RC Ii

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (AAiT)
-1-
CONTINUOUS BEAMS AND ONE-WAY RIBBED SLABS
1.1. Introduction
C
ontinuous beam is a structural component that provides resistance to bending when a
load or force is applied. A continuous beam has more than two points of support along
its length. In contrast to a simply supported beam, which has supports at each end and
a load that is distributed in some way along its length, a continuous beam is much stiffer and
stronger. The two main factors for consideration in the design of a continuous beam are the
type of load and the strength characteristics of the material used to construct the beam. The
reactions that occur at the supports of a simply supported beam can be determined by
analyzing only the forces applied to the beam. For this reason, simple beams are known as
statically determinate. A continuous beam has more supports than are required to provide
equilibrium, and the deformation behavior under load is also considered when determining the
support reactions. As a result, a continuous beam is known as statically indeterminate.
Today, these types of beams are often designed using engineering software that accepts input
data and determines a design to meet the performance requirements. Input factors may
include the types of forces applied, the span between supports, the beam shape, the material
strength properties, and the mechanical connections to other structural members. A
continuous beam must be designed to withstand forces and stresses while minimizing weight,
space requirements, and material cost. Most beams are designed with a safety factor, which
serves to oversize the beam to protect against loading and other factors that cannot be
predicted in advance. The selection of an appropriate safety factor is based on the specific
application in combination with good engineering judgment. A margin of safety that is too high
will drive a beam design that is larger than needed, causing possible weight problems and
higher fabrication costs. Continuous beams are common elements in cast-in-situ reinforced
concrete constructions. Continuous beams offer the following advantages over simple
construction: greater load resistance and greater stiffness. These result in a smaller steel
Page 1 of 10
section being required to withstand specified loading. In this lecture, members are assumed to
be continuous over simple supports or to be rigidly connected to columns in braced frames.
1.2. Analyses and Design of Continuous Beams
Analysis and design of beam is still an important part in structural engineering practices. As a
major component in structure, it demands due attention and accuracy. At the same time
engineers need to achieve economy in time and cost in the design of beams. As mentioned
previously continuous beams are indeterminate structures with more than one span and
supports. As the beam is subjected to live and dead loads, it is very important to find the
configuration of these loads for the maximum effect. The dead load is distributed throughout
the length of the beam at all times due its nature.
As a quick tactic, one can see that the largest moment in continuous beams or one-way slabs or
frames occur when some spans are loaded and the others are not. Influence lines are used to
determine which spans should be loaded and which spans should not be to find the maximum
load effect. Figure 1.2-1a shows influence line for moment at B. The loading pattern that will
give the largest positive moment at consists of load on all spans having positive influence
ordinates. Such loading is shown in figure 1.2-1b and is called alternate span loading or
checkerboard loading. The maximum negative moment at C results from loading all spans
having negative influence ordinate as shown in figure 1.2-1d and is referred as an adjacent
span loading.
Page 2 of 10
Figure 1.2-1 Influence line for moment and loading patterns
Similarly, loading for maximum shear may be obtained by loading spans with positive shear
influence ordinate and are shown in figure 1.2-2.
Figure 1.2-2 Influence line for shear
Both Euro code and the Ethiopian Building Code Standard [EBCS] however specify the following
arrangements of loads for the maximum effect:
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1. Alternative spans loaded: which is the case when alternative span carrying the design
variable and permanent loads while other spans loaded with only the design permanent
load only. For any type of beam, two possible patterns are as shown.
i. The first, third and fifth spans loaded with permanent and variable actions
1.3Gk + 1.6Qk 1.3Gk + 1.6Qk 1.3Gk + 1.6Qk
1.3 Gk 1.3 Gk
ii. The second and forth spans loaded with permanent and variable actions
1.3Gk + 1.6Qk 1.3Gk + 1.6Qk

1.3Gk 1.3Gk 1.3Gk
2. Adjacent spans loaded: which is the case when two adjacent spans carrying the design
variable and permanent loads with other spans loaded with only the design permanent load
only. For this particular beam, four possible patters are as shown. In general (n - 1) cases are
possible for a beam of span n.
i. The first and the second spans loaded with permanent and variable actions
1.3Gk + 1.6Qk
1.3Gk
ii. The second and the third spans loaded with permanent and variable actions
1.3Gk + 1.6Qk
1.3Gk 1.3Gk
Page 4 of 10
iii. The third and fourth spans loaded with permanent and variable actions
1.3Gk + 1.6Qk
1.3Gk 1.3Gk
iv. The fourth and fifth spans loaded with permanent and variable actions
1.3Gk + 1.6Qk
1.3Gk
3. All spans loaded: All spans loaded with design permanent and variable action is obviously
other possible combination to be considered especially in slab and single span beam
designs.
1.3Gk + 1.6Qk
Elastic analysis methods studies in theory of structure II such as slope-deflection, moment

distribution, and matrix method or plastic analysis or approximate method such as the use of
moment coefficient or such methods as portal or cantilever can be used to find the shear force,
the bending moments or the support reactions for the above loadings. Once the bending
moment and shear force is computed for all the above loadings, the design shear and design
bending moment at a particular point will be the maximum effect from all the analysis. The
table on the next page shows the moment coefficients for different span ratios of five span
continuous beams subjected to uniformly distributed loads on all spans.
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L2/L1 L3/L2 L4/L3 L5/L4 b C d e f g h j k

