Construction of steam turbines

STEAM TURBINE
  HISTRY of STEAM TURBINE
TURBINE THEORY
The first documented use of steam power is credited to a Greek mathematician, Hero of
Alexandria, almost 2000 years ago. Hero built the first steam-powered engine. His turbine
design was the forerunner of the jet engine and demonstrated that steam power could be used to
operate other machinery. Hero‘s turbine (aeolipile) (fig.) consists of a hollow sphere and four
canted nozzles. The sphere rotates freely on two feed tubes that carry steam from the boiler.
Steam generated in the boiler passes through the feed tubes, into the sphere, and out through the
nozzles. As the steam leaves the nozzles, the sphere rotates rapidly.

Reaction principle Impulse principle

 IMPULSE PRINCIPLE
The impulse turbine (fig. 5-2) consists basically of a rotor mounted on a shaft that is free
to rotate in a set of bearings. The outer rim of the rotor carries a set of curved blades, and the
whole assembly is enclosed in an airtight case. Nozzles direct steam against the blades and turn
the rotor.
The energy to rotate an impulse turbine is derived from the kinetic energy of the steam
flowing through the nozzles. The term impulse means that the force that turns the turbine comes
from the impact of the steam on the blades. The toy pinwheel (fig. 5-3) can be used to study
some of the basic principles of turbines. When you blow on the rim of the wheel, it spins
rapidly. The harder you blow, the faster it turns. The steam turbine operates on the same
principle, except it uses the kinetic energy from the steam as it leaves a steam nozzle rather than
air. Steam nozzles (hereafter referred to as nozzles or stationary blades) are located at the
turbine inlet. As the steam passes through a nozzle, potential energy is converted to kinetic
energy. This steam is directed toward the turbine blades and turns the rotor. The velocity of the
steam is reduced in passing over the blades. Some of its kinetic energy has been transferred to
the blades to turn the rotor. Impulse turbines may be used to drive forced draft blowers, pumps,
and main propulsion turbines. Figure 5-2 shows an impulse turbine as steam passes through the
nozzles.
  REACTION PRINCIPLE
The ancient turbine built by Hero operated on
the reaction principle. Hero‘s turbine was invented
long before Newton‘s time, but it was a working model
of Newton‘s third law of motion, which states: “For
every action there must bean equal and opposite
reaction.”
If you set an electric fan on a roller skate, the roller
skate will take off across the room (fig. 5-4). The fan
pushes the air forward and sets up a breeze (velocity).
The air is also pushing backward on the fan with an
equal force, but in an opposite direction. If you try to
push a car, you will push back with your feet as hard as
you would push forward with your hands. Try it sometime when you are standing on an icy
road. You will not be able to move the car unless you can dig in with your feet to exert the
backward force. With some thought on your part, you could come up with examples to prove to
yourself that Newton‘s third law of motion holds true under all circumstances.
The reaction turbine uses the reaction of a, steam jet to drive the rotor. You learned that
an impulse turbine increases the velocity of steam and transforms that potential energy under
pressure into kinetic energy in a steam jet through nozzles. A forward force is applied to the
steam to increase its velocity as it passes through the nozzle. From Newton‘s third law of
motion, you see that the steam jet exerts a force on the nozzle and an equal reactive force on the
turbine blades in the opposite direction. THIS IS THE FORCE THAT DRIVES THE
TURBINE.

You can use a balloon to demonstrate the kickback or reaction force generated by the
nozzle blades (fig. 5-5). Blow up the balloon and release it. The air will rush out through the
opening and the balloon will shoot off in the opposite direction. When the balloon is filled with
air, you have potential energy stored in the increased air pressure inside. When you let the air
escape, it passes through the small opening. This represents a transformation from potential
energy to kinetic energy. The force applied to the air to speed up the balloon is acted upon by a
reaction in the opposite direction. This reactive force propels the balloon forward through the
air. You may think that the force that makes the balloon move forward comes from the jet of air
blowing against the air in the room, not so. It is the reaction of the force of the air as it passes
through the opening that causes the balloon to move forward. The reaction turbine has all the
advantages of the impulse-type turbine, plus a slower operating speed and greater efficiency.
The alternating rows of fixed and moving blades transfers the heat energy of the steam to
kinetic energy, then to mechanical energy.
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF STEAM TURBINE
The steam turbine depends completely upon the dynamic action of the steam. According
to Newton’s second law of motion, the force is proportional to the rate of change of
momentum (mass x velocity). If the rate of change of momentum is caused in the steam by
allowing a high velocity jet steam to pass over curved blade, the steam will impart a force to
the blade. If the blade is free, it will move off (rotate) in the direction of force. In fig. 8.1(a)
C1 = Initial velocity, C2 = Final velocity

Principle of operation

1. A nozzle in which heat energy of high pressure steam is converted into kinetic energy so that
steam issues from the nozzle with very high velocity.
2. Blades which change the direction of steam issuing from the nozzle so that a force acts on
blades due to change of momentum and rotates them.
So, the basic principle of operation a steam turbine is generation of high velocity steam
jet by expansion of high pressure steam in a nozzle and motive power in the turbine is obtained
by change in momentum of the high velocity steam jet by allowing it to impinge on curved
blades.
Steam turbines are steady flow machines, have large exhaust outlets (for discharging
used steam)and the speed of flow is very high. So, they can handle large volume of steam and
produce higher power and the processes are assumed to be adiabatic. Steam turbines are capable
of expanding steam to the lowest exhaust pressure obtainable in the condenser. The turbine is a
constant high speed machine and really must be operated condensing in order to take full
advantage of greater range of steam expansion.
Steam turbines are mainly used for electric power generation and for large marine
propulsion. These are also used for direct drives of fans, compressors, pumps etc.When properly
designed and constructed, a steam turbine is the most durable prime -mover.
  The motive power in a steam turbine is obtained by the rate of change in momentum of a
high velocity jet of steam impinging on a curved blade which is free to rotate.
 The steam from the boiler is expanded in a nozzle, resulting in the emission of a high
velocity jet. This jet of steam impinges on the moving vanes or blades, mounted on a shaft.
Here it undergoes a change of direction of motion which gives rise to a change in
momentum and therefore a force.
Principle of operation is shown below:

The relationship between work, force and blade velocity can be expressed in the other graph.
Steam Turbine definition

A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and
uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft.
The steam from the boiler is expanded in a nozzle, resulting in the emission of a high
velocity jet. This jet of steam impinges on the moving vanes or blades, mounted on a shaft. Here
it undergoes a change of direction of motion which gives rise to a change in momentum and
therefore a force. The motive power in a steam turbine is obtained by the rate of change in
momentum of a high velocity jet of steam impinging on a curved blade which is free to rotate.
The conversion of energy in the blades takes place by impulse, reaction or impulse
reaction principle.
―Steam Turbine is a prime-mover in which Pressure energy of steam is transformed into
Kinetic energy, and later in its turn is transformed into the mechanical energy of rotation of
turbine shaft‖
A steam turbine is a prime mover in which the potential energy of the steam is
transformed into kinetic energy and later in its turn is transformed into the mechanical energy of
rotation of the turbine shaft.
Many such nozzles are mounted on inner wall of cylinder or stator casing. The rotor of the
turbine have blades fitted around in circular array Steam jet from static nozzles impinges and
impart its momentum on to rotor blades. This make the rotor to rotate A set of one array of
stator and rotor blade is called a ‗stage‘
Number of stages are arranged one after another and thus thermodynamic energy is converted
into kinetic energy.
 CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINE

Steam turbines may be classified in the following ways:

A) With respect to form of steam passage between the blades:
a) Impulse
(1) Simple, or single-stage
(2) Velocity-stage, Curtis
(3) Pressure stage, Rateau
(4) Combination pressure- and velocity-stage
b) Reaction, Parsons
c) Combination impulse and reaction
B) With respect to general arrangement of flow:
a) Single-flow
b) Double-flow
c) Compound, two-or-three cylinder, cross- or tandem-connected
d) Divided-flow
C) With respect to direction of steam flow relative to plane of rotation:
a) Axial-flow
b) Radial-flow
c) Tangential-flow
D) With respect to repetition of steam flow through blades:
a) Single-pass
b) Reentry or repeated flow
 E) With respect to rotational speed:
a) For 60-sysle generators
b) For 50-cycle generators
c) For 25-cycle generators
d) For geared units and for direct-connected or electric drive marine
units, no special speed requirements
F) With respect to relative motion of rotor or rotors:
a) Single-motion
b) Double-motion
G) With respect to steam and exhaust conditions:
a) High-pressure condensing
b) High-pressure non-condensing
c) Back-pressure
d) Superposed or topping
e) Mixed-pressure
f) Regenerative
g) Extraction, single
h) Extraction, double
i) Reheating or resuperheating
j) Low-pressure

CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINE

Classification of steam turbines may be done as following:
1.According to action of steam
(a) Impulse turbine (b) Reaction turbine (c) Combination of both

2. According to direction of flow:

(a)Axial flow turbine (b)Radial flow turbine
3. According to number of stages
(a)Single stage turbine (b)Multi stage turbine
(4). According to number of cylinders
(a)Single cylinder turbine (b)Double cylinder turbine (c)Three cylinder turbine

(5)According to steam pressure at inlet of Turbine:

(a) Low pressure turbine (b) Medium pressure turbine.
(c) High pressure turbine (d) Super critical pressure turbine.

(6)According to method of governing:

(a) Throttle governing turbine. (b) Nozzle governing turbine.
(c) By pass governing turbine.

(7) According to usage in industry:

(a) Stationary turbine with constant speed. (b) Stationary turbine with variable speed.
(c) Non stationary turbines.
 According to the action of steam:
o Impulse turbine: in impulse turbine, steam coming out through a fixed nozzle at
a very high velocity strikes the blades fixed on the periphery of a rotor. The
blades change the direction of steam flow without changing its pressure. The
force due to change of momentum causes the rotation of the turbine shaft. Ex:
De-Laval, Curtis and Rateau Turbines
o Reaction turbine: In reaction turbine, steam expands both in fixed and moving
blades continuously as the steam passes over them. The pressure drop occurs
continuously over both moving and fixed blades.
o Combination of impulse and reaction turbine
 According to the number of pressure stages:
o Single stage turbines: These turbines are mostly used for driving centrifugal
compressors, blowers and other similar machinery.
o Multistage Impulse and Reaction turbines: They are made in a wide range of
power capacities varying from small to large.
 According to the type of steam flow:
o Axial turbines: In these turbines, steam flows in a direction parallel to the axis of
the turbine rotor.
o Radial turbines: In these turbines, steam flows in a direction perpendicular to the
axis of the turbine, one or more low pressure stages are made axial.
 According to the number of shafts:
o Single shaft turbines
o Multi-shaft turbines
 According to the method of governing:
o Turbines with throttle governing: In these turbines, fresh steam enter through one
or more (depending on the power developed) simultaneously operated throttle
valves.
o Turbines with nozzle governing: In these turbines, fresh steam enters through one
or more consecutively opening regulators.
o Turbines with by-pass governing: In these turbines, the steam besides being fed
to the first stage is also directly fed to one, two or even three intermediate stages
of the turbine.
 According to the heat drop process:
o Condensing turbines with generators: In these turbines, steam at a pressure less
than the atmospheric is directed to the condenser. The steam is also extracted
 from intermediate stages for feed water heating). The latent heat of exhaust
steam during the process of condensation is completely lost in these turbines.
o Condensing turbines with one or more intermediate stage extractions: In these
turbines, the steam is extracted from intermediate stages for industrial heating
purposes.
o Back pressure turbines: In these turbines, the exhaust steam is utilized for
industrial or heating purposes. Turbines with deteriorated vacuum can also be
used in which exhaust steam may be used for heating and process purposes.
o Topping turbines: In these turbines, the exhaust steam is utilized in medium and
low pressure condensing turbines. These turbines operate at high initial
conditions of steam pressure and temperature, and are mostly used during
extension of power station capacities, with a view to obtain better efficiencies.
 According to the steam conditions at inlet to turbine:
o Low pressure turbines: These turbines use steam at a pressure of 1.2 ata to 2 ata.
o Medium pressure turbines: These turbines use steam up to a pressure of 40 ata.
o High pressure turbines: These turbines use steam at a pressure above 40 ata.
o Very high pressure turbines: These turbines use steam at a pressure of 170 ata
and higher and temperatures of 550C and higher.
o Supercritical pressure turbines: These turbines use steam at a pressure of 225 ata
and higher.
 According to their usage in industry:
o Stationary turbines with constant speed of rotation: These turbines are primarily
used for driving alternators.
o Stationary turbines with variable speed of rotation: These turbines are meant for
driving turbo-blowers, air circulators, pumps, etc.
o Non-stationary turbines with variable speed: These turbines are usually
employed in steamers, ships and railway locomotives.
 Main classification is Impulse Turbine & Impulse-reaction Turbine

Figure . Steam turbine blades arrangement of Impulse and Reaction blades

Figure 2. Pressure and velocity of steam across nozzle and blades in impulse and reaction blades
 IMPULSE TURBINE
The basic idea of an impulse turbine is that a jet of stream from a fixed nozzle pushes
against the rotor blades and impels them forward. The velocity of steam is twice as fast as
the velocity of blade. Pressure drops take place in the fixed blade (nozzle).

 TYPES OF IMPULSE TURBINE

Simple Impulse Turbine.
Compounding of Impulse Turbine.

Simple Impulse Turbine De Laval turbine

It is the impulse turbine, where the steam expanded within the nozzle and there is no any
change in the steam pressure as it passes over the blades. It means that the pressure remain
constant through turbine
Steam is fed through one or several convergent-divergent nozzles. Pressure drop occurs
in the nozzle (not in the blade) Maximum velocity (kinetic energy) occurs at nozzle exit. In
Impulse turbine, the enthalpy drop (pressure drop) completely occurs in the nozzle itself and
when the fluid pass over the moving blades it will not suffer pressure drop again. Hence
pressure remain constant when the fluid pass over the rotor blades. Fig. shows the schematic
diagram of Impulse turbine
 Impulse principle
 The impulse turbine consists basically of a rotor mounted on a shaft that is free to rotate
in a set of bearings.
 The outer rim of the rotor carries a set of curved blades, and the whole assembly is
enclosed in an airtight case.
 Nozzles direct steam against the blades and turn the rotor. The energy to rotate an
impulse turbine is derived from the kinetic energy of the steam flowing through the
nozzles.
 The term impulse means that the force that turns the turbine comes from the impact of
the steam on the blades. The toy pinwheel can be used to study some of the basic
principles of turbines. When we blow on the rim of the wheel, it spins rapidly. The
harder we blow, the faster it turns.

 The steam turbine operates on the same principle, except it uses the kinetic energy
from the steam as it leaves a steam nozzle rather than air.
 Steam nozzles are located at the turbine inlet. As the steam passes through a steam
nozzle, potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.
 This steam is directed towards the turbine blades and turns the rotor. The velocity of the
steam is reduced in passing over the blades.
 Some of its kinetic energy has been transferred to the blades to turn the rotor.
 Impulse turbines may be used to drive forced draft blowers, pumps, and main
propulsion turbines.
 in impulse turbine, steam coming out through a fixed nozzle at a very high velocity
strikes the blades fixed on the periphery of a rotor.
 The blades change the direction of steam flow without changing its pressure.
 The force due to change of momentum causes the rotation of the turbine shaft.
 Examples: De-Laval, Curtis and Rateau turbines.

 The uppermost portion of the diagram shows a longitudinal section through the upper
half of the turbine.
 The middle portion shows the actual shape of the nozzle and blading.
 The bottom portion shows the variation of absolute velocity and absolute pressure
during the flow of steam through passage of nozzles and blades.
 The expansion of steam from its initial pressure (steam chest pressure) to final pressure
(condenser pressure) takes place in one set of nozzles.
 Due to high drop in pressure in the nozzles, the velocity of steam in the nozzles
increases.
 The steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity and strikes the blades of the
turbine mounted on a wheel with this high velocity.
  The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly known as carry over loss
(or) leaving loss.
 The pressure of the steam when it moves over the blades remains constant but the
velocity decreases.
 The exit/leaving/lost velocity may amount to 3.3 percent of the nozzle outlet velocity.
 Also since all the KE is to be absorbed by one ring of the moving blades only, the
velocity of wheel is too high (varying from 25000 to 30000 RPM).
 However, this wheel or rotor speed can be reduced by adopting the method of
compounding of turbines.

 COMPOUNDING OF IMPULSE TURBINE

Compounding is a method for reducing the rotational speed of the impulse turbine to
practical limits.If the high velocity of stream is allowed to flow through one row of moving
blades, it produces a rotor speed of about 30,000 r.p.m. which is too high for practical use.
Leaving loss is also very high. It is therefore essential to incorporate some improvement in
the simple impulse turbine for possible by making use also to achieve high performance.
This is possible by making use of more than one set of nozzles, blades, rotors, in a series
keyed to a common shaft, so that either the steam pressure or the jet velocity is absorbed
by the turbine in stages. The leaving loss also will than be less. This process is called
compounding of steam turbine.
Compounding can be defined "as the method of obtaining reasonable tangential speed of rotor
for a given overall pressure drop by using more than one stage"

WHY COMPOUNDING IS REQUIRED?

The steam produced in the boiler has got very high enthalpy. In all turbines the blade
velocity is directly proportional to the velocity of the steam passing over the blade.
Now, if the entire energy of the steam is extracted in one stage, i.e. if the steam is expanded
from the boiler pressure to the condenser pressure in a single stage, then its velocity will be very
high. Hence the velocity of the rotor (to which the blades are keyed) can reach to about 30,000
rpm, which is pretty high for practical uses.
Moreover at such high speeds the centrifugal forces are immense, which can damage the
structure. Hence, compounding is needed.
  TYPE OF COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE
 Pressure Compounded Impulse Turbine
 Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine
 Pressure and Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine
PRESSURE COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE( Rateau Stage)
In this type of turbine, the compounding is done for pressure of steam only i.e. to reduce
the high rotational speed of turbine the whole expansion of steam is arranged in a number of
steps by employing a number of simple turbine in a series keyed on the same shaft.
Each of these simple impulse turbine consisting of one set of nozzles and row of moving
blades is known as a stage of the turbine and thus this turbine consists of several stages. The
exhaust from each row of moving blades enters the succeeding set of nozzles.
Thus we can say that this arrangement is nothing but splitting up the whole pressure
drop from the steam chest pressure to the condenser pressure into a series of smaller
pressure drop across several stages of impulse turbine and hence this turbine is called
Pressure – compound impulse turbine.THIS IS ALSO KNOWN AS RATEAU
TURBINE.
 A number of simple impulse stages arranged in series is called as pressure
compounding. In this case, the turbine is provided with rows of fixed blades which act
as a nozzle at the entry of each rows of moving blades. The total pressure drop of steam
does not take place in a single nozzle but divided among all the rows of fixed blades
which act as nozzle for the next moving rows. Fig.4 shows the corresponding pressure
compounding Impulse turbine.
Pressure compounding leads to higher efficiencies because very high flow velocities are
avoided through the use of purely convergent nozzles. For maximum utilization, the absolute
velocity of steam at the outlet of the last rotor must be axially directed. It is usual in large
turbines to have pressure compounded or reaction stages after the velocity compounded stage.
ARRENGEMENT OF PRESSURE COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE
VELOCITY COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE (Curtis Stage)
 In this type of turbine, the compounding is done for velocity of steam only i.e. drop in
velocity is arranged in many small drops through many moving row of blades instead of
a single row of moving blades.
In this turbine, moving and fixed blades ( guide blades ) are placed alternately. Moving
blades are fitted with the wheel while the fixed blades are fitted with the casing. The whole
expansion of steam from the steam chest pressure down to the exhaust pressure take place in
the nozzles only. Therefore pressure remain constant after nozzle. IT IS ALSO KNOWN
AS CURTIS TURBINE
This consists of set of nozzles, rows of moving blades (rotor) &a row of stationary
blades (stator). Fig.3 shows the corresponding velocity compounding Impulse Turbine.
The function of stationary blades is to direct the steam coming from the first moving
row to the next moving row without appreciable change in velocity. All the kinetic energy
available at the nozzle exit is successively absorbed by all the moving rows & the steam is
sent from the last moving row with low velocity to achieve high utilization. The turbine
works under this type of compounding stage is called velocity compounded turbine.
E.g.Curtis stage steam turbine
ARRANGMENT OF VELOCITY COMPOUNDED IMPULSE
TURBINE
PRESSURE-VELOCITY COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE
 Here we consider pressure and velocity simultaneously, hence it is named as pressure
velocity compounded impulse turbine. Here we have arrangement of two rotars or
wheels.in each rotars we have installation of many row of moving blades,hence we get a
decrease in velocity. Also we install two nozzles in whole arrangement, which helps in
splitting pressure.
Here we use two row wheels as we consider two row wheels arrangement more
efficient than three row wheels arrangement.
 In this method, high rotor speeds are reduced without sacrificing the efficiency or the output.
Pressure drop from the chest pressure to the condenser pressure occurs at two stages. This
type of arrangement is very popular due to simple construction as compared to pressure
compounding steam turbine.
Pressure-Velocity compounding arrangement for two stages is as shown in Fig.5. First and
second stage taken separately are identical to a velocity compounding consists of a set of
nozzles and rows of moving blades fixed to the shaft and rows of fixed blades to casing. The
entire expansion takes place in the nozzles. The high velocity steam parts with only portion of
the kinetic energy in the first set of the moving blades and then passed on to fixed blades where
only change in direction of jet takes place without appreciable loss in velocity. This jet then
passes on to another set of moving vanes where further drop in kinetic energy occurs. This type
of turbine is also called Curtis Turbine
ARRANGEMENT OF P-V COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE

 Effects of Blade and Nozzle Losses:

The losses in flow over blades due to friction, leakage and turbulence are not
negligible in most of the cases. These losses reduce the velocity obtained at the outlet of
blade and is less than the velocity which would be obtained in loss-free flow.
The ratio of the actual velocity at the exit of the flow passage to the ideal exit velocity is called
blade velocity coefficient or nozzle velocity coefficient.

For Impulse turbine, in ideal conditions. If the losses are considered, then,

 VELOCITY DIAGRAM FOR AN IMPULSE TURBINE

We should be able to estimate the propelling force that would be applied to a turbine
rotor underany given set of conditions. With this, we can estimate the work done and hence the
power.Since force is due to change of momentum mainly caused by change in the direction of
flow ofsteam, it is essential to draw velocity diagram that shows how velocity of steam varies
during its passage through the blades.
Velocity is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude and direction. So, we can represent
velocity by a straight line and the length of the straight line indicates its magnitude and its
direction is indicated by the direction of the line with reference to some fixed direction.
The steam jet after leaving the nozzle, impinges on one end the blade, glides over the inside
surface of the blade and finally leaves from the other edge.
Let Vb = Linear velocity of moving blade.
V1 = Absolute velocity of steam at inlet to moving blade i.e., exit velocity of
nozzle.
Vw1 = Tangential component of entering steam. Vw1 Also known as velocity
of whirl at entrance.
Vr1 = Relative velocity of steam with respect to tip of blade at inlet. It is the
vectorial difference between Vb and V1
Vf1= Velocity of flow = Axial velocity at entrance to moving blades. It is the
vertical component of V1
α1= Angle of nozzle = Angle which the entering steam makes with the
moving blade at entrance - with the tangent of the wheel at entrance.
β1 = Angle which the relative velocity makes with the tangent of the wheel –
direction of motion of blade. It is also known as blade angle at inlet.

The above notations stand for inlet triangle.

V2, Vw2, Vf2, Vr2, α2, β2 are the corresponding values at the exit of the moving
blades. They stand for outlet triangle.
The steam jet with absolute velocity V1 impinges on the blade at an angle of a1 to the
tangent of the blade. The absolute velocity V2 can be considered as having two components.
The tangential component called whirl component Vw1 = V1cosα1 is parallel to direction of
rotation of blades .

The tangential component of the steam jet does work on the blade because it is in the
same direction as the motion of the blade. The axial component doesn't work on the blades
because it is perpendicular to the direction of motion of blade. It is responsible for the flow of
steam through the turbine. Change of velocity in this component causes an axial thrust on the
rotor.
As the blade moves with a tangential velocity in peripheral direction, the entering steam
jet will have relative velocity to the blades. If there is no friction loss at the blade, relative
velocity at inlet is equal to relative velocity at outlet i.e., Vr1= Vr2.
As the steam glides over the blades without shock, the surface of the blade at inlet must
be parallel to relative velocity Vr1. So, the moving blade at inlet must be inclined to the tangent
of the blade at an angle β1. In other words, to avoid shock at entrance, vector Vr1 must be
tangential to the blade tip at entry i.e, β1 must be equal to angle of blade at entrance. The blade
is designed on this principle.
From the above analysis, following points are to be noted.
1. No expansion of steam takes place in the moving blades. The blades only deflect
steam.
This causes change in momentum and consequently force.
2. If the steam has to enter and leave the blades without shock, angle β1, should be angle
of blade at inlet and angle β2 should be angle of blade at outlet. This is an essential
condition.
3. Since there is no pressure drop in the moving blades, the pressure on the two sides of
the blades is equal and axial or flow component Vf1 = V sin α1 is perpendicular to the
direction of rotation of blade
4. α 1 is the outlet angle of nozzle. If steam has to enter the next nozzle ring without
shock, its inlet angle must be equal to α2.
5. In a simple impulse turbine, the loss at exit is the whirl component at outlet -
V2 cos α2. For minimum loss, this quantity should be minimum, i.e., α2 should be equal
to 90°. In that case the turbine discharges axially and it is called axial turbine.
 COMBINED VELOCITY DIAGRAM

Construction of combined velocity diagram:

1. First, draw a horizontal line and cut off AB equal to velocity of blade to some suitable scale.
2. From 5, draw a line BC at an angle a1, with AB. Cut off BC equal to V1 to scale.
3. Join AC. It represents Vrl.
4. From A; draw a line AD at an angle β2 with AB. With A as centre and radius equal to AC,
draw an arc that meets the line through A at D such that AC = AD. Or Vr1 = Vr2.
5. Join BD. It represents absolute velocity at exit to scale.
6. From C and D draw perpendiculars to meet the line AB produced at E and F.
7. Now; to scale,
EB = velocity of whirl at entrance.
BF = velocity of whirl at exit.
CE = velocity of flow at inlet.
DF = velocity of flow at outlet.
When friction is neglected, there will be no fall in steam pressure as it flows over the blades
and Vr1 = Vr2. Also, when friction is absent,
β1 = β2 and Vf1 = Vf2
FORCES ON BLADE AND WORK DONE BY BLADE
The work done may be found out from the change of momentum of steam jet during its
flow over the blades. As mentioned earlier, velocity of whirl is responsible for work on the
blade.
1. Force on Rotor:
According to Newton's second law of motion,
Tangential force on rotor = mass x tangential acceleration.

m = Mass rate of steam flow - kgs/sec.

Actually, Vw2 is negative as the steam is discharged in opposite direction to blade motion. So,
Vw1 ,and Vw2 are added together. Generally,

Positive sign is to be used when Vw2 and Vb are in opposite direction as shown above and
negative sign is to be used when Vw2 and Vb are in same direction.
2. Work done as Blade:
Work done = force x distance
= Tangential force x distance moved in unit time in the direction of force.

3. Power Developed by the Turbine:

Power = Rate of doing work

(1 watt= 1 N-m/sec)
This power is known as Rim power or diagram power to distinguish it from shaft power.

4. Axial Thrust on Rotor:

Axial force Fa= Mass x Axial acceleration
= Mass x change in velocity of flow.

This axial force must be balanced or must be taken by a thrust bearing.

 Efficiency of Turbine
The following efficiencies are common to both impulse and reaction turbines :
1. Blading or diagram efficiency.
2. Gross or stage efficiency.
3. Nozzle efficiency.
1. Blading or Diagram Efficiency :
It is defined as the ratio of work done on blades to energy supplied to blades.
Let V1 = Absolute velocity of steam at inlet —m/sec
m = Mass of steam supplied — kgs/sec.
Energy of steam supplied to blade = 1/2*m*V1
2
Work done on blade = m . (Vw1 ± Vw2) . Vb J/sec
Diagram or blading efficiency
This is called diagram efficiency because the quantities involved in it are obtained from velocity
Diagram
2. Gross or Stage Efficiency:
A stage consists of a set of nozzles and a row of moving blades and so, stage efficiency includes
the performance of nozzles also.
Stage efficiency is defined as the ratio of work done on blades per kg of steam to total energy
supplied per stage per kg of steam. If h1 and h2 represent before and after expansion of steam
through the nozzles, then the enthalpy drop (h1- h2) is the enthalpy drop through a stage, i.e.,
the heat energy (h1 - h2) is the energy supplied per stage per kg of steam.

3. Nozzle Efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of energy supplied to blades per kg of steam to total energy supplied per
stage per kg of steam.
Energy supplied to blades per kg of steam = ½*m*V12
Total energy supplied per stage per kg of steam = (h1-h2)

Stage efficiency = blade efficiency x nozzle efficiency.

Energy converted to heat by blade friction= Loss of kinetic energy during flow over the blades

Expression for optimum value of the ratio of blade speed to steam speed for
single impulse turbine or
Condition for Maximum Utilization Factor or Blade efficiency with
Equiangular Blades for Impulse Turbine :
Condition for maximum utilization factor or blade efficiency with equiangular blades
for Impulse turbine and the influence of blade efficiency on the steam speed in a single
stage Impulse turbine can be obtained by considering corresponding velocity diagrams as
shown in Fig.9. Due to the effect of blade friction loss, the relative velocity at outlet is
reduced than the relative velocity at inlet. Therefore, V = C V , corresponding to this
condition, velocity triangles (qualitative only) are drawn as shown in Fig.9.
 Velocity vector diagrams
work output, power, blade efficiency & stage efficiency
Force in the tangentia l direction  Rate of change of momentum in the tangentia l direction.
 Mass per second  change in velocity Newtons
 mVw1  Vw 2  Newtons
Force in the axial direction  Rate of change of momentum in the axial direction.
(axial thrust)  mVa1  Va 2  Newtons

Work done by steam on blades  mVw1  Vw2 u N - m/s

mVw1  Vw2 u
Power developed by the turbine  kW
1000
Work done on the blade(s) mVw1  Vw 2 u 2uVw1  Vw 2 u
Blade efficiency    2
Energy supplied to the blade(s) 1 2 V1
mV1
2

Energy lost due to blade friction 

1
2

m Vr1  Vr2
2 2
 N - m/s

Work done on the blade(s) mVw1  Vw2 u Vw1  Vw2 u

Stage efficiency   
Total energy supplied per stage m H 1  H 2  Hd
Where H d  H1  H 2  Heat drop in the nozzle ring

 MAXIMUM WORK & MAXIMUM DIAGRAM EFFICIENCY

From the combined velocity triangle (diagram), we have

Vw1  V1 cos 1  Vr1 cos 1  u and Vw2  V2 cos 2  Vr 2 cos 2  u

 V cos  2 
Vw1  Vw 2  Vr1 cos 1  Vr 2 cos  2  Vr1 cos 1 1  r 2   Vr1 cos 1 1  KC 
 Vr1 cos 1 
 Vr 2 cos  2
Where K  and C 
Vr1 cos 1
Vw1  Vw2  V1 cos 1  u 1  KC 

Rate of doing work per kg of steam per second = V1 cos 1  u 1  KC u

Diagram efficiency, b 
V1 cos 1  u 1  KC 
2
V1

u
Let,    Blade speed ratio
V1

 
Then, Diagram efficiency, b  2  cos 1   2 1  KC 

 If the values of 1, K and C are assumed to be constant, then diagram efficiency depends
only on the value of blade speed ratio, 

 In order to determine the optimum value of for maximum diagram efficiency,

cos 1
 Then,  becomes,  =
2

 Maximum diagram efficiency

 cos 1 cos 2 1  cos 2 1

= b max  21  KC  . cos 1     
4 
1 KC
 2 2
Note: If the blade is symmetrical & friction is absent, then, we have
1=2 and K = C = 1
Then, maximum diagram efficiency, (b)max = cos21
Work done/kg of steam/second = V1 cos 1  u 1  KC u

Then maximum rate of doing work/kg of steam/second =  2u 2

  REACTION TURBINE

In this type of turbine, there is a gradual pressure drop and takes place continuously over
the fixed and moving blades. The rotation of the shaft and drum, which carrying the blades is
the result of both impulse and reactive force in the steam. The reaction turbine consist of a row
of stationary blades and the following row of moving blades
The fixed blades act as a nozzle which are attached inside the cylinder and the moving blades
are fixed with the rotor as shown in figure
When the steam expands over the blades there is gradual increase in volume and
decrease in pressure. But the velocity decrease in the moving blades and increases in fixed
blades with change of direction.
Because of the pressure drops in each stage, the number of stages required in a reaction turbine
is much greater than in a impulse turbine of same capacity.
It also concluded that as the volume of steam increases at lower pressures therefore the
diameter of the turbine must increase after each group of blade rings.
 REACTION TURBINE PRINCIPLE


 Reaction turbine.
In Reaction turbines, addition to the pressure drop occurs in the nozzle there will also be
pressure drop occur when the fluid passes over the rotor blades. Fig. shows the Reaction
turbine. Most of the steam turbine are of axial flow type devices except Ljungstrom
turbine which is a radial type.

This utilizes principle of both impulse and reaction.

• There are a no. of moving blade rows attached to the rotor and equal no. of fixed blades
attached to the casing.
• While passing through the first row of fixed blades, steam undergoes a small drop in pressure
and hence its velocity increases a bit.
• Then it enters the first row of moving blades and like impulse turbine, suffers a change in
direction and momentum. This momentum gives rise to impulse on blades.
• Additionally there is also a drop in pressure while passing through the moving blades which
results in an increase in kinetic energy of steam.
This kinetic energy gives rise to reaction in the direction opposite to that of the added velocity.
• Thus the gross driving force is the vector sum of impulse and reaction forces. This turbine is
also known as Reaction turbine.

 A turbine in which steam pressure decreases gradually while expanding through the
moving blades as well as the fixed blades is known as reaction turbine.
  It consists of a large number of stages, each stage consisting of set of fixed and moving
blades. The heat drop takes place throughout in both fixed and moving blades.
 No nozzles are provided in a reaction turbine. The fixed blades act both as nozzles in
which velocity of steam increased and direct the steam to enter the ring of moving
blades. As pressure drop takes place both in the fixed and moving blades, all the blades
are nozzle shaped.
 The steam expands while flowing over the moving blades and thus gives reaction to the
moving blades. Hence the turbine is called reaction turbine.
 The fixed blades are attached to the casing whereas moving blades are fixed with the
rotor.
 It is also called Parson’s reaction turbine.

 Forces acting on a reaction blade

 Reaction force:
o is due to the change in momentum relative velocity of the steam while
passing over the blade passage.
 Centrifugal force:
o is the force acting on the blade due to change in radius of steam entering
and leaving the turbine.
 Resultant force:
o is the resultant of Reaction force and Centrifugal force.
Reaction turbines:
These are of axial type. But pure reaction turbine are not in general use, only impulse-reaction
turbines are used.

