HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

HARAMAYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

TITTLE: ESTIMATION OF RAINWATER HARVESTING

POTENTIAL AS ALTERNATIVE WATER SUPPLY SOURCE
(THE CASE of BATE PRIMARY SCHOOL)

A THESIS SUBMITTED AS A PARTIAL FULFILLMENT TO THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE B.SC. DEGREE OF
SCIENCE IN HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

To
SCHOOL OF WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

JUNE 2022
HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY, HARAMAYA INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY

Tittle: Estimation of Rainwater Harvesting Potential as Alternative Water

Supply Source (The Case Of Bate Primary School)

BY Group Members
Name ID.NO

1. Mohammed Muktar 4265/10

2. Mohammed Usmael 4270/10

3. Tuji Adem 4642/10

4. Zakir Ahmed 4697/10

5. Mokonin Abay 4274/10

A Thesis Submitted as a Partial Fulfillment to the Requirements for the

Award of the Degree of Science in Hydraulic and Water Resources
Engineering

To
DEPARTMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER
RESOURCES ENGINEERING
JUNE, 2022
DECLARATION

We hereby declare that this thesis entitled” Estimation of Rainwater Harvesting Potential as
Alternative Water Supply Source (The Case of Bate Primary School)” was prepared by us,
with guidance of our advisor. The work contained herein is our own except where explicitly
stated otherwise in the text and that, this work has not been submitted in whole or in part.

Authors name: ID No Signature and Date

1. Mohammed Muktar 4265/10 _____________________

2. Mohammed Usmael 4270/10 _____________________

3. Tuji Adem 4642/10 _____________________

4. Zakir Ahmed 4697/10 _____________________

5. Mokonin Abay 4274/10 _____________________

This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as University
Supervisor.

Advisor: Mr. Alemayehu Hirko (MSc. In Hydraulic Engineering)

Signature -------------------------------------- Date…….………….

i
ABSTRACT
The main objective of this thesis is to assess the potential of rain water harvesting practice as
an alternative water supply to solve the problems of increasing water demand in Bate
Primary School. The research is carried out based on case-study of Bate primary school site
which is found in the northern part of Haramaya town. The site has about 6 long blocks with
an average roof area of 301.4 and serves for about 41 class in which they serve for about
2731 population. A descriptive quantitative study was carried out in order to achieve the
objectives of the study. A monthly rainfall data, catchment characteristics, roof material,
population data, water consumption and water demand data were collected from primary and
secondary sources. People's attitude and practice towards rainwater was also assessed. The
collected data was analyzed using different tools including MS Excel spread sheets, GIS and
etc. Based on the findings the maximum annual rainfall in month is 157 mm and the minimum
is 8.1 mm. The total yearly amount of water that can be collected from the total roof is
1241.1cubic meter in an average per year. This helps as an addition source of water for
community in addition to the available source of water. The total volume of water diverted
during the first flush should 310.25 m3 per year. The amount of the stored water were
930.85m3. Therefore a total 171 m3 of storage is recommended for the school service. Thus,
the storage tank of 7.4m diameter having a height of 4m were required to store the harvested
water. The average annual RWH potential at Bate primary school site is not enough to fulfill
the total water demand at this site. RWH has many benefits once it is applied for any blocks
for sustainable alternative water supply and sustainable storm water management. Thus, the
school can easily be get an access from this rain water as an alternative source of water in
addition to the existing water supply system.

Key words: Rain Water Harvesting, Water Demand, Storm water and Alternative source
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First of all we would like to praise our Lord God for his speechless gift, help and protection
throughout our life. We would like to express our deep heartfelt gratitude and appreciation to
our advisor Mr. Alemayehu Hirko who helped us a lot from entail to final level. From the
beginning his valuable guidance and interesting discussion to brig solutions for problems,
advice and constructive comments made us able to develop an understanding of the subject.
Without his continuous follow up, correcting the manuscripts and constructive comments the
research work may not take the current forms.

Our sincerely thanks goes to school of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering
lecturers who gave us different advice, how can we do our research. Last but not least we
offer our regards and thanks to all our family members, friends (specially our class mates)
and those who supported us in any aspect for the completion of the study.
CONTENTS
DECLARATION.....................................................................................................................................i
ABSTRACT...........................................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT.......................................................................................................................iii
LIST of ABBREVIATIONS and ACRONYMS...................................................................................vi
LIST of TABLE...................................................................................................................................vii
LIST of FIGURES..............................................................................................................................viii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................1
1.1. Introduction to Rain Water Harvesting........................................................................................1
1.2. Statement of the problem.............................................................................................................2
1.3. General Objective........................................................................................................................3
1.3.1. Specific Objectives...............................................................................................................3
1.4. Significance of the Study.............................................................................................................3
1.5. Scope and Limitations of the study..............................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO. LITERATURE REVIEW.........................................................................................4
2.1. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting in Schools...................................................................................5
2.2. Water Shortage in Ethiopia..........................................................................................................5
2.3. Rainwater Harvesting System (RWHS).......................................................................................6
2.4. Components of Rain Water Harvesting Systems.........................................................................8
2.4.1. Roof or Catchment Surface...................................................................................................8
2.4.2. PVC Gutters and Down Pipes...............................................................................................8
2.4.3. Leaf Trap............................................................................................................................11
2.4.4. First Rain Separator............................................................................................................11
2.4.5. Filter...................................................................................................................................13
2.4.6. Storage Tank:......................................................................................................................14
2.4.7. Overflow Pipe.....................................................................................................................14
2.4.8. Tap......................................................................................................................................15
2.5. Rainwater Harvesting Delivery Systems....................................................................................15
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY..............................................................................................16
3.2 Types and Sources of Data.........................................................................................................18
3.3 Data Collection...........................................................................................................................18
3.4. Determination of Catchment Area.............................................................................................20
3.5. Estimation of water harvesting potential....................................................................................20
 3.6. Runoff coefficient......................................................................................................................20
3.7. Estimation of water demand......................................................................................................21
3.8. Sizing of Gutters and Downpipes..............................................................................................22
3.9. Research flow chart:..................................................................................................................22
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS.....................................................................................................23
4.1. Determination of Catchment Area.............................................................................................25
4.1.1. Estimation of Water Harvesting Potential...........................................................................26
4.1.2. Volume of Water that can be harvested From a Houses or Blocks......................................26
4.3. Down Pipes and Storage Tank Design.......................................................................................30
4.4. Volume of Diverted Water by the First Flush............................................................................31
4.5. Design of Storage Tanks............................................................................................................31
4.6. Estimating Storage Requirements..............................................................................................32
4.6.1. Water System Peaking Factors............................................................................................32
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION................................................................................35
6. REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................37
7. APPENDEX.....................................................................................................................................39
LIST of ABBREVIATIONS and ACRONYMS
CIS Corrugated Iron Sheet

ESD Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD)

MM Millimeter

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

PVC  Polyvinyl chloride

RWH Rain Water Harvesting

RWHS Rainwater Harvesting System

SOPAC South Pacific Applied Geosciences Commission

WWS Water Supply and Sanitation

LIST of TABLE
Table 2.1: Gutter Width and Down Pipe Size………………………………………………...10

Table 3.1: Average Daily Precipitation……………………………………………………….18

Table 3.2. Average Monthly Precipitation per month ………………………………………..18

Table 3.3: Catchment Area……………………………………………………………………19

Table 3.4: Runoff Coefficient……….......................................................................................20

