Theoretical Framework

Theory of Independent Study (1981) Self-Determination Theory (1985)

By Charles Wedemeyer By Edward Deci and Richard Ryan

“Knowledge is created by the learner “Theory of motivation that suggests people

rather than being imparted or transferred, tend to be driven by a need to grow and gain

also rooted in the ideal of learner fulfillment.”

freedom.”

Self-responsibility and freedom of being Humans three basic needs:

tasks.
• Competence

Distance Self-study or the separation from • Autonomy

teacher. • Relatedness

Humans’ motivation and personality

Student’s capabilities when it comes to independent studying.

Motivations impact on people’s ability to accomplish task.

Figure 1: The correlation between Theory of Independent Study and Self-determination

Theory in the impact of independent studying and motivation on the students’ academic

proficiency.
Theoretical Background

The theoretical underpinning of this study is anchored on Theory of Independent

Study (Wedemeyer, 1981) and Self-determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Self-

studying is defined as a learning method where students direct their own studying—outside

the classroom and without direct supervision. Since students are able to take control of

what (and how) they are learning, self-study can be a very valuable way for many students

to learn. As stated, Charles Wedemeyer (1981) rooted his Theory of Independent Study in

the ideal of learner freedom. Wedemeyer characterized independent study as one in which:

• The student and teacher are separated.

• The normal processes of teaching and learning are carried out in writing or through

some other medium.

• Teaching is individualized.

• Learning takes place through the student’s activity.

• Learning is made convenient for the student in his or her own environment,

• The learner takes responsibility for the pace of his or her own progress, with

freedom to start and stop at any time (Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, & Zvacek,

2012, p. 44).

Wedemeyer's idea of Independent Study referred to both internal study and external

study, and that Independent Study could be applied both in campus face-to-face traditional

and non-traditional and distance education programs. Lifelong learning could best happen

via open and flexible educational systems. Wedemeyer considered that "independent study

in the American context is generic for a range of teaching-learning activities that sometimes
go by separate names (correspondence study, open education, radio-television teaching,

individualised learning).

His theory comprises four elements of distance learning: teacher, learner or learners,

method of communication, and instructional content (Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, &

Zvacek, 2012), which closely resembles a currently accepted definition of distance

education: “institution-based, formal education where the learning group is separated, and

where interactive telecommunications systems are used to connect learners, resources, and

instructors” (Schlosser & Simonson, 2009, p. 1). Although he emphasized the importance

of learner autonomy and self-responsibility, Wedemeyer also stressed the unique and

important role of the teacher in distance learning (Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, &

Zvacek, 2012). This distinguishes his theory from one of distance self-study and

demonstrates relevance for instructional design today, as the preponderance of evidence

underscores the importance of a teaching presence in distance learning (Swan & Shih,

2005; Meyer, 2003; Wu & Hiltz, 2004), and Garrison (2007) asserts a causal relationship

between teaching presence and “student satisfaction, perceived learning, and sense of

community” (Garrison, 2007, p. 67).

Another theory that supports this study is the Self-Determination Theory (SDT). Self-

determination theory grew out of the work of psychologists Edward Deci and Richard

Ryan, who first introduced their ideas in their 1985 book Self-Determination and Intrinsic

Motivation in Human Behavior. They developed a theory of motivation that suggests

people tend to be driven by a need to grow and gain fulfillment. Self-determination theory
(SDT) is a macro theory of human motivation and personality that concerns people's innate

growth tendencies and innate psychological needs. It pertains to the motivation behind

people's choices in the absence of external influences and distractions. SDT focuses on the

degree to which human behavior is self-motivated and self-determined.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) represents a broad framework for the study of human

motivation and personality. SDT articulates a meta-theory for framing motivational

studies, a formal theory that defines intrinsic and varied extrinsic sources of motivation,

and a description of the respective roles of intrinsic and types of extrinsic motivation in

cognitive and social development and in individual differences. Perhaps more importantly,

SDT propositions also focus on how social and cultural factors facilitate or undermine

people’s sense of volition and initiative, in addition to their well-being and the quality of

their performance. Conditions supporting the individual’s experience of autonomy,

competence, and relatedness are argued to foster the most volitional and high-quality forms

of motivation and engagement for activities, including enhanced performance, persistence,

and creativity. In addition, SDT proposes that the degree to which any of these three

psychological needs is unsupported or thwarted within a social context will have a robust

detrimental impact on wellness in that setting.

