CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERING (Final Exam, 1st Term)

(ULO4c. explain the concept of nuclear energy)

METALANGUAGE

Background radiation
 radiation you are exposed to from natural sources
Binding energy
 the minimum energy required to disassemble a system of particles into separate parts.
Carbon dating
 a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using
the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope of carbon.
Critical mass
 minimum amount of fissionable isotope needed to sustain the chain reaction
Dosimeter
 a device that measures dose uptake of external ionizing radiation.
 It is worn by the person being monitored when used as a personal dosimeter, and is a
record of the radiation dose received.
Electron
 a subatomic particle, symbol e − or β − , whose electric charge is negative one
elementary charge.
Electroscope
 an early scientific instrument used to detect the presence of electric charge on a body.
 It detects charge by the movement of a test object due to the Coulomb electrostatic
force on it.
Fission
 a nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay process in which the nucleus of an atom
splits into two or more smaller, lighter nuclei.
Fusion
 a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form one or more
different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles.
 The difference in mass between the reactants and products is manifested as either the
release or absorption of energy.
Geiger counter
 an instrument used for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation.
 Also known as a Geiger–Muller counter (or Geiger–Müller counter), it is widely used
in applications such as radiation dosimetry, radiological protection, experimental
physics, and the nuclear industry.
Half-life
 the time required to convert one half of a reactant to product or a radioactive sample
to decay.
Isotope
 are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in neutron number, and
consequently in nucleon number.
 All isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons in each atom.
Mass defect
 the difference between the mass of an isotope and its mass number.
Neutron
 a subatomic particle of about the same mass as a proton but without an electric
charge, present in all atomic nuclei except those of ordinary hydrogen.
Nucleon
 either a proton or a neutron, considered in its role as a component of an atomic
nucleus
Nuclide
 nucleus of an isotope
Positron
 or antielectron is the antiparticle or the antimatter counterpart of the electron.
 The positron has an electric charge of +1 e, a spin of 1/2 (the same as the electron),
and has the same mass as an electron.
 When a positron collides with an electron, annihilation occurs.
Proton
 a subatomic particle, symbol p or p⁺ , with a positive electric charge of +1e
elementary charge and a mass slightly less than that of a neutron
Radioactivity
 the emission of ionizing radiation or particles caused by the spontaneous
disintegration of atomic nuclei.
Scintillation counter
 an instrument for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation by using the excitation
effect of incident radiation on a scintillating material, and detecting the resultant light
pulses.
Transmutation
 the conversion of one chemical element or an isotope into another chemical element.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

Nuclear chemistry
 Nuclear chemistry is the study of the chemical and physical properties of elements as
influenced by changes in the structure of the atomic nucleus and is associated with
nuclear reactions and isotopes.
 Moreover, according to Loveland, Morrissey, & Seaborg (2006), nuclear chemistry
is a branch of chemistry that studies the chemical and physical properties of the
heaviest elements, recognition of radioactive decay is an important part of work.
 Nuclear chemistry has ties to all branches of chemistry. The continuation of nuclear
chemistry focuses on the elements involved in synthesis of new elements and
transuranium elements.
 It also focuses on the relationship and calculation of binding energy and mass defect.

Nuclear reaction
 is a change in the identity or characteristics of an atomic nucleus that results when it is
bombarded with an energetic particle, as in fission, fusion, or radioactive decay

Isotopes
 are each of two or more forms of the same element that contain equal numbers of
protons but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, and hence differ in relative
atomic mass but not in chemical properties; in particular, a radioactive form of an
element.
  In a nuclear reaction Fission means an atom splits into two parts, either through
natural decay or when instigated within a lab, it releases energy
 Fusion occurs when two light atoms bond together, or fuse, to make a heavier one.
 The total mass of the new atom is less than that of the two that formed it; the
"missing" mass is given off as energy, as described by Albert Einstein's famous
"E=mc2 " equation (Redd N.T., 2012).

 In addition, Transmutation means "to change from one form into another" or to
transmute is to change from one form or substance into another; to transform or
convert.

Radioactivity
 Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation in the form of particles or high
energy photons resulting from a nuclear reaction or decomposition of a nucleus to
form a different nucleus.
 With this decomposition is the introduction of half-life which means the time required
to convert one half of a reactant to product or a radioactive sample to decay.
 The term is commonly applied to radioactive decay, where the reactant is the parent
isotope and the product is a daughter isotope.

Radioactive Elements
 An element is subject to spontaneous degeneration of its nucleus accompanied by the
emission of alpha-particles, beta-particles, or gamma rays.
 All elements with atomic number greater than 83 are radioactive.

