Geometric Design of Highways

Professor Rajat Rastogi

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Lecture 7
Space and Sight Requirements 2
Dear students, we are back in the class of Geometric Design. We have started with the sight
distance requirements. Today, we'll talk about sight distance requirements and the factors that
influence sight distances.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:42)

We have covered road margins and road land in the previous lectures. After that we talked
about the building line and the control line. These two aspects were related to the space
requirements that needed to be acquired for any road to be constructed in an area.

Then we started our discussion on various sight distances. First thing we discussed was to
examine and categorise them into various types, and then we discussed the broad
categorization of the factors which affect sight distances. Finally, we were talked about the
first factor, i.e., perception-reaction time. Now, from here we are going to continue forward.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:34)

Today, we are going to talk about friction between tire and pavement, the overtaking
maneuver time, the acceleration rate of vehicles, the height of the driver's eye and object, and
headlight beam angle. If you look at these factors, they are not specifically related to one type
of sight distance. They are related to all sight distances, which we have already talked in
terms of their types. As per the requirement of sight distances, we are going to utilise them
one by one. Now, let us talk about the first factor, i.e., friction between the tire and the
pavement.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:15)

In this case, we have a set of factors that are either related to the tire, the pavement, or related
to the vehicle characteristics. The reason is simple. All these vehicles are moving on the
pavement, and thus their tires are interacting with the pavement. To provide adequate sight
distance requirements, requirements for stopping the vehicle by applying the brakes, or the
speed at which the vehicle is moving, all these factors will be affecting the interaction
between the tire and the pavement.

When we look at the set of factors that are related to tires, there are two things that come up.
One is the type of surface condition of the tire, whether it is a new one or not. If it is new,
then you will find that it is a completely treaded tire, which means the grooves are there on
the surface of the tire as required. Otherwise, it may be a worn-out condition where the tire
has been used for number of years. Worn out means that all the treads have slowly and slowly
gone or the width, depth of the treads has continuously reduced because of the use of the tire
with the pavement. Finally, it has become a smoother surface. This can be one reason which
may affect the friction. Obviously, when you are talking about the treaded tire, and when
comparing it with the worn-out tire, the worn-out tire is going to create a smooth surface, but
it will also provide more of the contact area.

In the case of a treaded tire, the contact area is going to be with respect to the treads, which
are projecting beyond the overall base surface of the tire. But then, when you are looking at
these two things under different operational conditions, they are going to react in different
ways, and therefore the frictions are going to be different. Now we will be talking about this
point in the subsequent slides. Another effect is how much air is being filled into the tire
which will be discussed in terms of the tire pressure.

Now when you consider the tire pressure and the air is less inside, than in that case the area of
contact of the tire with the pavement is going to increase. But if the tire pressure is higher,
then the amount of area in contact with the pavement is relatively less. Now, when either of
this happens, we are not talking here in terms of load distribution, but we are considering it in
terms of the contact area, which is going to generate the friction, and therefore, this factor
needs to be taken into consideration.

The other two factors that have been listed here are related to the surface of the pavement.
The surface of the pavement has been talked about in two forms: one is the existing condition
of the pavement, and the other one is the type of material being used to construct that surface.

Now, let us talk about the condition of the pavement. If it is a new one, then we assume that
this pavement is quite smooth, but over a period, you may find that there is deterioration and
there are distresses that cause the pavement to become rough. So, some material may come
out, some layer deformation may be there, or any other thing which is happening on the
surface of the pavement because of either the traffic or the environment is going to make it
rough. Comparing the pavement being smooth with respect to the pavement, which is rough,
obviously, you can understand in which case the friction is going to be less or in which case
the friction is going to be more.

Another parameter based on which the pavement can be evaluated is whether it is dry or wet.
If you go through geometrics, then you may remember that camber is provided to keep the
pavement dry. Whenever the water comes to the surface, it needs to be drained out. But in
some cases, the flow is such that it remains wet, and may make it smooth. Then this is going
to create one of the worst conditions with respect to the reduction in friction.

So, we have two sets: one as moisture effect, and another as rideability effect. We can discuss
these two separately as well as in conjunction with each other. The effect in terms of smooth
or rough can also be talked in terms of the material being used. The surface can be Cement
Concrete (CC), bituminous blacktop surface, gravel material, or earthen road.

In all these cases, if we assume everything is ideal in conditions, or everything is good, and
these are new, then also the friction is going to change with respect to the types of surfaces.
In case of CC pavement, the surface will be smoother as compared to the bituminous one,
wherein there is a possibility of the aggregates protruding out of the surface and thus creating
more friction on the surface. If you evaluate in a similar pattern, you may find that the
friction is going to increase. But then, there can be combinations that may cause the friction
to increase further or reduce it in certain conditions.

