Abstract

This dissertation covers brief notion on the origin of petroleum which is considered to be of or-
ganic source. The migration and accumulation of petroleum in the reservoir as a result of reser-
voir permeability and porosity will be discussed. The methods of drilling in which rotary drilling
methods is the most applicable in the recent wells due to its ability to drill over greater depths, the
types of drilling rigs both onshore and offshore and their components as well as the drilling tech-
niques for extraction of hydrocarbons are also discussed.

Casing and cementing, two of the most crucial phase of drilling engineering in oil and gas extrac-
tion are covered in this dissertation. Casing is defined as steel tube that commence on the surface
and goes down to the bottom of the hole, whereas cementing is defined as putting cement slurry
between the formation and the casing. And finally, well completion which is the last operation of
hydrocarbons’ well.

1
Introduction
The purpose of drilling is to drill and complete a commercial hydrocarbon’s well (Oil and gas
well). This synthesis aims to explain, describe, and illustrate the process of drilling.

Drilling is the process of digging a hole. Historically, Oil and gas formed from organisms in the
geologic past. Natural geological processes created favorable conditions for migration and accu-
mulation in underground reservoir traps. Areas, where these traps occur, are located by various
methods of exploration. To access the reservoir traps, a large-diameter hole is drilled by rotating
a joint of drill pipe with a drill bit fitted on the bottom end. Fluid is circulated down the inside of
the pipe and up the outside to remove the pieces of earth drilled by the bit (the cuttings).

Other joints of the drill pipe are connected to drill the hole deeper. A large pipe or casing is
placed in the hole with cement around the pipe. A slightly smaller hole is drilled deeper through
the casing. A slightly smaller casing is placed in this hole and cemented. The sequence is re-
peated using successively smaller sizes until the last, smallest casing is run through the oil trap
thousands of meters below the surface. Many drilling problems occur such as loose pieces of for-
mation and high-pressure formations. These types of problems must be handled to drill the well
successfully. Tests provide information about the oil and gas in the formations and are taken dur-
ing and after drilling.

Key words: Drilling, hydrocarbons, well, Oil, Gas, bit, casing, cementing, mud, rig, formation.

2
Chapter 1: General overview of petroleum

1.1 Introduction
Petroleum is a complicated combination made up mostly of organic carbon and hydrogen mole-
cules that occurs naturally. It also includes considerable amounts of nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen,
as well as trace amounts of nickel, vanadium, and other elements. As natural gas, crude oil, or as-
phaltic particles, it can be found in gaseous, liquid, or solid form. The type of organic materials in
the source rock where petroleum is formed determines both the physical character and chemical
makeup of petroleum. However, significant changes in the composition may occur during migra-
tion to the reservoir and as a result of reservoir maturation and modification processes. (Barker,
1985)

1.2 Origin of petroleum

The origins of oil and gas have been the subject of several hypotheses (petroleum hydrocarbons).
This might range from chemical reaction ideas to the presence of hydrocarbons during the earth's
genesis. According to popular belief, the majority, if not all, petroleum hydrocarbons came from
the remains of marine animals.

During the erosion-transportation process, many minerals and salts were leached and transported
to the oceans in liquid or gaseous (soluble) form. These provided nutrients that helped aquatic
species develop faster. At the end of their life cycle, the marine organisms were deposited on the
ocean floor along with clay-sized sediments. The sediments were converted into marine shale
over the geological cycle. The heat and pressure during subsidence, as the formation moved
downward and compacted, gradually converted the organic remains of the marine to petroleum
hydrocarbons.

1.3 Petroleum migration and accumulation

The majority of petroleum is found in porosity and permeability-rich reservoir rocks. Natural pro-
cesses that result in the removal of fine-grained materials like as clays, micrite (in the case of car-
bonate reservoirs), and organic matter typically develop these qualities. Dolomitization and solu-
tion are primarily responsible for increasing porosity and permeability in carbonate rocks.

3
Reservoir rocks, on the whole, lack enough organic content to produce economically significant
amounts of petroleum. It is now widely accepted that petroleum is produced in organic matter-
rich source rocks, with a portion of the bitumen migrating to reservoir rocks. As a result, migra-
tion is important in connecting the organic matter-rich source rocks to the reservoir.