 This is a list or table of elements that are radioactive and contains the elements that
have no stable isotopes. Each element is followed by the most stable known isotope
and its half-life. This list is sorted by increasing atomic number
Radioactive Decay
 Occurs when an unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing radiation and when a
nucleus has a higher energy level than a potentially more stable version
 Typically this difference in energy released is what is called ionizing radiation which
means radiation with enough energy so that during an interaction with an atom, it can
remove tightly bound electrons from the orbit of an atom, causing the atom to become
charged or ionized.

Types of Radioactive Decay Emissions

 There are three types of radioactive decay each named for exactly what is released
from the nucleus as it decays.
 Alpha Decay
 which is the spontaneous radioactive decay where an alpha particle is
produced.
 An alpha particle is essentially a helium nucleus of two protons and
two neutrons.
 Although alpha decay presents a significant radiation risk if the
radioactive source is inhaled or ingested, alpha particles are too large
to penetrate very far through the skin or other solids and require
minimal radiation shielding and have relatively low energy.
 A sheet of paper, for example, blocks alpha particles. General
equation: “α particle=helium-4 nucleus=4 2 He”

 Beta Decay
 which refers to the spontaneous radioactive decay where a beta particle
is produced.
 Essentially there are two types of beta decay where the beta particle is
either an electron or a positron.
 An electron is a negatively charged particle of an atom while a positron
or anti-electron is the antimatter counterpart to an electron.
 A positron has the same mass as an electron and a spin of 1/2, but it
has an electrical charge of +1.
 A positron has the same mass as an electron and a spin of 1/2, but it
has an electrical charge of +1.

Beta Decay / Negatron Emission

 Nuclides can be radioactive and undergo nuclear decay for many reasons.
 Beta decay can occur in nuclei that are rich in neutrons that are the nuclide contains
more neutrons than stable isotopes of the same element.
 These "proton deficient" nuclides can sometimes be identified simply by noticing that
their mass number A (the sum of neutrons and protons in the nucleus) is significantly
more than twice that of the atomic number Z (number of protons in nucleus).
 In order to regain some stability, such a nucleus can decay by converting one of its
extra neutrons into a proton, emitting an electron and an antineutrino (ν).
 The high energy electron emitted in this reaction is called a beta particle and is
represented by (o -1e-) in nuclear equations.
 . Lighter atoms (Z < 60) are the most likely to undergo beta decay. The decay of a
neutron to a proton, a beta particle, and an antineutrino (v) is 1 0n 0 → 1 0p ++ 0 -1e-
+v
Beta Decay / Positron Emission
 Nuclides that are imbalanced in their ratio of protons to neutrons undergo decay to
correct the imbalance.
 Nuclei that are rich in protons relative to their number of neutrons can decay by
conversion of a proton to a neutron, emitting a positron (0 1e+) and a neutrino (νe).
 Positrons are the antiparticles of electrons; therefore a positron has the same mass as
an electron but with the opposite (positive) charge.
 In positron emission, the atomic number Z decreases by 1 while the mass number A
remains the same

 Gamma decay
 is one type of radioactive decay that a nucleus can undergo.
 The difference of this type of decay process from alpha or beta decay
is that no particles are ejected from the nucleus when it undergoes this
type of decay.
 Instead, a high energy form of electromagnetic radiation gamma ray
photon is released.
 Gamma rays are simply photons that have extremely high energies
which are highly ionizing.
 As well, gamma radiation is unique in the sense that undergoing
gamma decay does not change the structure or composition of the
atom.
 Instead, it only changes the energy of the atom since the gamma ray
carries no charge nor does it have an associated mass. General
equation: “γ=high frequency electromagnetic energy=0 0γ”

 This form of radiation if often released when electrons transition from an unstable
Excited State; is an energy level of an electron that is higher and less stable than
other levels; to state of nucleus that has reached stability which is the Ground Sate;
lowest, most stable energy level of an electron. General equation: A* → A+γ

 But there is one more type of radioactive decay and that is Spontaneous Fission; is a
form of radioactive decay where an atom's nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei and
generally one or more neutrons without any outside help. Spontaneous fission
generally occurs in atoms with atomic numbers above 90
Nuclear stability
 Is a concept that helps to identify the stability of an isotope.
 The two main factors that determine nuclear stability are the neutron/proton ratio and the
total number of nucleons in the nucleus.
 The principal factor for determining whether a nucleus is stable is the neutron to proton
ratio.
 Elements with (Z<20) are lighter and these elements’ nuclei and have a ratio of 1:1 and
prefer to have the same amount of protons and neutrons
 A nucleon is the collective term for protons and neutrons. Nucleons are the particles found
in the nucleus of atoms

Synthesis of New Elements

 From terrestrial rocks and mineral, scientist have been looking for traces of unknown
substances; in the process chemical elements were discovered. But they stopped
looking for unknown substances and instead they began synthesizing new elements in
laboratories.
Transuranium Elements
 Any chemical element with atomic numbers greater than 92 and lies beyond uranium
in the periodic table are transuranium elements. Twenty-six of these elements was
discovered and named while some are waiting for confirmation of their discovery.