Table 3.5: Estimation of Water Demand……………………………………………………...20

Table 4. 1. Summary of Average Monthly Precipitation (mm/month)……………………….22

Table 4.2. Yearly Cumulative rainfall data in Haramaya Woreda……………………………23

Table 4.3: Roof Catchment Area……………………………………………………………...24

Table 4.4: Volume of water that can be harvested from a blocks…………………………….25

Table 4.5: Volume of Water that can be harvested from the houses per month (m3)………..26

Table 4.6: Volume of water stored in m3 / year ……………………………………………...26

Table 4.7: Demand for Schools average demand Littre per day……………………………...27

Table 4.8: Average demand per month ………………………………………………………28

Table 4.9: Demand versus Supply…………………………………………………………….28

Table 4.10: Roof areas, gutter width and downpipes…………………………………………29

Table 4.11: Adopted Peaking Factor 31

LIST of FIGURES
Fig 2.1. Rain Water Harvesting System………………………………………………………..7

Fig 2.2: A Clean PVC gutter to catch every drop of rain………………………………………9

Figure 2.3: First-Flush Systems Using Float-Ball Mechanism……………………………….12

Fig 2.4: A good filter with mesh and gravel on top…………………………………………..13

Fig 3.1: Study area Map………………………………………………………………………16

Fig 3.2: Map of the study area from the Google Map………………..……………………….17

Fig 3.3. Methodology flow chart……………………………………………………………...21

Fig 4.1: Average Monthly Precipitation of the Study Area…………………………………..23

Fig 4.2: Yearly Cumulative rainfall data in Haramaya Woreda………………………………24

Fig 4.3: Volume of Rain Water Harvested in Cubic meter per year for each blocks…………27

Fig 4.4: Supply versus Demand in m3 /month………………………………………………. 29

Fig 4.5: Gutter and Down Pipes………………………………………………………………30

Fig 4.6: Storage tank………………………………………………………………………….32

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Introduction to Rain Water Harvesting

Water is very important renewable natural resource and it is available in many areas of the
world. But fresh water is scarce because of unplanned withdrawal of waters from rivers and
underground aquifers causing severe environmental problems like arsenic contamination. In
many countries, the amount of water being consumed has exceeded the annual amount of
renewal creating a non-sustainable situation(Al-Ansari et al., 2013).

During heavy rainfall, if the drainage system is not properly designed it will leads to
accumulated flooding in urban areas. Water sustains life and life support processes. The
amount of water available for each person will continue to decrease as the world’s population
expands. Unfortunately our present and future water supplies in many parts of the world are
being degraded by pollution from domestic waste water, solid waste, industrial effluent and
agricultural drainage to mention a few. As natural waters become more polluted, less water is
available to fulfill the demands and the needs of the natural environment(Biswas & Mandal,
2014).

Every year, approximately 25 million people die either by drinking polluted water or because
they do not have enough water to meet their daily needs. A single person needs at least half a
liter per day to meet basic survival needs and two liters per day to avoid thirst. Some 27 to
110 liters are needed per person per day for drinking, sanitation, bathing and cooking.
Household water needs vary depending on the type of dwelling, number of residents and type
of plumbing fixtures. Traditional sources of water to meet our needs typically include surface
waters (rivers and lakes), groundwater (water stored below-ground in aquifers) and
rainwater(Climate & Centre, n.d.).

Direct capture, storage and use of rainwater, called Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) is the oldest
method of securing water, having been practiced by ancient civilizations for more than 4,000
years. This technique continues to be an important means of supplying water in many
communities, especially those located far away from municipal potable water supplies and in
areas the number of population and the availability of water is not proportion. RWH continues
to be among the most simple and low-cost means of water supply, employing technologies
that are generally easy to install and maintain.

Rainwater quality always exceeds the quality of surface water and is comparable to ground
water because of it does not come in contact with soil and rocks where it can dissolve salts
and mineral which are harmful for potable and non-portable uses. The rainwater quality
usually can be influenced by geographic location, activity in the area and storage tank.
However, with minimal treatment and adequate care of the system, rainwater can be used as
potable water, for sanitation as well as for irrigation. Rainwater can provide clean, safe and
reliable water for drinking so long as the collection system is properly constructed and
maintained and treated appropriately for its intended use(Awawdeh M et al., 2012).

Rainwater harvesting means capturing rain where it falls or capturing the runoff in a village or
town and taking all precautions to keep it unpolluted. For century’s world has relied upon
rainwater harvesting to supply water. Rainwater harvesting promotes self-sufficiency and
fosters an appreciation for water as a resource. It saves money, saves other resources of water,
reduces erosion and storm water runoff and increases water quality.

1.2. Statement of the problem

As Ethiopian development goes through different socioeconomic and physical changes the
population in which that seeks shelter, water supply and infrastructure also increasing
dramatically. Addressing the increasing water demand and surface runoff for schools and
urban areas with a centralized water supply and using constructed drainage lines respectively
are the most challenging and difficult problems in developing cities. Additionally, in Eastern
Hararge Zone there is a scarcity of water for drinking as well as for other human needs. In
addition ther existing water resources has also a salinity problem and it is not necessary for
drinking. Thus Bate Primary school is the area which is facing such challenges.

Therefore looking for alternative ways of supporting the municipal water supply as well as
solving the problem of storm water management in Bate town Rainwater Harvesting can be
essential alternative. The need for alternative, affordable and safe water supplies is critical if
poverty is to be reduced and an environment conducive to progress and economic
development fostered.

1.3. General Objective

The general objective of the study is to estimate the potential of rain water harvesting practice
to use it as an alternative water supply source to solve problems of water shortage in Bate
Primary school.

1.3.1. Specific Objectives

 To determine the actual water demand of the study area.

 To determine the amount of rainfall that can be harvested from roof tops during rain
periods and
 To determine storage capacity needed.

1.4. Significance of the Study

The findings of this study serve as the basis for further improvement of rainwater harvesting
systems in schools in general and the study area in particular. Therefore, the outcomes of the
study can serve as a guide to any person or organization involved in planning and designing of
water related projects in which rainwater harvesting is under consideration.

1.5. Scope and Limitations of the study

This study focused only on Bate primary school with domestic demands due to time and
financial limitations. The study also did not considered the qualitative aspects of rainwater
harvesting since the plan was to support on the non-potable purposes of the water. As far as
our knowledge concerns there was no study available in this study area and lack of available
studies also limited the study in some areas. The rainwater harvesting in this thesis scenario
focused only on roof water harvesting.
CHAPTER TWO. LITERATURE REVIEW
Demand on water resources has increase day to day due to the population growth and
expansion in urbanization, industrialization and irrigated agricultural. Adopting the concept of
sustainability and conservation of water resources can help to cope with the global water
shortage. Rainwater harvesting system is one of the concepts that can be implemented to meet
the water shortage problem. Furthermore, rainwater has a lot of potential as an alternative
water resource for the future because of its high quality(Brief, n.d.).

Rainwater harvesting is a common practice in the countries and areas where the annual
precipitation is high and pure drinking and usable water is scarce. All over the world,
economical condition has prompted the low-income groups to harvest the rainwater for
household and essential uses. Several countries of the world in different regions have showed
the popularity of this method. Originated almost 5000 years ago in Iraq, rainwater harvesting
is practiced throughout the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, in Mexico, Africa as well as
in Australia and United States. As the population of the world increased, irrigation, the most
water consuming human activity, as well as domestic water usage increased, leading to a
consequence of crisis of water supply in different region. Among other available alternative
sources for water supply, rainwater harvesting has become the most economical solution for
the water crisis(Winther, 2017).

Rainwater harvesting has been practiced for more than 4, 000 years, and, in most developing
countries, is becoming essential owing to the temporal and spatial variability of rainfall.
Rainwater harvesting is necessary in all areas as it brings water closer to the houses more than
what even a stream could do. It is also important in areas having enough rainfall but lacking
any kind of conventional, centralized government supply system, and also in areas where
good quality fresh surface water or groundwater is lacking. (Maddodi & Udayashankar,
2019) argue that the application of an appropriate rainwater harvesting technology can make
possible utilization of rainwater as a valuable and necessary water resource.
2.1. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting in Schools

Many schools presently do not have a reliable source of water for drinking and other use. The
school rooftop rainwater harvesting system seeks to provide a source of water for all purpose
such as toilet flushing, cooking, washing hands and feet before eating and after toilet use,
hygiene and finally if the rainwater is treated well for drinking purpose. This is especially
important in areas where there is Fluoride, Nitrate, iron or salt in the groundwater and
therefore it is unfit for consumption. In these places the rainwater harvesting tank can provide
mineral free water for consumption(Schedule et al., n.d.).

The ‘Rainwater Tank in Schools Project’ focused on Ecologically Sustainable Development

(ESD) objectives and employed best practice with benefits including cost savings, learning
opportunities as well as the environmental benefits. The aims of the thesis included; Economic
– saving money on water bills, promoting the recognition of externalities, avoiding
infrastructure development. Social – considering policies and guidelines, building student
capacity, promoting student ownership. Environmental – promoting efficient resource use,
promoting efficient water use, maintaining resource integrity, protecting environmental
health(Milagros, 2007).

2.2. Water Shortage in Ethiopia

The Ethiopian economy has gone through rapid structural change for the last 3 decades. In
global arena, Ethiopia is often considered as a ‘developing’ country. The urban growth is
dynamic in accordance with the rapid economic growth and industrialization. The
infrastructure has been strained by rapid urban growth and there are high needs of
improvement of amenities such as water supply, electricity, transportation, environment and
drainage. The impacts of the growth have put excessive demands on water supply and water
resources. Besides economy and industrialization, the number of population also has an
increase.

A number of factors for urban water supply shortage are indicated in different literatures.
Those which focus on the problem in developing countries point out the common factors like
weak actions to reduce environmental degradation, economic development, distribution
inefficiency of the water supply system, inconsistency of the system, climatic changes
(temperature and rainfall variability), topography of the area, population growth and
urbanization, water loss in the system, capacity of towns to manage the water system.

Environmental degradation affects both the quantity and quality of water resources. (WSP,
2009)World Water Week synthesis report 2009 indicated that many of the actions for
reducing environmental degradation are focused at the local level and scaling-up these to the
river basin and regional levels, and the ability to tailor solutions are major challenges. The
report also showed that primary threats to water resources and ecosystems emerge from
greater wealth and consumption and increasing populations. These threats will be exacerbated
by climate change and must be addressed together. Developing large water schemes for urban
areas require relatively huge investments. Governments of developing countries fail to finance
these investments. In many developing countries lack of financial resources and low
prioritization of water and sanitation constrain both the maintenance and expansion of water
and sanitation services. However, using efficiently the available finance is another challenge.

Institutional issues of urban water supply are raised the poor performance of water supply and
sanitation (WSS) services is often due to an inappropriate institutional framework, lack of
regulatory mechanisms, an absence of appropriate attitudes and skills, and a lack of explicit
directives and incentives to serve the poor.

2.3. Rainwater Harvesting System (RWHS)

The origin of the term “water harvesting” is not known, but probably first used by the Geddes
of the University of Sidney. He defined water harvesting as “the collection and storage of any
farm waters, either runoff or creek flow, for irrigation use.” Several modifications of the
definition have broadened the term to mean “the process of collecting natural precipitation
from prepared watersheds for beneficial use.” Different types of water harvesting system can
be distinguished, including rooftop harvesting system, surface runoff harvesting and
underground harvesting (Chanan et al., 2003).

Rooftop harvesting system is comprised of the rooftop as the catchment area, connected by
gutters and pipes to the storage tank. The most suitable rooftop surfaces are corrugated iron
sheets, although tiled; parachute cloth and asbestos sheet roofs can also be used. Surface
harvesting systems catch rapid runoff from natural or man-made surfaces, then concentrate
and store it strategic locations. Underground harvesting systems exploit water already
infiltrated and concentrated through natural hydrological processes into the sand rivers that fill
valleys in arid and semi-arid areas. In Bangladesh, different forms of water harvesting
techniques are used in the hilly and flat areas. Hilly areas are located along the north-east
borders of the country, which include the hills of Mymensingh, Sylhet, and Chittagong Hill
Tracts (CHT)(Milagros, 2007).

A typical Rainwater Harvesting System comprises of Roof catchment, Gutters, Downpipes,

First Flush Pipe, Filter chamber, Storage tank. In a recent conducted study, many indigenous
methods have been identified that are being used by tribal people of Bangladesh for water
shed management including activities related to water and soil conservation, agro-forestry and
religious rituals (Bose et. al., 1998). The rest of the country is largely a flood plain inhabited
by people known as Bengali farmers have also been practicing various(Biswas & Mandal,
2014).
 Fig 2.1. Rain Water Harvesting System

2.4. Components of Rain Water Harvesting Systems

2.4.1. Roof or Catchment Surface

Roofs can be made from a variety of materials. Roofs made from thatch houses and those
likely to generate toxic materials are not recommended. The typical roofing material include
the following: Corrugated Iron Sheet (CIS) or plastic sheets, or tiles. Thatched roofs made
from palm leaves (coconut and palms with tight thatching are better).Other thatching materials
and mud discolor and contaminate the rainwater. Unpainted and uncoated surface areas are
best. If paint is used it must be non-toxic (no lead based paints). Asbestos-cement roofing
does not pose health risks - no evidence is found in any research. However, the airborne
asbestos fibers from cutting, etc. do pose a serious health risk if in haled.

The existing roof is made use of to collect rainwater. Since rainwater is pure as it falls from
the sky it is necessary that the roof be kept clean for it to remain pure when it is collected.
This means the roof will need to be swept and cleaned daily during the rainy season in the
district.

This should be carefully done by an adult (never by children unless it is accessible and safe)
equipped with the necessary implements such as a ladder, broom and a brush if necessary.
Some schools will have shady trees to cover the roof. However leaves falling from the roof
will cause blockage in the gutters and pipes. The leaves can also color the water and cause it
to decompose and smell. Therefore, roofs should invariably be completely cleaned of all
leaves, dust, bird droppings etc. using a broom. Water should only be used if necessary as
most times a dry sweeping with a broom will be enough. When cleaning the roof with water
be careful to keep the first rain separator open so as not to allow the dirt to come into the filter
and the tank(Chanan et al., 2003).