In reaction turbine steam continuously expands as it flows over the blades thereby increases the
relative velocity of steam, i.e., Vr2 > Vr1

 work output & power In Reaction turbine

The work done per kg of steam in the stage (per pair) = uVw1  Vw2 N  m

The work done per kg of steam per second in the stage (per pair) = muVw1  Vw2 N  m / s

where, m = mass of steam flowing over blades in kg/s

muVw1  Vw 2 
Power developed (per pair) = kW
1000
work done per kg of steam in the stage per pair
Efficiency , 
Enthalpy drop in the stage per pair
u Vw1  Vw 2 
 Efficiency , 
1000 H
where, H = Enthalpy drop in the stage per pair in kJ/kg

Degree of reaction (R):

The degree of reaction for reaction turbine stage is defined as the ratio of enthalpy drop in the
moving blades to the total enthalpy drop in fixed and moving blades (i.e., static enthalpy drop to
total enthalpy drop), as shown in fig.
Degree of reaction is a parameter that describes the relation between the energy transfer due to
the static pressure change and the energy transfer due to dynamic pressure change.
Degree of reaction is defined as the ratio of static pressure drop in the rotor to the static
pressure drop in the stage. It is also defined as the ratio of static enthalpy drop in the rotor to the
static enthalpy drop in the stage

This means that moving blades and fixed blade must have same shape if the degree of reaction
is 50 % This condition gives symmetrical velocity triangle this type of turbine is known as
Parson‘s reaction turbine
Condition for maximum blade efficiency (In case of 50 % reaction turbine)
Assuming following assumptions
Degree of reaction is 50%
Moving and fixed balde are symmetrical
Velocity of steam at exit from the preceeding stage is same as velocity of steam at the entrance
to the succeeding stages

Work done per kg of Steam,

 Work done & efficiency in Reaction turbine
 Effect of blade friction in steam turbines

 Reheat factor:
 It is defined as the ratio of cumulative heat drop to the adiabatic heat drop in all the
stages of the turbine. The value of reheat factor depends on the type and efficiency of the
turbine, the average value being 1.05.
Cumulative heat drop A1B1  A2 B2  A3B3
Reheat factor  
Adiabatic heat drop A1D

 Overall efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of total useful heat drop to the total heat supplied.
Total useful heat drop A1C1  A2C2  A3C3
Overall efficiency  
Total heat supplied H A1 - h D

 Governing of steam turbine

 Governing is the method of maintaining the speed of the turbine constant irrespective of
variation of the load on the turbine.
 A governor is used for achieving this purpose which regulates the supply of steam to the
turbine in such a way that the speed of the turbine is maintained as far as possible a
constant under varying load conditions.
 The various methods of governing of steam turbines are:
1) Throttle governing
2) Nozzle governing
3) By-pass governing
4) Combination of (1) & (2) or (2) & (3)
(nozzle governing)

(by-pass governing)
  COMPARISON OF IMPULSE AND REACTION TURBINES

Impulse turbine Reaction turbine

The steam completely expands in the nozzle The steam expands partially in the nozzle and further
and its pressure remains constant during its expansion takes place in the rotor blades
flow through the blade passages

The relative velocity of steam passing over The relative velocity of steam passing over the blade
the blade remains constant in the absence of increases as the steam expands while passing over the
friction blade
Blades are symmetrical Blades are asymmetrical

The pressure on both ends of the moving The pressure on both ends of the moving blade is
blade is same different

For the same power developed, as pressure For the same power developed, as pressure drop is
drop is more, the number of stages required small, the number of stages required are more
are less
The blade efficiency curve is less flat The blade efficiency curve is more flat

The steam velocity is very high and therefore The steam velocity is not very high and therefore the
the speed of turbine is high. speed of turbine is low.
COMPARISON OF IMPULSE AND REACTION TURBINES
The following are the important differences between impulse and reaction turbines.
1 Steam flows through nozzles and impinges on moving blades.
Steam (lows through fixed blades and then flows over moving blades
2 pressure drop takes place in nozzles and pressure remains constant in moving blades.
Pressure drop takes place both in fixed and moving blades.
3 Blade passage is of constant cross sectional area as there is no expansion.
Due to expansion, the blade passage is of variable cross sectional area.
4 Blade shape is profile type and easy to manufacture.
Blade shape is aerofoil type and difficult to manufacture.
5 Nozzles are located in diaphragms and rotor is disc or wheel type.
Fixed blades attached to casing serve as nozzles and rotor construction is drum type.
6 Admission of steam is partial over the circumference
Admission of steam is full over the whole circumference.
7 Because of large pressure drop, number of stages is less.
Because of small pressure drop, for same pressure drop, larger numbers of stages are required.
Reaction turbines are multi stage turbines only.
8 Because of large pressure drop, velocity of steam and velocity of blade are higher.
Because of small pressure drop, the velocity of steam and velocity of blade are lower.
9 The diagram efficiency decreases rapidly with change in designed blade speed ratio.
Greater working range is possible.
10 Suitable for small power requirements
Suitable for medium and higher power requirements
11 Occupies less space per unit power.
Occupies more space per unit power.
12 Degree of reaction is zero
Degree of reaction is greater than zero
 Particulars Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

1. Pressure drop Only in nozzles and not in moving In fixed blades(nozzles) as well as in moving
2. Area of blade channels blades. blades.
3. Blades Constant. Varying.
4. Admission of steam Profile type. Aerofoil type.
5. Nozzles Not all round. All round.
6. Power Diaphragm contains the nozzles. Fixed blades attached to the casing.
7. Space Small power capacities. Much power can be developed.
8. Efficiency Less space for same power. More space required.
9. Suitability Low High
10. Blade manufacture Small power requirements. For medium and high power requirements.
Easy Difficult