Chapter 7

Air Quality in Mexico City

1,2 1
J. Garfias and R. González
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1Subsecretaría de Ecología, Secretaría de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecología,

Río Elba 20, México, D.F., CP 06500
2
Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Ciudad
Universitaria, México, D.F., CP 04510

In Mexico City, several air quality parameters are measured

continuously by an Automated Monitoring Network operated by
the Under Secretariat of Ecology. Carbon monoxide, particulate
matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and ozone are the
contaminants exceeding Air Quality Standards. Emissions
produced by 2.7 million vehicles and 35,000 commercial and
industrial outfits are not easily dispersed in a Valley located at
2240 m and surrounded by two mountain chains which hinder air
circulation. An Integral Program, recently established to alleviate
pollution, is briefly described.

Illustrated writings in the Mendocino Codex indicate that the Aztec

pilgrimage of 1327 ended with the founding of Mexico City on an island
where an eagle was seen eating a snake atop a cactus tree. At that time,
the surface area covered by water in the Valley of Mexico was as large as
the land area. Old paintings belonging to the 16th and 17th century depict
a valley with three large lakes encircling the city: Xochimilco, Texcoco and
Chalco. Mexico City was usually flooded during the rainy season: the
worst deluge took place in 1629, lasting five years and decimating the
population. It is then not surprising to trace, as early as the 17th century,
efforts directed to dry the lakes. To this day, dust storms, ensuing after
Texcoco and Chalco Lakes were partially drained, sweep the city in
February and March (7). Although particulate matter often exceeds the air
quality standard, dust has now been reduced by seeding a grass variety
resistant to saline soils.
Air at 2240 m is 23% lighter than air at sea level; this fact led
Humboldt to observe, at the beginning of the last century, that Mexico
City's air was "the most transparent one." Intense industrialization and
population growth in the last 40 years, plus adverse geographical and

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150 THE SCIENCE OF GLOBAL CHANGE

meteorological conditions, have transformed Mexico City to one of the

most contaminated metropolises in the world.

Geographical and Meteorological Considerations

Combustion efficiency at Mexico City's elevation is considerably reduced,

compared to sea level, and carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC)
emissions enhanced, unless an extra 23% volume of air is fed.
Contaminant dispersion is not easily achieved in Mexico City as she lies in
a valley flanked by two cordilleras, averting strong wind formation.
Average wind velocity is 2.4 m/s. The direction of prevailing winds is NE-
SW during the day (see Figure 1). At night, a light mountain wind
descends towards the Valley. Thermal inversions occur almost daily during
the winter but less often in summer (see Figure 2a). Inversions break at
around 9:30 A M in winter (Figure 2b). The average thickness of the
inversion layer is less than 200 m in 64% of the days showing an inversion.
Particularly adverse conditions may prevail in winter whenever a combined
mechanism of high air pressure and thermal inversion occurs. Seasonal
rains that fall from June to September help to clear the atmosphere.
However, a quasi-static atmosphere associated with high pressures may lead
to high ozone levels at any time.

Pollution Inventory

Eighteen and a half percent of Mexico's total population live in the Mexico
City Metropolitan Area (MCMA). The M C M A comprises the Federal
District and 17 Municipalities from the State of Mexico. The M C M A has
an estimated total area of 2,000 square kilometers, of which 34% is urban,
28% forest, 27% agricultural, and 11% arid. Fifteen million people living
in the M C M A produce 36% of the Gross National Product, and consume
15% of total fuel.
Mobile, fixed and natural sources contribute 83,12, and 5% respectively
to the 4.9 million metric tons of contaminants yearly emitted into the
atmosphere (Table I).

