OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lesson the students are able to;

a. To define the basic concepts of sets

b. understand from our day to day life we often speak or hear about
different types of collections.

c. Solve the operation for set.

Definition of Subset:

If A and B are two sets, and every element of set A is also an element of set B,
then A is called a subset of B and we write it as A ⊆ B or B ⊇ A

The symbol ⊂ stands for ‘is a subset of’ or ‘is contained in’ 

• Every set is a subset of itself, i.e., A ⊂ A, B ⊂ B. 

• Empty set is a subset of every set. 

• Symbol ‘⊆’ is used to denote ‘is a subset of’ or ‘is contained in’. 

• A ⊆ B means A is a subset of B or A is contained in B. 

• B ⊆ A means B contains A. 

For example;

1. Let A = {2, 4, 6} 

B = {6, 4, 8, 2} 

Here A is a subset of B

Since, all the elements of set A are contained in set B. 

But B is not the subset of A 

Since, all the elements of set B are not contained in set A. 

Notes:
If ACB and BCA, then A = B, i.e., they are equal sets. 

Every set is a subset of itself. 

Null set or ∅ is a subset of every set. 

2. The set N of natural numbers is a subset of the set Z of integers and we write
N ⊂ Z. 

3. Let A = {2, 4, 6}

B = {x : x is an even natural number less than 8}

Here A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A. 

Hence, we can say A = B 

4. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} 

B = {4, 5, 6, 7} 

Here A ⊄ B and also B ⊄ C 

[⊄ denotes ‘not a subset of’] 

Super Set:

Whenever a set A is a subset of set B, we say the B is a superset of A and we

write, B ⊇ A. 

Symbol ⊇ is used to denote ‘is a super set of’ 

For example;

A = {a, e, i, o, u} 

B = {a, b, c, ............., z}

Here A ⊆ B i.e., A is a subset of B but B ⊇ A i.e., B is a super set of A

Proper Subset:
If A and B are two sets, then A is called the proper subset of B if A ⊆ B but B ⊇
A i.e., A ≠ B. The symbol ‘⊂’ is used to denote proper subset. Symbolically, we
write A ⊂ B.

For example;

1. A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Here n(A) = 4

B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Here n(B) = 5

We observe that, all the elements of A are present in B but the element ‘5’ of B
is not present in A.

So, we say that A is a proper subset of B.

Symbolically, we write it as A ⊂ B

Notes:

No set is a proper subset of itself.

Null set or ∅ is a proper subset of every set.

2. A = {p, q, r}

B = {p, q, r, s, t}

Here A is a proper subset of B as all the elements of set A are in set B and also
A ≠ B.

Notes:

No set is a proper subset of itself.

Empty set is a proper subset of every set.

Power Set:

The collection of all subsets of set A is called the power set of A. It is denoted
by P(A). In P(A), every element is a set.
For example;

If A = {p, q} then all the subsets of A will be

P(A) = {∅, {p}, {q}, {p, q}}

Number of elements of P(A) = n[P(A)] = 4 = 22

In general, n[P(A)] = 2m where m is the number of elements in set A.

Universal Set

A set which contains all the elements of other given sets is called a universal
set. The symbol for denoting a universal set is ∪ or ξ.

For example;

1. If A = {1, 2, 3}      B = {2, 3, 4}      C = {3, 5, 7}

then U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}

[Here A ⊆ U, B ⊆ U, C ⊆ U and U ⊇ A, U ⊇ B, U ⊇ C]

2. If P is a set of all whole numbers and Q is a set of all negative numbers then
the universal set is a set of all integers.

3. If A = {a, b, c}      B = {d, e}      C = {f, g, h, i}

then U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i} can be taken as universal set.

Number of Subsets of a given Set:

If a set contains ‘n’ elements, then the number of subsets of the set is 222.

Number of Proper Subsets of the Set:

If a set contains ‘n’ elements, then the number of proper subsets of the set is 2nn -
1.
 If A = {p, q} the proper subsets of A are [{ }, {p}, {q}]

⇒ Number of proper subsets of A are 3 = 222 - 1 = 4 - 1

In general, number of proper subsets of a given set = 2mm - 1, where m is the
number of elements.

For example:

1. If A {1, 3, 5}, then write all the possible subsets of A. Find their numbers.

Solution:

The subset of A containing no elements - {  }

The subset of A containing one element each - {1} {3} {5}

The subset of A containing two elements each - {1, 3} {1, 5} {3, 5}

The subset of A containing three elements - {1, 3, 5)

Therefore, all possible subsets of A are { }, {1}, {3}, {5}, {1, 3}, {3, 5}, {1, 3, 5}

Therefore, number of all possible subsets of A is 8 which is equal 233.

Proper subsets are = {  }, {1}, {3}, {5}, {1, 3}, {3, 5}

Number of proper subsets are 7 = 8 - 1 = 233 - 1

2. If the number of elements in a set is 2, find the number of subsets and proper
subsets.

Solution:

Number of elements in a set = 2

Then, number of subsets = 222 = 4

Also, the number of proper subsets = 222 - 1

                          =4–1=3

3. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

then the number of proper subsets = 255 - 1

                                                   = 32 - 1 = 31   {Take [2nn - 1]}
and power set of A = 255 = 32 {Take [2nn]}
Definition of operations on sets:

When two or more sets combine together to form one set under the given
conditions, then operations on sets are carried out.

What are the four basic operations on sets?

Solution:

The four basic operations are:

1. Union of Sets

2. Intersection of sets

3. Complement of the Set

4. Cartesian Product of sets

Definition of Union of Sets:

Union of two given sets is the smallest set which contains all the elements of
both the sets.

To find the union of two given sets A and B is a set which consists of all the
elements of A and all the elements of B such that no element is repeated.

The symbol for denoting union of sets is ‘∪’. 

For example;

Let set A = {2, 4, 5, 6}

and set B = {4, 6, 7, 8}

Taking every element of both the sets A and B, without repeating any element, we
get a new set = {2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

This new set contains all the elements of set A and all the elements of set B with no
repetition of elements and is named as union of set A and B.

The symbol used for the union of two sets is ‘∪’.

Therefore, symbolically, we write union of the two sets A and B is A ∪ B which
means A union B. 

Therefore, A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B} 

Solved examples to find union of two given sets:

1. If A = {1, 3, 7, 5} and B = {3, 7, 8, 9}. Find union of two set A and B. 

Solution:

A ∪ B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9} 

No element is repeated in the union of two sets. The common elements 3, 7 are
taken only once. 

2. Let X = {a, e, i, o, u} and Y = {ф}. Find union of two given sets X and Y. 

Solution:

X ∪ Y = {a, e, i, o, u} 

Therefore, union of any set with an empty set is the set itself. 

3. If set P = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, set Q = {0, 3, 6, 9, 12} and set R = {2, 4, 6, 8}.

(i) Find the union of sets P and Q

(ii) Find the union of two set P and R

(iii) Find the union of the given sets Q and R

Solution:

(i) Union of sets P and Q is P ∪ Q

The smallest set which contains all the elements of set P and all the elements of set
Q is {0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12}.

(ii) Union of two set P and R is P ∪ R

The smallest set which contains all the elements of set P and all the elements of set
R is {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}.

(iii) Union of the given sets Q and R is Q ∪ R

The smallest set which contains all the elements of set Q and all the elements of set
R is {0, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12}.

Notes:

A and B are the subsets of A ∪ B 

The union of sets is commutative, i.e., A ∪ B = B ∪ A. 

The operations are performed when the sets are expressed in roster form. 

Some properties of the operation of union:

(i) A∪B = B∪A                      (Commutative law) 

(ii) A∪(B∪C) = (A∪B)∪C         (Associative law) 

(iii) A ∪ ϕ = A                      (Law of identity element, is the identity of ∪) 

 
(iv) A∪A = A                        (Idempotent law) 

(v) U∪A = U                        (Law of ∪) ∪ is the universal set. 

Notes:

A ∪ ϕ = ϕ ∪ A = A i.e. union of any set with the empty set is always the set itself.

Union of Sets using Venn Diagram

The rectangular region represents the universal set U and the circular regions the
subsets A and B. The shaded portion represents the set name below the diagram.

Let A and B be the two sets. The union of A and B is the set of all those elements which
belong either to A or to B or both A and B.

Now we will use the notation A U B (which is read as ‘A union B’) to denote the union of
set A and set B.

Thus, A U B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

Clearly, x ∈ A U B   
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B

Similarly, if x ∉ A U B  

⇒ x ∉ A or x ∉ B

Therefore, the shaded portion in the adjoining figure represents A U B.

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Thus, we conclude from the definition of union of sets that A ⊆ A U B, B ⊆ A U B.

From the above Venn diagram the following theorems are obvious:

(i) A ∪ A = A                        (Idempotent theorem)

(ii) A ⋃ U = U                       (Theorem of ⋃) U is the universal set.

(iii) If A ⊆ B, then A ⋃ B = B

(iv) A ∪ B = B ∪ A                (Commutative theorem)

(v) A ∪ ϕ = A                      (Theorem of identity element, is the identity of ∪) 

(vi) A ⋃ A' = U                     (Theorem of ⋃) U is the universal set.

Notes:

A ∪ ϕ = ϕ ∪ A = A i.e. union of any set with the empty set is always the set itself.

Solved examples of union of sets using Venn diagram:

1. If A = {2, 5, 7} and B = {1, 2, 5, 8}. Find A U B using venn diagram.

Solution:

According to the given question we know, A = {2, 5, 7} and B = {1, 2, 5, 8}

Now let’s draw the venn diagram to find A union B.

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Therefore, from the Venn diagram we get A U B = {1, 2, 5, 7, 8}

2. From the adjoining figure find A union B.

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Solution:

According to the adjoining figure we get;

Set A = {0, 1, 3, 5, 8}

Set B = {2, 5, 8, 9}
Therefore, A union B is the set of elements which in set A or in set B or in both.

Thus, A U B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9}

Intersection of Sets
Definition of Intersection of Sets:

Intersection of two given sets is the largest set which contains all the elements
that are common to both the sets.

To find the intersection of two given sets A and B is a set which consists of all
the elements which are common to both A and B.

The symbol for denoting intersection of sets is ‘∩‘.

For example:

Let set A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

and set B = {3, 5, 7, 9}

In this two sets, the elements 3 and 5 are common. The set containing these
common elements i.e., {3, 5} is the intersection of set A and B.

The symbol used for the intersection of two sets is ‘∩‘.

Therefore, symbolically, we write intersection of the two sets A and B is A ∩ B

which means A intersection B. 

The intersection of two sets A and B is represented as A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x

∈ B} 
Solved examples to find intersection of two given sets:
1. If A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and B = {1, 3, 8, 4, 6}. Find intersection of two set A and B. 

Solution:

A ∩ B = {4, 6, 8}

Therefore, 4, 6 and 8 are the common elements in both the sets. 

2. If X = {a, b, c} and Y = {ф}. Find intersection of two given sets X and Y. 

Solution:

X ∩ Y = { } 

3. If set A = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12}, set B = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18} and set C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

(i) Find the intersection of sets A and B.

(ii) Find the intersection of two set B and C.

(iii) Find the intersection of the given sets A and C.

Solution:

(i) Intersection of sets A and B is A ∩ B

Set of all the elements which are common to both set A and set B is {6, 12}.

(ii) Intersection of two set B and C is B ∩ C

Set of all the elements which are common to both set B and set C is {3, 6, 9}.

(iii) Intersection of the given sets A and C is A ∩ C

Set of all the elements which are common to both set A and set C is {4, 6, 8, 10}.

Notes:

A ∩ B is a subset of A and B. 

Intersection of a set is commutative, i.e., A ∩ B = B ∩ A. 

Operations are performed when the set is expressed in the roster form.
Some properties of the operation of intersection
(i) A∩B = B∩A (Commutative law) 

(ii) (A∩B)∩C = A∩ (B∩C) (Associative law) 

(iii) ϕ ∩ A = ϕ (Law of ϕ) 

(iv) U∩A = A (Law of ∪) 

(v) A∩A = A (Idempotent law) 

(vi) A∩(B∪C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C) (Distributive law) Here ∩ distributes over ∪

Also, A∪(B∩C) = (AUB) ∩ (AUC) (Distributive law) Here ∪ distributes over ∩ 

Notes:

A ∩ ϕ = ϕ ∩ A = ϕ i.e. intersection of any set with the empty set is always the empty
set.

Intersection of Sets using Venn Diagram

Let A and B be the two sets. The intersection of A and B is the set of all those
elements which belong to both A and B.

Now we will use the notation A ∩ B (which is read as ‘A intersection B’) to denote
the intersection of set A and set B.

Thus, A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

Clearly, x ∈ A ∩ B   

⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B

Therefore, the shaded portion in the adjoining figure represents A ∩ B.

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Thus, we conclude from the definition of intersection of sets that A ∩ B ⊆ A, A ∩

B ⊆ B.

From the above Venn diagram the following theorems are obvious:

(i) A ∩ A = A                        (Idempotent theorem) 

(ii) A ∩ U = A                       (Theorem of union) 

(iii) If A ⊆ B, then A ∩ B = A.

(iv) A ∩ B = B ∩ A                 (Commutative theorem) 

(v) A ∩ ϕ = ϕ                       (Theorem of ϕ) 

(vi) A ∩ A’ = ϕ                      (Theorem of ϕ) 

The symbols ⋃ and ∩ are often read as ‘cup’ and ‘cap’ respectively.

For two disjoint sets A and B, A ∩ B = ϕ.

Solved examples of intersection of sets using Venn diagram:

1. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 3, 9, 12}. Find A ∩ B using venn diagram.

Solution:

According to the given question we know, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 3, 9, 12}

Now let’s draw the venn diagram to find A intersection B.

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Therefore, from the venn diagram we get A ∩ B = {1, 3}

2. From the adjoining figure find A intersection B.

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Solution:

According to the adjoining figure we get;

Set A = {m, p, q, r, s, t, u, v}

Set B = {m, n, o, p, q, i, j, k, g}

Therefore, A intersection B is the set of elements which belong to both set A and set B.

Thus, A ∩ B = {p, q, m}

 Difference of Two Sets
How to find the difference of two sets?

If A and B are two sets, then their difference is given by A - B or B - A. 

• If A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 5, 6} 

A - B means elements of A which are not the elements of B. 

i.e., in the above example A - B = {2, 3} 

In general, B - A = {x : x ∈ B, and x ∉ A} 

• If A and B are disjoint sets, then A – B = A and B – A = B 

Solved examples to find the difference of two sets:

1. A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5, 6}. 

Find the difference between the two sets:

(i) A and B
(ii) B and A

Solution:

The two sets are disjoint as they do not have any elements in common. 

(i) A - B = {1, 2, 3} = A

(ii) B - A = {4, 5, 6} = B 

2. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e, f} and B = {b, d, f, g}.

Find the difference between the two sets:

(i) A and B

(ii) B and A

Solution:

(i) A - B = {a, c, e}

Therefore, the elements a, c, e belong to A but not to B 

(ii) B - A = {g) 

Therefore, the element g belongs to B but not A. 

3. Given three sets P, Q and R such that:

P = {x : x is a natural number between 10 and 16},

Q = {y : y is a even number between 8 and 20} and

R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}

(i) Find the difference of two sets P and Q

(ii) Find Q - R

(iii) Find R - P

(iv) Find Q – P

Solution:

According to the given statements:

P = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15}

Q = {10, 12, 14, 16, 18}

R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}

(i) P – Q = {Those elements of set P which are not in set Q}

            = {11, 13, 15}

(ii) Q – R = {Those elements of set Q not belonging to set R}

             = {10, 12, 16}

(iii) R – P = {Those elements of set R which are not in set P}

             = {7, 9, 18, 20}

(iv) Q – P = {Those elements of set Q not belonging to set P}

              = {10, 16, 18}

Difference of Sets using Venn Diagram

How to find the difference of sets using Venn diagram?

The difference of two subsets A and B is a subset of U, denoted by A – B and is defined

by 

A – B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∉ B}.

Let A and B be two sets. The difference of A and B, written as A - B, is the set of all
those elements of A which do not belongs to B.

Thus A – B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∉ B} or A – B = {x ∈ A : x ∉ B}.

Clearly, x ∈ A – B

⇒ x ∈ A and x ∉ B

In the adjoining figure the shaded part represents A – B.

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Similarly, the difference B – A is the set of all those elements of B that do not belongs
to A.

Thus, B – A = {x : x ∈ A and x ∉ B} or A – B = {x ∈ B : x ∉ A}.

In the adjoining figure the shaded part represents B – A.

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In particular, A – B = ∅ if A ⊂ B and A – B = A if A ∩ B = ∅.

The subset of A – B is also called the complement of B relative to A.

The difference A – B can be expressed in terms of the complement as A – b = A ∩ B’.

Properties of difference of sets:

1. A – (B ∩ C) = (A – B) ∪ (A – C)

2. A – (B ∪ C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C)

Solved example to find the difference of sets using Venn diagram:

1. If A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and B = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}, then find (i) A – B and (ii) B –
A.

Solution:

According to the given statement; A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and B = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}

(i) A – B

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= {2, 4, 6}

(ii) B – A
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= {9, 11, 13}

2. Given three sets A, B and C such that: A = {x : x is a natural number between 10

and 16}, B = {set of even numbers between 8 and 20} and C = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}.

Find the difference of sets using Venn diagram:

(i) A – B

(ii) B – C

(iii) C – A

(iv) B – A

Solution:

According to the given statement

A = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15}

B = {10, 12, 14, 16, 18}

C = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}

(i) A – B
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= {Those elements of set A which are not in set B}

= {11, 13, 15}

(ii) B – C

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= {Those elements of set B which are not in set C}

= {10, 12, 16}

(iii) C – A
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= {Those elements of set C which are not in set A}

= {7, 9, 18, 20}

(iv) B – A

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= {Those elements of set B which are not in set A}

= {10, 16, 18}

Evaluation:
1. If A = {2, 3, 4, 5}     B = {4, 5, 6, 7}     C = {6, 7, 8, 9}     D = {8, 9, 10, 11}, find

(a) A ∪ B

(b) A ∪ C

(c) B ∪ C

(d) B ∪ D

(e) (A ∪ B) ∪ C

(f) A ∪ (B ∪ C)

(g) B ∪ (C ∪ D)

2. If A = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12} B = {8, 10, 12, 14} C = {12, 14, 16} D = {16, 18}, find

(a) A ∩ B

(b) B ∩ C

(c) A ∩ (C ∩ D)

(d) A ∩ C

(e) B ∩ D

(f)(A ∩ B) ∪ C

(g) A ∩ (B ∪ D)

(h) (A ∩ B) ∪ (B ∩ C)

(i) (A ∪ D) ∩ (B ∪ C)

3. If A = {4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22}   B = {5, 9, 13, 17, 20}
C = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17}   D = {6, 11, 16, 21} then find

(a) A - C

(b) D - A

(c) D - B

(d) A - D
(e) B - C

(f) C - D

(g) B - A

(h) B - D

(i) D - C

(j) A - B

(k) C - B

(l) C - A

More Practice Test on Operations on Sets

4. If A and B are two sets such that A ⊂ B, then what is A∪B?

5. Find the union, intersection and the difference (A - B) of the following pairs of sets.

(a) A = The set of all letters of the word FEAST

     B = The set of all letters of the word TASTE

(b) A = {x : x ∈ W, 0 < x ≤ 7}

     B = {x : x ∈ W, 4 < x < 9}

(c) A = {x | x ∈ N, x is a factor of 12}

     B = {x | x ∈ N, x is a multiple of 2, x < 12}

(d) A = The set of all even numbers less than 12

     B = The set of all odd numbers less than 11

(e) A = {x : x ∈ I, -2 < x < 2}

     B = {x : x ∈ I, -1 < x < 4}

(f) A = {a, l, m, n, p}

    B = {q, r, l, a, s, n}

6. Let X = {2, 4, 5, 6}   Y = {3, 4, 7, 8}   Z = {5, 6, 7, 8}, find

(a) (X - Y) ∪ (Y - X)

(b) (X - Y) ∩ (Y - X)

(c) (Y - Z) ∪ (Z - Y)

(d) (Y - Z) ∩ (Z - Y)

Practice Test on Operations on Sets

7. Let ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {2, 5, 7} show that

(a) (A ∪ B)' = A' ∩ B'

(b) (A ∩ B)' = A' ∪ B'

(c) (A ∩ B) = B ∩ A

(d) (A ∪ B) = B ∪ A

8. Let P = {a, b, c, d}   Q = {b, d, f}   R = {a, c, e} verify that

(a) (P ∪ Q) ∪ R = P ∪ (Q ∪ R)

(b) (P ∩ Q) ∩ R = P ∩ (Q ∩ R)

9. If a set A = {3, 6, 9, 10, 13, 18}. State whether the following statements are
‘true’ or ‘false’:

(i) 7 ∈ A

(ii) 12 ∉ A

(iii) 13 ∈ A

(iv) 9, 12 ∈ A

(v) 12, 14, 15 ∈ A

10. If set Z = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}. State which of the following statements are
‘correct’ and which are ‘wrong’ along with the correct explanations
(i) 5 ∈ Z

(ii) 12 ∈ Z

(iii) 14 ∈ Z

(iv) 9 ∈ Z

(v) Z is a set of even numbers between 2 and 16.

(vi) 4, 6 and 10 are members of the set Z.