Formally, SDT comprises six mini-theories, each of which was developed to explain a set

of motivationally based phenomena that emerged from laboratory and field research. Each,

therefore, addresses one facet of motivation or personality functioning.

• Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) concerns intrinsic motivation, motivation that

is based on the satisfactions of behaving “for its own sake.” Prototypes of intrinsic

motivation are children’s exploration and play, but intrinsic motivation is a lifelong

creative wellspring. CET specifically addresses the effects of social contexts on

intrinsic motivation, or how factors such as rewards, interpersonal controls, and

ego-involvements impact intrinsic motivation and interest. CET highlights the

critical roles played by competence and autonomy supports in fostering intrinsic

motivation, which is critical in education, arts, sport, and many other domains.

• The second mini-theory, Organismic Integration Theory (OIT), addresses the topic

of extrinsic motivation in its various forms, with their properties, determinants, and

consequences. Broadly speaking, extrinsic motivation is behavior that is

instrumental—that aims toward outcomes extrinsic to the behavior itself. Yet, there

are distinct forms of instrumentality, which include external regulation,

introjection, identification, and integration. These subtypes of extrinsic motivation

are seen as falling along a continuum of internalization. The more internalized the

extrinsic motivation, the more autonomous the person will be when enacting the

behaviors. OIT is further concerned with social contexts that enhance or forestall

internalization—that is, with what conduces toward people either resisting,

partially adopting, or deeply internalizing values, goals, or belief systems. OIT

particularly highlights support for autonomy and relatedness as critical to

internalization.
• Causality Orientations Theory (COT), the third mini-theory, describes individual

differences in people’s tendencies to orient toward environments and regulate

behavior in various ways. COT describes and assesses three types of causality

orientations: the autonomy orientation in which persons act out of interest in and

valuing of what is occurring; the control orientation in which the focus is on

rewards, gains, and approval; and the impersonal or a motivated orientation

characterized by anxiety concerning competence.

• Fourth, Basic Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT) elaborates the concept of

evolved psychological needs and their relations to psychological health and well-

being. BPNT argues that psychological well-being and optimal functioning is

predicated on autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Therefore, contexts that

support versus thwart these needs should invariantly impact wellness. The theory

argues that all three needs are essential and that if any is thwarted there will be

distinct functional costs. Because basic needs are universal aspects of functioning,

BPNT looks at cross-developmental and cross-cultural settings for validation and

refinements.

• The fifth mini-theory, Goal Contents Theory (GCT), grows out of the distinctions

between intrinsic and extrinsic goals and their impact on motivation and wellness.

Goals are seen as differentially affording basic need satisfactions and are thus

differentially associated with well-being. Extrinsic goals such as financial success,

appearance, and popularity/fame have been specifically contrasted with intrinsic

goals such as community, close relationships, and personal growth, with the former

more likely associated with lower wellness and greater ill-being. 6. Relatedness,

which has to do with the development and maintenance of close personal

relationships such as best friends and romantic partners as well as belonging to

groups, is one of the three basic psychological needs. Relationships Motivation

Theory (RMT), the sixth mini-theory, is concerned with these and other

relationships, and posits that some amount of such interactions is not only desirable

for most people but is in fact essential for their adjustment and well-being because

the relationships provide satisfaction of the need for relatedness. However, research

shows that not only is the relatedness need satisfied in high-quality relationships,

but the autonomy needs and to a lesser degree the competence need is also satisfied.

Indeed, the highest quality personal relationships are ones in which each partner

supports the autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs of the other. In school

settings, Self-determined students are more likely to feel motivated to achieve.

They also tend to feel greater levels of competence and satisfaction.7 Educators can

help students foster a sense of self-determination and intrinsic motivation by:

Providing unexpected positive feedback when students perform well to help

improve their feelings of competence Avoiding excessive external rewards for

actions students already enjoy, which helps improve their internal motivation Self-

determination can play an important role in how people function in many different

areas of their lives. Feeling in control and intrinsically motivated can help people

feel more committed, passionate, interested, and satisfied with the things that they

do.
Review of Related Literature

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many governments decided to close schools for a

number of weeks in the spring of 2020. Academic attainment is still being studied

empirically in relation to COVID-19-related school closures. The current effort attempted

to offer a first comprehensive analysis of research that used evidence to examine the overall

and specialized effects of spring 2020 school closures related to COVID-19 on student

achievement in primary and secondary education. According to the findings, school

closings had a negative impact on pupils' academic achievement, especially in younger

kids and those from homes with lower socioeconomic status. In addition, several actions

can be found that might lessen these harmful impacts. The findings are explored in light of

potential repercussions for national educational strategies in the event of future school

closings (Frey et al., 2021)

Since the Covid-19 outbreak, studies have examined the psychological effects of

the pandemic on college students as well as coping mechanisms. For instance, the Covid-

19 epidemic has caused academic process disturbances that have exacerbated student

anxiety (Wang et al., 2020), especially for students who lack sufficient social support There

have been reports of eating disorder symptoms, alcohol and drug use, and depression

among German university students (Kohls et al., 2020). As a result, students who are less

mentally healthy are more stressed out about their schoolwork and have lower levels of

self-efficacy, contentment with their education, and a sense of belonging at their university

(Capone et al., 2020).

Educator Sector During Pandemic

According to Megan Ferren (2021), throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, K-12

educators have faced unique challenges and tremendous pressure. From quickly adapting

to remote learning to balancing the impacts of the pandemic on their personal lives, the

past year has seen educators particularly overwhelmed with stress, trauma, and burnout.

Although those in the education sphere have engaged in a great deal of discussion about

the best way to provide social and emotional supports to students during and after the

pandemic, it is essential that the social and emotional needs of educators are also part of

the conversation, especially since educators are often the individuals most likely to provide

initial supports to students. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated stressful working

conditions and made the need to address shortcomings in SEL training more pressing. For

most educators, the transition to virtual instruction was a completely new experience and

one that caused a lot of stress. They had no advance notice, no or hastily prepared training,

and little support from unprepared schools and districts as they attempted to reinvent their

profession in spring of 2020. One survey of teachers found that prior to the pandemic, 1 in

7 had not used digital media services to teach. Another survey found that out of 106 districts

analyzed, just over half provided professional development over the summer of 2020 to

prepare teachers for remote learning in the new school year, even though 74 percent of the

country’s 100 largest districts started the school year in a remote learning-only model.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, physical reporting on work has been limited, if

not, suspended. However, due to the possible impact on the economy, a lot of companies

have adopted the work-from-home scheme. People are now expected to deliver their tasks

at home. In this case, new issues regarding work-life balance emerges. Because of the
current scheme, people are tempted to work longer hours, and for those who do not have a

home office setup there is no disconnect between home and office life.2 This is also the

case with educators who are currently teaching from their own homes. Their academic

responsibilities are now entangled with the responsibilities they have at home. Now, where

there is supposedly a separation of work-related stress and personal stress, the home

becomes a stressful space. Teachers, both in private and public schools, are also among

those people who ensure public health by educating students on how to take good care of

their well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic because aside from being facilitators of

learning, teachers are also expected to provide psychosocial support to the learners by

providing avenues for them to share and express their emotions. Though some teachers

work from home, still, they experience stress brought about by the changing modalities in

learning. Because of the transition from face-to-face to online classes, educators are being

challenged to maximize the use of online platforms in the delivery of instructions even

though not everyone is trained in e-learning. In this time of pandemic, even teachers need

psychosocial support since additional pressure is being placed on them in delivering a more

effective learning to students (Garcia et al., 2021).

Parents and Students Well-Being

The emergence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has had a sudden and

profound effect on communities nationwide. As cases and deaths due to the novel virus

increased, protective measures such as physical distancing were enacted to mitigate the

virus’ spread, resulting in abrupt closures of schools, child care, community programs, and

workplaces. These changes have resulted in social isolation, psychological distress among
 adults, and substantial economic distress, with the highest level of unemployment since the

Great Depression. Families with children have faced myriad stresses from losses of

economic and psychological support for parents and their children. In addition, families

with children disproportionately live in poverty, potentially increasing the risk of economic

distress through acute job loss and related difficulties sustaining basic needs, such as food

security and reliable child care. Each of these stressors, in turn, may increase psychological

strain on families. Government agencies and professional organizations have expressed

concern that children, in particular, may be at increased risk for psychological disturbances.

Despite concern that parents and children may both be at risk for many of the sequalae

associated with the COVID-19 pandemic, data on the impact of COVID-19 on these

populations are sparse (Patrick et al., 2020).

Among Filipino children aged 5 to 15, 10% to 15% are affected by mental health problems.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 16.8% of Filipino students aged 13 to 17

have attempted suicide at least once within a year before the 2015 Global School-based Student

Health survey. This is just one of the many indicators showing the state of mental health of these

children. These statistics involving children’s mental health are concerning as childhood is a

crucial period where most mental health disorders begin. Efforts should be made to identify these

issues early for proper treatment in prevention of negative health and social outcomes. Childhood

mental and developmental disorders also frequently persist into adulthood, making it more likely

for them to have compromised growth with greater need for medical and disability services and

higher risk of getting involved with law enforcement agencies. In this context, the COVID-19

pandemic threatens to worsen these numbers, affecting the delivery of the Philippines’ health care
services, including those for children’s mental health. Children's mental health is burdened by the

dread and worry of getting the virus, the cancellation of physical education programs, the

disturbance of daily routine, and the decline in social support from school friends. The strain on

children's mental health is increased by the switch to online education. The excessive usage of

these technology has been linked to sleep schedule abnormalities and developmental impairments.

The rigorous enforcement of keeping kids at home only exacerbates this scenario. Children who

already have mental health issues and those who live in crowded homes and communities are in

worse situations (Baron et al., 2021).

Review Related Studies

There are Three studies found that the COVID-19-related school closures had a positive

impact on student achievements. Students improve their mathematics achievement when learning

with an online-learning software during the COVID-related school closures. Similarly, Van der

Velde reported an increase in correct solutions on open questions within a French learning

program. Interestingly, these three studies focused on online-learning software. Thus, the positive

effects may be explained by the students under investigation being familiar working with the

corresponding online-learning software prior to school closures. Hence, they did not have to adapt

to a new learning environment when in-person teaching was interrupted due to COVID-19.

Additionally, students spent more time at home utilizing the online learning program, had less

distraction or time pressure when homeschooling as opposed to in a traditional classroom, or

received personalized assignments through the online program (Hammerstein et al., 2021)
 Furthermore, two studies discovered beneficial benefits on students' achievement in

reading and mathematics or in reading solely. This finding may be explained by the achievement

measurement occurring in both studies a few months after school closures and the potential for

teachers, schools, and local policymakers to implement efficient compensatory measures at this

time to offset learning losses, such as providing learning groups during summer vacation in some

regions of Germany (Gore et al., 2021)

Despite the fact that the median effect on reading and mathematics is similar when

averaged across all research (d = 0.10 SD and 0.09 SD, respectively), some included studies

indicated varied effects for other disciplines. One could argue that the difference between reading

and math learning losses is due to the fact that "mathematics is easier to teach in distant learning

because it is simple to deliver exercises and tests as digital or worksheets" (Maldonado and De

Witte, 2020, p. 13). Another factor is that many students may not speak the language they are

tested in at home, which would prevent them from improving their language abilities as much

while schools are closed. However, students spent more time reading during school closures and

parental support for children in improving their reading skills may have been easier to implement

than parental support for children in improving their competencies in mathematics, which may

account for the larger learning losses in mathematics than in reading (Depping et al., 2021; Schult

et al., 2021).
The global outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has spread worldwide, affecting almost all

countries and territories. The outbreak was first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan, China.

The countries around the world cautioned the public to take responsive care. The public care

strategies have included handwashing, wearing face masks, physical distancing, and avoiding mass

gathering and assemblies. Lockdown and staying home strategies have been put in place as the

needed action to flatten the curve and control the transmission of the disease (Sintema. 2020).

Bhutan first declared closing of schools and institutions and reduction of business hours during the

second week of March 2020 (Kuensel. 2020, 6 March). The complete nationwide lockdown was

implemented from 1 August 2020 (Palden, 2020). In between, movements were allowed, offices

began functioning, schools and college reopened for selected levels and continued with online

class for others. More than 170,000 children in Bhutan from classes PP-XII are, today, affected by

the school closure. The impact is far reaching and has affected learning during this academic year

or even more in the coming days. Several schools, colleges and universities have discontinued

face-to-face teaching. There is a pressing need to innovate and implement alternative educational

and assessment strategies. The COVID-19 pandemic has provided us with an opportunity to pave

the way for introducing digital learning (Dhawan, 2020). Research highlights certain dearth such

as the weakness of online teaching infrastructure, the limited exposure of teachers to online

teaching, the information gap, non-conducive environment for learning at home, equity and

academic excellence in terms of higher education. This article evaluates the impact of the COVID-

19 pandemic on teaching and learning process across the world. The challenges and opportunities

of online and continuing education during the COVID-19 pandemic is summarized and way

forward suggested. As a response to the COVID-19 crisis, many countries around the world closed

school’s colleges and universities to halt the spread of the virus. According to data from UNESCO,
the peak in school closures was registered at the beginning of April 2020, when around 1.6 billion

learners were affected across 194 countries, accounting for more than 90% of total enrolled

learners (UNESCO, 2020[1]). The sudden closure of schools meant that education policy makers,

school principals and teachers had to find alternatives to face-to-face instruction in order to

guarantee children's right to education. Many systems have adopted online teaching (and learning)

on an unprecedented scale, often in combination with widespread remote learning materials such

as television or radio. Until effective vaccines or therapeutics for the novel Coronavirus become

available, it is likely that schooling may continue to be disrupted. Even if the worst-case scenario

of a second wave of the outbreak were not to materialize, localized and temporary school closures

may still be needed to contain transmission of COVID-19. For instance, children coming in contact

with infected individuals may be required to self-isolate and the lack of adequate spaces for them

to attend classes or of qualified educators to be deployed in those circumstances will force certain

schools to adopt blended models to guarantee social distancing. This has already been the case, for

instance, in Germany, where, just two weeks after re-opening, some schools were closed again

over Coronavirus infections. Against this uncertain backdrop, it is therefore important to identify

which policies can maximize the effectiveness of online teaching and learning. In spite of being a

desirable option compared to no schooling - which would have caused major interruptions in

student learning with possible long-lasting consequences for the affected cohorts (Burgess,

2020[2], Hanushek and Weissman, 2020[3])- the sudden switch to using digital instruction may

have led to sub-optimal results if compared to a business as usual in-presence instruction, as

teachers, students and schools all had to unexpectedly adjust to a novel situation. This policy brief

takes stock of some of the difficulties encountered by students, teachers and schools while adapting

to online learning in order to understand how remote schooling can be improved further, should
online learning become necessary to prevent widespread transmissionDistance Education in the

K-12 Context The many thousands of K-12 students who participate in online education programs

are attracted to virtual schooling because it offers advantages over classroom-based programs.

Among the benefits of distance education for school-age children are increases in enrollment or

time in school as education programs reach underserved regions, broader educational opportunity

for students who are unable to attend traditional schools, access to resources and instructors not

locally available, and increases in student-teacher communication. Students in virtual schools

showed greater improvement that their conventional school counterparts in critical thinking,

researching, using computers, learning independently, problem-solving, creative thinking,

decision-making, and time management (Barker & Wendel, 2001). Academic advantages over

traditional classroom instruction were demonstrated by students in Mexico's Telesecundaria

program, who were "substantially more likely than other groups to pass a final 9th grade

examination" administered by the state (Calderoni, 1998, p. 6); by students taking a chemistry by

satellite course (Dees,1994); and by students learning reading and math via interactive radio

instruction (Yasin & Luberisse. 1998). Virtual school developers and instructors continue to refine

their practice, and in so doing, they learn from reports of both successful and unsuccessful

programs. Virtual schooling, like classroom schooling, has had limited success in some situations.

In an online environment, students may feel isolated, parents may have concerns about children's

social development, students with language difficulties may experience a disadvantage a text-

heavy online environment, and subjects requiring physical demonstrations of skill such as music,

physical education, or foreign language may not be practical in a technology-mediated setting.

Meta-Analysis of Distance Education Learning Point Associates 5 For example, Bond (2002)

found that distance between tutor and learner in an online instrumental music program has negative
effects on performance quality, student engagement, and development and refinement of skills and

knowledge. While distance learning was viewed as beneficial for providing the opportunity for

elementary school students to learn a foreign language, Conzemius, and Sandrock (2003) report

that "the optimal learning situation still involves the physical presence of a teacher" (p. 47). Virtual

school students show less improvement than those in conventional schools in listening and

speaking skills (Barker & Wendel, 2001). Highly technical subjects such as mathematics and

science have also proven to be difficult to teach well online. The Alberta Online Consortium

evaluated student performance on end-of-year exams among virtual school students across the

province, and found that virtual school student scores in mathematics at grades 3, 6, 9, and 12, and

the sciences at grades 6 and 9 lagged significantly behind scores of nonvirtual school students

(Schollie, 2001). Given instruction of equal quality, groups of students learning online generally

achieve at levels equal to their peers in classrooms (Kearsley, 2000). Equality between the delivery

systems has been well documented over decades well documented over decades for adult learners,

and while much less research exists focusing on K-12 learners, the results tend to agree. "Evidence

to date convincingly demonstrates that, when used appropriately, electronically delivered

education e-learning'- can improve how students learn, can improve what students learn, and can

deliver high-quality learning opportunities to all children" (National Association of State Boards

of Education, 2001, p. 4). Many studies report no significant differences between K-12 distance

education and traditional education in academic achievement (Falck et al, 1997; Goc Karp &

Woods, 2003; Hinnant: 1994; Jordan, 2002; Kozma et al, 2000; Mills, 2002; Ryan, 1996),

frequency of communication between students and teachers (Kozma et al), and attitude toward

courses (McGreal, 1994). Although various forms of technology-enabled distance education for

pre-college students have been in use for nearly a century, rapid change in technology and the
educational context have resulted in a small body of research relevant to today's conditions that

can serve to guide instructors, planners, or developers. The temptation may be to attempt to apply

or adapt findings from studies of K-12 classroom learning or adult distance learning, but K-12

distance education is fundamentally unique.

 Conceptual Framework

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Information needed from Data gathering through: To know the:

the students:
• Surveys • Student’s academic

• Student’s Profile. • Questionnaires proficiency

• Their ways on • Academic

coping with self- Performance

studying. • Competence

• Their ways of time

Action Plan:
management.
• Reviewer about the
• Benefits of having a
past school-year
motivation.
lessons.
• Their general
• Self-determination
average in the
and motivation tips.
school-year.
• Time and stress-

management.

Figure 2: Conceptual Framework of the study

The figure above shows the input – Student’s profile, their ways on coping with self-

studying, their ways of time management, benefits of having a motivation, and their general
average in the last school-year. These variables will be tested to be able to get significant

outcomer. The data for their study was collected through survey questionnaires. The

researcher then gathered the data then looked for solutions depending on the findings and

conclusions. From the gathered data, recommendations and perceptions on the impact of

the two year break of face to face classes of grade 12 HUMSS students in their academic

proficiency were produced, which will be executed through an action plan that contains

activities created by the researchers.