Table I. Sources of Atmospheric Pollution in 1989 (metric tons per year)

Contaminant Industrial Vehicular Natural Total

Particulates 128,000 41,000 251,000 420,000

Sulfur Oxides 184,000 7,300 191,300
Hydrocarbons 137,500 310,000 447,500
Carbon Monoxide 53,000 3,573,000 3,626,000
Nitrogen Oxides 68,000 111,300 179,300

Total 570,500 4,042,800 251,000 4,864,300

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7. GARFIAS & G O N Z A L E Z Air Quality in Mexico City 151

NE

STATE OB' MEXICO

10 Km.

OI4-T
p, OI5-QL

FEDERAL DISTRICT

SW SE

Figure 1. Map of the Mexico City Metropolitan Area showing the

location of the following monitoring stations: 10-C Azcapotzalco;
11-F Tlanepantla; 12-L XalostoC.; 13-X Merced; 14-T Pedregal;
15-Q Cerro de la Estrella; 16-U Plateros; 17-Y Hangeras;
18-P UAM-Iztapalapa; M u Museo.

Dunnette and O'Brien; The Science of Global Change

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 THE SCIENCE OF GLOBAL CHANGE

N U M B E R O F DAYS

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
MONTH

(a) CZ]1986 H 1987 • 1988 • 1989

AVERAGE BREAKING HOUR

12 ι

11

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
MONTH

(b) CZI1986 E l 1987 • 1988 β 1989

Figure 2. Thermal Inversions, (a) Number of days occurring,

(b) Average breaking hour.

Dunnette and O'Brien; The Science of Global Change

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7. GARFIAS & GONZALEZ Air Quality in Mexico City 153

Mexico depends mostly on oil and gas (89.8%) as a source of energy.

The relative contribution to pollution by different activities at National and
M C M A levels may be assessed by comparing fuel consumptions (Table II).
With the exception of kerosenes, each fuel has a distinctive usage in
Mexico. Consequently, 51.6% of fuel (gasoline and diesel) consumed in the
M C M A is used in transportation, 15.2% (L.P.G.) in residential water
heating and cooking, and 27% (natural gas and fuel oil) in industrial and
power generation enterprises. Furthermore, by remembering that almost
one fifth of Mexico's population lives in the MCMA, it can be inferred
from inspection of Table II, that there is a substantially lower per capita
consumption of diesel, and in particular of fuel oil in the M C M A than in
the rest of the country. The proportionally low diesel figure may be
explained by the importance of metro transportation in Mexico City; the
even lower fuel oil figure may be explained by the establishment of heavy
industry in other regions, and by the fact that power generation in situ has
been largely curtailed in Mexico City to reduce pollution.

Table IL Fuel Consumption in Mexico and in Mexico City Metropolitan

Area in 1989 (metric tons per day)

Fuel Mexico" % MCMA %

Natural Gas b
27,452 14.6 4,840 17.5
L.P.G. 16,213 8.6 4,224 15.2
Gasoline 46,821 24.9 10,947° 39.5
Kerosene 6,078 3.2 1,734 6.2
Diesel 26,273 13.9 3,367 12.1
Fuel Oil 65,510 34.8 2,625 9.5

Total 188,347 100.0 27,737 100.0

3
Reference 2
b
Equivalent to fuel oil
c
2.5% is unleaded gasoline

Fuel consumption is very sensitive to economic growth, price structure,

and ecological policies. After seven years of economic stagnation, a
recovery initiated in 1989 led to a 6.2% annual increase in gasoline demand
in the MCMA. However, a rise in gasoline prices plus the permanent
establishment of a program in the M C M A to keep vehicles out of
circulation one day a week, have lowered the gasoline demand growth rate
for 1990. On the other hand, unleaded gasoline is expected to reach 7%
of total gasoline demand in 1990. It's increased availability is required by
the appearance of 1991 models running exclusively on unleaded petrol. An
additional daily substitution of 1,590 tons of fuel oil by 1.93 million cubic

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154 THE SCIENCE OF GLOBAL CHANGE

meters of natural gas in power stations has also changed the consumption
pattern for 1990.
There are 35,000 commercial and industrial establishments and 2.5
million vehicles using fuels. Major industries, such as an oil refining (16,000
tons per day, operating until 18 March 1991), two power stations (1,000
total M W ) , foundries and several chemical and manufacturing plants are
located upwind in the northern part of the M C M A .
The average life of a car is 10 years. New car sales amounted to
368,000 units in the M C M A in 1989, compared to 136,000 in 1984.
Vehicular transportation accounts for 22.4 million personal journeys a day:
51% are taken to go to work, 24% to school, 8% for shopping, 3% for
entertainment, and 14% in other activities. Although 79.4% of personal
journeys are made by public transport, those 19.0% related to the use of
private cars are sufficient to create traffic jams, low transit speeds and
70.4% of vehicular emissions.

Vehicular Emission Standards

The latest revision of Emission Standards for New Vehicles was issued in
September 1988. A summary of past and present emission standards is
given in Table III.

Table III. Emission Standards for New Vehicles (g/km)

Model Year CO HC NO x

Automobiles:

_
1976 to 1985 33.0 3.0
1986 to 1987 27.0 2.8 2.3
1988 to 1989 22.0 2.0 2.3
1990 18.0 1.8 2.0
1991* and 1992* 7.0 0.7 1.4
1993* 2.11 0.25 0.62

Commercial Trucks:

1990 and 1991 35.0 3.0 3.5

1992 and 1993 22.0 2.0 2.3
1994 8.75 0.63 1.44

T h e standard may be met by emission weighting of a company's car

production.

The Emission Standard for New Diesel Vehicles, issued in December

1988, established a maximum of 50 Hartridge Opacity Units. The
Ecological Technical Standard of June, 1988, enforced the maximum
allowable emissions for circulating cars (Table IV). The Diesel Regulation

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7. GARFIAS & GONZALEZ Air Quality in Mexico City 155

of November 1988, requires biannual inspections. The maximum allowable

opacity in diesel engines is related to nominal gas flow. There are 636 Car
Inspection Centers in the Federal District and 250 in the State of Mexico,
and 114 Diesel Inspection Centers operated by the Secretaria de
Communicaciones y Transportes.

Table IV. Maximum Allowable Emissions for Cars in Circulation

Year Model CO (%vol)HC(ppm)

Previous to 1979 6.0 700
1980 to 1986 4.0 500
Later than 1987 3.0 400

Fuel Quality. Petroleos Mexicanos markets two gasoline brands: leaded

Nova Plus and unleaded Magna Sin. Nova Plus is specified to have
tetraethyl lead (TEL) in the 0.5 to 1 milliliters per gallon range, a minimum
Research Octane Number of 81, and a Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) in the
7 to 9.5 psi range. Magna Sin is similar to American Regular, with a
minimum 86 Road Octane Number, a maximum of 0.01 grams of lead per
gallon, and the same R V P as Nova Plus. Diesel for combustion engines
contains no more than 0.5% sulfur with a minimum 40 octane number.
Industrial Fuel Oil is limited to 3% sulfur, but has from 0.2 to 0.7% of
compounded nitrogen.
To meet Emission Standards, new 1991 models are designed to run on
unleaded petrol, and therefore, new engines working at a higher
compression ratio will be from 8 to 10% more efficient than older ones.

Air Quality Monitoring Network. The first systematic effort to measure air
quality began in 1966 with the installation of 4 manned monitoring stations.
The Mexican A i r Quality Standards (MAQS), given in Table V , were
promulgated in November 1982. The air monitoring network has been
expanded and transformed over the years. A t present, the
Undersecretariat of Ecology operates an Automated Monitoring Network
comprising 25 stations, of which 15 measure sulfur dioxide, 5 nitrogen
oxides, 15 carbon monoxide, 3 non-methane hydrocarbons, 10 ozone and
2 hydrogen sulfide. Ten stations measure the meteorological parameters
wind velocity, wind direction, relative humidity, and temperature. The
information received by telephone in a computer at the Central Office is
processed and relayed to officers in charge of emergencies and to the press.
There is an additional Manual Monitoring Network, made up by 16
stations, committed to evaluate total particulate matter, PM10 (suspended
particulate matter less than 10 μτη in diameter), sulfur dioxide and heavy

Dunnette and O'Brien; The Science of Global Change

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156 THE SCIENCE OF GLOBAL CHANGE

metals. Two acoustic radars are used to measure the heights of inversion
layers. Geopotentials are appraised at 300, 500 and 700 millibar.

Table V. Air Quality Standards*

Contaminant Averaging Mexican USA.

Time Standard Standard
Carbon Monoxide 8h 13 ppm 9 ppm
1 h 35 ppm
Sulfur Dioxide annual average 003 ppm
24 h 0.13 ppm 014 ppm
Hydrocarbons (corrected
for metane) 3 h
(6-9 a.m.) 021 ppm
Nitrogen Dioxide annual average 005 ppm
1 h 0.21 ppm
Ozone 1 h 0.11 ppm Q12ppm
Total Particulate Matter annual geometric
3
mean 75/igta
3
24 h 275 /ig/m

* Standards, other than those based on annual average or annual geometric

average, are not to be exceeded more than once a year.

Thermal inversions make winter the most unfavorable season for clean
air. Vast differences in air quality are found in the industrialized north,
and the residential southwest regions. Particulate matter influences mainly
the north, where industries, landfills, and the dried bed of Texcoco Lake
are located. Sulfur oxides impinge primarily on the northeast and
southwest. High carbon monoxide concentrations are found in heavy traffic
areas such as the northwest. Ozone affects predominantly the southwest
at any season. We have selected air quality records from data generated
by stations registering the higher pollutant levels, as follows:

Carbon Monoxide. The Standard is often exceeded at the Cuitlahuac

Station (northwest) during winter,as displayed in Figure 3a. However, a
diminishing trend on the number of hours reaching a 26 ppm level can be
appreciated in Figure 3b.

Sulfur Dioxide. High concentrations are found at Xalostoc (NE) and Santa
Ursula (SW) stations during fall and winter, the former is located close to
a power plant, and the latter near an asphalt factor; the Standard was
exceeded 5 and 9 days respectively from October 1989 to February 1990.

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7. GARFIAS & GONZALEZ Air Quality in Mexico City 157

NUMBER OF 8-H MOVING PERIODS

50

40

30

20

10

Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb

MONTH

YEAR

(a) • 1989 Β 1990

N U M B E R O F H O U R S E X C E E D I N G 26 P P M
60

50

40

30

20

10

(b) SPAN

• O C T 86 - F E B 87 OCT 87 - F E B 88

Β O C T 88 - F E B 89 OCT 89 - F E B 90

Figure 3. Carbon Monoxide at Cuitlahuac Station, (a) Number of 8-h

moving periods in which the Standard is exceeded, (b) Number of hours
in which 26 ppm is exceeded.

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158 THE SCIENCE OF GLOBAL CHANGE

Nitrogen Dioxide. At Merced Station, located in the central region, the

Standard was exceeded on 19 days from October 1988 to April 1989. In
the same period, the Standard was exceeded 12 days at Tlalnepantla
Station (northwest), and 3 days at Pedregal Station (southwest).

Particulate Matter. Maximum daily average concentration of particulate

matter, smaller than 10 microns, measured at Xalostoc (NW), from July
1989 to July 1990 is exhibited in Figure 4a. The American Standard is 150
3
μg m" as a daily average. Maximum PM10 concentrations measured in
several stations in June 1990 are presented in Figure 4b.

Lead. Lead in petrol was decreased to 1.2 mL of T E L per gallon in 1983.

T E L has been kept in leaded gasoline in the 0.5-1.0 range since 1986. The
lead concentration trend in petrol is followed closely by that measured in
the atmosphere in downtown Museo Station. Lead concentration at Museo
3
is within International Standards (average 1.5 /ug/m in 3 months), however,
Xalostoc Station placed in an industrial area shows twice as high lead
concentrations as the international standards, pointing to the need for
relocating some foundries outside the Valley, and controlling others.
Replacement of T E L in gasoline byy 5% methyl-terbutyl ether (MTBE)
and the increased use of unleaded petrol will gradually lower lead
emissions.

Ozone. High ozone concentrations are confronted in the southwest region,

where an air parcel accumulates photochemical contaminants collected and
generated after sweeping the north and central regions. The number of
days exceeding 0.11 and 0.22 ppm at Pedregal Station are illustrated in
Figure 5. The maximum hourly average ozone concentration ever
measured was 0.441 ppm at Pedregal Station in December 1986. The
maximum hourly ozone concentrations determined in a year at Pedregal
and Plateros Stations from 1986 to October 1990 are given in Table VI.

Table VI. Maximum Ozone Concentrations in an hour at Pedregal and

Plateros Stations (ppm)

Year Pedregal Plateros

1986 0.441 0.398

1987 0.344 0.331
1988 0.405 0.351
1989 0.340 0.310
1990* 0.403 0.375

* Up to October 31st.

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GARFIAS & GONZALEZ Air Quality in Mexico City

MAXIMUM CONCENTRATION (yg/m3)

400

300

200

100
I
• 1
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
MONTH

YEAR

(a) ! I 1989 H 1990

MAXIMUM CONCENTRATION (ug/m3)

300

250

200

150

100

50

JUNE 1990
(b)

STATION

TLALNEPANTLA L Î 1 XALOSTOC CZH C.ESTRELLA

PEDREGAL ÎlDii MERCED

Figure 4. Particulate matter less than 10 microns (PM10). (a) Maximum

daily average concentration observed at Xalostoc Station (northwest),
(b) Maximum daily average concentration observed at five stations in
June 1990.

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 THE SCIENCE OF GLOBAL CHANGE

N U M B E R O F DAYS E X C E E D I N G STANDARD
30 ι

J F M A M J J A S O N D
MONTH

YEAR

• 1987 H 1988 • 1989 H 1990

N U M B E R O F DAYS
30 ι

25

20

J F M A M J J A S O N D
MONTH

• 1987 Ell 1988 CZ3 1989 HI 1990

Figure 5. Ozone at Pedregal Station (southwest), (a) Number of days

exceeding the Standard, (b) Number of days exceeding twice the
Standard concentration.

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7. GARFIAS & GONZALEZ Air Quality in Mexico City 161

Integral Programs to Control Atmospheric Pollution

Some invaluable isolated actions were taken from time to time in the last
twenty to twenty five years that prevented air quality from declining at an
even faster rate. For example, energy demand was met (electricity and
refined oil products) by expanding capacity of plants located outside of the
MCMA; a metro was built; the vehicular traffic system was reordered; and
new hydrotreating, reforming and catalytic cracking units reduced lead and
sulfur in refined products.
Four months after the September 1985 earthquake, a set of wider
actions was implemented: 1600 and 320 tons per day of fuel oil were
substituted respectivedly by natural gas at a power station and at
Atzcapotzalco Refinery in 1986; a detergent additive was incorporated into
gasoline to keep carburetors cleaner in 1986; a far reaching Federal Law
on Ecological Ordering and Environmental Protection was enacted in
March 1988; Emission Standards for cars in circulation and new cars were
legislated in June and September 1988 respectively; and Emission
Standards for Industrial Combustion Processes were issued in 1988, among
other actions.
In the last two years, the federal and city authorities, with the financial
assistance and the expert advice of specialists from Japan, the United
States of America, Germany, France, and Great Britain, devised an Integral
Program (3) aimed at bettering air quality in the MCMA.
The Integral Program includes fuel quality improvement and reduction
of emissions in gasoline distribution; a public transport system more
efficient and less contaminating; industrial assimilation of advanced process
technology and pollution control systems; reforestation and ecological
restoration of barren land and open dumping sites; and the strengthening
of ecological research, education and communication activities.
Several actions have already started: 5% MTBE is added to gasoline;
two additional metro lines are under construction; the program "No
Circulation Today" was commenced in November 1989; and loans have
been approved for expanding the Automated Air Quality Network, for
initiating air modeling in real time, and for building new plants outside the
M A M C to produce MTBE and isomeric gasoline, to hydrotreat diesel
(0.1% maximum sulfur) and fuel oil (0.8% maximum sulfur), and to
increase reforming capacity.
A long and difficult task will be confronted, in particular to bring ozone
within the air quality standards, as the physics and chemistry of ozone
formation in the MCMA are not sufficiently understood.

Literature Cited
1. Jauregui, E., Int. J. Climatology 1989, 9, 169-180.
2. Memoria de Labores 1989; Petróleos Mexicanos: Mexico City, 1989.
3. Programa Integral Contra la Contaminación Atmosférica de la Zona
Metropolitana de la Ciudad de México, Departamento del Distrito
Federal: Mexico City, 1990.
RECEIVED October 7, 1991

Dunnette and O'Brien; The Science of Global Change

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1992.