One point about which we need to talk is the temperature effect. This effect is for both, the
pavement as well as the tires. The temperature of the pavement will continue to rise due to
solar radiation. There is an accumulation of heat energy, and the temperature of pavement
will become even higher than the air temperature. When the tire is moving on top of it, then
because of this interaction, the air inside the tire will expand as the temperature is increasing.
Now, the problem is that when the air is expanded, then it results in higher tire pressure, and
with higher increase the tire may burst.
You might have heard in the news that there have been cases of tire bursts on expressways
constructed with Cement Concrete pavements. The reason for this is that they began their
journey with adequate tire pressure, not realizing that they would be travelling on these
pavements. Then, because of the temperature effect, the air expands and, consequently, the
tire bursts.

Therefore, we need to see on which type of pavement we are driving, and accordingly, we
should decide the tire pressure that should be maintained. The time for which we are going to
drive continuously on that pavement will also make a difference (remember that momentary
stops of 10 or 15 minutes are not going to make much difference).

The last two factors, which are listed at the bottom, are related to the vehicles. One is the
efficiency with which the brakes are being applied. We usually consider the worst condition.
Obviously, if the brakes are not applied with 100 percent efficiency (say, 70-80 percent), the
vehicle's stopping distance will increase. We will see the effect of these when we
subsequently talk about the distances in our further interactions.

The speed of the vehicle is also going to create an impact, and it has been observed that the
friction is correlated with the speed of the vehicle. As the speed increases, the friction values
reduce. So, let us move ahead and see what types of impact it may have.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:20)

Now, the first thing that is being taken care of here is the tire condition. Here we can see two
types of tires. One is a new tire with clearly visible grooves. The grooves created along the
rim or across it will provide a sort of grip depending on the type of surface this tire is moving
on. Whereas, in other case, you can see that the tire is almost smoothened, and whatever
grooves were there, they are not present. If the flattened tire is touching the pavement, the
contact area is going to be greater. This makes a difference. The effect can also be defined
with respect to the season. Let’s discuss summer versus winter. The comparison for summer
versus winter has been presented in terms of the tread depth, which is say 8 mm in both cases.
This will have an impact on the distance by which the vehicle is going to stop.

In the summer period, for the same conditions of the tire and the pavement, it is taking more
distance as compared to the winter. That means the temperature is playing a role here. But
when you consider the same season and keep reducing the depth of the tread (if it changes
from 8 mm to 4 mm that means we are wearing out the tire), you can observe that when the
depth has decreased by half, the distance has increased by 1.5 times compared to what it was
when the treads were 8 mm deep. When it has reduced further, even less than half of the
previous value, we observe that it has now gone to a much higher value of 60 meters. As a
result, there is a clear distinction between the effect of tire treads on the distances required for
the vehicle to stop. Of course, when you are applying brakes while the vehicle is moving on
the pavement, the rest of the resistances are still there. But they are not playing in the same
way as they were playing in the case of the first one, where the treads were 8 mm in winter
and the distance was roughly around 35 meters.

Here we can look at the effect of tire pressure and temperature together.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:15)

You can see that on the x-axis the temperature is shown and on the y-axis is pressure. There
can be two cases: one for moist air inside, and the other for nitrogen filled in the tire. Now
what you can see is that as the temperature increases after a certain point, say 100 degrees
Fahrenheit, the distinction between the two curves is clearly visible. In the case of moist air,
the temperature, when it increases, the tire pressure comes in at roughly around 45, but at a
value of 200, in the case of nitrogen, it is less than 35. So, the type of matter used to fill the
tire will also make a difference. One reason for filling the nitrogen is that it keeps the tires
cool. Also, as soon as you have stopped your vehicle, within no time, or we can say a reduced
time, the tires are going to become cool. This is from one study related to nitrogen versus
moist air. What you can observe is that this effect is exponential for moist air and in the case
of nitrogen, it is more or less a linear change.

Here in another diagram, the effect of contact area is shown. If higher pressure is inside the
tire, then you get an imprint like this, but when you are having lower pressure, then the whole
width of your tire is going to make an imprint and, therefore, the amount of contact area that
is going to be there is greater and that may help in the creation of more friction depending on
the other conditions: what type of tire it is, what type of surface is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:10)

Now, here we are talking about the surface i.e., the dry and wet pavement. Before I talk about
the certain diagrams, which have been given on the left-hand side, let us see what is
happening in the case of these graphs, where the reaction distance and the braking distance
are being discussed for a particular speed. Our assumption should be that whatever the
condition, the vehicle should stop at the same point, but that is not the case. What you found
is that as the speed increases from 40 kilometers per hour to 100 kilometers per hour or 110
kilometers per hour, the reaction time as well as the braking distance are increasing. We
observe that all these values are increasing in this direction. At the same time, if the pavement
is wet, then the values will further increase. You can observe that with speed as 100
kilometers per hour, the distance by which the vehicle will stop increases by about 25%. This
is the effect that is observed.

Why this effect is coming is probably something we can try to understand from these two
figures which have been provided here. When a tire is moving on the smooth surface of the
pavement, (but the actual surface at a micro level is not as smooth), it is going to be
something like this. They are going to be protruding (in terms of aggregates which may be
coated with bitumen) and causing this type of surface. When the wheel moves at the top of
that surface, then it contacts those aggregates or surfaces at certain points, and at some other
points, it may not be in contact. You can see that at this point or at this point, it is not
contacting, but at this point or this point, when the pressure is lower and the contact area is
increasing, we will find that in this area, there will be complete contact of the tire with the
pavement.

Now, when this is happening and very small amount of water is present on this surface, then
this water will splash out, and therefore, not much effect is going to be there. But when this
amount of water increases in its film thickness, then initially it is supposed to be a good
contact, but slowly this contact is going to be reduced. And finally, you find that there is an
aquaplaning condition, where a water film comes between the tire and the pavement. The tire
is expected or is assumed to be moving on that water film, and therefore, the friction reduces
a lot. If the brakes are applied now, it may culminate in a hazardous situation.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:22)

Let us look at the effect of the pavement surface condition. The pavement surface condition is
discussed for dry asphaltic surface, a bituminous surface, or a blacktop surface. Another one
is shown on the other side of the photograph. Here the snowfall has occurred and slowly that
snow settles down and it can be treated as black ice, which is present in the form of crystals at
the top of the asphalt surface. With this black ice, you can see what has happened to a few of
the vehicles on this side, as shown in the photograph. You have to be very careful while you
are driving on this surface, and you cannot apply your brakes with full efficiency. If that
happens, then your vehicle is going to be wayward in any direction. If you are in a hilly area,
on one side you have a hill, on either side you have a valley, then the persons can lose their
life.

Here we are looking at that effect. In figure, the speed is on the x-axis, and the stopping
distance is on the y-axis. In the case of dry asphalt, we are going to stop the vehicle at 150
meters. In the case of the black ice, which is present at the top, it would be 325 meters at a
speed of 100 kilometers per hour. So, it is more than doubled in this case. That is the impact.
For hilly regions, when we have to provide stopping distance in the areas infected by snow,
we have to look at what needs to be provided.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:11)

Here, another material is shown, either the beach sand or the sand in the desert. One of the
differences between the beach sand and desert sand is the amount of moisture. It all depends
on what portion, say of a beach, you are running your vehicle. You can see the type of treads
used there. The bigger wheels with a wider area have been used here.

The point here is that when you are using these types of tires and you have loose sand, then it
is better that we reduce the tire pressures by 20 percent. Otherwise, there is a possibility that
the tire will move inside that loose sand, and you will not be able to move your vehicle ahead.
So, you must deflate the tires. But one thing that should be kept in mind is, as soon as you are
out of the desert sand, you need to increase the tire pressure. Otherwise, it is going to be a
problem for the vehicle when you are driving under normal conditions. What type of grip is
going to be there with these types of materials versus the water versus the surfaces? All these
together define the friction present and the value we should consider.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:36)

The surfaces are shown here, and you can see that they are very smooth. Here, in this case,
you can find out that some irregularities are there, or you can probably see that it is a bit
rough, whereas this is a surface that is broken down. You found that there are lot of cracks, in
the longitudinal and transverse direction of the movement. These are also going to cause the
amount of friction with which the vehicle will be moving and traversing these sections.
Obviously, friction may be more in these cases and then relatively less in those and finally
less in the third one, which we should be aware of.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:28)

Here again, you can see the different types of surfaces being shown. There is an earthen
surface, a gravel surface, a cement concrete pavement, and a pathway that has been created
using stones. In this case, the friction is obviously going to be the highest. In this one, the
friction is going to be the lowest one. If this earthen surface is well compacted and there is no
effect of moisture, i.e., it is not muddy, then the friction can be less. But if it is becoming
muddy, then the friction is going to increase. But if it becomes muddier, then friction is going
to be reduced further because now the slippery conditions are going to be there. So, it all
depends on what amount of moisture is present on the earthen surface, which will further
define how it is going to react in terms of the movement of a vehicle.

You may now find that at many of the places, stones are used, even on the roads also. That
increases the discomfort for the drivers as well as the passengers because the vehicles move
at lower speeds. That may create an unhazardous situation.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:52)

There is always going to be a combination of all these things, and those combinations can be,
as we can say, a tire that is treaded but the surface is wet. If the surface is wet, then the water
is getting into those treads, and therefore, there is going to be a grip and the friction is not
going to be that much less, but if you talk about the worn-out condition along with the wet,
then this is going to create a hazardous situation. Likewise, if can imagine these types of
examples, which may either increase or reduce the friction on the surface. Therefore, this is
going to be one big problem, and we have to examine that.

I have given one example of formula races, where the vehicles will be moving at a speed of
something like 200 kilometers per hour or more. How have they been able to do that? One is
that they have aerodynamic bodies. The other is the size of the vehicle, which is very small,
so the air friction is going to be reduced. Third is the friction that is imposed by the pavement
on which those vehicles are running. In dry conditions, they use these types of smooth tires,
but if there is some small amount of water, due to drizzle or something, then the intermediate
tires are used. But if the tires of those surfaces are going to be wet, then they also use the
treaded tires. So, that is how they keep changing, and accordingly, the speeds are going to be
affected.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:38)

If the coefficient of longitudinal friction is present, it will be speed-dependent, and as shown

here and discussed, as speed increases, the values will decrease. So, when you have a speed
of 20 to 30 kilometers per hour, then this is 0.4, but when speed is 80 to 100 kilometers per
hour, then it becomes 0.35. It is changing with the speed. Here we can see the values which
we will be using when we discuss the braking distances or the stopping distances which will
be discussed in the coming interactions.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:19)

Another case is an overtaking maneuver. Overtaking maneuver time is when you are in a
vehicle moving at a certain speed and there is another vehicle moving at a speed V2 that is
less than V1 and you want to cross this vehicle. So, you drive in this direction, and then return
to your own lane. At the same time, there is a vehicle coming from the opposite direction,
maybe at some speed V. So, when you start following the vehicle ahead and overtake and
come back to lane, you must see whether the opportunity for overtaking is there or not. All
these things, if taken together, is known as overtaking maneuver time.

The overtaking maneuver time is correlated with the speed. For a speed of 30 kilometers per
hour it is defined as 8 seconds, but when it increases to 100 kilometers per hour, then this is
14 seconds. This is the value which we will be using when we talk about the calculations of
overtaking maneuver time.

When this overtaking is happening, when the vehicle comes here, obviously it is accelerating
and therefore an acceleration rate will be required. This acceleration rate is being given here.
At a speed of 25 kilometers per hour it is 1.41 m/s2 and for a speed of 100 kilometers per
hour this reduces to only 0.53 m/s2. So, at what speed are you attempting to overtake, and
how much acceleration have you been able to generate to do overtaking? This is another rate
that can be used when discussing overtaking time and distances.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:26)

Another factor that we need to look at is height. There are different heights because you are
driving a vehicle and we all are different. Your vehicle is moving like this, in this direction,
and you, as a driver, are looking from here. What exactly you are trying to look at is what we
are discussing here. The height of the eye level is one height which we need to understand.
This is 1.2 meters. If there is an object that is lying here at some point, then the height of the
object is another thing that we need to consider. It is taken as 0.15 meters. The height of the
headlight is another aspect, and it is taken as 0.75 meters.

You can understand that when we were talking about the height of the headlight it means we
are talking about the headlight sight distance. The angle of the beam of the headlight is also
considered, and it is taken as one degree upwards or downwards. If we consider this on a
plane surface, this is my horizontal, then the beam is going in this form either 1 degree up or
1 degrees down.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:44)

Just look at the same things here. You have the height of the driver, the height of the
headlight, and the angle of the beam. What we are going to define, is the distance up to which
we are able to see and, at the same time, what is the nearest thing that you are going to see as
an object. So, if there is an object here, you will be able to see that also. And when you are
looking at the horizontal aspect, the angles are going to be say alpha. It is going to define the
extent to which the total space on the road is going to be covered and which comes under the
view frame, and you will be able to see all those things that are there in that.

So, these are the various factors with the help of which we can formulate the various
distances in terms of stopping distances, overtaking distances, etc. With that, we close our
interaction here and we will be now moving into the calculations of the various distances to
be taken. First will be the safe stopping sight distance. Thank you and bye.