1.0 - - - 0.071 -0.123 0.078 0.000 - - - - -
1.2 - - - 0.059 -0.126 0.076 0.000 - - - - -
1.4 - - - 0.043 -0.134 0.080 0.000 - - - - -
1.6 - - - 0.032 -0.143 0.082 0.000 - - - - -
1.8 - - - 0.020 -0.154 0.082 0.000 - - - - -
2.0 - - - 0.006 -0.165 0.083 0.000 - - - - -
1.0 1.0 - - 0.080 -0.099 0.021 -0.099 0.080 0.000 - - -
1.2 1.2 - - 0.080 -0.083 0.021 -0.114 0.079 0.000 - - -
1.4 1.4 - - 0.084 -0.063 0.017 -0.128 0.082 0.000 - - -
1.6 1.6 - - 0.097 -0.034 0.017 -0.142 0.082 0.000 - - -
1.8 1.8 - - 0.125 -0.005 0.021 -0.155 0.082 0.000 - - -
1.0 1.0 1.0 - 0.078 -0.106 0.034 -0.073 0.034 -0.104 0.078 0.000 -
1.2 1.2 1.2 - 0.072 -0.099 0.042 -0.069 0.029 -0.115 0.080 0.000 -
1.4 1.4 1.4 - 0.061 -0.103 0.047 -0.052 0.023 -0.087 0.081 0.000 -
1.6 1.6 1.6 - 0.039 -0.122 0.063 -0.026 0.021 -0.142 0.082 0.000 -
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.079 -0.102 0.031 -0.080 0.040 -0.080 0.031 -0.102 0.079
1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 0.075 -0.094 0.033 -0.086 0.047 -0.069 0.028 -0.117 0.080
1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 0.074 -0.080 0.029 -0.098 0.052 -0.051 0.024 -0.130 0.082
M = CwL2
The three major stages in the design of a continuous beam are design for flexure, design for
shear, and reinforcement detailing. In addition, it is necessary to consider deflections and crack
control and, in some cases, torsion. When the area supported by a beam exceeds 37m2, it is
usually possible to use a reduced live load in calculating the moments and shears in the beam.
After obtaining the maximum load effects of continuous beams, the design of continuous
beams is carried out as discussed in reinforced concrete structures I course. Bottom
reinforcements are provided for span (positive) bending moments and top reinforcements are
provided for support (negative) moments in the longitudinal direction. Shear reinforcements
are provided in the forms of vertical stirrups, inclined stirrups or bent up bars as appropriate.
Page 6 of 10
Figure 1.2-3 three-span continuous beam
For convince, design steps of no moment redistribution1 by using km-ks table is recalled below
Steps for design using design table (no moment redistribution)
1. Evaluate Km
2. Enter the general design table No 1.a using Km and concrete grade.
a. If Km ≤ Km*, the value of Km show shaded in design Table No 1.a, then the section is
singly reinforced.
- Enter the design table No 1.a using Km and concrete grade
- Read Ks from the table corresponding to the steel grade and Km
- Evaluate As
b. If Km ≥ Km*, then the section should be doubly reinforced.
- Evaluate Km / Km * and d’’/d
- Read Ks, Ks’, ρ and ρ’ from the same table corresponding to Km / Km *, d’’/d and
concrete grade
- Evaluate
1
The design of continuous beams with moment redistribution will be dealt in the second chapter of this course. Let
us focus on moments with no redistribution at least for the moment.
Page 7 of 10
The design charts on EBCS 2, 1995 part 2 can also be used applied for design using the following
steps.
Design using general design chart
1. Calculate
2. Enter the general design chart,
• If , section is singly reinforced.

Evaluate Z from by reading value of from chart using
Evaluate
• If , section is doubly reinforced.

• Evaluate Z from chart using
• Evaluate
• Calculate
Note that the beam could be singly reinforced or doubly reinforced depending on the bending
moment and the provided sections.
1.3. Analysis and design of one-way ribbed slabs
Long-span floors for relatively light live loads can be constructed as a series of closely spaced,
cast-in-place T-beams (or joists or ribs) with a cross section as shown in figure 1.3-1. The joists
span one way between beams. Most often, removable metal forms referred to as fillers or pans
are used to form the joists. Occasionally, joist floors are built by using clay-tile fillers, which
serve as forms for the concrete in the ribs that are left in place to serve as the celling.
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Figure 1.3-1 Typical ribbed slab and slab cross-section
General Requirements:
• Because joists are closely spaced, thickness of slab (topping),
• Ribs shall not be less than 70 mm in width
• Ribs shall have a depth, excluding any topping, of not more than 4 times the minimum
width of the rib.
• Rib spacing shall not exceed 1.0 m
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• The topping shall be provided with a reinforcement mesh providing in each direction a
cross sectional area not less than 0.001 of the section of the slab.
• If the rib spacing exceeds 1.0 m, the topping shall be designed as a slab resting on ribs
considering load concentrations, if any.
• Transverse ribs shall be provided if the span of the ribbed slab exceeds 6.0 m.
• When transverse ribs are provided, the center-to-center distance shall not exceed 20
times the overall depth of the ribbed slab.
• The transverse ribs shall be designed for at least half the values of maximum moments
and shear force in the longitudinal ribs.
• The girder supporting the joist may be rectangular or T-beam with the flange thickness
equal to the floor thickness.
Procedure for design of ribbed slabs
1. Thickness of toppings and ribs assumed based on minimum requirement.
2. Loads may be computed on the basis of centerline of the spacing of joists.
3. The joists are analyzed as regular continuous or T -beams supported by girders.
4. Shear reinforcement shall not be provided in the narrow web of joist thus a check for
the section capacity against shear is carried out. The shear capacity may be
approximated as 1.1 Vc of regular rectangular sections.
5. Determine flexural reinforcement and consider minimum provision in the final solution.
6. Provide the topping or slab with reinforcement as per temp and shrinkage requirement.
7. Design the girder as a beam.
Page 10 of 10
-2-
PLASTIC MOMENT REDISTRIBUTION
2.1 Introduction
t is known that an indeterminate beam or frame normally will not fail when the ultimate
I
moment capacity of just one critical section is reached. After formation of plastic hinges at
the more highly stressed sections, substantial redistribution of moments occurs at the
critical sections as loads are further increased before collapse of the structure takes place.
Redistribution of moments permits the designer to modify, within limits, the moment
diagrams for which the members are to be designed. This enables the designer to reduce the
congestion of reinforcement, which often occurs in high moment areas, such as at the
junction of girders with columns. Method of analysis allowed in EBCS -2, 1995.
i. Elastic, optionally followed by inelastic (plastic) moment redistribution
ii. Plastic analysis
iii. Non-linear analysis
2.2 Moment curvature diagram

Although it is not needed explicitly in ordinary design, the relation between moment applied to a
given beam section and the resulting curvature, through the full range of loading to failure, is
important to the study of member ductility, understanding the development of plastic hinges, and
accounting for the redistribution of elastic moments that occur in most RC structures before
collapse.
Curvature is defined as the angle change per

unit length at any given location along the
axis of a member subjected to loads as
shown in figure 2.2-1.
Figure 2.2-1 Curvature
Page 1 of 11

=

=
1
=

From similarity of triangles,

= ⇒ =

= =

2.2.1 Moment of Inertia of Transformed Section
When a beam made of two materials is loaded, the different values of E for the two materials
lead to different stress distribution since one materials is stiffer and accepts more stress for a
given strain than the other. However, the elastic beam theory can be used if the beam is
hypothetically transformed to either an all steel beam or an all concrete beam, customarily the
later. This is done by replacing the area of the steel with an equivalent area of concrete having
centroid at the level of the centroid of the steel. The replaced concrete will experience the same
force and strain as the steel.
=
=

=

=

=

=

=
Page 1 of 11
Figure 2.2-2 Transformed Sections
For uncracked section, out of additional concrete for steel replacement nAs, As is the quantity
used to fill the hole in rectangular part when steels are withdrawn. The elastic sections (cracked
and / or uncracked) the NA occurs at the centroid of the area.
With the above transformed sections and the idealized stress-strain relationships for steel and
concrete figure 2.2-3 (b) and (c) the usual assumptions regarding perfect bond and plane
sections, it is possible to calculate the relation between M and ψ for a typical under-reinforced
concrete beam section, subject to flexural cracking as follows.
Figure 2.2-3 Under-reinforced concrete beam section, subject to flexural cracking
In the limit case of figure 2.2-3b

=
=
=
≪

$%
= = # =
! " "
Page 2 of 11
Where, lut is the moment of inertia of the un-cracked transformed section.
Figure 2.2-4 Moment-Curvature relationship of reinforced beam
These values (ψcr , Mcr) provide information needed to plot point “1”of the M-ψ graph of figure
2.2-4.
When the tensile cracking occurs at the section, the stiffness is immediately reduced, and
curvature increases to point “2” with no increase in moment. In the limit case, the concrete strain
just reaches the proportional limit as shown in figure 2.2-3 (c) and the steel is below the yield
strain.
ε' = ε() , f', = f() and ε0 1 ε2
ε' ε() f() kjbd"
Hence ψ() = = and M() =
c! c! 2
(ψel , Mel) provides point “3” on the graph and the curvature at point “2” can be found from the
ratio Mcr/Mel.
Once the proportional limit is exceeded, the concrete is well into the inelastic range, although the
steel has not yet yielded. The NA depth, C1 is less than the depth a = Kd and is changing with
increasing load as the shape of the concrete stress distribution and the steel stress changes.
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It is now convenient to adopt a numerical solution to find the concrete compressive force 'C' and
the location of its centroid for any arbitrarily selected value of maximum concrete strain εc in the
range εel< εc ≤ εcu.
The compressive strain diagram is divided into an arbitrary number of steps and the
corresponding stress for each strain read from the stress-strain curve concrete. The stepwise
representation of the actual continuous stress block is integrated numerically to find C, and its
point of application is located taking moments of the concrete forces about the top of the section.
The basic equilibrium requirement, C =T, can be used to find the correct location of the NA, for
the particular compressive strain selected, following an iterative procedure.
Alternative to numerical integration, formulae for determining the total compressive force as
stated in EBCS 2-1995 can be used and are given below.
1. εcm ≤ 2‰ and N.A. within the section

= (6 −
= )
< = BC
12
8 −
=
D = B
4(6 −
= ) C
2. εcm ≥ 2‰ and N.A. within the section
3
= − 2
< = BC
3
=

= (3
= − 4) + 2
D = B
2
= (3
= − 2 ) C
3. εcm ≥ 2‰ and N.A. outside the section
(125 + 64
= − 16
=
"
)
1
< =
189
40 (
= − 2)"
D = 0.5 −
7 125 + 64
= − 16
=
"
Then the total compressive force will be,

N = < O P
2.3 Plastic Hinge and Collapse mechanism

It is known that a continuous beam or frame normally will not fail when the ultimate moment
capacity of just one critical section is reached. A plastic hinge will be formed at that section
permitting large rotation to occur with essentially constant resisting moment at the end thus
Page 4 of 11
transferring the load to other locations along the span where the limiting resistance has not yet
been reached. If such a plastic hinge is formed in a determinate structure, uncontrolled deflection
takes place and the structure collapses. For example in the following fixed end beam
Mu Mu
Mu BMD from elastic analysis

final BM diagram
If a short segment of a reinforced concrete beam is subjected to a bending moment, continued

plastic rotation is assumed to occur after the calculated ultimate moment Mu is reached, with no
change in applied moment. The beam behaves as if there were a hinge at that point. However, the
hinge will not be “friction free”, but will have a constant resistance to rotation. If such a plastic
hinge forms in a determinate structure, as shown in figure below, an uncontrolled deflection
takes place and the structure will collapse. The resulting system is referred to as a mechanism.
This implies that a statically determinate system requires the formation of only one plastic hinge
in order to become a mechanism.
In the case of indeterminate structures, stability may be maintained even though hinges have
formed at several cross sections. The formation of such hinges in indeterminate structures
permits a redistribution of moments within the beam or frame. W and P can be carried by any
section strength combination at the supports and mid span as long as the average of the support
moment plus the positive moments at mid span 0.125Wl2. This allows the designer to reduce
Page 5 of 11
moments at some critical sections as long as it maintains equilibrium by increasing moments at

adjacent critical sections. The following questions may be raised: why decrease in moment at
critical section is essential while compensation for the decrease is made by increasing moments
at other sections?
Problem of congestion of reinforcement especially at supports can be addressed by adjusting the
moment diagram obtained through elastic analysis. Thus the sections at support can be designed
for less bending moment than predicted by elastic analysis implying less reinforcement and
therefore less congestion. The design load Wd is carried through inelastic moment redistribution
and the method of analysis involves adjustment of elastic bending moment diagram.
N.B. Plastic Moment redistribution is applicable only to statically indeterminate structures where
major load transfer is through bending action
For illustration let us see the behavior of an indeterminate beam of figure 2.3-1. It will be
assumed for simplicity that the beam is symmetrically reinforced, so that the negative bending
capacity is the same as the positive. Let the load P be increased gradually until the elastic
moment at the fixed support, 3PL/16 is just equal to the plastic moment capacity of the section,
Mu. This load is
16#% #%
Q = QRS = = 5.33 (1.1)
3T 3T
At this load the positive moment under the load is 5/32 PL, as shown in figure 2.3-1.
Figure 2.3-1
Page 6 of 11
The beam still responds elastically everywhere but at the left support. At that point the actual
fixed support can be replaced for purpose of analysis with a plastic hinge offering a known
resisting moment Mu, which makes the beam statically determinate.
The load can be increased further until the moment under the load also becomes equal to Mu, at
which load the second hinge forms. The structure is converted into a mechanism, as shown in
figure 2.3-1 c, and collapse occurs. The moment diagram at collapse is shown in figure 2.3-1d.
The magnitude of the load causing collapse is easily calculated from the geometry of figure 2.3-
1d.
#% QT
#% + =
2 4
From which
6#%
Q = Q% = (1.2)
T
By comparison of equation 1.2 and 1.1, it is evident that an increase of 12.5% is possible beyond
the load which caused the formation of the first plastic hinge, before the beam will actually
collapse. Due to the formation of plastic hinges, a redistribution of moments has occurred such
that, at failure, the ratio between positive moment and negative moment is equal to that assumed
in reinforcing the structure.
2.4 Rotation Requirement

It may be evident that there is a direct relation between the amount of redistribution desired and
the amount of inelastic rotation at the critical sections of a beam required to produce the desired
redistribution. In general, the greater the modification of the elastic-moment ratio, the greater the
required rotation capacity to accomplish that change. To illustrate, if the beam of figure 2.3-1a
had been reinforced according to the elastic-moment diagram of figure 2.3-1.b, no inelastic-
rotation capacity at all would be required. The beam would, at least in theory, yield
simultaneously at the left support and at mid-span. On the other hand, if the reinforcement at the
left support had been deliberately reduced (and the mid-span reinforcement correspondingly
increased), inelastic rotation at the support would be required before the strength at mid-span
could be realized.
Page 7 of 11
Reinforced concrete members with bending are designed to have certain ductility, which ensures
that the member is capable of undergoing a certain amount of rotation after yielding of the
tension steel reinforcement and before crushing of the concrete in compression.
Generally, the amount of redistribution depends on
• Hinge sections must be able to undergo necessary inelastic deformation. Since the
inelastic rotational capacity is a function of reinforcement ratio as in figure 2.4-1, this
implies an upper limit on the reinforcement,
• Hinges should not occur at service load since wide cracks develop at hinge location, and
• Equilibrium must be maintained.
Figure 2.4-1 Figure Moment-curvature diagram