2.4.2. PVC Gutters and Down Pipes

The gutters of PVC collect the rainwater from the roof and transfer it to the filter. On sloping
roofs, PVC gutters can pick up leaves, dust, small twigs and other organic matter. The gutters
need to be cleaned regularly at least weekly once. During the rainy season the PVC gutters
should be inspected and cleaned daily. Gutters are channels fixed to the edges of roof all
around to collect and transport rainwater from the roof to the storage tank. These must be
properly sized, sloped and installed to maximize efficiency and minimize water loss. Gutters
come in a wide variety of shapes and forms, ranging from the factory made PVC type to
home-made gutters using bamboo or folded metal sheet. Gutters are usually fixed to the
building just below the roof and catch the water as it falls from the roof. For effective
operation of RWH, a well-designed and carefully constructed gutter system is crucial. 90 % or
more of the rainwater collected on the roof will be drained to the storage tank if the gutter and
down pipe system is properly fitted and maintained. Common materials for gutters and down
pipes are metal and plastic; which are available locally. But also cement-based products and
wood can be used. With high intensity rains, rainwater may shoot over the conventional
gutter, resulting in a low production; splash guards can prevent this spillage.

To keep leaves and other debris from entering the system, the gutters can have a continuous
leaf screen made of quarter-inch wire mesh in a metal frame installed along the length of the
gutter and a screen or wire basket at the head of the downpipes. Or, just clean out gutters
regularly. Gutters can be prepared in semi-circular and rectangular shapes. Locally available
material such as plain galvanized iron sheet can be easily folded to required shapes to prepare
semi-circular and rectangular gutters. Semi-circular gutters of PVC material can be readily
prepared by cutting the PVC pipes into two equal semi-circular channels. Bamboo poles can
also be used for making gutters if they are locally available in sufficient quantity. Use of such
locally available materials reduces the overall cost of the system(Biswas & Mandal, 2014).
 Fig 2.2: A Clean PVC gutter to catch every drop of rain

The gutters are fixed to the roof or to the walls with clamps. The clamps hold the gutter or
pipes to the wall or to the roof firmly and allow a small slope in the system to enable water to
flow in one direction. The clamps sometimes may come off due to various reasons. The
clamps should be fixed immediately whenever it is seen to be loose or when it has come off.

At all times the PVC gutters or pipes should slope in the direction of the storage tank and not
away from it. The PVC gutters should always have an end cap at the end where rainwater
begins to flow in the direction of the tank. PVC down pipes brings the water from the
rainwater gutters or pipes vertically down. They should invariably be clamped firmly to the
wall and should never be loosely fixed. Always check that the down pipe is firmly fixed and if
necessary replace or tighten the clamp whenever necessary (Chanan et al., 2003).

Table 2.1: Gutter Width and Down Pipe Size (SOPAC, 2004)

Roof Area m2 Gutter width, mm Down Pipe ,mm

17 60 40
25 70 50
34 80 50
46 90 63
66 100 63
208 125 75
218 150 90
290 180 100
330 220 115
390 250 130

2.4.3. Leaf Trap

Where the roof of a school has lots of leaves falling from a tree or trees a conical leaf trap can
be placed in the vertical down pipe. This has a mesh on top. The mesh prevents small leaves,
twigs and other material from entering the pipe and blocking it or choking the filter. The
material collected on the leaf trap if any must be removed at regular intervals and daily during
the rainy season.

To remove debris that gathers on the catchment surface, and ensure high quality water for
either potable use or to work well without clogging emitters, a series of filters are necessary.
Essentially, mesh screens remove debris both before and after the storage tank. The defense in
keeping debris out of a rainwater harvesting system is some type of leaf screen along the
gutter or in the downpipes. Depending upon the amount and type of tree litter and dust
accumulation, the homeowner may have to experiment to find the method that works best.
Leaf screens must be regularly cleaned to be effective. If not maintained, leaf screens can
become clogged and prevent Rainwater from flowing into a tank. Built-up debris can also
harbor bacteria and the products of leaf decay(Milagros, 2007).

2.4.4. First Rain Separator

The first rain separator or a washout pipe as it is called, has a valve or an end cap to allow the
first little amount of rainwater to be collected separately. This has most of the dust and dirt in
it. The first rain separator also is used when the roof is being cleaned or when rainwater is
NOT to be collected. It is important to ensure that the first rain separator is always kept in the
closed position and never left open. After every rain it should be opened carefully and the
waste water allowed to flow out. The pipe should then be cleaned and the valve or the end cap
closed. Sometimes the first rain separator can get jammed due to the dirt or dust in it. In such
a situation the valve or the end cap should be carefully replaced by a good plumber(Al-Ansari
et al., 2013).

First flush or the rain diverter is provided to flush off the first rain before it enters the storage
tank. The first flush water will be most contaminated by particulate matter, bird droppings,
and other material laying on the roof (debris, dirt and dust). When the first rains arrive, it is
essential to prevent this unwanted material to go into the storage tank. This can cause
contamination of water collected in the storage tank. After screening gutters a first flush
device is incorporated in the Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting Systems to dispose of the 'first
flush' water so that it does not enter the tank.

This device will improve the quality of water lengthen the life of system components and
reduce overall maintenance. There are two such simple systems. One is based on a simple
manually operated arrangement, whereby, the down pipe is moved away from the tank inlet
and replaced again once the first flush water has been disposed. In another simple and semi-
automatic system, a separate vertical pipe is fixed to the gutter with a valve provided below
the "T" junction. After the first rain is washed out through first flush pipe, the valve is closed
to allow the water to enter the down pipe and reach the storage tank.

Figure 2.3: First-Flush Systems Using Float-Ball Mechanism (Source: UNEP, 2009) (FROM
RHW)
2.4.5. Filter

A gravel, sand and ‘netlon’ mesh filter is designed and placed on top of the storage tank. This
filter is very important in keeping the rainwater in the storage tank clean. It removes silt, dust,
leaves and other organic matter from entering the storage tank. The filter media should be
cleaned daily after every rainfall event. Clogged filters prevent rainwater from easily entering
the storage tank and the filter may overflow. The sand or gravel media should be taken out
and washed before it is replaced in the filter.

The quality of stored water can be much improved if leaves and other debris are kept out of
the system by the use of a coarse filter or screen on the inlet of the tank. Without screens,
leaves and other material may enter tanks and provide food and nutrients for micro-organisms
to multiply. In the absence of such nutrients, bacteria eventually (within 2-20 days) die off
from starvation. A filter or screen should be durable, easy to clean and replace, and should not
block. It is essential that there are no gaps in the storage tank inlets where mosquitoes can
enter or exit. Coarse filtration screens (made of stainless steel or synthetic mesh) are the
simplest, most inexpensive and widely used technology. Typically these are mounted across
the top inlet of the storage tank with the downpipe above the screen. Alternatively, the
downpipe from the roof could enter the tank through an appropriately sized hole at the top of
the tank with the filtration screen at the entrance to the downpipe from the gutter. Finer filter
devices have been used to remove small sized sediment which would otherwise either be
suspended in the water or settle to the bottom of the tank leaving sludge(Villar-Navascués et
al., 2020).
 Fig 2.4: A good filter with mesh and gravel on top

2.4.6. Storage Tank:

The rainwater storage tank collects all the filtered rainwater and keeps it for future use. The
storage tank is made above the ground and on a platform. It can also be an underground sump
in some cases. The tank is invariably painted white on the outside. This is done to keep the
water inside cool and prevent the growth of bacteria. Every year the tank must be white
washed neatly.

The tank also will be sealed from the top either with Cuddapah slabs or concrete slabs or any
local stone. It must be ensured that the top cover is permanent and always fully covered. This
will prevent the growth of algae or bacteria in the tank. In no case should it be opened. If there
are small cracks in the joints they should be sealed with cement mortar immediately.
Mosquitoes and dust should never be allowed in to the stored rainwater tank. The tank should
also be completely water tight. If there is any leak in the tank or even dampness, the problem
should be addressed immediately with the help of a trained engineer.

2.4.7. Overflow Pipe

The storage tank will have an overflow pipe from the top of the tank. In case of heavy rain,
the overflow pipe will allow the excess rain water to be safely disposed of without causing
any flooding. The size of the overflow pipe should be the same as that of the inlet pipe. It will
have a mesh at the bottom to prevent rats, squirrels and cockroach from coming in. The mesh
should be checked weekly and if torn or open should be repaired or replaced immediately. It
should also be ensured that the overflow water is drained away effectively to a pit, plant or
storm water drain and not allowed to cause flooding.

2.4.8. Tap

A tap is provided in every tank to draw the rainwater out. Sometimes a tank can have more
than one tap. Invariably it is found that children play with the pipe outlet or the tap and it is
damaged. Children should be taught not to stand on the pipe or to play with the tap. A broken
tap will result in the entire system going to waste as all the collected rainwater will flow out.
If there is no tap on the tank or if it is broken, no rainwater will be collected in the tank when
it rains. Ownership of the system should be created and the tap taken care of and inspected
daily. If there is any leak in the tap, that too should be taken care of by replacing the washer or
by getting a good plumber to repair it immediately. Where the taps are located the area will be
cemented to drain out any waste water from the site. This drain out water will be lead into a
pit or a plant whichever is available.

2.5. Rainwater Harvesting Delivery Systems

There are many ways of transportation system the stored water from the tank to the parts of
customers. In taller buildings roof based tank that works by gravity feed is popular with
commercial buildings rather than domestic. There are two main systems of deliveries of water
from the storage tank (Environmental Agency, 2010).

Gravity feed systems: - These are normally positioned at the top of the building and use the
power of gravity to drive the water to different parts of the house. They do not need any other
power source such as electricity.

Pump feed systems: - The tank in this instance can be at ground level, or even under the
ground, and a pump is then used to distribute the water around the house. Both systems work
the essentially the same way in that they collect water from the roof by the guttering, it passes
through a series of filters, and is then stored in a large tank ready for distribution.
A combined pump and gravity system: - The systems can also a combined pump and
gravity system that moves the water to the top of the house to another tank where it can be
stored before being distributed through the pipes. This basically pumps water first of all up to
a storage tank in the loft where it is then distributed by gravity. The benefit of this is more
energy efficient than a full pump system because it uses less electricity.

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1. Study Area

Bate Primary School is located in Bate town which is located in Haramaya (Haramayaa or
Haroomaayaa); officially known as Haramaya Located in the Haramaya district, East Hararge
Zone of the Oromia, Ethiopia. The School has a latitude and longitude of 9°42′N 42°02′E with
an elevation of 2047 meters above sea. It is located in Lake Haramaya catchment. The total
area of the catchment is 5032 ha and encompasses a small part of Haramaya town, the
Haramaya university campus, three peasant associations (Damota, Ifa-Bate, and Tiji Gebissa)
fully, and another two partially, Ifa-Oromia (90%) and Gubi-Selama (10%).

According to the East-Hararge zone planning and economic development department,

Haramaya District with a total of 18,800 stands fifth after Girawa, Deder, Bedeno, and Meta
districts in its population size (Senti et al., 2014). The livelihood of the community in Lake
Haramaya catchment is mainly based on mixed farming, that is, cropping and livestock
production.

Fig 3.1: Study area Map

Fig 3.2: Map of the study area from the Google Map

Climate

The daily temperature in the site ranges from 10°C -25°C. The livelihood in the area is based
on agriculture. Therefore, different agricultural practices are practiced within the Lake
Haramaya watershed (Haile and Ararso, 2016).

3.2 Types and Sources of Data

Data for this study was captured from secondary sources. The majority of secondary data was
collected from East Hararge Water and Energy Office. These documents include, rainfall data,
Number of population or students reports from Bate Primary School Office.

3.3 Data Collection

The data used for this project is secondary data. Data required for study such as previous
water consumption, area of the roofs, rainfall data, population and runoff coefficient are
collected from different sources. The 12 years of rainfall data it is required to compare and
select the station that is near and relatively describe the rainfall characteristics of the project
area.

Table 3.1: Average Daily Precipitation

Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
t

2002 0.58 0.02 1.82 2.81 1.55 1.44 2.09 5.33 2.78 0.70 0.00 0.69

2003 0.12 0.59 0.81 4.74 0.62 2.08 3.44 8.79 2.57 0.01 0.00 1.31

2004 1.23 0.00 0.88 7.17 1.28 0.84 2.39 3.75 4.22 1.41 1.12 0.15

2005 0.02 0.07 1.29 3.98 6.40 0.78 2.20 4.26 5.15 0.55 0.40 0.00

2006 0.13 1.28 1.59 6.37 2.38 2.47 3.86 6.17 6.01 3.60 0.05 2.85

2007 0.00 0.13 0.82 4.76 1.80 2.05 6.34 3.56 4.56 0.87 0.22 0.00

2008 0.18 0.00 0.01 0.89 5.77 3.54 4.24 3.89 5.67 0.45 4.02 0.00

2009 0.76 0.19 0.18 2.61 2.90 1.79 5.27 3.11 2.17 4.49 0.41 0.85

2010 0.09 1.58 2.65 4.13 2.36 0.85 4.67 5.79 5.68 0.18 0.37 0.35

2011 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.32 3.66 1.92 3.85 7.32 5.39 0.00 0.00 0.00

2012 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.21 1.65 0.00 6.93 4.82 3.50 0.15 0.02 0.22
 2013 0.19 0.00 5.14 5.72 1.78 0.53 6.95 5.97 4.74 2.30 2.72 0.03

Table 3.2. Average Monthly Precipitation per month

Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Average RF in 8 10 38 117 80 46 131 157 131 37 23 16

mm per month

3.4. Determination of Catchment Area

The rooftop surface area is the catchment area that receives the incident rainfall. The rooftop
areas of the buildings in the school are selected as catchment areas in the study. The rooftop
area and heights of the selected buildings are mentioned in table I.

Table 3.3: Catchment Area

Block Name Roof Area (m2) Common Reservoir

A 150.8
B 374.4 Uses Common reservoir for
C 340.2 storage A, B, C, D, E and F.
Total Catchment Area = 1808.2 m2
D 362.8
E 228.7
F 351.3

3.5. Estimation of water harvesting potential

The quantity of water that is received from rainfall over an area is called the rainwater
potential of that area. And the quantity that can be effectively harvested is called the rain
water harvesting potential. Rain water harvesting potential can be calculated using the
following formula. Rainwater Harvesting potential (m3) = Area of Catchment (m2) X Amount
of rainfall (mm) X Runoff coefficient.
3.6. Runoff coefficient

Runoff coefficient is the factor which accounts for the fact that all the rainfall falling on a
catchment cannot be collected. Some rainfall will be lost from the catchment by evaporation
and retention on the surface itself. (Refer Table 2.1 for runoff coefficient). Rainwater yield
varies with the size and texture of the catchment area. A smoother, cleaner, and more
impervious roofing material contributes to better water quality and greater quantity. While
loss is negligible for pitched metal roofs, concrete or asphalt roofs average less than 10 per
cent loss, and built up tar and gravel roofs average a maximum of 15 per cent loss. Losses can
also occur in the gutters and in storage. Regardless of roofing material, many designers
assume loss on annual rainfall up 2-15 to 25 per cent. These losses are due to several factors:
the roofing material texture which slows down the flow; evaporation; and inefficiencies in the
collection process (Pacey et al, 1989).