Binding Energy and Mass Defect

 The difference in mass between an atom and the sum of the masses of the protons,
neutrons, and electrons of the atom is called mass defect.
 The energy required to break down a nucleus into its component protons and neutrons
is called the nuclear binding energy. “This represents the conversion of mass and
energy that occurs during an exothermic nuclear reaction.”
 Einstein’s formula, E = mc2 , may be applied to calculate the binding energy of a
nucleus.

Rate of Radioactive Decay

 Another approach to describing reaction rates is based on the time required for the
concentration of a reactant to decrease to one-half its initial value.
 This period of time is called the half-life of the reaction, written as t1/2.
 Thus the half-life of a reaction is the time required for the reactant concentration to
decrease from N0 to (1/2)N0.
 If two reactions have the same order, the faster reaction will have a shorter half-life,
and the slower reaction will have a longer half-life.

 The half-life of a first-order reaction under a given set of reaction conditions is a

constant. This is not true for zeroth- and second-order reactions.
 The half-life of a firstorder reaction is independent of the concentration of the
reactants.
  This becomes evident when we rearrange the integrated rate law for a first-order
reaction to produce the following equation:

 Substituting (1/2)N0 for Nt and t1/2 for t (to indicate a half-life), the equation
becomes

 Example 1: If you have a 1.35 mg sample of Pu–236, calculate the mass that will
remain after 5.00 years. Half-life of Pu-236 is 2.86 yrs.

Given: mass Pu-236=1.35 mg; t=5 yrs; t1/2=2.86 yrs

Required: mass remaining=?
Solution:

Radiometric Dating
 Radiometric dating, radioactive dating or radioisotope dating is a technique
which is used to date materials such as rocks or carbon, in which trace radioactive
impurities were selectively incorporated when they were formed.
 The method compares the abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope
within the material to the abundance of its decay products, which form at a known
constant rate of decay.
  The use of radiometric dating was first published in 1907 by Bertram Boltwood and is
now the principal source of information about the absolute age of rocks and other
geological features, including the age of fossilized life forms or the age of the Earth
itself, and can also be used to date a wide range of natural and man-made materials.

 Together with stratigraphic principles, radiometric dating methods are used in

geochronology to establish the geologic time scale.
 Among the best-known techniques are radiocarbon dating, potassium–argon dating
and uranium–lead dating.
 By allowing the establishment of geological timescales, it provides a significant
source of information about the ages of fossils and the deduced rates of evolutionary
change.
 Radiometric dating is also used to date archaeological materials, including ancient
artifacts.
 Different methods of radiometric dating vary in the timescale over which they are
accurate and the materials to which they can be applied.

Radiocarbon Dating
 Carbon-14 dating, also called radiocarbon dating, method of age determination that
depends upon the decay to nitrogen of radiocarbon (carbon14).
 Carbon-14 is continually formed in nature by the interaction of neutrons with
nitrogen-14 in the Earth’s atmosphere; the neutrons required for this reaction are
produced by cosmic rays interacting with the atmosphere.

 Radiocarbon present in molecules of atmospheric carbon dioxide enters the biological

carbon cycle: it is absorbed from the air by green plants and then passed on to animals
through the food chain.
 Radiocarbon decays slowly in a living organism, and the amount lost is continually
replenished as long as the organism takes in air or food.
 Once the organism dies, however, it ceases to absorb carbon-14, so that the amount of
the radiocarbon in its tissues steadily decreases.
 Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 ± 40 years—i.e., half the amount of the
radioisotope present at any given time will undergo spontaneous disintegration during
the succeeding 5,730 years.
 Because carbon-14 decays at this constant rate, an estimate of the date at which an
organism died can be made by measuring the amount of its residual radiocarbon.

 The carbon-14 method was developed by the American physicist Willard F. Libby
about 1946
 It has proved to be a versatile technique of dating fossils and archaeological
specimens from 500 to 50,000 years old.
 The method is widely used by Pleistocene geologists, anthropologists, archaeologists,
and investigators in related fields.

 Example 2: An ancient skull gives 4.50 dis/min∙g C. If a living organism gives 15.3
dis/min∙g C, how old is the skull?
Given: ratet=4.50 dis/min∙g C; rate0=15.3 dis/min∙g C
Required: Age of skull, t=?
Solution: