Chapter 15

Geothermal energy

15.1 Introduction
The inner core of the earth reaches a maximum temperature of about
4000 C. Heat passes out through the solid submarine and land surface
mostly by conduction – geothermal heat – and occasionally by active con-
vective currents of molten magma or heated water. The average geothermal
heat flow at the Earth’s surface is only 006 W m−2 , with a temperature gra-
−1
dient of <30 C km . This continuous heat current is trivial compared with
other renewable supplies in the above surface environment that in total aver-
age about 500 W m−2 ; see Figure 1.2. However, at certain specific locations,
increased temperature gradients occur, indicating significant geothermal
resources. These may be harnessed over areas of the order of square kilome-
tres and depths of ∼5 km at fluxes of 10–20 W m−2 to produce ∼100 MW
−2

thermal km in commercial supplies for at least 20 years of operation.
Geothermal heat is generally of low quality, and is best used directly
for building or process heat at about 50–70 C, or for preheating of con-
ventional high temperature energy supplies. Such supplies are established
in several parts of the world and many more projects are planned. Occa-
sionally geothermal heat is available at temperatures above about 150 C,
so electrical power production from turbines can be contemplated. Sev-
eral important geothermal electric power complexes are fully established,
especially in Italy, New Zealand and the USA.
It is common to use heat from the near-surface ground or from lakes, etc.
as input to a heat pump. Although this may be interpreted as a ‘geothermal’
source, we do not include such systems as geothermal supplies for the
purposes of this chapter. It is probably more meaningful to consider such
sources as stored heat from sunshine, since replenishment will be more from
the environment above than below.
In Chapter 1 renewable energy was defined as currents of energy occur-
ring naturally in the environment. By this definition some sources of geother-
mal energy can be classed as renewable, because the energy would otherwise
472 Geothermal energy

be dissipated in the environment, e.g. from hot springs or geysers. In other

geothermal sites, however, the current of heat is increased artificially, e.g.
by fracturing and actively cooling hot rocks, or by drilling into hot aquifers,
and so the supply is not renewable at the extraction rate on a long time
scale. Such finite supplies are included in this text only because they are
usually included with other ‘alternative’ supplies.

15.2 Geophysics
A section through the earth is shown in Figure 15.1. Heat transfer from the
semi- fluid mantle maintains a temperature difference across the relatively
−1
thin crust of 1000 C, and a mean temperature gradient of ∼30 C km .
−3
The crust solid material has a mean density ∼ 2700 kg m , specific heat
−1
capacity ∼1000 J kg K−1 and thermal conductivity ∼2 W m−1 K−1 . There-
fore the average geothermal flux is ∼006 W m−2 , with the heat stored in the
−2
crust at temperatures greater than surface temperature being ∼1020 J km .
If just 0.1% of this heat was removed in 30 years, the heat power avail-
−2
able would be 100 MW km . Such heat extraction would be replenished in
time from the mantle below. These calculations give the order of magnitude
of the quantities involved and show that geothermal sources are a large
potential energy supply.
Heat passes from the crust by (1) natural cooling and friction from
the core, (2) radioactive decay of elements such as uranium and thorium,
and (3) chemical reactions. The time constants of such processes over the
whole Earth are so long that it is not possible to know whether the Earth’s
temperature is presently increasing or decreasing. The radioactive elements
are concentrated in the crust by fractional recrystallisation from molten

Figure 15.1 Section through the Earth, showing average lower depths of named
layers. The crust has significant variation in composition and thickness
over a local scale of several kilometres.
 15.2 Geophysics 473

material, and are particularly pronounced in granite. However, the produc-

tion of heat by radioactivity or chemical action is only significant over many
millions of years, see Problem 15.2; consequently geothermal heat extrac-
tion relies on removing stored heat in the thermal capacity of solid material
and water in the crust, rather than on replenishment. If conduction through
uniform material was the only geothermal heat transfer mechanism, the
temperature gradient in the crust would be constant. However, if convec-
tion occurs ‘locally’, as from water movement, or if local radioactive or
exothermic chemical heat sources occur, there are anomalous temperature
gradients.
On a global perspective, the Earth’s crust consists of large plates,
Figure 15.2. At the plate boundaries there is active convective thermal
contact with the mantle, evidenced by seismic activity, volcanoes, gey-
sers, fumaroles and hot springs. The geothermal energy potential of these
regions is very great, owing to increased anomalous temperature gradients
−1
(to ∼100 C km ) and to active release of water as steam or superheated
liquid, often at considerable pressure when tapped by drilling.
−1
Moderate increases in temperature gradient to ∼50 C km occur in local-
ized regions away from plate boundaries, owing to anomalies in crust com-
position and structure. Heat may be released from such regions naturally
by deep penetration of water in aquifers and subsequent convective water
flow. The resulting hot springs, with increased concentrations of dissolved
chemicals, are often famous as health spas. Deep aquifers can be tapped by
drilling, to become sources of heat at temperatures from ∼50 to ∼200 C.
If the anomaly is associated with material of small thermal conductivity,

Figure 15.2 World geothermal activity. Some well-known geothermal fields for heat pro-
duction and/or electricity generation are indicated. _ _ _ _ _ main plate
boundaries,           regions of strain.
474 Geothermal energy

Table 15.1 Installed electricity generating capacity MWe using only geothermal sources.
The countries with major experience are listed (after Goodman and Love,
1980 and the International Geothermal Association, 2004)

Country Key regions 1980 1990 2000

China 19 29
El Salvador 100 95 161
Iceland Namafjall 40 45 170
Indonesia 145 590
Italy Larderello 420 545 785
Japan Matsukawa 250 215 546
Kenya Rift Valley 45 45
Mexico Cerro Prieto 150 700 755
New Zealand Wairakei 250 283 437
Nicaragua 70 70
Philippines 250 891 1909
Russia 11 23
Turkey 20 20
USA Geysers, California 700 2775 2228
Total (2 significant figures) 2200 5900 8000

i.e. dry rock, then a ‘larger than usual’ temperature gradient occurs with a
related increase in stored heat.
Geothermal information has been obtained through mining, oil explo-
ration and geological surveys; therefore, geothermal information is avail-
able for most countries (Table 15.1). The most important parame-
ter is temperature gradient; accurate measurements depend on leaving
the drill hole undisturbed for many weeks so that temperature equi-
librium is re-established after drilling. Deep drilled survey wells com-
monly reach depths of 6 km, and the technology is available to drill to
15 km or more. The principal components of a geothermal energy plant
are the boreholes and so heat extraction from depths to 15 km can be
contemplated.
There are three classes of geothermal region:
−1
1 Hyperthermal. Temperature gradient ≥80 C km . These regions are
usually on tectonic plate boundaries. The first such region to be tapped
for electricity generation was at Larderello in Tuscany, Italy in 1904.
Nearly all geothermal power stations are in such areas.
2 Semithermal. Temperature gradient ∼40–80 C km. Such regions are
associated generally with anomalies away from plate boundaries. Heat
extraction is from harnessing natural aquifers or fracturing dry rock.
A well-known example is the geothermal district heating system for
houses in Paris.
 15.3 Dry rock and hot aquifer analysis 475

3 Normal. Temperature gradient <40 C km. These remaining regions

are associated with average geothermal conductive heat flow at
∼006 W m−2 . It is unlikely that these areas can ever supply geothermal
heat at prices competitive to present (finite) or future (renewable) energy
supplies.

In each class it is, in principle, possible for heat to be obtained by:

1 Natural hydrothermal circulation. In this, water percolates to deep

aquifers to be heated to dry steam, vapour/liquid mixtures or hot water.
Emissions of each type can be observed in nature. If pressure increases
by steam formation at deep levels, spectacular geysers may occur, as
at the Geysers near Sacramento in California and in the Wairakei area
near Rotorua in New Zealand. Note, however, that liquid water is
ejected, and not steam.
2 Hot igneous systems. These are associated with heat from semi-molten
magma that solidifies to lava. The first power plant using this source
was the 3 MWe station in Hawaii, completed in 1982.
3 Dry rock fracturing. Poorly conducting dry rock, e.g. granite, stores
heat over millions of years with a subsequent increase in tempera-
ture. Artificial fracturing from boreholes enables water to be pumped
through the rock to extract the heat.

In practice, geothermal energy plants in hyperthermal regions are associated

with natural hydrothermal systems; in semithermal regions both hydrother-
mal and hot rock extraction is developed; and normal areas have too small
a temperature gradient for commercial interest.

15.3 Dry rock and hot aquifer analysis

15.3.1 Dry rock

We consider a large mass of dry material extending from near the earth’s
surface to deep inside the crust, (Figure 15.3). The rock has density r ,
specific heat capacity cr and cross-section A. With uniform material and no
convection, there will be a linear increase of temperature with depth. If z
increases downward from the surface at z = 0,

dT
T = T0 + z = T0 + Gz (15.1)
dz

Let the minimum useful temperature be T1 at depth z1 , so

T1 = T0 + Gz1  z1 =
T1 + T2 /G (15.2)

476 Geothermal energy

Figure 15.3 Profile of hot dry rock system for calculating the heat content. Density
, specific heat capacity c, temperature gradient dT/dz = G.

The useful heat content )E, at temperature T
>T1 , in an element of thick-

ness z at depth z is

)E =
r Azcr
T − T1  =
r Azcr G
z − z1  (15.3)

The total useful heat content of the rock to depth z2 becomes

 z2
E0 = r Acr G
z − z1 dz
z=z1 (15.4)
= r Acr G
z2 − z1  /2 2

Alternatively, let the average available temperature greater than T1 be :

 =
T2 − T1 /2 = G
z2 − z1 /2 (15.5)

then E0 = Cr , where Cr is the thermal capacity of the rock between z1

and z2 ,

Cr = r Acr
z2 − z1  (15.6)

so as with (15.4),

E0 = r Acr G
z2 − z1 2 /2 (15.7)

Assume heat is extracted from the rock uniformly in proportion to the

temperature excess over T1 by a flow of water with volume flow rate V̇ ,
density w and specific heat capacity cw . The water will be heated through
a temperature difference of  in the near perfect heat exchange process.
 15.3 Dry rock and hot aquifer analysis 477

Thus

d
V̇ w cw  = −Cr (15.8)
dt
d V̇  c dt
= − w w dt = − (15.9)
 Cr

where the time constant

is given by

Cr

=
V̇ w cw
(15.10)
r Acr
z2 − z1 
= using
156
V̇ w cw

Hence

 = 0 e−t/
(15.11)

The useful heat content is E = Cr , so

E = E0 e−t/
≡ E0 exp
−t/
 (15.12)

and

dE E
= 0 e−t/
(15.13)
dt

Example 15.1 after Garnish 1976

1 Calculate the useful heat content per square kilometre of dry rock
granite to a depth of 7 km. Take the geothermal temperature gradi-
−1
ent at 40 C km , the minimum useful temperature as 140 K above
−3 −1
the surface temperature T0  r = 2700 kg m  cr = 820 J kg K−1 .
2 What is the time constant for useful heat extraction using a water
−2
flow rate of 1 m3 s−1 km ?
3 What is the useful heat extraction rate initially and after 10 years?
Solution
1 At 7 km the temperature T2 = Tot280 K. The minimum useful
temperature of 140 K more than T0 occurs at 3.5 km.
478 Geothermal energy

So by (15.7),

E0 /A = r cr
z2 − z1 
T2 − T1 /2

−3 −1
=
27 × 103 kg m 
082 × 103 J kg K−1 
35 km
70 K
−2
= 542 × 1017 J km (15.14)

2 Substituting the appropriate values in (15.10)

r cr A
z2 − z1 

=
V̇ w cw




1 2700 820
= −2
(15.15)
1 m3 s−1 km 1000 4200
−2
×
1 km 
35 km
= 184 × 109 s = 58 y

3 By (15.13),

 −2
dE 542 × 1017 J km −2
= = 294 MW km (15.16)
dt t=0 184 × 109 s


dE −2
= 294 exp
−10/58 = 247 MW km (15.17)
dt t=20 y

15.3.2 Hot aquifers

In a hot aquifer, the heat resource lies within a layer of water deep beneath
the ground surface, (Figure 15.4). We assume that the thickness of the

Figure 15.4 Profile of hot aquifer system for calculating the heat content.
 15.3 Dry rock and hot aquifer analysis 479

aquifer (h) is much less than the depth
z2  below ground level, and that
consequently the water is all at temperature T2 . The porosity, p , is the
fraction of the aquifer containing water, assuming the remaining space to
be rock of density r . The minimum useful temperature is T1 . The char-
acteristics of the resource are calculated similarly to those for dry rock in
Section 15.3.1.
Then
dT
T2 = T0 + z = T0 + Gz (15.18)
dz
E0
= Ca
T2 − T1  (15.19)
A
where

Ca = p w cw +
1 − p r cr h (15.20)

As with (15.8) onwards, we calculate the removal of heat by a water volume

flow rate V̇ at  above T1 :

d
V̇ w cw  = −Ca (15.21)
dt
So

E = E0 exp
−t/
a  (15.22)
dE
= −
E0 /
a  exp
−t/
a  (15.23)
dt
and
Ca p w cw +
1 − p r cr h

a = = (15.24)
V̇ w cw V̇ w cw

Example 15.2 (after Garnish, 1976)

1 Calculate the initial temperature and heat content per square kilo-
metre above 40 C of an aquifer of thickness 0.5 km, depth 3 km,
−3
porosity 5%, undersediments of density 2700 kg m , specific heat
−1 −1 −1
capacity 840 J kg K and temperature gradient 30 C km . Sug-
gest a use for the heat if the average surface temperature is 10 C.
2 What is the time constant for useful heat extraction with a pumped
−2
water extraction of 01 m3 s−1 km ?
3 What is the thermal power extracted initially and after 10 years?
480 Geothermal energy

Solution
1 Initial temperature

T2 = 10 C +
30 × 3K = 100 C (15.25)

From (15.20),

Ca = 
005
1000
4200 +
095
2700
840
−1
×
kg m−3 J kg K−1 
05 km (15.26)
−2
= 118 × 1015 J K−1 km

With (15.19),
−2
E0 =
118 × 1015 J K−1 km 
100 − 40 C
(15.27)
−2
= 071 × 1017 J km

The quality of the energy is suitable for factory processes or house-

hold district heating.
2 In (15.24),
−2

12 × 1015 J K−1 km 

a = −2 −1

01 m3 s−1 km 
1000 kg m−3 
4200 J kg K−1  (15.28)
= 28 × 109 s = 90 y

3 From (15.23),

 −2
dE
071 × 1017 J km 
=
dt t=0
28 × 109 s
−2 (15.29)
= 25 MW km
Check:


dE
= V̇ w cw
T2 − T1 
dt t=0
−2 −1
=
01 m3 s−1 km 
1000 kg m−3 
4200 J kg K−1 
60 K
−2
= 25 MW km

From (15.23),


dE −2
= 25 MW km exp
−10/90
dt t=10 y (15.30)
−2
= 22 MW km
 15.4 Harnessing Geothermal Resources 481

15.4 Harnessing Geothermal Resources

Geothermal power arises from heat sources having a great range of temper-
atures and local peculiarities. In general, available temperatures are much
less than from furnaces; therefore although much energy is accessible, the
thermodynamic quality is poor. The sources share many similarities with
industrial waste heat processes and OTEC, see Chapter 14. In this section
we shall review the strategy for using geothermal energy.

15.4.1 Matching supply and demand

With a geothermal source it is always sensible to attempt electricity
generation since this is a valued product, and the rejected heat can
be used in a combined heat and power mode. Electricity can be dis-
tributed on a widely dispersed grid and integrates with other national
power supplies. Nevertheless, the energy demand for heat at <100 C
is usually greater than that for electricity, and so the use of geother-
mal energy as heat is important. Electricity generation will probably
be attractive if the source temperature is >300 C, and unattractive if
<150 C.
Heat cannot be distributed easily over distances greater than ∼ 30 km,
and so concentrated uses near to the point of supply are needed. In cold
climates, household and business district heating schemes make sensible
2
loads if the population density is ≥350 people per km (>100 premises
2
per km ). Thus a 100 MWth geothermal plant might serve an urban area
∼ 20 km × 20 km at ∼ 2 kW per premises. Such geothermal schemes have
been long established in Iceland and, on a smaller scale, in New Zealand.
−2
Other heating loads are for glasshouse heating (at 60 MWth km in one
installation in northern Europe), fish farming, food drying, factory pro-
cesses, etc.
Several factors fix the scale of geothermal energy use. The dominant
costs are capital costs, especially for the boreholes whose costs increase
exponentially with depth. Since temperature increases with depth, and the
value of the energy increases with temperature, most schemes settle on
optimum borehole depths of ∼5 km. Consequently, the scale of the energy
supply output is usually ≥100 MW (electricity and heat for high tem-
peratures, heat only for low temperatures), as shown in Examples 15.1
and 15.2.
The total amount of heat extracted from a geothermal source can be
increased by reinjecting the partially cooled water from the above ground
heat exchanger. This has the extra advantage of disposing of this water,
−3
which may have about 25 kg m of solute and be a substantial pollutant,
see Section 15.5. Nevertheless a substantial extra cost is incurred.
482 Geothermal energy

15.4.2 Extraction techniques: hydrothermal

The most successful geothermal projects have boreholes sunk into natural
water channels in hyperthermal regions, Figure 15.5. This is the method
used at Wairakei, New Zealand (Figure 15.9) and at the Geysers, California.
Similar methods are used for extraction from hot aquifers in semithermal
regions where natural convection can be established from the borehole
without extra pumping.

15.4.3 Extraction techniques: hot dry rock

Sources of ‘hot dry rock’ (HDR) are much more abundant than are
hydrothermal regions: temperatures of 200 C are accessible under a signif-
icant proportion of the world’s landmass. This has motivated considerable
research in the USA and Europe on techniques to harness this heat for
electricity power generation. One result has been the recognition that few
basement rocks are completely dry, but there are many regions where util-
isation of their geothermal heat requires ‘enhanced geothermal systems’, in
which reinjection is necessary to maintain commercial production.
In the 1980s, the research group at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
USA pioneered methods of fracturing the rock with pressurised cold water
around the end of the injection borehole (Figure 15.6). After the initial
fracturing, water was pumped down the injection bore to percolate through
the hot rock at depths of ∼5 km and temperatures ∼250 C before returning
through shallower return pipes. Using such methods, complex arrays of
injection and return boreholes might, in principle, enable gigawatt supplies
of heat to be obtained. However, the technical difficulties and large costs
have meant that only a few pilot plants, including a European joint venture
at Soultz in the upper Rhine Valley, have exploited HDR. Despite these
efforts, by 2004 there was still no commercial power station based on HDR.

Figure 15.5 Schematic diagram, not to scale, of hydrothermal power stations in a

hyperthermal region, e.g. the Geysers geothermal field, California.
 15.5 Social and environmental aspects 483

Figure 15.6 Schematic diagram of heat extraction from a hot dry rock system.

15.4.4 Electricity generating systems

The choice of the heat exchange and turbine system for a particular
geothermal source is complex, requiring specialist experience. In 1977,
Milora and Tester provided one of the first extensive reviews of the subject,
from which Figure 15.7 outlines some of the possible arrangements for the
generating plant.
The small temperature increment of the source requires that compounds
other than water may be considered to drive the turbines (e.g. toluene, or
substitutes for the environmentally unacceptable freons), and novel tech-
niques are needed to improve efficiency. Particular difficulties may occur
with heat exchangers, owing to the large concentration of chemicals in the
borehole water. In Chapter 14, similar problems with heat exchangers are
discussed for OTEC.

15.5 Social and environmental aspects

Geothermal power from hydrothermal regions has a proven record of pro-
viding safe and very reliable power at costs that are fully competitive with
conventional (brown) sources, even without allowing for the external costs
of the latter. Capital costs of new systems are about $US 2500 per installed
kilowatt (electric) capacity, which are competitive with those of nuclear and
hydro power stations. Perhaps the greatest virtue of geothermal energy for
a power company is that the power can be provided almost continuously
at full rating and does not depend on an intermittent or purchased source
of energy. Maintenance requirements are moderate and not expensive.
484 Geothermal energy

Figure 15.7 Example of geothermal turbine cycles for electricity generation. (a)
Single-fluid cycle, e.g. water, freon substitute. (b) Two-fluid series cycles,
e.g. first water, second freon substitute. (c) Direct steam flashing cycle.
(d) Topping/bottoming cycles.

In New Zealand, for example, geothermal stations operate at a capacity

factor of well over 90% (i.e. their annual output is over 90% of what it
would be if run at full rating for 8760 h); consequently they provide about
7% of the national electricity supply from only 4% of the national installed
power capacity.
These advantages have encouraged the increase of geothermal capac-
ity in the world’s established hydrothermal regions listed in Table 15.1.
Figure 15.8 outlines the growth in worldwide geothermal power.
 15.5 Social and environmental aspects 485

World geothermal power capacity

25 000

20 000
Power capacity/MWe

15000

10 000

5000
MWe
0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year

Figure 15.8 Growth of world geothermal electricity generating capacity/MWe . Data

accurate to year previous to the publication of this book, and extrapo-
lated beyond.

McLarty et al. (2000) estimated that up to 6 GWe in the USA and 72 GWe
worldwide could be produced with current technology at known hydrother-
mal sites, despite hydrothermal regions being relatively rare worldwide, as
indicated in Figure 15.2.
Resources of ‘hot dry rock’ (HDR) are much more abundant than
hydrothermal resources: temperatures of 200 C are accessible under a large
proportion of the world’s landmass. The study in 2000 by McLarty et al.
indicated that if these resources could be exploited, e.g. with enhanced
technology as Figure 15.6, the potential electricity generating capacity from
geothermal sources could be doubled to 19 GWe in the USA and 138 GWe
worldwide. Unfortunately, even after several decades of technical develop-
ment, the technology of ‘enhanced geothermal systems’ to exploit HDR
economically is still only at the ‘pilot plant’ stage.
We illustrate the environmental impacts of geothermal power through
the example of the 140 MWe Wairakei power station in New Zealand
(Figure 15.9). The station was built in the 1950s in one of the most
geologically active areas in the world. Natural geysers and hot springs
abound in the region to the delight of tourists; a major volcanic eruption
in 1886 re-formed the landscape about 50 km away, and earthquakes are
not uncommon. The wells, top left of the photo, tap into a mixture of
water and steam; the hot water is separated with the high-pressure steam
486 Geothermal energy

Figure 15.9 The Wairakei geothermal power station in New Zealand. Well-heads are
at top of photo; condensed steam is discharged into the Waikato River at
bottom. [Photo by courtesy of Contact Energy, New Zealand.]

being directed through the pipes to the power station at bottom right. At
Wairakei there is a considerable overpressure in the boreholes. The clouds
of steam at top left come from the hot water boiling as the pressure on it is
released.
Removal of the hot water from the ground through the power station
resulted in subsidence affecting some local buildings. Consequently, some of
the output water flow was re-injected into the area, alleviating the difficulty.
There has also been a diminution in the intensity of some of the natural
geysers of the area, though most remain substantially unaffected. Note
that such negative impact on natural geothermal phenomena is an issue
inhibiting the wider use of geothermal power in Japan.
At the bottom of the photograph of Figure 15.9 is the Waikato River,
which both provides cooling water and receives the condensed steam and
other emissions at discharge. The common emission of H2 S is treated before
discharge. The Waikato is one of the largest rivers in the country, so the
discharged heat and remaining chemicals are rapidly diluted. An environ-
mental study in 2001 confirmed that downstream concentrations of the
chemical elements As, B and Hg, and of dissolved ammonia, were all much
less than the limits for native fish.
 Bibliography 487

Geothermal systems also emit the greenhouse gas CO2 . Wairakei’s emis-
sion of 003 kg CO2 per kWe h is less than the average concentration for
geothermal power stations of around 01 kg CO2 per kWe h produced,
which is much less than the typical value of 10 kg CO2 per kWe h from
a coal-fired power station. The benefit/cost ratio of geothermal systems is
improved by making use of the low-grade heat leaving the power station.
At Wairakei, a prawn farm benefits from this; shown at the left of the
photograph.

Problems
15.1 a A cube of ‘hot rock’ of side h has its top surface at a depth d below
the earth’s surface. The rock has a density  and specific heat
capacity c. The material above the cube has thermal conductivity
k. If the rock is treated as an isothermal mass at temperature T
above the earth’s surface with no internal heat source, show that
the time constant for cooling is given by
= hcd/k
b Calculate
for a cubic mass of granite (of side 10 km, density
−3 −1
27 ×103 kg m , specific heat capacity 082×103 J kg K−1 ), that
is 10 km below ground under a uniform layer material of thermal
conductivity 040 J m−1 s−1 K−1 .
c Compare the natural conductive loss of heat from the granite with
commercial extraction at 100 MW from the whole mass.
15.2 a Calculate the thermal power produced from the radioactive decay
3
of 238 U in 5 km of granite. (238 U is 99% of the uranium in granite,
and is present in average at a concentration of 4 × 10−3 %. The
−1
heat produced by pure 238 U is 3000 J kg y−1 .)
238
b U radioactivity represents about 40% of the total radioactive
heat source in granite. Is the total radioactive heat a significant
continuous source of energy for geothermal supplies?

Bibliography

General
Armstead, H.C.H. (1983, 2nd edn) Geothermal Energy – Its Past, Present and
Future Contributions to the Needs of Man, E&FN Spon, London. An authori-
tative and fundamental account.
Armstead, H.C.H. and Tester, J.W. (1987) Heat Mining: A New Source of Energy,
E&FN Spon. Treatise on extraction of power from hot dry rock.
Bowen, R. (1989, 2nd edn) Geothermal Resources, Elsevier Applied Science.
Schlumberger Oilfield Review (1989) The Earth’s Heat, Elsevier Science.
Wilbur, L.C. (1985) Handbook of Energy Systems Engineering, Wiley Interscience.
ISBN 0–471–86633–4.