976) have made similar
predictions for the post-main-sequence dilution of Be.
Since Be is preserved in a shell of greater depth than
Li, the degree of Be dilution is less than for Li and the
onset occurs a little later in the evolution. Figure 4
shows an H-R diagram with Iben's evolutionary tracks
and lines of equal dilution for both Li and Be. Boes-
gaard and Chesley determined Be abundances in 14 of
the stars observed by Herbig and Wolff. The stars in
the pre-dilution region showed either the main-
sequence Be abundance (Be/H = 1.3 X 10-11) or no
detectable Be; these latter are presumably the evolved

F5 F8 GO G2 G5 KO K2 Κ4 Μ0 Μ4
Τ Τ Τ Τ Τ ΓΤ Τ ΤΓ Τ
+3.0 ,-8
10

+2.0 .-9
10

+ 1.0 rIO
10
t
[Li] Li/H

0.0 ί·· : 10"

Κ •· t
r .
ν ·.·
. .· -n^· .
ν •12
-1.0 .·>- · 10
ν · ·<**,
V ν J·· ·

-2.0 ν 10
13

J_ _L
7000 6000 5000 4000 3000

Teff (0K)

Fig. 3 — Li abundances in giants as a function of temperature showing a range of over four orders of magnitude. The arrowheads
represent upper limits on the Li abundances. The gradual decline is interpreted as evidence of convective dilution while the range
at a given temperature results from the range in mass and evolutionary age.

© Astronomical Society of the Pacific · Provided by the NASA Astrophysics Data System
 STELLAR ABUNDANCES OF LITHIUM, BERYILLIUM, AND BORON 363

counterparts of the Be-deficient stars. When the
abundances of stars in the dilution region were mul-
tiplied by the dilution factor indicated by their evolu-
tionary position, the "restored" abundances were
equivalent to the expected main-sequence abundance.
It is clear that Iben's idea about convective dilution
of the light elements is valid and that the specific
predictions of his models agree well with the observed
abundances.
3. Li and Be in Supergiants
Conti a*nd Wallerstein (1969) have searched unsuc-
cessfully for both Li and Be in the spectra of F and G
supergiants. On the scale of solar Li/H = 10-11 they
found upper limits on the Li abundance in the range
4 X 10"11 to 1 X 10~9 (from about 50 stars) and upper
limits on Be/H of about 4 X 10-13 to 2 X 10~12 (from
six stars). The exact numbers are sensitive to both
effective temperature and gravity, but they found no
supergiants having the cosmic abundance of either Be
or Li. They point out that "according to Kraft's (1966)
interpretation of the evolutionary tracks of stars from
5-9 3^0? between one and five of our 50 stars should
be moving to the right through the giant region of the
H-R diagram for the first time." Apparently, all of
their stars have diluted their original Li and Be during
their earlier evolution to the upper right of the H-R
diagram.
Merchant (1967), Gähm and Hultqvist (1972), and
Warren (1973) have determined Li abundances in Κ
and M supergiants. In these stars, Li/H ranges from
5 X 10-13 to 10_1(). Again, none show the cosmic Li
abundance indicating that they have all undergone
some dilution, and/or mass loss, or, as Warren sug-
gests, they left the main-sequence with Li values of
10_1(). Warren's interpretation is that the "Li-rich"
stars have not yet reached the tip of the red-giant
branch whereas the others have diluted their surface
Li. All the Κ and M supergiants should have experi-
enced some dilution since, as the star moves to the
right in the H-R diagram, the convective envelope
deepens and the onset of Li dilution occurs before a
supergiant reaches type KO as it does in the 1-5 ä)?©
models of Iben. If we assume these stars left the main
sequence with Li/H values of ~10_9, then Warren's
seven Li-rich stars have undergone Li dilution by

B-V
Fig. 4 — The H-R diagram showing the main sequence and the evolutionary tracks of Iben (1967) for 1.0, 1.25, and 1.5 Wq stars.
Dotted lines show the lines of equal Li dilution, diluted by the circled number above the evolutionary tracks. The solid lines are
equal Be dilution, indicated by the circled number below the evolutionary tracks.

© Astronomical Society of the Pacific · Provided by the NASA Astrophysics Data System
364 ANN MERCHANT BOESGAARD
factors of 10-50. The K4 II star, 105 Herculis, ob-
served by Boyarchuk (1972) to be overabundant in Li
relative to the sun and other K4 stars could be
similarly diluted by a factor of 10. The supergiants
show the same range in Li content as the giants do,
apparently for similar reasons.
4. Super Li-Rich Stars
A number of heavy-metal-rich stars have a par-
ticularly strong λ6707 line of Lii: Three carbon stars,
WZ Cassiopeiae (McKellar 1940), WX Cygni (Sanford
1950), and Τ Arae (Feast 1954); a CS star, Case 621
(Warner and Dean 1970); an SC star, Henize 166
(Catchpole and Feast 1971); and an S star, Τ Sgr
(Keenan 1967; Boesgaard 1970b). The determination
of Li abundances for these cool stars is fraught with
difficulties, but some estimates have been made. The
log Li/Ca value for Τ Sgr of — 2.0 found by Boesgaard
(1970¾) translates to Li/H ~ 10~8, an order of magni-
tude above the cosmic abundances. Torres-Peimbert
and Wallerstein (1966) use Spitzers (1949) Li/Na ratio
of 5 X 10~2 for WZ Cas and infer a Li/Na value of
7 X 10-2 for both WZ Cas and WX Cyg. This cor-
responds to Li/H ~ 10 ~7, or two orders of magnitude
above the cosmic value. Cohen (1974) has confirmed
the reality of these high Li abundances by studying
the analogous Κ ι resonance line. Catchpole and Feast
(1971) point out that the frequency of occurrence of
lithium stars in the intermediate class CS/SC is con-
siderably higher than in C stars and probably higher
than for the S Stars.
Cameron and Fowler (1971) revived an idea by
Cameron (1955) in which Be7 is made by the reaction
He3 (α,γ) Be7 at temperatures near 107° Κ and pre-
served until transported to regions where the tem-
perature is low enough not to destroy the Li7 that
results from electron capture: Be7 {e~ v) Li7. Deep
mixing (to ~1080 K) of the hydrogen envelope will
convert He3 in the envelope to Be7, much of which
will be returned to cooler regions to form Li7. Scalo
and Ulrich (1973) postulate that the mixing is done in
plumes during the He shell flashes. The Li7 is formed
from Be7 in the plumes. They suggest that the range
in Li content in S and C stars is due to effects of evolu-
tion and mass, and if the mass effects are dominant,
then the super Li-rich stars are the most massive. A
large number of flashes (they suggest ~ 103) are
needed, however, to produce the large overabundances
in the carbon stars. They discuss the concentration of
the super-Li-rich stars in the SC boundary region and
in the 2400°-2700° Κ temperature range. In a detailed
study of carbon and eruptive late-type stars, Sack-
mann. Smith, and Despain (1974) find that high
abundances of surface Li7 can result from a single deep
mixing of short duration (~103 years). For inter-
© Astronomical Society of the Pacific · Provided by the NASA Astrophysics Data System
mediate mixing times a range of Li abundances are
produced, but for long-duration mixing little or no Li7
remains.
It appears possible to account for both the phe-
nomenon of the super-Li-rich stars and the great range
in Li abundances in C and S stars by invoking the
Cameron-Fowler mechanism with the model of Scalo
and Ulrich or that of Sackmann, Smith, and Despain.
These models are able simultaneously to account for
the other observed spectral and abundance pecu-
liarities in these late-type stars. If a large number of
these stars existed in the past, they could have made a
contribution to the cosmic Li abundance.
VI. Summary and Conclusions
It is proposed that the best values for the cosmic
abundances of the light elements come from the
abundance determinations in stellar atmospheres. The
cosmic abundance of Li/H is ~10_9, of Be/H is ~1.3
XlO-11, and B/H is ~10_10, as determined from
analyses of stellar atmospheres. Isotopic abundances
of Li6/Li7 = 0.08 and B^/B11 = 0.25 come from
analyses of meteorites. Apparently there are no ap-
preciable quantities of Be7 or Be10 in stars.
The observed light-element abundances point
strongly toward an origin in galactic-cosmic-ray-
spallation reactions (Reeves 1974). Additional Li7 is
probably produced during the Big Bang. The present
density of the universe is about 6 X 10-31 gm cm-3
based on the constraints placed on theory by the
present-day observed abundances of H2 and Li7.
There is evidence that the Li abundance with which
stars are "born", is depleted during pre-main-sequence
stellar evolution. Atoms of the light elements are
transported to regions within the star where they are
destroyed by (ρ,α) reactions. Some main-sequence
depletion of Li and Be occurs as a function of both
age and mass (or surface temperature). Many normal
stars have large deficiencies of both Li and Be.
The greater-than-cosmic abundances of the ele-
ments Li, Be, and Β in the atmospheres of Ap stars
may help to illuminate details of the structure of these
stars. Diffusion in stellar atmospheres is a likely cause
of the abundance variations.
Both supergiant and giant stars appear to show the
effects of post-main-sequence dilution of the light
elements, i.e., the surface layer in which the light ele-
ment is preserved is spread throughout the star and
mixed by convection with material which contains no
light elements. The quantitative predictions of Iben's
theories are well-supported by the Be abundances in
post-main-sequence stars. Due to the complicated
history of Li in stars, the interpretation of the Li
abundances in giants and supergiants is more am-
bigious. The theory of Li dilution in normal giants is
 STELLAR ABUNDANCES OF LITHIUM, BERYILLIUM, AND BORON
the most satisfactoiy way to interpret the abundances
of Li in those stars, however. New ideas about stellar
structure and evolution have been developed to ac-
count for the light-element content, as well as the
heavy-metal content, of the peculiar, late-type stars,
the carbon, and S-type stars. It is clear that the en-
richments in Li, C, Tc, and s-process elements are
giving us clues to the complicated structure and evo-
lution of red-giant stars. In addition the mass lost
from these stars to the interstellar gas tells us some-
thing about the chemical evolution of the galaxy.
Theoretical and observational studies of the light
elements have melded and interacted successfully to
increase our comprehension of element formation,
cosmology, stellar structure, and evolution. At times
the observational results have directed the theoretical
interpretations and at times the theoiy has led or dic-
tated the observations. The continuing frontier areas
are predominantly in the study of stellar structure
through the surface abundances of the light elements.
I should like to express my appreciation to Dr.
George H. Herbig for his many valuable comments on
this work. Drs. Sidney C. Wolff, Walter K. Bonsack,
Peter S. Conti, and George Wallerstein kindly read the
manuscript and made numerous useful suggestions.
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Bodansky, D., Jacobs, W. W., and Oberg, D. L. 1975, Ap. J.
202, 222.
Bodenheimer, P. 1965, Ap. J. 142, 451.
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