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CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Chapter I:

An Introduction to the
Cell: Eukaryotes and
Prokaryotes

Sherlyn C. Tipayno
Dept. of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences
Benguet State University

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
• the study of biology at a molecular level.
• overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly genetics and
biochemistry
• Molecular biology concerns itself with understanding the
interactions between the various systems of a cell, including
the interrelationship of DNA, RNA and protein synthesis and
learning how these interactions are regulated

Biochemistry Function Genetics

Proteins Genes

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MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Biochemistry and Genetics

• Biochemistry is the study of molecules (e.g.
proteins). Biochemists take an organism or cell and
dissect it into its molecular components, such as
enzymes, lipids and DNA, and reconstitute them in
test tubes (in vitro).

• Genetics is the study of the effect of genetic

differences on organisms. Often this can be inferred
by the absence of a normal component (e.g. one
gene).

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Organism, Organ, Cell

Organism

The Cell Nucleus only in eukaryotic

cells. Contains most of the
The ER modifies proteins, makes macromolecules, and cell's genetic material.
transfers substances throughout the cell.

Ribosome translates
mRNA into a polypeptide
chain (e.g., a protein).

Mitochondrion
manufactures adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), which
is used as a source of • circa 100 trillion (1014) cells in a human organism
energy. • 200 different forms of cells
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The Universal Features of Cells

Estimated 10 million -
100 million—living
species on Earth today.

Each species is different,

and reproduces progeny
of the same species.

The parent organism

hands down information
specifying, in
extraordinary detail, the
offspring’s
characteristics

The Universal Features of Cells

1. All cells store their hereditary information in the

same linear chemical code (DNA)

2. All cells replicate their

hereditary information
by templated
polymerization

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DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid

• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
forms a double stranded helix.
• A sugar-phosphate backbone
forms the outer shell on the
helix
• The two strands of DNA run in
opposite directions.
• Bases face towards each other
and form hydrogen bonds
• carries the generic instructions
(genes)

free Bases
Cytosine - C
Guanine - G complementary base pairs
Adenine - A
Thymine - T

Ulf Schmitz, Introduction to molecular

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and cell biology

The Universal Features of Cells

3. All Cells Transcribe Portions of Their Hereditary
Information into the Same Intermediary Form
(RNA)

Each cell contains a fixed set of DNA molecules—its

archive of genetic information. A given segment of
this DNA serves to guide the synthesis of many
identical RNA transcripts, which serve as working
copies of the information stored in the archive.
Many different sets of RNA molecules can be made
by transcribing selected parts of a long DNA
sequence, allowing each cell to use its information
store differently.

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Transcription

Ulf Schmitz, Introduction to

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molecular and cell biology

The Universal Features of Cells

4. All Cells Translate RNA into Protein in the

Same Way

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Protein Synthesis

Ulf Schmitz, Introduction to

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molecular and cell biology

Gene Expression

Ulf Schmitz, Introduction to

molecular and cell biology

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The Universal Features of Cells

5. The Fragment of
Genetic information
corresponding to one
protein is one gene

A gene is defined as the segment of DNA

sequence corresponding to a single
protein (or to a single catalytic or
structural RNA molecule for those genes
that produce RNA but not protein)

(A) A diagram of a small portion of the genome of

the bacterium Escherichia coli

The Universal Features of Cells

6. All Cells Use Proteins as Catalysts

Polynucleotides (nucleotide polymers) and

proteins (amino acid polymers) provide
the sequence information and the catalytic
functions that serve—through a complex
set of chemical reactions—to bring about
the synthesis of more polynucleotides and
proteins of the same types.

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The Universal Features of Cells

7. Life Requires Free Energy

The Universal Features of Cells

8. All Cells Function as Biochemical Factories

Dealing with the Same Basic Molecular
Building Blocks

 DNA sequence determines protein sequence; Protein

sequence determines protein structure; Protein
structure determines protein folding and function
 Fatty acids make up lipids, lipids make up cellular
membranes
 Monosaccharides are the simplest components of
carbohydrates; carbohydrates are sources of energy
 Etc…

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The Universal Features of Cells

9. All Cells Are Enclosed in a Plasma Membrane

Across Which Nutrients and Waste Materials
Must Pass

Domains and Kingdoms of Organisms

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Eukaryotic Cells, Prokaryotic Cells

and Viruses

Eukaryotic cells have organelles.

• Organelles compartmentalize functions within the

cell.
Nucleus only in eukaryotic cells.
The ER modifies proteins, makes
Contains most of the cell's genetic
macromolecules, and transfers substances
material.
throughout the cell.

Ribosome translates
mRNA into a polypeptide
chain (e.g., a protein).

Mitochondrion
manufactures adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), which is
used as a source of energy.

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Cell Membrane

Animal and Plant

Cell Anatomy

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Structure of the Nucleus

Chromatin: DNA and proteins
Nucleolus: Chromatin and ribosomal subunits
Nuclear envelope: Double membrane with pores
Nucleoplasm: semifluid medium inside the nucleus.

