CONTENT

(Reference: http://www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/CIVE1400/course.html )

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CHAPTER CONTENT

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1 Introduction

FLUID MECHANICS 1.1

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Objectives of subjects
1.2 Study methodology

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1.3 Dimensions and units
1.4 Fluid properties

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Assoc. Prof. LÊ VĂN DỰC 1.5 Force acting on a fluid element

Fluid Mechanics Department – Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology 2 Fluid statics
2.1 Conception
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2.2 Hydrostatic pressure
2.3 Basic differential equations for fluid statics
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2.4 Absolute Fluid Statics (The fluid equilibrium in the gravitational force)
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3 Fluid Dynamics 5 Uniform flow in open channel

3.1 Two methods describe the movement of fluid 5.1 General conceptions
3.2 Some commonly used concepts
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5.2 Chezy’s and Manning’s formula
3.3 Classification of motion
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5.3 Determination of Manning’s roughness coefficients
3.4 Acceleration of fluid element (Just for reading)
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5.4 Computation of uniform flow
3.5 Control Volume approach (Just for reading)
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6 Potential flow, Drag and Lift forces
3.6 Continuity equation
Part A POTENTIAL FLOW
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3.7 Differential equations of motion of an ideal fluid (Euler Equation) (Just for reading)
6.1 Potential flow (inviscid and irrotational flow)
3.8 Energy equation
6.2 Basic potential flows
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3.9 Application of basic equations to a segment of steady flow of incompressible fluid under gravitational force
6.3 Superposition of basic potential flows
4 Uniform Flow in Pipe
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4.1 Basic equation of uniform flow in pipe Part B DRAG AND LIFT FORCES
4.2 Velocity distribution
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6.4 Concepts
4.3 Friction loss in pipe flow
6.5 Drag forces
4.4 Minor loss in pipe flow
4.5 Types of pipe problems 6.6 Lift forces
 - Environmental control: Building heating system, automobile engine cooling system,
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION pollutant control, bank erosion due to flow, hurricane forecast.

I.1. OBJECTIVES OF SUBJECT

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Fluid mechanics refers to the study of behavior of fluids, either at rest or in motion.

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A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress, no
matter how small that shear stress may be.

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Fluid is assumed as a hypothetical continuous substance (continuum).
Drainage system

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Fluid can be either liquid (water, oil, gasoline, etc.) or gases (air, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.).
- Fluid transport: home and city water supply system, oil or gas piping, chemical Study on bank erosion in lab
plant piping, drainage system, etc.

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- Energy generation, hydraulic equipment: steam turbine, hydropower plant, wind mill, pump - Transportation : automobile design, ship design, airplane design
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Chemical plant piping

I.2 STUDY METHODOLOGY

Table 1.2.1: Some physical quantities, dimensions, and SI units
Analytical method: Based on the mechanical laws and theorems, and the continuum property of fluid
Experimental method: SI Unit
Identical method: the model and real systems have the same physical natures, different scales Quantity Symbol Description Dimension
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Unit name Common name
Simulation method: the model and real systems do not have the same physical natures, but they own the same
Fundamental
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integral and differential equations to describe the inside physical processes.
Base Quantity Base unit
I.3 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS: dimension
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➢ The dimensions of mechanics are force (F), mass (M), length (L), and time (T). However, just 3 dimensions are Mass m M Kg
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independent, since they are related by Newton’s second law of motion, Time t T s
F = m.a (1.3.1) Length l L m
In the dimensional form, we can write:
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F = MLT-2 (1.3.2) Derived Quantity Derived dimension Derived unit
➢ So, just three dimensions are selected as fundamental dimensions for setting up a unit system. For English Area A lxl L
2
m
2

Systems, F, L and T are selected. However, for SI unit (The International System of Units), the three Mass (M), 3 3
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Length (L) and Time (T) are used. (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_quantities )
Volume V lxlxl L m
-1
Velocity u l/t LT m/s
As a result, dimension of any physical quantity a can be described as [a] = MαLβTγ (1.3.3) Δu/t
-2 2
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Acceleration a LT m/s
-2 2
Where α, β & γ are real numbers. In case, if α= β= γ=0 ➔ a is called dimensionless term Force F F = m.a MLT Kg.m/s N (Newton)
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-1 -2 2
Pressure p P=F/A ML T Kg/(m.s ) Pa (Pascal)
➢ The dimensionless physical quantity is independent on the unit system (SI, English, etc.), for example, PI 2 -2 2 2
Work W W=F.d ML T Kg.m /s J (Joule)
number (π =3,14159…), Euler number (e= 2.71828… ), etc. 2 -3 2 3
Power P P=W/t ML T Kg.m /s W (Watt)
I.4 FLUID PROPERTIES 4. Specific gravity (δ or S )
1.Mass and weight The ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of water. It is a dimensionless term
Mass is the property of a body of fluid that is a measure of its inertia or resistance to a change in motion. 𝛾
𝛿= (1.4.4)

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It is also a measure of the quantity of fluid. Unit of mass: kg 𝛾𝐻2𝑂
Weight is amount that body weighs, that is the force with which a body is attracted toward the earth by

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5. Specific volume (ws )
gravitation. Unit of weight: N

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➢ The number of cubic meters occupied by one kilogram of matter. It is the ratio of a material's volume to its mass,
W = m.g (1.4.1) the reciprocal of its density, inversely proportional to density

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m: mass (kg) ;
ws = 1/ρ (1.4.5)
g : gravity acceleration (m/s2) [Moon: g= 1.6 m/s2 ; Earth: g = 9.81 m/s2, Jupiter: g = 26,9 m/s2 ]
1 kgf = 9.81kg.m/s2 = 9.81 N ➢ , ws ,  and  are functions depending on temperature and pressure [ f(T,p) ].

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2. Density (ρ) ➢ ,  of water, air and mercury at the normal temperature and pressure conditions are given in the following table:
Mass per unit volume. Unit of density: kg/m3:
Table 1.4.1: values of ,  for some physical quantities in normal condition.
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m
 M = limV →0 (1.4.2)
M V V
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Where ρM : density at point M. Δm: infinitesimal mass (kg); ΔV: infinitesimal volume (m3)
3. Specific weight (γ)
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The weight of the fluid per unit volume. Unit of weight (N/m3)
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 = or γ = ρ.g (1.4.3)
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6. Pressure (p ) ➢ Friction force by viscosity

Pressure is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed
𝑑𝑢
The pressure at a point M is defined as follows: Ff = 𝜇. 𝐴. (1.4.8)
𝑑𝑦
∆𝐹𝑛
pM = lim
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∆𝐴→0; ∆𝐴 (1.4.6) Ff : Friction force (N) acting on area A
𝑀∈∆𝐴
 : Shear stress (N/m2) acting on A
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Units: N/m2 (Pa), at (Technical atmosphere=kgf/cm2),
atm (Standard atmosphere), m(H2O), m(Oil) or mm(Hg).
1 at = 1kgf/cm2 = 98,066.5 Pa; 1 atm=1,0332 at ≈ 10.033 mH2O (4oC) ≈ 760 mmHg (0oC) ≈ 101,325 Pa A : Friction area (m2)
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𝑑𝑢
7. Viscosity of fluid : Velocity gradient along y-direction perpendicular to velocity vector (s-1)
𝑑𝑦
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➢ Viscosity is a measure of the ability to resist the deformation due to the shear stress of external forces acting on the fluid Table 1.4.2: The values of μ and ν of water and air at normal condition.
(cohesion), which is also the property that occurs due to contact between fluid elements in different layers, in turbulent
motion (momentum exchange), exhibit resistance to relative motion between fluid layers with different velocities Quantity H2O Air
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➢ Newton’s law of viscosity
For a given rate of angular deformation of fluid (shear rate), the shear stress is directly proportional to the viscosity. μ 1x10-2 poise 1x10-3 Pa.s 1,8x10-4 poise 1,8x10-5 Pa.s
𝑑𝑢
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𝜏=𝜇 (1.4.7)
𝑑𝑦 ν 0,01 stoke 1x10-6 m2/s 0,15 stoke 1,5x10-5 m2/s
uo
This formula is just applied for laminar flow
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Where, oy : y-axis ┴ u; u = f(y) ; τ (Pa) ; t Velocity

Viscosity may be changed by
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Liquid : Viscosity changes, still depending on pressure
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distribution is
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m: dynamic viscosity (Pa.s), 1poise=0.1 Pa.s. 𝑦 Temperature rises
linear (u=uo. ) Gas : Viscosity rises
Fig. 1.4.1 𝑡
 =m/ : kinematic viscosity (m2/s); Liquid : Viscosity changes, still depending on to
 : 1 stoke = 1cm2 /s = 10-4 m2/s Fig. 1.4.2
Pressure rises
Gas : Viscosity is changed insignificantly (not changed)
 Newtonian Fluid and Non-Newtonian Fluid
Newtonian fluid: Fluids follow Newton’s Law of viscosity, depend on type of fluids; do not depend on the motion.
Non-Newton fluid: Fluid can not be described by Equation (1.4.7). It is called a non-Newtonian fluid.
Time-independent fluid:

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K: Consistency index, unit ( Pa.sn)
(1.4.9)

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n : Flow behavior index

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- Dilatant fluids (Shear-thickening Fluids): It increases in viscosity with increasing shear rate (EX: wet beach sand;
water solution containing a high concentration of powder). n > 1

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- Pseudoplastic fluids (shear-thinning fluids): It decreases in viscosity with
increasing shear rate (EX: Greases, mayonnaise and starch suspension). n < 1
- Bingham plastic fluids: They behave as solids until an initial yield

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In gases, the molecules widely spaced as compared to liquid. Hence, the intermolecular forces are weak. The stress τo is exceeded. Beyond τo, Bingham plastics behave like
increase in temperature causes the rise of the energy of gas molecules, which increase the randomness of
molecules. More hindrances cause the increase in the intensity of intermolecular collision. Which results retard the Newtonian fluids, The descriptive equation:
motion of gases, so viscosity increases.
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In gases the important cause of viscosity is randomness/molecular collision due to Crms(root mean square) (1.4.10)
velocity. Due to rise in temperature, kinetic energy of molecules increases which makes Crms increase, hence
randomness and collision of molecules increased. This makes the flow difficult. And hence we say viscosity in
gases increases with temperature - Ideal fluid: Fluid has m = 0
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In liquids main cause of viscosity is cohesion between the molecules. With increase in temperature this cohesive Time-dependent fluid:
force decreases as the energy of particles become more, hence movement of particles become free and easy. Hence
▪ Rheopectic fluids: A shear stress, that increases with time gives the
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we say viscosity in liquid decreases with temperature
𝑑𝑢
Viscosity decreases with pressure (at temperatures below 33 °C). rheopectic fluid a constant strain rate ( = const).
Viscous flow occurs by molecules moving through the voids that exist between them. As the pressure increases,
𝑑𝑦
the volume decreases, and the volume of these voids reduces, so usually rising pressure increases the viscosity ▪ Thixotropic fluids: A shear stress, that decreases with time gives the
𝑑𝑢 Fig. 1.4.3
thixotropic fluid a constant strain rate ( = const).
𝑑𝑦

8. Compressibility of fluid:
❖ LIQUID:
a) Compressibility Factor (β) : A property of fluid is used to describe the reduction of its volume due to the
increasing of pressure acting on it. compressibility factor of fluid is defined as follows
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1 𝑑𝑉
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β=− (1.4.11a)
𝑉 𝑑𝑝
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b) Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K) : A property is used to characterize compressibility of fluid. Bulk modulus
is reciprocal of compressibility factor, and defined as
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1 𝑑𝑝
K= = −𝑉 (1.4.11b)
𝛽 𝑑𝑉
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dp: differential change in pressure needed to create a different change in volume dV
Since: m = ρV, therefore
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𝑑𝑝
K=𝜌 (1.4.11c)
𝑑𝜌
𝑚2
Where, K (Pa) ; p (Pa); ρ (kg/m3), β( ) and V(m3)
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𝑁
=f(p,T), K=f (p,T)
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Water (at normal condition, K= 2.2.109 N/m2):
- When p increases from 1 atm to 3500 atm → K increases twice ;
- When T increases, then K decreases
 9. Vapor pressure –saturation vapor pressure – boiling point:
❖ IDEAL GAS LAW
• At the surface contacting with open air, water tends to evaporate or vaporize by projecting molecules into the
p = ρRT =
𝑚
𝑅𝑇 (1.4.12) space above its surface, called “evaporated”. Some water molecules at vapour state may return into the liquid
𝑉
state, called "liquefied“, the water vapor condenses and returns to liquid water

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• If the space is confined the partial pressure exerted by the molecules increases until the rate at which molecules
reenter the liquid is equal to the rate at which they leave → The vapour pressure of water is the pressure at

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Where: p: absolute pressure (Pa); ρ : density(kg/m3); T (oK): absolute temperature [ oK = oC + 273.15]
which water vapour is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed state. At higher
R: Specific gas constant (J/(kg.oK)), for dry air, R = 286.9 J/(kg.oK); V volume of gas (m3); m: mass of gas (kg)

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pressures water would condense. At this equilibrium condition the vapor pressure is called the saturation vapor
pressure ( pv ). When temperature increases the pv increases.

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➢ If keep temperature constant, T = const ➔ p.V = const → isothermal process (Boyle’s law) • The saturation pressure of fluid depends on
temperature: pv = f (T, fluid) as shown in figure
𝐕
➢ If keep pressure constant, p = const ➔ = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭→ isobaric process (Charles’s law) Fig.1.4.7 for water.

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𝐓
• Boiling point is the temperature at which the
𝐩 vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the
➢ If keep volume constant, V = const ➔ = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭→ isochoric process (Gay-Lussac’s law)
𝐓
pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding
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➢ When no heat is given to or taken from the fluid system during its change from one state to atmosphere. For example, the boiling point of
another state (T may be changed) ➔ p.Vγ = const → adiabatic process. water is 100oC, at 1 atmosphere of pressure (1
atm ≈100 KPa, see Fig. 1.4.7) (at sea level).
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• Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid,
γ : Ratio of specific heats (see formula 1.4.15). which occurs when a liquid is heated to its
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boiling point

Fig. 1.4.7

Application of saturation vapor pressure phenomenon under the operation conditions of centrifugal pump • At a given temperature T, if the fluid pressure (p) decreases, when p <pv(T), the liquid will be boiled. Therefore,
flow in closed pipe, when the pressure drops, the local boiling may occur and create gas bubbles. These bubbles
In order for the pump to work, the pressure at the impeller should
will be carried by the flow to a place with higher pressure, they will disappear (break) and create impact force on
not be less than the saturation vapor pressure (at normal condition,
the solid wall and cause erosion. It is called “cavitation”.
at 25 ° C; pv = 3.17 KPa) (see Fig. 1.4.7a ). However, in practice,
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the pump will not work well, when the suction head (hs) is over 7.1 10. Surface Tension:
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m, since there are some water molecules evaporate, and this
situation influences the efficiency and life of pump.
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The state of water: solid, liquid and vapour due to the
pressure and temperature as shown in Fig. 1.4.7b At the interface between a liquid and a gas, a film, or special layer, seems to form on the liquid, apparently owing to

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the attraction of liquid molecules below the surface (Fig. 1.4.8). It is a simple experiment to place a small needle on
a quiet water surface and observe that it will be supported there by the film.
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That property of the surface film to exert a tension is called the surface tension and is the force required to
maintain unit length of the film in equilibrium.
Surface tension [Ϭ (N/m)] is measured as the energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid by a unit of area. The
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surface tension of a liquid results from an imbalance of intermolecular attractive forces, the cohesive forces between
molecules:
- A molecule in the bulk liquid experiences cohesive forces with other molecules in all directions.
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- While, a molecule at the surface of a liquid experiences the inward cohesive forces by the same fluid; and much-smaller
adhesive forces between fluid and gas molecules (Fig. 1.4.8).
Thus surface tension arises from molecular considerations and has meaning only for liquid-gas or liquid-vapor interfaces.
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When water comes in contact with air, surface tension tends to minimize contact surfaces. So drops of water fall in the
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air in a spherical shape. Similarly, mercury droplets when dropped freely are spherical.

Fig. 1.4.7a
Fig. 1.4.7b:The water state at different Pressure and temperature
Surface tension, σ is the tension force acting on a unit of length across the surface of the liquid. It acts in the plane 11. Capillarity:
tangent to that surface (see Fig. 1.4.9)
When immersing an open-ended glass tube into a liquid, depending on the
F = 2..r. ; Px = .r2.p, Hence F = Px , therefore, surface tension σ between the solid (tube wall), liquid and air, the liquid

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column in the tube is pulled upward (wet-wall) with a concave surface
p = 2./r (1.4.13) (water-glass-air), or downward (dry-wall) with a convex surface (mercury-

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glass-air)
In technical problems, surface tension is ignored. However, in small size Fig. 1.4.10

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Fig. 1.4.9
model problems, it must be taken into account. Considering the balance between surface tension and the weight of the rising column (see Fig. 1.4.10), The water

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Table 1.4.3: The values of σ for some fluid at 20°C column height in a tube can be computed as follows:

Fluid  (N/m) F = ..d.cos() ; G = .g.H..d2/4; Since F = G → H = 4. cos()/(.g.d) (1.4.14)

Acetone 0,0237

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12. Specific Heat:
Benzene 0,0289 ✓ The specific heat of a substance is the head required to raise a unit mass of the substance by 1o [unit: J/(kg.oK)]
Carbon tetrachloride 0,0268 • The specific heat at a constant pressure (Cp): The specific heat of a gas that undergoes a process occurring at a
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Ethyl alcohol 0,0223 constant pressure, Ex: for carbon dioxide, Cp=876 J/(kg.oK)
• The specific heat at a constant volume (Cv): The specific heat of a gas that undergoes a process occurring at a
Mercury 0,465
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Fig. 1.4.8 constant volume, Ex: for carbon dioxide, Cv=674 J/(kg.oK)
Water 0,0728 • The ratio of specific heats (γ): is the ratio between Cp and Cv
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𝐶𝑝
𝛾= (1.4.15)
𝐶𝑣
Ex: for carbon dioxide, (γ=1.3)

13. Internal Energy: I.5 FORCE ACTING ON A FLUID ELEMENT

✓ In fluid, there does not exist the concentrated force but just the distributed force.
✓ Internal energy (e) is the energy associated with the motion of the molecules of a substance.
✓ It is possible to use the infinitesimal element or volume in a space of continuum fluid to study fluid mechanics
✓ The gas can have three types of energy:
✓ There are two types of force:
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𝑝
• Energy of position (potential energy) ( + 𝑔𝑧)
ρ - Internal force: is the force acting together between the particles inside the fluid volume. Their total sum are, in
𝑢2
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• Energy of translation (kinetic energy) ( ) general, zero. Therefore, when studying forces acting on the fluid volume, the internal force is ignored.
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• Energy of molecular motion (internal energy) (e) - External force: is the force acting on the fluid element by the external physical factors or by the other substance
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in contacting with it. They include:
✓ The heat added at a constant volume goes into internal energy, does not increase the potential or kinetic energies
❑ Body Force
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but instead affects the molecular motion. This effect is manifested as an increase in temperature.
✓ Body force is the external force acting on all fluid elements in the considered volume, since the existence of their
✓ For a perfect gas with a constant specific heads (Cv). It can be shown that: masses. The value of body force is proportional to the mass of fluid volume. For example, gravitational force and
inertial force.
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Δe = Cv.ΔT (1.4.16)
∆𝑓Ԧ
The body-force unit vector 𝐹𝐴 = lim (1.5.1)
Where, Δe : change in internal energy per unit mass (J/kg) ∆𝑉→0 𝜌. ∆𝑉
𝐴∈∆𝑉
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14. Enthalpy:
✓ Enthalpy (h) is a quantity which equals to the sum of internal energy (e) and pressure energy ( )
𝑝 ∆𝑓Ԧ : Infinitesimal body force acting on the fluid volume element
𝜌 ΔV at point A having its mass ρ.ΔV.
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✓ For a perfect gas with a constant specific heads (Cp). It can be shown that:
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𝐹𝐴 : Body-force unit vector at point A ([FA] = LT-2, unit (FA) = m/s2)
Fig. 1.5.1
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Δh = Cp.ΔT (1.4.17) In cartesian coordinate system, 𝐹𝐴 𝐹𝐴𝑥 , 𝐹𝐴𝑦 , 𝐹𝐴𝑧
The unit vector of gravitational force of the earth in OXYZ system, having OXY horizontal, OZ vertical,
Where, Δh : change in enthalpy per unit mass (J/kg)
upward is 𝑔Ԧ = 0,0, −𝑔 , where g = 9.81 m/s2.
❑ Surface Force ❖ Stress acting on the surface having normal unit vector 𝒏(𝒏𝒙 , 𝒏𝒚 , 𝒏𝒛 )
Surface force is the external force acting on fluid volume by the surrounding substances through its contacting
Let call 𝜎Ԧ𝑥 be the tress along x-axis; 𝜎Ԧ𝑦 be the tress along y-axis; 𝜎Ԧ𝑧 be
surface. The value of surface force is proportional to the contacting surface of fluid volume. For example,
the tress along z-axis;
atmospheric pressure acting on the free surface of fluid; friction force acting on the contacting surface between fluid

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and the solid wall during its motion. It is able to find the stress 𝜎Ԧ𝑛 acting on the area that normal to 𝑛 as follows:
❖ Surface-force unit vector (Stress) at point A 𝜎Ԧ𝑛 = 𝜎Ԧ𝑥 . 𝑛𝑥 + 𝜎Ԧ𝑦 . 𝑛𝑦 + 𝜎Ԧ𝑧 . 𝑛𝑧 (1.5.4)

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Ԧ infinitesimal surface force acting on area ΔS
∆𝑓: ∆𝑓Ԧ
𝜎𝐴 = lim

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∆𝑆→0 ∆𝑆
(1.5.2) If the tangential stresses (shear stresses) do not exist, then Equation (1.5.4)
at point A ∈ ∆𝑆 𝐴∈∆𝑆 becomes:

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𝜎𝐴 : surface-force unit vector at point A. In cartesian coordinate system, 𝜎(𝜎
Ԧ 𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 )
𝜎Ԧ𝑛 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 . 𝑛𝑥 𝑖Ԧ + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 . 𝑛𝑦 𝑗Ԧ + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 . 𝑛𝑧 𝑘 (1.5.5)
In normal/tangential coordinates, 𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝑛 , 𝜏 Fig. 1.5.4
Since,

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Where, n normal component (pressure),  tangential component (shear stress)
𝜎Ԧ = ML-1T-2; unit (σ) = Pa. ; 𝜎 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) Fig. 1.5.2 𝜎Ԧ𝑛 = 𝜎𝑛 . 𝑛 → 𝜎Ԧ𝑛 = 𝜎𝑛 . [𝑛𝑥 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑛𝑦 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑛𝑧 𝑘] (1.5.6)

❖ Stress tensor Comparing two equations (1.5.5) and (1.5.6), we get

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Stress (force per unit area) at a point, having the value depends on its area and → n = xx = yy = zz
direction while moving about this point. To describe this, the conception on
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stress tensor is used. CONCLUSION:
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Where ij = ji (xy: tangential stress in the When no shear (friction) stress exists in fluid, then the stress on infinitesimal area at a point has only normal
component, and its value does not varied in any orientation of the area.
(1.5.3) surface normal to Ox, parallel to Oy axis;
𝜎xx normal stress in the surface normal to Fig. 1.5.3
Ox, and parallel to Ox );
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