Table 3.4: Runoff Coefficient

Type of Roof Catchment Coefficient

Roof Catchments
Tiles 0.8 – 0.9
Corrugated Metal Sheets 0.7-0.9
Ground Surface Coverings
Concrete 0.6 – 0.8
Brick Pavement 0.5 - 0.6
Untreated Ground Catchments
Soil on slopes less than 10% 0.0 – 0.3
Rocky natural catchments 0.2 – 0.5
Green area 0.05 – 0.10

Source: (Pacey et al, 1989)

3.7. Estimation of water demand

The Total water demand of the School was estimated considering the per capita consumption
of water for domestic use as per the norms of Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority
mentioned in table.

Table 3.5: Estimation of Water Demand

 Demand Amount (litres per person per day)

toilet flushing 8_10

cloth washing 7_9

floor washing 6_8

car washing 2_4

pit animal cleaning 1_3

green areas 1_3

Other uses 8_10

Total average 40

3.8. Sizing of Gutters and Downpipes

Gutters are an almost essential but relatively cheap part of a Rain-water harvesting (RWH)
system. It is possible to collect roof water without them by using instead glides or ground
level troughs. The size (width) of the gutters should be chosen based on the roof section area.
The South Pacific Applied Geosciences Commission (SOPAC) Handbook rainwater
harvesting provides guidance to sizing of the gutters and the downpipes appropriate to handle
rainstorms in tropical regions(Mengistu, 2017).

3.9. Research flow chart:

The research flow chart follows the following methodology that are presented below.

Determination of Catchment area

Estimation of Water Harvesting Potential

Calculation of the discharge

 Estimation of water demand

Selection of catchment area based on

demand

Calculation of diameter of rain water pipes and

discharges pipes

Design of water storage tank

Fig 3.3. Methodology flow chart

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The success of a rainwater harvesting system depends on many factors. Water demand in the
area, cost feasibility, and precipitation are some of the most important issues to be considered
when analyzing the viability of implementing such systems. Precipitation data is needed to
determine the volume of water that can be captured, with rain depth and roof area, and then
use that information to compare with the average monthly demand in a school household. For
this thesis, 12 years of rainfall data at observatory station was collected from the East Hararge
Water and Energy Office from 2002 to 2013.

Table 4. 1. Summary of Average Monthly Precipitation (mm/month)

Month Avg. ppt in mm Avg. ppt per month

Jan 0.27 8.1
Feb 0.32 9.6
Mar 1.27 38.1
Apr 3.89 116.7
May 2.68 80.4
June 1.53 45.9
 July 4.35 130.5
Aug 5.23 156.9
Sept 4.37 131.1
Oct 1.23 36.9
Nov 0.78 23.4
Dec 0.54 16.2

From the rainfall data of the stations high rainy seasons are observed in July and August. The
minimum rainfall is recorded in January and February. During this period the maximum
monthly average was 156.9 mm for the month of August and the minimum was 8.1 mm for
January. Figure below shows that the average monthly precipitation of the study area which
was collected from the East Hararge Zone Bureau of water and Energy.

Average ppt in mm
180.00
160.00
140.00
120.00
100.00
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Avg. ppt in mmper day Avg PPt in mm per month

Fig 4.1: Average Monthly Precipitation of the Study Area

Table 4.2. Yearly Cumulative rainfall data in Haramaya Woreda

CRF mm/year Year

607.1 2002
766.1 2003
744.9 2004
767.3 2005
1118.8 2006
766.2 2007
874.4 2008
759.7 2009
872.9 2010
719.1 2011
598.4 2012
1104.2 2013

The cumulative yearly precipitation varies from 607.1 mm/year in 2002 to 1118.8 mm/year in
2006.

1200

1000

800

600

400 #REF!

200

0
02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Fig 4.2: Yearly Cumulative rainfall data in Haramaya Woreda

4.1. Determination of Catchment Area

The rooftop surface area is the catchment area that receives the incident rainfall. The rooftop
areas of 6 Houses are selected as catchment areas in the study. The rooftop area of the
selected buildings are mentioned in Table 1.

Table 4.3: Roof Catchment Area.

Block Name Roof Area (m2) Common Reservoir

A 150.8

B 374.4 Uses Common reservoir for storage

A, B C, D, E and F
C 340.2
Total Catchment Area = 1808.2 m2
D 362.8

E 228.7

F 351.3

4.1.1. Estimation of Water Harvesting Potential

The amount of water that can be harvested is calculated according to the equation. V = Sum
(R*A*RC/1000) (1) where V is the annual volume of rainwater that could be harvested (m 3 ),
R is the average annual rainfall (mm/y), A is the total area used for RWH (m 2 ), RC is the run-
off coefficient (dimensionless), and 1000 is the conversion factor from mm to m. Runoff
coefficient for any catchment is the ratio of the volume of water that runs off a surface to the
volume of rainfall that falls on the surface. For a corrugated metal sheets the Value of C=0.9
will be taken.

4.1.2. Volume of Water that can be harvested From a Houses or Blocks.

To calculate the amount of rain that can be captured off a roof surface per year, a procedure
known as the ‘Rational Method’ can be applied. The average annual rainfall should be
available from National Meteorological Agency.

Table 4.4: Volume of water that can be harvested from a blocks

House Name A B C D E F Total
Vol.
Month Avg. ppt in Avg.ppt Coeff. 150.8 374.4 340.2 362.8 228.7 351.3 1808.2
mm /day /month m2
Jan 0.27 0.008 0.9 1.10 2.73 2.48 2.64 1.67 2.56 13.2
Feb 0.32 0.010 0.9 1.30 3.23 2.94 3.13 1.98 3.04 15.6
Mar 1.27 0.038 0.9 5.17 12.84 11.67 12.44 7.84 12.05 62.0
Apr 3.89 0.117 0.9 15.84 39.32 35.73 38.10 24.02 36.90 189.9
May 2.68 0.080 0.9 10.91 27.09 24.62 26.25 16.55 25.42 130.8
June 1.53 0.046 0.9 6.23 15.47 14.05 14.99 9.45 14.51 74.7
July 4.35 0.131 0.9 17.71 43.97 39.96 42.61 26.86 41.26 212.4
Aug 5.23 0.157 0.9 21.29 52.87 48.04 51.23 32.29 49.61 255.3
Sept 4.37 0.131 0.9 17.79 44.18 40.14 42.81 26.98 41.45 213.3
Oct 1.23 0.037 0.9 5.01 12.43 11.30 12.05 7.60 11.67 60.1
Nov 0.78 0.023 0.9 3.18 7.88 7.16 7.64 4.82 7.40 38.1
Dec 0.54 0.016 0.9 2.20 5.46 4.96 5.29 3.33 5.12 26.4
Volume of RF for 107.73 267.48 243.05 259.19 163.39 250.98 1291.81
each Houses

The corrugated metal roof has a runoff coefficient of 0.9, which means that 90% of the rain
can be harvested. Based on this runoff coefficient and a total roof area of 1808.2 square
meters a volume of 13.2 cubic meter (8.1 mm x 1808.2 m² x 0.9) of water can be collected in
the driest month (January) and 255.3 cubic meter (156.9 mm x 1808.2m² x 0.9) in the wettest
month (August).

Table 4.5: Volume of Water that can be harvested from the houses per month (m3)

Month Avg. ppt in Avg. ppt per Volume captured Volume captured
mm per day month m/month m3per day m3 per month
Jan 0.27 0.008 0.4 13.2
Feb 0.32 0.010 0.5 15.6
Mar 1.27 0.038 2.1 62.0
Apr 3.89 0.117 6.3 189.9
May 2.68 0.080 4.4 130.8
June 1.53 0.046 2.5 74.7
July 4.35 0.131 7.1 212.4
Aug 5.23 0.157 8.5 255.3
Sept 4.37 0.131 7.1 213.3
Oct 1.23 0.037 2.0 60.1
Nov 0.78 0.023 1.3 38.1
Dec 0.54 0.016 0.9 26.4

The total yearly amount of water that can be collected from the total roof is 1241.1cubic meter
in an average per year.

Table 4.6: Volume of water stored in m3/ year

Block Name Volume of Water Stored in m3/year
A 107.73
B 267.48
C 243.05
D 259.19
E 163.39
F 250.98
Total Volume of water stored 1291.81

Volume of RWH in m3/year

180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
House A B C D E F
Name

Fig 4.3: Volume of Rain Water Harvested in Cubic meter per year for each blocks.

4.2. Estimation of water demand

The Total water demand of the school was estimated considering the per capita consumption
of water for domestic use. Therefore, for rainwater harvesting for a school contains 2741
people and 26 l/c/day is assumed to be used by considering toilet flushing, floor cleaning,
watering the green areas and for other uses.

Table 4.7: Demand for Schools average demand Littre per day

For Schools
Demand l/p/day average demand l/p/day
Toilet flushing 8_10 9
floor washing 6_8 7
green areas 1_3 2
Other uses 8_10 8
Total demand 26 l/p/day

Demand = total population*estimated per capita water requirement. The total population in
the school is the summation of teachers in the schools, secretaries, guards, students and the
cleaners. Bate primary School consists of 61 teachers, 2 guards, 2 secretaries, 5 cleaners and
2661 students. Thus the total population in the school are 2731 people.

Thus demand = 2731*26 l/person/day = 71.6 m3/day *250days =17900 m3/year

The demand of the water required in the school per month is, Demand =1491.7 m3/month

Table 4.8: Average demand per month

Month Demand in m3/month

Jan 1790
Feb 1790
Mar 1790
Apr 1790
May 1790
June 1790
July 1790
Aug 1790
Sept 1790
 Oct 1790
Nov 1790
Dec 1790
Total 17900 m3/year

Table 4.9: Demand versus Supply.

Months Supply Demand

Jan 13.2 1790
Feb 15.6 1790
Mar 62.0 1790
Apr 189.9 1790
May 130.8 1790
June 74.7 1790
July 212.4 1790
Aug 255.3 1790
Sept 213.3 1790
Oct 60.1 1790
Nov 38.1 1790
Dec 26.4 1790

The amount of water required to as an additional water supply will be collected from the rain
fall of the season. Thus required amount of is 1241.1 m 3/year will be collected. Thus the
storage tank must be designed for this volume of water.

Supply v s De ma nd i n m3 / mo nt h
2000.0
1800.0
1600.0
1400.0
1200.0
1000.0
800.0
600.0
400.0
200.0
0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Supply m3/month Demand m3/month

Fig 4.4: Supply versus Demand in m3/month.

4.3. Down Pipes and Storage Tank Design

Using the above table 2, the type of gutter and down pipe were recommended as shown in
table below.

Table 4.10: Roof areas, gutter width and downpipes

Type of Block Roof Area m2 Gutter width, mm Down pipe, mm

A 150.8 76 71
B 374.4 227 120
C 340.2 222 117
D 362.8 223 119
E 228.7 157 93
F 351.3 223 118

Thus, the gutter width and the down pipe for each type of the block were selected depending
up on the roof area of the catchment.

and

Fig 4.5: Gutter and Down Pipes

4.4. Volume of Diverted Water by the First Flush

To calculate the volume of water diverted by the first flush system, it is generally assumed
that a depth of rainfall on the roof equivalent to 0.5 mm is required to wash off the
accumulated contaminants. First we need to determine the area of the roof and simply
multiply by 0.5 mm. Volume of diverted water (liters) = average house length (m) x house
width (m) x 0.5 (mm) = 34 m*10 m*0.5 mm =0.17 m 3 of water being diverted from a single
block.

But for the whole block the Volume of diverted water is = Number of block * volume of
water diverted. Volume of water diverted= 6*0.17 m 3 = 0.85m3 per day. Thus the total volume
of water diverted during the first flush should be: 0.85*365 =310.25 m 3. Thus the storage
required is 1241.1 m3- 310.25 m3 = 930.85 m3.

4.5. Design of Storage Tanks

It is clear that as roof areas increase, the volume of precipitation that could potentially be
stored increases, and so the tank size required capturing the total amount of precipitation is
larger. The graph’s behavior illustrates how as rooftop areas are larger, the percentage of days
when all daily precipitation can be captured by the proposed tank volumes, decreases. It is
also evident that there is a point at which, tank sizes can get larger, but there will be a small or
no benefit from that increase. This information provides a clear view for determining
appropriate tank volumes that can be installed for rainwater harvesting system. Precipitation
analysis was also used to determine how much supply could be provided to users, whether this
technology could be implemented as a sole solution or if its application should be considered
as a complementary supply to other systems.

Tanks need to be watertight although some leakage (such as <5 % of daily abstraction) might
be tolerable if it does not weaken the structure or cause puddles. They also need to hold the
required volume and to be adequately durable (say 25 years before they become
unserviceable). Beyond these basic requirements we can list many further specific
requirements.

4.6. Estimating Storage Requirements

Unlike other domestic storage reservoirs, RWH reservoirs don’t permit an over flow. Because
if an excess amount of water comes it will damage infrastructures and other flood problems
will happen. So, the storage reservoir capacity must be designed well. But, due to an expected
rains and other problems if an over flow happens the over flow water will goes to the nearby
river.
4.6.1. Water System Peaking Factors

Water system facilities are generally sized to meet peak demand periods. The peaking
conditions of most concern for facility sizing are typically maximum month demand,
maximum day demand with fire flow and peak hour demand. Peak water use is typically
expressed as a ratio or peaking factor, dividing the peak water use by the average daily water
use. These peaking factor are then used to calculate maximum month, maximum day and peak
hour water use condition (Description et al., 2014).

Table 4.11: Adopted Peaking Factor

Demand Condition Peaking Factor
Average Day During Maximum Month 1.5 times average day demand
Maximum Day 2.0 times average day demand
Peak Hour 3.5 times average day demand

From last 12 years of daily rainfall data it is assumes that the maximum daily precipitation for
the area is about 70mm (from daily rainfall data of observatory station). Therefore for:

Block A, the storage requirement will be =0.07m*150.8m2*0.9*1.5(peak factor) =14.25 m3

Block B =0.07m*374.4m2*0.9*1.5 = 35.4 m3

Block C =0.07m*340.2m2*0.9*1.5 = 32.1 m3

Block D =0.07m*362.8m2*0.9*1.5 = 34.3 m3

Block E =0.07m*228.7m2*0.9*1.5 = 21.6 m3

Block F =0.07m*351.3m2*0.9*1.5 = 33.2 m3

Therefore a total 171 m3 of storage is recommended for the school service. Cross-section of
the storage tank was having a diameter of 7.4 m and height of 4m.
Fig 4.6: Storage tank.

The community in the school could use the water from the common point. They can use the
water from the reservoir directly. The reservoir should have two out let to serve the students
and teachers.

The storage tank have an overflow pipe from the top of the tank. In case of heavy rain, the
overflow pipe will allow the excess rain water to be safely disposed of without causing any
flooding. The size of the overflow pipe should be the same as that of the inlet pipe. It will
have a mesh at the bottom to prevent rats, squirrels and cockroach from coming in. The mesh
should be checked weekly and if torn or open should be repaired or replaced immediately. It
should also be ensured that the overflow water is drained away effectively to a pit, plant or
storm water drain and not allowed to cause flooding.
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1. CONCLUSION

Rain is the best source of pure water without any treatment. More awareness should be made
to make Rain Water Harvesting a success. Special monitoring is needed to operate this system
successfully. If students, teachers, and community people become interested and Government
and NGOs are willing to work on it, then it will become a great success at our country.

This study evaluated the feasibility of rainwater harvesting and its domestic usage in a local
water is high salinity of water. Where there is severe scarcity of drinking water. A rainwater
harvesting system for a small household was constructed by using commodities and resources
available in local markets and was found to be very much effective as well as viable. It was
found that the amount of harvested and stored rainwater could be utilized not only in rainy
season but also over the whole dry periods of the year for the studied household.

Rainwater harvesting has great potential in freshwater-starved urban areas to be

environmentally, socially and economically sustainable. In Haramaya the rainfall is not the
same throughout the year. But the amount of annual rainfall is big enough for utilization. The
total cumulative runoff generation from this site throughout the year is 1241.1 m3.This
contributes for sustainable storm water management and best management practices.
Therefore RWH can be an alternative solution to support the increasing water demand and
reduce the surface runoff as a best management practice which helps to satisfy the
Environmental sustainability which is one of the millennium development goal. The
community also interested to use rainwater for non-potable purpose once it is treated for some
physical impurities.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the study results and conclusions the responsible bodies to supply water to residents
and those who concern about storm water needs to work with integration so as to adopt
sustainable solutions for solving the problems. One of the sustainable solution is rainwater
harvesting which will have high initial cost but least operation, maintenance cost but greatest
benefits. This study focused on the quantitative aspects, therefore others also needs to study
the qualitative aspects of rainwater in Bate kebele so as to utilize the rainwater for potable
purposes after a certain additional treatment.
To maintain RWHS properly operation & maintenance is must. Without Operation &
Maintenance no RWHS can be successful. Based on the analysis and field experience
following recommendations are given to run RWHS properly.

 Take necessary action to raise awareness among people regarding uses of rain water.
 Revolving fund might be developed to continue the repair work.
 Willingness of user is another drive to keep run the RWHS.
 First flush should be maintained properly.
 Gutter and catchment should be kept clean regularly and repair when needed.
 Regular Operation & Maintenance is essential.

6. REFERENCES
Al-Ansari, N., Al-Hanbaly, M., & Knutsson, S. (2013). Hydrology of the most Ancient Water
Harvesting Schemes. Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering, 3(1),
1792–9660.

Awawdeh M, Al-Shraideh S, Al-Qudah K, & Jaradat R. (2012). Rainwater harvesting

assessment for a small size urban area in Jordan. International Journal of Water
Resources and Environmental Engineering, 4(12), 415–422.
https://doi.org/10.5897/IJWREE10.025

Biswas, B. K., & Mandal, B. H. (2014). Construction and Evaluation of Rainwater Harvesting
System for Domestic Use in a Remote and Rural Area of Khulna, Bangladesh.
International Scholarly Research Notices, 2014, 1–6.
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Brief, U. P. (n.d.). Climate Change and Water UN-Water Policy Brief.

Chanan, A., Spyrakis, G., Ghetti, I., & Idris, E. (2003). Rainwater Tanks in Schools Project :
Learning Water Conservation from Corrugated Iron Sheet. Water Supply.

Climate, A., & Centre, P. (n.d.). Climate Change and Water Resources of Africa :
Challenges , Opportunities and Impacts.

Description, S. A., Annual, H., Use, W., Conservation, W., Projections, W. D., & Update, P.
(2014). CHAPTER 2 Water Demands Chapter 2. August.

Maddodi, B. S., & Udayashankar, H. N. (2019). Climate Change and Impact on Water
Resources : A Perspective To Review The Environment : Applicable To Udyavara River
Basin Westcoast of India. 4, 268–272.

Mengistu, D. (2017). ADDIS ABABA INSTITIUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF CIVIL

& ENVIRONMENTAL ENG’G Assessing Rainwater Harvesting as an Alternative Source
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Milagros, J. (2007). Rainwater harvesting systems for communities in developing countries.

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Senti, E. T., Tufa, B. W. & Gebrehiwot, K. A. 2014. Soil erosion, sediment yield and
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Villar-Navascués, R., Pérez-Morales, A., & Gil-Guirado, S. (2020). Assessment of rainwater

harvesting potential from roof catchments through clustering analysis. Water
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Winther, H. (2017). Climate change impacts on water resources of the Ganges.

7. APPENDEX
A. Monthly Rainfall.

Year Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
2002 0.58 0.02 1.82 2.81 1.55 1.44 2.09 5.33 2.78 0.70 0.00 0.69
2003 0.12 0.59 0.81 4.74 0.62 2.08 3.44 8.79 2.57 0.01 0.00 1.31
2004 1.23 0.00 0.88 7.17 1.28 0.84 2.39 3.75 4.22 1.41 1.12 0.15
2005 0.02 0.07 1.29 3.98 6.40 0.78 2.20 4.26 5.15 0.55 0.40 0.00
2006 0.13 1.28 1.59 6.37 2.38 2.47 3.86 6.17 6.01 3.60 0.05 2.85
2007 0.00 0.13 0.82 4.76 1.80 2.05 6.34 3.56 4.56 0.87 0.22 0.00
2008 0.18 0.00 0.01 0.89 5.77 3.54 4.24 3.89 5.67 0.45 4.02 0.00
2009 0.76 0.19 0.18 2.61 2.90 1.79 5.27 3.11 2.17 4.49 0.41 0.85
2010 0.09 1.58 2.65 4.13 2.36 0.85 4.67 5.79 5.68 0.18 0.37 0.35
2011 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.32 3.66 1.92 3.85 7.32 5.39 0.00 0.00 0.00
2012 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.21 1.65 0.00 6.93 4.82 3.50 0.15 0.02 0.22
2013 0.19 0.00 5.14 5.72 1.78 0.53 6.95 5.97 4.74 2.30 2.72 0.03