The Prokaryotic Cell Structure

•Prokaryotic,
single-celled,
microscopic
organisms
•Average coccus
is about 0.5-1.0
µm in diameter
•average bacillus
is 0.5-1.0 µm
wide by 1.0-4.0
µm long

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Shapes of Bacteria
• Coccus
– Chain = Streptoccus
– Cluster = Staphylococcus
• Bacillus
– Chain = Streptobacillus
• Coccobacillus
• Vibrio = curved
• Spirillum
• Spirochete
• Square
• Star

Chapter 4

The Bacteria Cell Wall

• Peptido-glycan polymer
(amino acids + sugars)
• Unique to bacteria
• Sugars; NAG & NAM
– N-acetylglucosamine
– N-acetymuramic acid

Chapter 4

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Bacterial Structures

• Flagella
• Pili
• Inclusions
• Spores
• Capsule
• Plasma Membrane
• Cytoplasm
• Cell Wall
• Lipopolysaccharides
• Teichoic Acids

Chapter 4

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Characteristics of Viruses

Virus
– Miniscule, acellular, infectious
agent having either DNA or RNA
but not both
– Causes many infections of
humans, animals, plants, and
bacteria
– Causes most of the diseases that
plague the industrialized world

Characteristics of Viruses

 Cannot carry out any metabolic pathway

 Neither grow nor respond to the environment
 Cannot reproduce independently
 Recruit the cell’s metabolic pathways to increase
their numbers
 No cytoplasmic membrane, cytosol, organelles
 Have extracellular and intracellular state

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Characteristics of Viruses
Extracellular State
– Called virion
– Protein coat (capsid) surrounding nucleic acid
– Nucleic acid and capsid also called
nucleocapsid
– Some have phospholipid envelope (enveloped)
– Outermost layer provides protection and
recognition sites for host cells

Intracellular State
– Capsid removed
– Virus exists as nucleic acid

Virions, complete virus particles

Figure 13.1

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Sizes of selected virions

Characteristics of Viruses
• Genetic Material of Viruses
– Show more variety in nature of their genomes
than do cells
– Primary way scientists categorize and classify
viruses
– May be DNA or RNA, but never both
• Can be dsDNA, ssDNA, dsRNA, ssRNA
– May be linear and segmented or single and
circular
– Much smaller than genomes of cells

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Viral
Diversity
based on
type of
nucleic acid

Characteristics of Viruses
• Capsid Morphology
– Capsids
• Protein coats that provide protection for viral nucleic
acid and means of attachment to host’s cells
• Composed of proteinaceous subunits called
capsomeres
– Capsomere may be made of single or multiple types of
proteins

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Virus Shape

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(d) Helical

Characteristics of Viruses
• The Viral Envelope
– Acquired from host cell during viral replication or release
• Envelope is portion of membrane system of host
– Composed of phospholipid bilayer and proteins
• Some proteins are virally coded glycoproteins (spikes)
– Envelope’s proteins and glycoproteins often play role in
host recognition

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Characteristics of Viruses
• Hosts of Viruses
– Most viruses infect only particular host’s cells
• Due to affinity of viral surface proteins for
complementary proteins on host cell surface
– May be so specific they only infect particular kind
of cell in a particular host
– Generalists – infect many kinds of cells in many
different hosts

Viral Replication
• Dependent on hosts’ organelles and enzymes to
produce new virions
• Lytic replication
– Replication cycle usually results in death and lysis of
host cell
• Stages of lytic replication cycle
– Attachment
– Entry
– Synthesis
– Assembly
– Release

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The lytic
replication
cycle in
bacteriophage

Figure 13.8

General Phage
Life Cycle

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Pattern of virion abundance in lytic

cycle

Figure 13.9

Viral Replication
• Lysogeny
– Modified replication cycle
– Infected host cells grow and reproduce normally
for generations before they lyse
– Temperate phages
• Prophages – inactive phages
– Lysogenic conversion results when phages carry
genes that alter phenotype of a bacterium

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Bacteriophage lambda

Figure 13.10

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Viral Replication
• Replication of Animal Viruses
– Same basic replication pathway as
bacteriophages
– Differences result from
• Presence of envelope around some viruses
• Eukaryotic nature of animal cells
• Lack of cell wall in animal cells

Viral Replication
• Replication of Animal Viruses
– Attachment of animal viruses
• Chemical attraction
• Animal viruses do not have tails or tail fibers
• Have glycoprotein spikes or other attachment
molecules that mediate attachment

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Three mechanisms of entry of animal

viruses

Viral Replication
• Replication of Animal Viruses
– Synthesis of animal viruses
• Each type of animal virus requires different strategy
depending on its nucleic acid
• DNA viruses often enter the nucleus
• RNA viruses often replicate in the cytoplasm
• Must consider
– How mRNA is synthesized
– What serves as template for nucleic acid replication

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Synthesis of proteins and genomes in

animal RNA viruses

Figure 13.13

Viral Replication

• Replication of Animal Viruses

– Assembly and release of animal viruses
• Most DNA viruses assemble in nucleus
• Most RNA viruses develop solely in cytoplasm
• Number of viruses produced depends on type of virus
and size and initial health of host cell
• Enveloped viruses cause persistent infections
• Naked viruses are released by exocytosis or lysis

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The process of budding in enveloped

viruses

Figure 13.14

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