To ensure that designs remain under-reinforced (ductile), EBCS-2 recommends that the ratio x/d,
at sections of largest moment, does not exceed the values given by the following equations as
functions of percent plastic moment redistribution.
U V 0.44 H 1.25 ⇒ X
W W U @ 0.44
, YZ X 35#Q
1.25
W W U @ 0.56
U V 0.56 H 1.25 ⇒ X , YZ [ 35#Q
1.25
\]Z]P ^Y^
U
#Y^ PYZ Z]ZP]Y
Page 8 of 11
For example, for 20% redistribution

W 0.8 @ 0.44
U 0.8 ⇒ 0.288 (YZ X 35#Q
1.25
W 0.8 @ 0.56
0.192 (YZ [ 35#Q
1.25
In moment redistribution usually it is the maximum support moments, which are (adjusted)
reduced so that economizing in reinforcing steel and also reducing congestion of bars at the
column. Requirements for applying moment - redistribution are:-
• Equilibrium between internal and external forces must be maintained; hence it is
necessary to recalculate the span moments.
• Maximum redistribution is 30% ... (U=_` 0.7)
Redistribution δ kx µ* kz*
0 1.0 0.450 0.295 0.814
10 0.9 0.368 0.252 0.840
20 0.8 0.288 0.205 0.880
30 0.7 0.208 0.143 0.914
Table 2.4-1 Table Moment Redistribution Design Factors

Design procedure using table No. 1a & 1b (with moment redistribution)
b
a ce
d
• Calculate B= =
a) If B= < B= ∗ , where km* is the value of km shown shaded in general design table No. 1a,
corresponding to %age moment redistribution, section is singly reinforced.
Enter the general design table 1a using km and concrete grade.
Read ks from general design table No. 1a corresponding to steel grade.
B #Og
Evaluate =
b) If B= > B= ∗ , the section has to be doubly reinforced.

Calculate km⁄km*
Page 9 of 11
Read ks and ks' corresponding to km⁄km* and steel grade from table No. 1b and No. 1a
respectively.
Assume d2=d" and read ρ (correction factor) from table No. 1a using km⁄km* and d2/d.
Read ρ' corresponding to d2/d and %age moment redistribution from table No. 1b.
Calculate
B #O
= (]h Z]YZ^)

B ′#O ′
′ = (Y^jZ]k Z]YZ^)

Design procedure using general design chart (with moment redistribution)
# O
Calculate l = gP "
O
•
a) If l < l ∗ , section is singly reinforced.

Evaluate Z from chart using Bm = n/
#O
Evaluate = pn
O
b) If l > l ∗ , section is doubly reinforced.

Evaluate Z* from chart using Bm∗ = n ∗ /
Evaluate #%∗ = l ∗ O P "
Calculate
#%∗ q#
! = + (]h Z]YZ^)
nO ( − " )O
q#
" = (Y^jZ]Y Z]YZ^)
( − " )
Page 10 of 11
-3-
TWO-WAY SLABS
3.1 Introduction
T
wo way slabs are floor system whose individual panels are rectangular and are
supported in such a way that two way action results. When loaded, such slab changes
into a dished surface rather than cylindrical one. Rectangular slabs with the ratio of the
longer to the shorter span less than two are classified as two-way slabs. As the bending moments
are proportional to curvature, to resist these bending moments, the slab must be reinforced in
both directions. Therefore, the slab must be designed to take a proportionate share of the load in
each direction.
For the slab shown in figure 3.1.-1, if beams are incorporated within the depth of the slab itself
the slab carries load in two directions. The load at A may be thought of as being carried from A
to B and C by one strip of slab, and from B to D and E, and so on, by other slab strips. Because
the slab must transmit loads in two directions it is referred to as two way slab.
Figure 3.1-1 Two-way slab
Concrete two-way slabs may in some cases be supported by beams or directly by columns
without the use of beams or girders. Such slabs are generally referred as two-way slab with
beams and column supported two-way slabs respectively. Beams may also be used where the
slab is interrupted as around stair, walls or at discontinuous edges.
Page 1 of 31
In practice two-way slabs take various forms:

Two-way slab with beams: These are two-way slab systems that incorporate beams between
some or all of the columns. (see Fig. 3.1-2d).
Flat Plates: they are flat slabs with flat soffit. Such slabs have uniform thickness supported on
columns. They are used for relatively light loads, as experienced in apartments or similar
buildings. Flat plats are most economical for spans from 4.5m to 6m (see Fig. 3.1-2a).
Flat Slabs: they are slab systems with the load transfer to the column is accomplished by
thickening the slab near the column, using drop panels and/or by flaring the top of the column to
form a column capital. They may be used for heavy industrial loads and for spans of 6m to 9m
(see Fig. 3.1-2c)
Waffle Slabs: they are two-way joist systems with reduced self-weights. They are used for spans
from 7.5m to 12m. (Note: for large spans, the thickness required to transmit the vertical loads to
the columns exceeds that required for bending. As a result the concrete at the middle of the panel
is not efficiently used. To lighten the slab, reduce the slab moments, and save material, the slab
at mid span can be replaced by intersecting ribs. Near the columns the full depth is retained to
transmit loads from the slab to the columns (see Fig. 3.1-2b)
In this chapter, consideration will be given to flat slabs with or without drop panels or column
capitals.
Page 2 of 31
Figure 3.1-2 Types of two way column supported slabs

Behavior of slabs loaded to failure in flexure
For a two-way slab loaded to failure in flexure, there are four or more stages of behavior to be
discussed:
1. Before cracking, the slab acts as an elastic plate, and for short-time loads, the
deformations, stresses, and strains can be predicted from an elastic analysis.
2. After cracking and before yielding of the reinforcement, the slab no longer has a constant
stiffness and also it is no longer isotropic. Although these conditions violate the
assumptions in the elastic theory, tests indicate that the elastic theory still predicts the
moments adequately.
3. Yielding of the reinforcement eventually starts in one or more region of high moment and
spreads through the slab as moments are redistributed from yielded regions to areas that
are still elastic. The progression of yielding through a slab fixed on four edges is
illustrated in Fig. 3.1-3. With further load, the regions of yielding, known as yield lines,
divide the slab into a series of trapezoidal or triangular elastic plates, as shown in Fig.
3.1-3d
4. Although the yield lines divide the plate to form a plastic mechanism, the hinges jam with
increased deflection, and the slab forms a very flat compression arch, as shown in Fig.
3.1-4. This assumes that the surrounding structure is stiff enough to provide reactions for
the arch. This stage of behavior usually is not considered in design.
Page 3 of 31
Figure 3.1-3 Inelastic action in a slab fixed on four sides.
Figure 3.1-4 Arch action in slab

Elastic Analysis of Slabs
Slabs may be subdivided into thick slabs (with a thickness greater than about 1/10th of the span),
thin slabs (with a thickness less than about 1/14th of the span), and medium-thick slabs. Thick
slabs transmit a portion of the loads as a flat arch and have significant in-plane compressive
forces, with the result that the internal resisting compressive force C is larger than the internal
tensile force T. Thin slabs transmit a portion of the loads by acting as a tension membrane;
Page 4 of 31
hence, T is larger than C. A medium-thick slab does not exhibit either arch action or membrane
action and thus has
Figure (next slide) shows an element cut from a medium thick, two-way slab. This element is
acted on by the moments shown in Figure 3.1-5 (a) and by shears and loads shown in Figure 3.1-
5 (b).Two types of moments mx and my about axes parallel to the edges, and twisting moments
mxy and myx about axes ⊥ to the edges.
Figure 3.1-5 Moments and forces in a medium-thick plate
If Vy, and Vx are forces per meter width, if δmx is change in mx over a distance of dx and
similarly δVy is change in Vy over a distance of dy and so on,
Page 5 of 31
 ∂m x 
δ mx =  dx
 ∂x 
 ∂V 
δ V y =  y dy
 ∂y 
Summing vertical forces,
  ∂V     ∂V  
− wdx dy + V y dx − V y +  y dy dx + Vx dy − Vx +  x dx dy = 0
  ∂y     ∂x  
 ∂V   ∂V 
− wdx dy −  y dydx −  x dxdy = 0
 ∂y   ∂x 
 ∂V y   ∂V x 
  +   = −w ……… 3.1
 ∂y   ∂x 
Summing moments about lines parallel to the x and y axes and neglecting higher order terms
gives:
 ∂m y   ∂m xy 
  +   = V y and
 ∂y   ∂x 
……… 3.2
 ∂mx   ∂m yx 
  +   = Vx
 ∂x   ∂y 
It can be shown that mxy = myx (theory of elasticity), differentiating (3.2) and substituting in (3.1)
gives the basic equilibrium equation for medium thick slabs:
 ∂ 2mx   ∂ mxy   ∂ m y 
2 2
 2  + 2  +  2  = − w ……… 3.3
  
 ∂x   ∂x∂y   ∂y 
This is purely an equation of statics and applies regardless of the behavior of the plate material.
For an elastic plate, the deflection, z, can be related to the applied load by means of:
 ∂4 z   ∂4z   ∂4 z  w
 4  + 2 2 2  +  4  = −
 ∂x   ∂x ∂y   ∂y  D
……… 3.4
4 w
or ∇ z=−
D
Et3
Where the plate rigidity is D = and ν is Poisson's ratio, recall that for linear elements
12 (1 − υ 2 )
Page 6 of 31
d 4z w
4
=− , So in an elastic plate analysis, Eqn. (3.4) is solved to determine the deflection, z,
dx EI
and the moments are calculated from;
 ∂2z  ∂ 2 z  Et 3 ∂2z 
mx = − D  2 + υ  2  mx = −  ∂x 2 
 ∂x  ∂y  12  
 ∂2 z  ∂ 2 z  Et 3  ∂ 2 z 
m y = − D  2 + υ  2  or m y = − ……… 3.5
 ∂y  ∂x  12  ∂y 2 
 ∂2 z  Et 3  ∂ 2 z 
mxy = − D (1 − υ )  m xy = −  
 ∂x∂y  12  ∂x∂y 
Figure 3.1-6a shows a rectangular slab that is fixed on all sides by stiff beams. One longitudinal
and two transverse strips are shown. The deflected shape of these strips and the corresponding
moment diagrams are shown in Fig. 3.1-6 b through d. Where the deflected shape is concaved
downward, the moment causes compression on the bottom—that is, the moment is negative. This
may be seen also from Eq. (3.5). Since z was taken as positive downward, a positive curvature
∂2 z
corresponds to a curve that is concaved downward. From Eq. (3.5), a positive curvature
∂x 2
corresponds to a negative moment. The magnitude of the moment is proportional to the
curvature. The largest deflection ∆2 occurs at the center of the panel. As a result, the curvatures
(and hence the moments in strip B) are larger than those in strip A. The center portion of strip C
essentially is straight, indicating that most of the loads in this region are being transmitted by
one-way action across the short direction of the slab.
Page 7 of 31
Figure 3.1-6 Relationship between slab curvatures and moments
Distribution of moments in slabs supported by stiff beams or walls

The distributions of moments will be presented in one of two graphical treatments. The
distribution of the negative moments, mA, or of the positive moments, mB, along lines across the
slab will be depicted as shown in Figure 3.1-7 (b). These distributions may be shown as
continuous curves, as shown by the solid lines and shaded areas, or as a series of steps, as shown
by the dashed line. The height of the curve at any point indicates the magnitude of the moment at
that point. Occasionally, the distribution of BMs in a strip A-B-C across the slab will be plotted
as shown in Figure 3.1-7 (c). The moments will be expressed in terms of CwLx2, where Lx is the
short dimension of the panel with unit’s kNm/m.
Page 8 of 31
Figure 3.1-7 Moment diagrams four four-edged fixed slab
3.2 Design of Slabs

Slabs are to be designed by any procedure that satisfies both equilibrium and geometric
compatibility, provided that every section has strength at least equal to the required strength and
that serviceability conditions are satisfied. Two procedures for the flexural analysis and design of
two-way floor systems are presented. These are the direct-design method and the equivalent-
frame design method.
These two methods differ primarily in the way in which the slab moments are computed. The
calculation of moments in the direct-design method is based on the total statical moment. In this
method, the slab is considered panel by panel, and equations are used to compute the total
moment in each panel and in each direction. The statical moment then is divided between
positive and negative moments, and these are further divided between middle strips and column
strips.
The second method is called the equivalent-frame method. Here, the slab is divided into a series
of two-dimensional frames (in each direction), and the positive and negative moments are
computed via an elastic-frame analysis. Once the positive and negative moments are known, they
are divided between middle strips and column strips in exactly the same way as in the direct-
design method. Other methods, such as the yield-line method and the strip method are permitted
for design.
Page 9 of 31
Steps in Slab Design

The steps in the design of a two-way slab are the following:
1. Choose the layout and type of slab to be used.
2. Choose the slab thickness. Generally, the slab thickness is chosen to prevent excessive
deflection in service. Equally important, the slab thickness chosen must be adequate for
shear at both interior and exterior columns
3. Choose the method for computing the design moments. Equivalent-frame methods use an
elastic-frame analysis to compute the positive and negative moments in the various
panels in the slab. The direct-design method uses coefficients to compute these moments.
4. Calculate the distribution of the moments across the width of the slab. The lateral
distribution of moments within a panel depends on the geometry of the slab and the
stiffness of the beams (if any). This procedure is the same whether the negative and
positive moments are calculated from the direct-design method or from an equivalent-
frame method.
5. If there are beams, assign a portion of the column strip moment to the beams.
6. Design reinforcement for the moments from steps 4 and 5. (Note: steps 3 through 6 need
to be done for both principal directions.)
7. Check shear strength at a critical section around the columns.
Page 10 of 31
3.2.1 Analysis and design of two way beam/wall supported slabs according to
EBCS-2
Slabs with side ratio less than two are treated as two way slabs and analysis can be made by
means of coefficients on the basis of the following assumptions and procedures.
• The slab is composed of rectangular panels, supported at all four edges by walls or beams,
stiff enough to be treated as an unyielding.
• Slabs are subjected to uniform load or concentrated load which can be converted to
equivalent uniform load not exceeding 20% of the total load.
Individual Moment Determination
Moments for each panels with edge either simply supported or fully fixed are calculated from,
mi = αI Pd Lx2
Where mi = design BM per unit width at point of reference.

αI = Coefficient given in table A - 1, as a function of Ly/Lx
Pd = Design uniform load (KN/m2)
Lx , Ly = shorter and longer spans of the panel, respectively
The Notation of Critical Moments

The subscripts for moments are:
s = support
f = field (span)
x & y = are directions of shorter & longer span, respectively.
Figure 3.2.1-1 Notations of critical moments
Page 11 of 31
Division of panel into strips:

Slabs are divided in each direction into middle strips and edge strips as shown below.
Figure 3.2.1-2 Division of panel into strips

The maximum BM computed apply only to the middle strips & reinforcement can be detailed in
such a way that at least about 50% of the positive bars is extended into the supports. The
negative bars may be terminated at a distance of L/4 to L/3 from the respective centerline of the
support. Reinforcement in an edge strip parallel to edge need not be less than As min , where
As min = 0.5bd/fyk , fyk in MPa.
3.2.1.1 Moments in Continuous Slabs

The first stage of design is to determine support and span moments for all panels individually by
treating their edges as either simply supported or fully fixed. External edges are generally
considered as simply supported and continuous edges are considered as fully fixed in this stage.
If the slab is connected with an external wall or if any of its edges is partly fixed and partly
simply supported, the following procedure may be adopted:
(a) The ratio of the actual support moment to the bending moment of fully fixed slab, or the
ratio of the width of fixed part to the width of the simply supported part of the edge is
evaluated.
(b) The bending moments of the slab are then computed by interpolating between different
support conditions.
For each support over which the slab is continuous, generally, there will be two different support
moments. The difference may be distributed between the panels on either side of the support to
equalize their moments, as in the moment distribution method for frames. Two methods of
Page 12 of 31
differing accuracy are given here for treating the effects of this redistribution on moments away
from the support.
Method I
Method I may be used:
(a) When differences between initial support moments are less than 20 percent of the larger
moment, and
(b) Only for internal structures where the live load does not exceed 2.5 times the permanent
load (qk ≤ 2.5gk) or 0.8 times the dead load for external structures (qk ≤ 0.8gk).
In other cases either Method II or other more accurate methods shall be used. When Method I is
used, dimensioning is normally, carried out either using:
(a) Initial moments directly, or
(b) Based on the average initial moment at the support.
Method II
In this method consideration of the effects of changes of support moments is limited to the
adjacent spans. Since no effects on neighbouring support sections need be considered, only a
simple balancing operation is required at each edge and no iterative process is involved. The
procedure for applying Method II, is as follows:
a) Support and span moments are first calculated for individual panels by assuming each
panel to be fully loaded. This is done by using the coefficients given in Table A-1
b) The unbalanced moment is distributed using the moment distribution method. The
relative stiffness of each panel shall be taken proportional to its gross moment of inertia
divided by the smaller span.
c) The support moment is decreased; the span moments mxf and myf are then increased to
allow for the changes of support moments. This increase is calculated as being equal to
the change of the support moment multiplied by the factors given in Table A-2. If a
support moment is increased, no adjustment shall be made to the span moments.
= +
= +
Where cx and cy are coefficient from Table A-2 (EBCS-2)
Page 13 of 31
3.2.1.2 Reinforcement provisions

• The ratio of the secondary reinforcement to the main reinforcement shall be at least equal
to 0.2.
•
, ≤ 5 ∗

• The geometrical ratio of main reinforcement in a slab shall not be less than
0.5
= , ℎ ! " #$

• The spacing between main bars for slabs shall not exceed the smaller of 2h or 350 mm.
• The spacing between secondary bars shall not exceed 400 mm.
• The shear force carried by concrete in slab can be taken as the one given for beams.
%& = '. 25&) *+ *, -.
3.2.1.3 Loads to Supporting Beams

The design loads on beams supporting solid slabs spanning in two directions at right angles can
be computed using,
Vx = βvx Pd Lx
Vy = βvy Pd Ly
Table A-3 gives values of load transfer coefficient βvx and βvy and the assumed distribution of
this loading is shown below.
Vi
Li/8 + 0.75Li + Li/8

Li
Page 14 of 31
Page 15 of 31
Page 16 of 31
Page 17 of 31
3.2.2 Analysis and design of flat slabs

For analysis and design purpose the panel in flat slab is divided in to column strips and middle
strips as shown below (EBSC 2)
Figure 3.2.2-1 Division of panels in Flat slabs
A column strip is a design strip with a width on each side of a column centerline equal to 0.25
Lx or if drops with dimension not less than Lx/3 are used, a width equal to the drop dimension.
A middle strip is a design strip bounded by two column strips. The drop panels are rectangular
(may be square) and influence the distribution of moments in the slab. The smaller dimension of
the drop is at least one third of the smaller dimension of the surrounding panels, Lx/3 and the
drop may be 25 to 50 percent thicker than the rest of the slab.
Page 18 of 31
3.2.2.1 Load Transfer in Flat Slabs

Consider the following column supported two way slabs. If a surface load w is applied (see Fig.
3.2.2.1-1a), it is shared between imaginary slab strips la in the short direction and lb in the longer
direction. Note that the portion of the load that is carried by the long strips lb is delivered to the
beams B1 which in turn carried in the short direction plus that directly carried in the short
direction by the slab strips la, sums up to 100 percent of the load applied to the panel. The same
is true in the other direction.
A similar situation is obtained in the flat plate floor (see Fig. 3.2.2.1-2b) where broad strips of
the slab centered on the column lines in each direction serve the same function as the beams.
Therefore; for column supported construction, 100 percent of the applied load must be carried in
each direction, jointly by the slab and its supporting beams.
Figure 3.2.2.1-3 Column Supported two-way slabs (a) with beams (b) without beams
Page 19 of 31
3.2.2.2 Moments in Flat Slabs Floors

Consider the flat slab floor supported by columns at A, B, C, and D as shown in Fig. 3.2.2.2-1a
Figure 3.2.2.2-2 Moment Variation (a) critical-moment section (b) moment variation along
a span (c) moment variation along the width of critical section
Longitudinal Distributions of moments

For the determination of moment in the direction of span l1, the slab may be considered as a
broad, flat beam of width l2.
The load, P2 = wl2 per m length of span.
From the requirement of statics:
In the longitudinal direction (see fig. 3.2.2.2-3b)
+ +
/0 + & 1 + = /3, 3+, 1
, 2
In the perpendicular direction

1 1
/& + 0 1 + 5 = /3+ 3,, 1
2 8
Page 20 of 31
From the above static moment in each direction, the moment in the long direction is larger than
those in the short direction unlike to the situation for the slab with stiff edge beams.
Lateral Distributions of moments
The moments across the width of critical sections such as AB or EF are not constant as shown
qualitatively (see fig. 3.2.2.2-4c). For design purpose, moments may be considered constant
within the bounds of a middle strip or column strip, unless beams are present in column lines.
3.2.2.3 Practical Analysis of Flat slab Floors

The two methods for the analysis of flat slabs are:
a) Direct Design method
b) Equivalent Frame Method
Generally, for both methods of analysis, the negative moments greater than those at a distance
hc/2 from the center-line of the column may be ignored provided the moment Mo obtained as the
sum of the maximum positive design moment and the average of the negative design moments in
anyone span of the slab for the whole panel width is such that:
/9 + : 1;, 2ℎ& ,
7 ≥ <;+ − ?
8 3
Where L1 is the panel length parallel to span, measured from centers of columns.
L2 is the panel width, measured from centers of columns
hc is the effective diameter of a column or column head (see below)
When the above condition is not satisfied, the negative design moments shall be increased.
The effective diameter of a column or column head hc is the diameter of a circle whose area
equals the cross-sectional area of the column or, if column heads are used, the area of the column
head based on the effective dimensions as defined below. In no case shall hc be taken as greater
than one-quarter of the shortest span framing in to the column.
The effective dimensions of a column head for use in calculation of hc are limited according to
the depth of the head. In any direction, the effective dimension of a head Lh shall be taken as the
lesser of the actual dimension Lho or Lh,max, where Lh,max is given by:
;5, = ;& + 2.5
For a flared head, the actual dimension Lho is that measured to the center of the reinforcing steel
(see Fig3.2.2.3-1)
Page 21 of 31
Figure 3.2.2.3-1 Types of Column Head
A. Direct Design Method as per EBCS 2, 1995
According to the EBCS 2 specification, the direct design method of analysis is subjected to the
following restrictions.
• Design is based on the single load case of all spans loaded with the maximum design
ultimate load.
• There are at least three rows of panels of approximately equal span in the direction being
considered.
• Successive span length in each direction shall not differ by more than one-third of the
longer span
• Maximum offsets of columns from either axis between center lines of successive columns
shall not exceed 10% of the span (in the direction of the offset)
Longitudinal Distribution
The distribution of design span and support moments depends on the relative stiffness of the
different sections which in turn depends on the restraint provided for the slab by the supports.
Accordingly, the distribution factors are given in the following table.
Page 22 of 31
Outer support Near center First Center of Interior

Column Wall of first span interior interior support
support span
Moment -0.040FL -0.020FL 0.083FL -0.063FL 0.071FL -0.055FL
Shear 0.45F 0.40F - 0.60F - 0.50F
Total Column moments 0.040FL - - 0.022FL - 0.022FL
Table 3.2.2.3-1 Bending Moment and Shear Force Coefficients for Flat slabs of Three or
More Equal Spans.
NOTE:
• F is the total design ultimate load on the strip of slab between adjacent columns
considered.
• L is the effective span = L1-2hc/3
• The limitations of Section A.4.3.1(2) of EBCS 2, need not be checked
• The moments shall not be redistributed
Lateral Distribution
The design moment obtained from the above (or equivalent frame analysis) shall be divided b/n
the column and middle strips according to the following table.
Apportionment been column and middle strip expressed as
percentages of the total negative or positive design moment
Column Strip (%) Middle Strip (%)
Negative 75 25
Positive 55 45
Table 3.2.2.3-2 Distribution of Design Moments in Panels of Flat Slabs
NOTE: For the case where the width of the column strip is taken as equal to that of the drop and
the middle strip is thereby increased in width, the design moments to be resisted by the middle
strip shall be increased in proportion to its increased width. The design moments to be resisted
by the column strip may be decreased by an amount such that the total positive and the total
negative design moments resisted by the column strip and middle strip together are unchanged.
Page 23 of 31
B. Equivalent Frame Method
The direct design method is applicable when the proposed structures satisfy the restrictions on
geometry and loading. If the structure does not satisfy the criteria, the more general method of
elastic analysis is the equivalent frame method.
In the equivalent frame method, the structure is divided in to continuous frames centered on the
column lines on either side of the columns, extending both longitudinally and transversely. Each
frame is composed of abroad continuous beam and a row of columns.
Figure 3.2.2.3-2 Building idealization for equivalent frame analysis
Equivalent Frame Method as per EBCS 2, 1995

According to the EBCS 2 specification, Equivalent Frame Method of analysis is treated as
follows:
(1) The width of slab used to define the effective stiffness of the slab will depend upon the
aspect ratio of the panels and the type of loading, but the following provisions may be
applied in the absence of more accurate methods:
• In the case of vertical loading, the full width of the Panel, and
Page 24 of 31
• For lateral loading, half the width of the panel may be used to calculate the stiffness
of the slab.
(2) The moment of inertia of any section of slab or column used in calculating the relative
stiffness of members may be assumed to be that of the cross section of the concrete alone.
(3) Moments and forces within a system of flat slab panels may be obtained from analysis of the
structure under the single load case of maximum design load on all spans or panels
simultaneously, provided:
• The ratio of the characteristic imposed load to the characteristic dead load does not
exceed 1.25.
• The characteristic imposed load does not exceed 5.0 kN/m2 excluding partitions.
(4) Where it is not appropriate to analyze for the single load case of maximum design load on all
spans, it will be sufficient to consider following arrangement of vertical loads:
• All spans loaded with the maximum design ultimate load, and
• Alternate spans with the maximum design ultimate load and all other spans loaded
with the minimum design ultimate load (1.0Gk).
(5) Each frame may be analyzed in its entirety by any elastic method. Alternatively, for vertical
loads only, each strip of floor and roof may be analyzed as a separate frame with the columns
above and below fixed in position and direction at their extremities. In either case, the
analysis shall be carried out for the "appropriate design ultimate loads on each span
calculated for a strip of slab of width equal to the distance between center lines of the panels
on each side of the columns.
Equivalent Frame Method as per ACI Code

According to the ACI Code specification, the Equivalent Frame method was developed with the
assumption that the analysis would be done using the moment distribution method.
A. Basis of Analysis
The equivalent Frame method was developed with the assumption that the analysis would be
done using the moment distribution method. For vertical loading, each floor with its columns
may be analyzed separately by assuming the columns to be fixed at the floors above and below.
Page 25 of 31
B. Moment of Inertia of Slab Beam
The slab beam includes the portion of then slab bounded by panel centerlines on each side of the
columns, together with column line beams or drop panels (if used).
The moment of inertia used for analysis may be based on the concrete cross-section, neglecting
reinforcement, but variations in cross section along the member axis should be accounted for
(see below).
Figure 3.2.2.3-3 EI values for slab with drop
Page 26 of 31
Figure 3.2.2.3-4 EI values for slab and beam
C. The equivalent Column
In the equivalent frame method of analysis, the columns are considered to be attached to the
continuous slab beam by torsional members transverse to the direction of the span for which
moments are being found. Torsional deformation of these transverse supporting members
reduces the effective flexural stiffness provided by the actual column at the support.
Page 27 of 31
Figure 3.2.2.3-5 Frame action and twisting of edge member
The above effects can be considered by replacing the actual beam and columns with an
equivalent column having the following stiffness:
Page 28 of 31
1 1 1
= +
@& ∑ @& @B
Where: Kec = Flexural stiffness of equivalent column
Kc = flexural stiffness of actual column
Kt = torsional stiffness of edge beam
The torsional Stiffness Kt can be calculated by:
9E& F
@) = C
J
3, G1 − ,H3 I
,
Where: Ecs = modulus of elasticity of slab concrete

c2 = size of rectangular column, capital, or bracket in the direction of l2.
C = cross sectional constant (roughly equivalent to polar moment of inertia)
The torsional constant C can be calculated by:
L LJM
F = C <1 − 0.63 ?
M 3
Where: x is the shorter side of a rectangle and y is the longer side.
C is calculated by sub-dividing the cross section of torsional members in to component
rectangles and the sub-division is to maximize the value of C.
The torsional members according to ACI Code are as follows:
Page 29 of 31
Figure 3.2.2.3-6 Torsional members
D. Arrangement of Live Load for Analysis

(1) If the un-factored live load does not exceed 0.75 times the un-factored dead load, it is not
necessary to consider pattern loadings, and only the case of full factored live load and
dead load on all spans need to be analyzed.
(2) If the un-factored live load exceeds 0.75 times the un-factored dead load the following
pattern loadings need to be considered.
a. For maximum positive moment, factored dead load on all spans and 0.75 times
the full factored live load on the panel in question and on alternate panels.
b. For maximum negative moment at an interior support, factored dead load on all
panels and 0.75 times the full factored live load on the two adjacent panels.
The final design moments shall not be less than for the case of full factored dead and live load on
all panels.
Page 30 of 31
3.2.2.4 Shear in Flat Slabs, as per EBCS 2

The concrete section (thickness of the slab) must be adequate to sustain the shear force, since
stirrups are not convenient.
Two types of shear are considered
a) Beam type Shear: Diagonal tension Failure and critical section is considered at d
distance from the face of the column or capital and Vc is the same expression given
earlier for beams or solid slabs.
%& = 0.25&) *+ *, -N .
b) Punching Shear: perimeter shear which occurs in slabs without beams around columns.
It is characterized by formation of a truncated punching cone or pyramid around
concentrated loads or reactions. The outline of the critical section is shown in Fig. below.
Figure 3.2.2.4-1 Critical section remote from a free edge
The shear force to be resisted can be calculated as the total design load on the area bounded by
the panel centerlines around the column less the load applied with in the area defined by the
critical shear perimeter.
The punching shear resistance without shear reinforcement is:
%&O = 0.25&) *+ *, P .
*+ = /1 + 50 1 ≤ 2.0
,
= Q R ≤ 0.015
P = S TU V U $3 !U V"
1
. = /. + . 1, $W$9 U W .SUℎ
2
Page 31 of 31

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Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (AAiT)

1.2. Analyses and Design of Continuous Beams

Figure 1.2-1 Influence line for moment and loading patterns

Figure 1.2-2 Influence line for shear

1.3Gk + 1.6Qk 1.3Gk + 1.6Qk

Elastic analysis methods studies in theory of structure II such as slope-deflection, moment

L2/L1 L3/L2 L4/L3 L5/L4 b C d e f g h j k

Figure 1.2-3 three-span continuous beam

2. Enter the general design chart,

• If , section is singly reinforced.

• If , section is doubly reinforced.

1.3. Analysis and design of one-way ribbed slabs

Figure 1.3-1 Typical ribbed slab and slab cross-section

• Because joists are closely spaced, thickness of slab (topping),

• Ribs shall not be less than 70 mm in width

• Rib spacing shall not exceed 1.0 m

Procedure for design of ribbed slabs

1. Thickness of toppings and ribs assumed based on minimum requirement.

2. Loads may be computed on the basis of centerline of the spacing of joists.

3. The joists are analyzed as regular continuous or T -beams supported by girders.

7. Design the girder as a beam.

2.2 Moment curvature diagram

Curvature is defined as the angle change per

Figure 2.2-1 Curvature

2.2.1 Moment of Inertia of Transformed Section

Figure 2.2-2 Transformed Sections

Figure 2.2-3 Under-reinforced concrete beam section, subject to flexural cracking

In the limit case of figure 2.2-3b

Where, lut is the moment of inertia of the un-cracked transformed section.

Figure 2.2-4 Moment-Curvature relationship of reinforced beam

Then the total compressive force will be,

2.3 Plastic Hinge and Collapse mechanism

Mu BMD from elastic analysis

If a short segment of a reinforced concrete beam is subjected to a bending moment, continued

moments at some critical sections as long as it maintains equilibrium by increasing moments at

2.4 Rotation Requirement

Figure 2.4-1 Figure Moment-curvature diagram

For example, for 20% redistribution

Table 2.4-1 Table Moment Redistribution Design Factors

b) If B= > B= ∗ , the section has to be doubly reinforced.

Design procedure using general design chart (with moment redistribution)

a) If l < l ∗ , section is singly reinforced.

b) If l > l ∗ , section is doubly reinforced.

Figure 3.1-1 Two-way slab

In practice two-way slabs take various forms:

Figure 3.1-2 Types of two way column supported slabs

Figure 3.1-3 Inelastic action in a slab fixed on four sides.

Figure 3.1-4 Arch action in slab

Figure 3.1-5 Moments and forces in a medium-thick plate

Figure 3.1-6 Relationship between slab curvatures and moments

Distribution of moments in slabs supported by stiff beams or walls

Figure 3.1-7 Moment diagrams four four-edged fixed slab

3.2 Design of Slabs

Steps in Slab Design

Individual Moment Determination

Where mi = design BM per unit width at point of reference.

The Notation of Critical Moments

%& = '. 25&) + , -.