1.4 The reservoir

Any rock might theoretically operate as an oil or gas reservoir. In practice, the primary known re-
serves are found in sandstones and carbonates, while fields can also be found in shales and a vari-
ety of igneous and metamorphic rocks. A rock must have two key features in order to operate as a
reservoir: it must have pores to retain oil or gas, and the holes must be linked to enable fluid
flow; in other words, the rock must have permeability.

a) Porosity

Porosity is the first of the two essential attributes of a reservoir. The pore spaces, or voids, within
a rock are generally filled with connate water but contain oil or gas within a field. Porosity is ei -
ther expressed as the void ratio, which is the ratio of voids to solid rock, or, more frequently, as a
percentage:

volume of voides
porosity( %)= × 100
Total volume of rocks

4
Figure 1: Thin sections illustrating the different types of primary porosity. (A) Intergranu-
lar porosity in Middle Jurassic Brent sandstone (North Sea, United Kingdom). Field of view
is approximately 1 cm. (B) Intergranular and intergranular (within fossils) porosity in
skeletal pelleted limestone. Field of view is about 1 cm. (Selley and Sonnenberg, 2015).
Porosity may be measured in three ways: directly from cores, indirectly from geophysical
well logs, or from seismic data.

b) Permeability

Permeability is the second most important attribute of a reservoir rock. It's not enough to have
pores; they have to be linked. Permeability refers to a porous material's ability to allow fluids to
flow through. A reservoir's permeability may be determined in three ways: by using a drill stem
or production test, wireline logs, or a permeameter.

c) Atypical and fractured reservoir

Sandstone and carbonate reservoirs contain 90 percent of the world's oil and gas. The remaining
10% is found in atypical reservoirs, which include anything from basements to cracked shale.
Theoretically, any rock can be a petroleum reservoir if it is both porous and permeable. Atypical
reservoirs may form by two processes: weathering and fracturing.

5
 d) Reservoir characterization

Once a petroleum accumulation has been located, it is critical to precisely define the reservoir in
order to assess reserves and identify the most cost-effective method of collecting as much of the
petroleum as possible. The integration of a large quantity of data from seismic surveys, geophysi-
cal well logs, and geological samples is the initial step in reservoir characterization.

1.5 The trap and seal

1.5.1 The Trap

Traps are 3D subsurface geometries in which hydrocarbons can be trapped if a reservoir is
present that is overlain by a seal and has access to hydrocarbon charge. (de Jager, 2020). In the
simplest classification, traps can be subdivided into structural and stratigraphic traps. Structural
traps can be simple anticlinal structures dipping down in all directions or faulted structures.

Anticlinal traps with four-way dip closures give the fewest risks. The existence of faults and
cracks raises the possibility of hydrocarbons escaping the trap. Extensional cracks above the crest
of the anticline may form when curvature (more pronounced folding) rises, increasing the chance
of the top seal being broken.

Figure 2: Schematic representation of how the four essential ingredients (trap, reservoir,
seal and charge) can result in a hydrocarbon accumulation. (Jager, 2020)

6
 1.5.2 The Seal
Seals are lithologies with a very low permeability; so low that hydrocarbons cannot, or only with
great difficulty and very slowly, move through them.

The Seal quality of a rock depends on seal lithology, ductility, degree of fracturing and faulting,
and thickness. Mercury injection capillary entry pressure measurements are used to determine the
sealing potential of lithology: a tiny sample of the sealing lithology (usually a core plug) is sub-
merged in mercury. The quantity of mercury entering the sample is monitored when the pressure
is increased.

Figure 3: Oil in the reservoir tries to push its way through the pore throats in the seal under
the force of the buoyancy of the oil column in the reservoir. (Jager, 2020)

1.6 Physical and Chemical properties of petroleum

Petroleum exploration is largely concerned with the search for oil and gas, two of the chemically
and physically diverse group of compounds termed the hydrocarbons. Physically, hydrocarbons
grade from gases, via liquids and plastic substances, to solids. The hydrocarbon gases include dry
gas (methane) and wet gases (ethane, propane, butane, etc.). Liquid hydrocarbons are termed oil,
crude oil, or just crude, to differentiate them from refined petroleum products. (Selley and Son-

7
nenberg, 2015). Asphalt and similar chemicals are plastic hydrocarbons. Coal and kerogen are
examples of solid hydrocarbons.

1.6.1 Natural gases

The hydrocarbons of the paraffin series make up the majority of natural gas. With increasing
molecular weight, the quantity of the series' heavier members decreases. The most abundant is
methane, followed by ethane, butane, and propane. Paraffin with a molecular weight greater than
pentane is the least frequent.

1.6.2 Crude oil

Crude oil is defined as “a mixture of hydrocarbons that existed in the liquid phase in natural un -
derground reservoirs and remains liquid at atmospheric pressure after passing through surface
separating facilities”. Oils are often lighter than water. Although oil density may be calculated as
the difference between its specific gravity and that of water, it is more often stated in API gravity
units.

1.7 Summary
In the exploration for oil and gas, we need to predict the occurrence and distribution of source
rocks which is a function of the sedimentary environment and climate at the time of deposition.
The burial history has to be reconstructed to predict the timing of maturation and migration. This
involves complex modelling based on the kinetics and temperature history. Before drilling, the
position of a trap and a reservoir rock has to be determined. The porosity and permeability of the
reservoir rock are critical.

8
Chapter 2: Drilling Methods

2.1 Introduction
Drilling is one of the oldest technologies. Man used to dig a hole for different purposes. Until in-
ternal combustion engines were developed in the late 19th century, the main method for drilling
rock was the muscle power of man or animal. The first rotary drilling rig was developed in
France in the 1860s. However, it was seldom used because it was erroneously believed that most
hydrocarbons were under hard-rock formations that could be easily drilled with cable tool rigs.

Oil and gas, on the other hand, are traditionally found and produced by drilling boreholes. Cable-
tool drilling was an established practice in many regions of the world in the search for water and
brine before oil exploration began. In the next sections, the two methods of drilling, cable-tool
and rotary-tool drilling, are briefly discussed as well as the types of drilling wells and their se-
quence. (Selley and Sonnenberg, 2015).

2.2 Types of drilling wells

If the primary seismic survey identifies underlying hydrocarbon deposits, a choice is taken to ei-
ther develop a field to get further information via exploration or quit the field. If the field is se-
lected as a possible hydrocarbon production area, one or more wells must be drilled to assess
whether substantial hydrocarbon accumulations exist in commercial quantities.

Based on these strategic decisions and primary outcomes, drilling wells can be categorized into
four types, such as exploration well, an appraisal well, development well, and abandonment well.

A Wildcat well or exploratory well is a kind of exploratory drilling well. During the early stages
of exploration, it is drilled. Drilling is now complete in the hopes of learning whether the reser-
voir rocks hold any oil or gas. The primary goals of this drilling well are to find hydrocarbons,
provide geological data (such as cores and logs) for analysis, conduct flow tests through the well
to estimate its production potential, and collect fluid samples for laboratory examination.

Appraisal wells are those wells that are used to establish the extent (size) of the reservoir. This
well helps in obtaining data such as whether there is enough oil and gas to warrant investing in
infrastructure to recover oil and gas to scale.

9
Production wells are sometimes used to refer to development wells. To extract hydrocarbons, this
well was dug in a known producing field. Finally, if no hydrocarbon discovery is found, the well
that was drilled to gather the information needs to be closed to prevent possible environmental
disasters this type of well is called an abandonment well.

2.3 The two methods of drilling

There are two basic methods to drill a hole for hydrocarbon withdrawal from an underground sys-
tem. These are i) cable tool drilling and ii) rotary drilling.

2.3.1 Percussion or Cable tool drilling

Cable tool drilling is a process in which a highly pointed bit is linked to a cable and repeatedly
raised and dropped into the borehole. A heavy carbide-tipped drill bit (along with drill string) is
hung in the hole by a rope or cable in cable-tool drilling. A steam engine drives a motorized
walking beam, which lowers and raises the cable and its associated bit assembly. This upward
and downward movement is repeated many times. By carefully crushing the subsurface elements,
the drill bit chisels through the rock. The bit descends each time it strikes the bottom of the hole,
cutting the rock.

Figure 4: a conventional cable tool (Hossain and Al-Majed, 2015)

2.3.2 Rotary drilling

Rotary drilling is a complex design technique in which a drill bit is connected to the bottom hole
assembly and rotational motion is used to cut the rock forwards. A massive, heavy drill bit is at-
10
tached to the tip of the bottom hole assembly where a downward force is applied in the rotational
drilling method. A drill string is made up of high-quality drill tubing and a drill collar rotates the
bit. As drilling advances, more sections of drill pipe assembly are attached to the top of the hole.

The cuttings are lifted from the borehole by injecting drilling fluids (drilling mud) through the
drill pipe and bit nozzles. The drilling fluid is collected at the surface and passes through different
tanks and separators to treat the mud properly. Once the mud is ready, the cycle repeats again.

Figure 5: A con- ventional ro-

tary drilling rigs with differ-
ent components (Hossain and
Al-Majed, 2015)

2.4 Drilling techniques

for pe- troleum
extrac- tion
Crude oil and nat- ural gas are
usually a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons, non-hydrocar-
bons and other trace ele-
ments; they are usually stored
in the sedimentary rock of deep
formations. With the knowl-
edge of crude oil and natural gas, we need to do something to get the oil and gas out of the deep
formations.

The essential technologies for the exploration and utilization of oil and gas resources in deep for-
mations are vertical and directional drilling. Meanwhile, they're crucial for exploitation of deep
geothermal energy and geo-resources, as well as a continental scientific drilling program.

11
 Figure 6: the schematic plot of different kinds of well. (Ma et al., 2016)

There are three main different drilling techniques for oil and gas extraction; vertical drilling, hori-
zontal and directional drilling.

2.4.1 Vertical drilling

There is no such thing as a genuinely vertical borehole in oil and gas drilling; nonetheless, wells
that aim at a target exactly below its surface position are termed vertical wells. A vertical well is
a drilling method that includes drilling vertically into the earth to get access to an underground oil
or natural gas deposit.

2.4.2 Directional drilling

Directional drilling is the process of drilling a well which is to flow a prescribed traverse and in-
tersect a specific objective. The objective is called a target and is usually an enclosed area in a
horizontal plane; the target also could be a circular area at the top of a producing zone.

2.4.3 Horizontal drilling

Horizontal drilling entails drilling a well from the surface to a subsurface location just above the
target oil or gas reservoir known as the "kickoff point," then deviating the wellbore from the ver-
tical plane around a curve to intersect the reservoir at the "entry point," with a near-horizontal in-

12
clination, and remaining within the reservoir until the desired bottom hole location is reached.
Drilling a conventional directional well to an inclination of roughly 60 degrees is possible.
Drilling issues abound as the inclination exceeds 60 degrees, resulting in a significant increase in
well drilling costs. Drilling highly deviated and horizontal wells, on the other hand, has a number
of advantages;

- Increasing the drainage area of the platform.

- Prevention of gas coning or water coning problems.
- Increasing the penetration of the producing formation.
- Increasing the efficiency of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques.
- Improving productivity in fractured reservoirs by intersecting a number of vertical frac-
tures.

2.5 The drilling process

After all of the necessary equipment and the drilling rig have been installed, the drilling proce-
dure may begin. The drilling process comprises several interrelated systems that power the whole
drilling operation. The process is divided into four categories: i) power, ii) hoisting, iii) circula-
tion, and iv) rotary system. These systems are also known as drilling process subsystems.

2.6 Summary
This chapter discusses all aspects related to the drilling rig and its components. How different
drilling rig systems operate in addition to classifications of rigs. The different components or de-
vice names with complete figures are shown in this chapter.

13
Chapter 3: Rig equipment

3.1 Introduction
This chapter will discuss how rigs and drill bits are selected, the different types of rigs and drill
bits used in oil and gas exploration.

3.2 Drilling rigs classification

A drilling rig is a steel structure with other equipment and rig components. The classification of
drilling rigs deals with the environment in which the rigs have to function. The rig's price is a
crucial factor to consider. A more powerful, well-equipped rig will cost more, but the increased
performance should cover at least some, if not all, of the additional total cost. The drilling pro-
gram, working environment, rig availability, and cost all influence the need for a rig.

There are many types and designs of drilling rigs based on equipment usages, geographical loca-
tion of well, position and height of derrick, type of pipe used, and method of rotation. Drilling
rigs can be classified using any of the features.(Hossain and Al-Majed, 2015)

Figure 7: Classification of drilling rigs (Devereux and Devereux, 2012)

a) Heavy land rig

Drilling deep or extremely deep wells will require a massive land rig (over 3000 meters). The
derrick's maximum load capacity will be equal to or more than 500 tons. The drilling fluid will be

14
circulated around the well by two, maybe three, high-pressure pumps on the rig. To generate the
needed types of cement and drilling fluids, the rig systems must be able to transfer and mix these
materials. A fleet of trucks transports the rig to the proper place.

Figure 8: Land rig in a desert (Devereux and Devereux, 2012)

b) Light land rig

A light land rig will be suitable for drilling shallower wells. It might also be employed to work on
an existing well that needs extensive repairs or replacement of the completion. The previous com-
pletion is removed from the well and a fresh completion is conducted in this situation. Two high-
pressure pumps will most likely be used to circulate drilling fluid. In general, capacities will be
lower than those of a big land rig. A fleet of trucks transports the rig to the proper place.

c) Helicopter transportable land rigs (Heli-rigs)

A rig can be deployed on position by helicopter in isolated places where sufficient roads do not
exist. A Heli-rig may be disassembled into compact containers with a maximum weight of
roughly 3 tons. In rainforests and hilly areas, Heli-rigs are employed. In Heli-rig operations, ev-
erything is transported by air. The heaviest loads are lifted early in the morning because the air is
coolest and the performance of the helicopter the highest.

15
 d) Automated single rig

Highly automated rigs that employ pipe handling devices to put down all drill string components
while drawing out of the hole are one of the most recent advances in rigs. The rig is truck-
mounted, with the derrick pivoting upright and hoisted off the ground on a frame. The block is
moved by a hydraulic ram rather than a wire rope. A magazine is located in front of the rig,
where drill pipe, casing, and other components are kept vertically.

e) Semisubmersible rig

A semisubmersible rig is big, and some of them are really big. The rig is supported by three to
eight steel columns, under which are buoyancy chambers (called pontoons). The pontoons are
partially empty (with some water as needed for stability) when the rig is being transported be-
tween places, allowing the rig to float high above the water.

Ballast water is poured into tanks within the pontoons and columns after the rig is in position
above the well site. As a result, the rig sinks deeper into the water, and when impacted by waves
and wind, it will move less than it would in the transport mode. Even in inclement weather, a
large semisubmersible rig may continue to work.

16
 Figure 9: Semisubmersible rig offshore Ghana. (Devereux and Devereux, 2012)

f) Jack-up

A jack-up rig features a floating hull, which is normally triangular but may also be square. A
huge steel leg stands at each corner. With tugs, the rig is carried to the well site. The legs are then
lowered till they make touch with the seafloor. The hull rises out of the water when the legs are
lowered farther. This serves as a makeshift platform. The derrick is suspended on a massive can-
tilever beam that extends from the hull, allowing it to cross the hull side. This enables a jack-up
rig to travel alongside a platform and place the derrick over a well within the platform's construc-
tion. Spudding straight into the seabed is how exploration wells are dug.

17
 Figure 10: Jack-up rig under tow and on location. (Devereux and Devereux, 2012)

g) Drillship

A drillship is a movable offshore drilling rig that is built or converted from a monohull ship, cata-
maran, triple-hull ship, or barge. After arriving at the well location, the drillship uses a dynamic
positioning system to get into position before starting to drill a well. When the ship is operating,
it floats. The drillship experiences a heaving motion, swings on both sides, floats on the surface,
and so on as a result of the wind and wave activity.  As a result, several procedures are required,
such as a drilling string heave compensation device, swing angle reduction device, dynamic posi-
tioning, and so on, to ensure that the drillship's displacement remains within acceptable limits to
successfully drill a well.

The drillship has many merits, such as good mobility, a high self-propulsion speed, and the abil-
ity to handle a wide range of variable loads. The drillship also has some faults, such as having
poor stability, especially when mooring with the anchor; being heavily influenced and sensitive
to wind and waves, which can affect the efficiency of the drilling operation. (Fang and Duan,
2014)

18
 Figure 11: Floating drillship (Fang and Duan, 2014)

3.3 Drill bits

A drilling bit is defined as the cutting or boring tool, which is made up on the end of the drill
string.(Devereux and Devereux, 2012)

Its primary purpose is to cut rock from the hole's bottom. A cutting element (cutters) and a fluid
circulation element make up the bit (nozzles). To crush and enter new formations, the drill bit is
mechanically rotated. Cuttings are broken and loosened rocks that are removed from the wellbore
by pumping drilling fluid via nozzles in the drill bit and down the drill pipe. The bit scrapes,
chips, gouges or grinds the rock at the bottom of the hole to drill through it. Drilling fluid im-
proves penetration rates by utilizing hydraulic force.

There are several types of drill bits manufactured for different situations and conditions encoun-
tered during drilling operations. Basically, there are two types of drill bits; these are the fixed-cut-
ter bits and roller-cone bits. The figure below shows different types of drill bits.

19
 Figure 12: Different types of drill bits (Hossain and Al-Majed, 2015)

i. Roller cone bit

Roller cone bits are made up of one, two, or three cones with teeth extending from them. The
teeth of these cones push on the formation with enough pressure to exceed the compressive
strength of the rock as they roll over the bottom of the hole. Roller cone bits are less costly and
can manage tougher drilling conditions than currently fixed cutter bits. Except in the smallest
1
hole diameters (8 or lower), roller cone bits are typically more cost-effective in a relatively low-
2
cost drilling operation (land rig).

20
 Figure 13: Roller cone bit (Hossain and Al-Majed, 2015)

ii. Fixed cutter bit

Fixed cutter bit are also called drag bit. Diamond bits and polycrystalline diamond compact
(PDC) bits are two types of fixed cutter bits. Because fixed cutter bits have no moving compo-
nents and just the cutting surfaces to wear out, they can drill for a long time. Drilling using dia-
mond bits wears down the rock beneath the bit, resulting in very tiny cuttings known as rock
flour. Diamond bits can drill through the hardest rock, but they are slow and costly. Diamond bits
are typically utilized in formations with the highest compressive strength or in formations that are
extremely rough, causing other bit types to fail prematurely.

Figure 14: Drag bit (Hossain and Al-Majed, 2015)

21
3.3.1 Bit selection
Drill bits come in a variety of sizes and shapes. Bit selection is critical for achieving the highest
drilling performance and, as a result, lowering drilling costs. The drilling records of other nearby
wells are the most essential source of data for the study. Data from electric logs can also help
with bit selection. Sonic logs (which measure sound speed across formations) may be analyzed to
determine rock compressive strengths, which help bit selection.

Bit selection is basically an economic decision: which bits are most likely to drill to the next cas-
ing, logging, or coring point at the lowest total cost?

3.4 Drill string design

The drill string connects the drill rig to the drill bit. Kelly, drill pipe, drill collars, tools, and a drill
bit make up a standard drill string. The drill string has two purposes: it serves as a conduit for
drilling fluid to be poured down through it and then circulated back up the annulus, and it pro-
vides torque to the drill bit for cutting the rock.

Figure 15: Drill string design (Hossain and Al-Majed, 2015)

3.5 Summary
The choice and types of drilling rigs is determined by the geology of the area where the oil and
gas well is located, the offshore drilling are more expensive and requires a lot engineering skills
to be moved from one well to another

22
Chapter 4: Drilling fluid

4.1 Introduction
A drilling fluid is a combination of liquids, solids, and sometimes gases that is pumped around
the well. The rotary drilling technology requires drilling fluid (also known as drilling mud). The
mud is directly or indirectly responsible for the majority of the issues experienced during well
drilling. The properties of the drilling fluid have a role in the successful completion of a hydro-
carbon well and its cost. However, the expense of making the appropriate decision and maintain-
ing the proper quantity and quality of fluid throughout drilling operations rises quickly. Some of
the most frequent drilling difficulties, such as rate of penetration, caving shales, stuck pipe, and
lost circulation, are directly connected to the right selection, characteristics, and quality of mud.
Furthermore, the mud has an impact on the formation evaluation and, as a result, the well's effi-
ciency.

Therefore, the selection of suitable drilling fluid and routine control of its properties are the con-
cern of the drilling operations related individuals. The well's location, projected lithology, neces-
sary equipment, and mud characteristics are all factors to consider in the mud program.

4.2 Importance of drilling fluid

 Remove and transport cuttings from bottom of the hole to the surface.
 Control formation pressure.
 Cool and lubricate the rotating drill string and drilling bit.
 Form a thin, low permeable filter cake to seal and maintain the walls of the borehole and
prevent formation damage.
 Maintain wellbore stability.

4.3 Drilling fluid circulatory system

The fluid circulation process is important in the rotary drilling process, and drilling fluid is a cru-
cial component. In reality, no one could successfully drill most wells using the rotary technique
without circulating the drilling fluid. Also, the success or failure of the mud program can have a
big impact on whether the drilling contractor can safely and economically drill the well to the op-
erator's expectations.

23
The mud, water and other necessary chemicals, and solids are mixed through the mud-mixing
tank. Then mud goes to the fresh mud pit from where it is pumped to the bottom hole assembly.
Mud passes through the standpipe, hose and swivel, kelly and then the drill pipe, drill collar to
drilling bit. On the return, mud with cuttings passes through the annulus, BOP, channel, shale
shaker, desander to desilter to again at the mud pit on the surface.

Figure 16: Different functions of drilling fluid (Hossain and Al-Majed, 2015)

4.4 Classification of drilling fluid

Drilling fluids are categorized based on their chemical makeup. It may be divided into three cate-
gories: liquids, gases, and liquid-gas combinations. Drilling fluids can also be broadly catego-
rized as compressed air, foam, clear water, water-based mud and oil-in-water emulsion or oil-
based mud. Drilling mud is a term used to describe a freshwater or saltwater based drilling fluid
with additives.

The main factors that govern the selection of drilling fluids are;

 The type of formation to be drilled,

 The range of formation data i.e. pressure, temperature, permeability, saturation, and
strength,
 The formation evaluation procedure used,

24
  The available water quality i.e. fresh or saline water,
 Ecological and environmental considerations.

4.4.1 Water-based mud

Water is the most common fluid. When the solids are entrained in the water it makes it a natural
mud. Water-based mud (WBM) is defined as drilling mud in which the continuous phase is wa-
ter. The advantage of WBM is that, due to the great viscosity of the mud, it helps carry the rock
cuttings to the surface. On the other hand, the disadvantage of WBM is the reduction in the pene-
tration rate and increase in the pressure loss due to friction.(Hossain and Al-Majed, 2015)

4.4.2 Oil-based mud

Oil-based mud (OBM) is defined as the drilling mud made with oil as the solvent carrier for the
solids content. OBM is a drilling fluid in which oil is the continuous phase and where water con-
tent is less than 2% to up to 5%. OBMs are used for a variety of applications where fluid stability
and inhibition are necessary such as high-temperature, and deep wells, salt and unconsolidated
formation and soft shale formation where sticking and hole’s stabilization is a problem. OBM is
more inhibitive than muds based on water, resistant to all sorts of corrosion and excellent lubri-
cating properties are the advantages of OBM. However, the following are disadvantages of OBM;
greater beginning cost and is generally more expensive, make pollution-control methods
stricter, some logging tools are less effective, due to the solubility of a gas in diesel oil, detecting
gas kicks is more difficult. (Hossain and Al-Majed, 2015)

4.4.3 Air or gas-based mud

Compressed air is very effective as a drilling fluid for drilling in a competent consolidated rock
or in frozen ground. Only minor modifications to a conventional drilling rig and drill bits are re-
quired to drill with compressed air as compared to drilling with mud. Gases are used when the
formation is competent and impermeable. Therefore, the use of gas or air as drilling fluid is lim-
ited to areas where the formations are competent and impermeable. This type of mud has high
penetration rate and less formation damage.

4.4.4 Foam
Foam is a mixture of air and additives. Gas-liquid combinations can only be employed in a few
specific formations where water output is high. Foam can occur when gas-liquid combinations

25
come together. Foam or mist is commonly added to compressed air to improve its effectiveness,
particularly when drilling clay and shale formations with too much water. The foam keeps the
cuttings separated, decreases balling and sticking, helps in water removal from the drill hole, and
allows bigger cuttings to be removed from the hole with the same amount of air.

4.5 Measurement of drilling fluid properties

A routine drilling fluid test practice is recommended to ensure the quality of drilling fluids. Cer-
tain tests can be carried out by the mud engineer to determine the properties of the drilling fluid
and ensure that it will fulfil the functions described earlier.

Any deterioration in mud quality may be detected by doing these tests at regular intervals before
it develops any complications in the downhole. The following tests are usually performed to en-
sure that the drilling fluids are of good quality; mud density, mud viscosity, gel strength, pH de-
termination, filtration test, sand content, determination of liquid and solids content (mud retort)
etc.

4.5.1 Mud density

The density of mud weight is an essential parameter that determines the mud column's hydro-
static pressure. It's calculated by measuring a specific volume of mud and dividing the weight by
the volume and is expressed as ρm. The density of drilling muds is normally measured with a mud
balance in the rig side area. However, densities of the flowing slurries can be measured by a
gamma-ray densitometer.

4.5.2 Mud viscosity

The term viscosity is a measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow. It is a property of drilling fluids
and/or slurries that indicates their resistance to flow. Viscosity is defined as the ratio of shear
stress to shear rate. There are two common methods used to measure viscosity in drilling rig area;
Marsh Funnel and Rotational viscometer.

4.5.3 pH determination
The acidity or alkalinity of the mixing water is measured by the pH of a drilling fluid. The solu-
bility of some organic thinners and the dispersion of clays contained in the mud are both affected
by pH. Corrosion rates are reduced in muds with a pH greater than 10. As a result, the ideal oper-
ating pH for drilling mud is between 8.5 and 9.5.

26
4.5.4 Filtration test
The ability of a fluid to produce a regulated filter cake on the borehole sidewalls is determined by
its filtration qualities. The filtration qualities of drilling mud have an impact on borehole stability,
smooth drill string movement, formation damage, and development time. The filter cake should
be a little thicker than a sixteenth of an inch and easily detachable with the backflow.

The test in the laboratory consists of measuring the volume of liquid forced through the mud cake
into the formation in a 30-minute period under given pressure and temperature conditions using a
standard size cell.

4.5.5 Sand content

A drilling fluid's sand content is defined as any particle larger than 74 microns in diameter, which
may be determined with a 200-mesh screen and a sand content kit. The test is carried out on both
low-solids and weighted muds. It's crucial to check the sand composition of drilling fluid on a
regular basis. Excessive sand might lead to the formation of a thick filter cake on the hole's wall.
When circulation is halted, it may fall back into the hole. A high sand concentration can also
cause excessive abrasion of pump components and pipe connections, as well as obstructing
drilling equipment and casing setup.

4.6 Summary
The chapter covers almost all the fundamental and basic components of mud engineering. The
chapter presents the current trends and the future challenges of the technology and also identifies
where drilling personnel need to focus their attention. In addition, future research guidelines are
presented focusing on the development of environmentally friendly drilling fluids with zero im-
pact on the environment. Efforts should be intensified to develop alternatives that will transform
current mud technology into a more sustainable industry. In drilling fluid technologies, two main
trends are currently being practiced: i) the search for new additives to increase the performances
of WBM and ii) the development and introduction of new combinations and ingredients for
OBM.

27
Chapter 5: Casing and cementing

5.1 Introduction
An oil or gas well is a pressure vessel that transports hydrocarbons from a reservoir to the surface
through a vertical pipeline thousands of meters long. The steel casing that lines the wellbore pro-
vides the pressure vessel with its structural integrity. This casing pipe must remain in good condi-
tion throughout the well's production life until it is eventually abandoned. It is critical that the
casing be appropriately constructed, taking into account all of the stresses and environmental
conditions that it will face. The casing is dropped into the drilled hole, with cement placed be-
tween it and the hole.

The cement must prevent fluids and gases from forming outside of the casing and moving up the
annulus, which could be inconvenient to disastrous. During the drilling of a well, cement is also
employed for other purposes. It might shut up areas where mud can flow into the formation. It's
utilized to stop fluids and gases from moving to the surface by sealing the wellbore. It's fre-
quently used to seal off the bottom of the well and drill a new hole away from the existing well-
bore.

5.2 Casing
Casing is defined as a heavy large diameter steel pipe, which can be lowered into the well for
some specific functions.(Hossain and Al-Majed, 2015) Casing is using a strong steel pipe used in
an oil or gas well to ensure a pressure-tight connection from the surface to the oil or gas reservoir.
It is a steel pipe that runs from the surface to the bottom of the borehole and is approximately 40
meters long. It is firmly attached to the rocky structure using cement slurry, ensuring hydraulic
insulation. Before drilling the next hole’s section, the area between the casing string and the bore-
hole is filled with cement slurry. To ensure borehole stability, the final depth of the well is
reached by drilling holes of decreasing diameter and employing protective casings of the same di-
ameter.

28
 Figure 17: Casing pipes ready to offload (Devereux and Devereux, 2012)

5.2.1 Importance of casing

 It helps in the stability of the hole and offers support for weak, vulnerable, or broken forma-
tions.
 It is designed to keep various fluids and pressure regimes from contaminating the pay zone in
a porous medium.
 Cross-channeling between two or more subsurface fluid-carrying carrying layers is prevented.
 It shields freshwater sands from contamination by fluids from lower zones and prevents pol-
lution of near-surface freshwater zones.
 It shields drilling fluids from subsurface formations and formation fluid invasion.
 It allows hydrocarbon fluids to pass through, and most production procedures are done out us-
ing special tubing that runs inside the casing.
 It reduces the amount of damage caused by drilling mud.

5.2.2 Types of casing string

The roles and names of the different casings differ depending on the depth at which they are in-
stalled. In fact, drilling a hole to total depth (TD) with a tiny diameter drill bit and then casing the
hole from surface to TD is not possible. This is because there are high-pressure zones at various
depths along the wellbore, as well as weak, unconsolidated formations or sloughing, shale zones.
Apart from the difficulties of drilling the rocks encountered, the number and size of casings also

29
depend on the depth of the well and on the reason for drilling. Starting from the uppermost and
largest casing, the first one comes as the conductor pipe, then the surface casing and the interme-
diate casing, and finally the production casing.

The different types of casing are discussed as below;

a) Stove pipe and riser

A stovepipe is exclusively used for offshore drilling as a marine conductor, drive pipe, structural
pile, or foundation pile. It's used to keep unconsolidated deposits near the surface from washing
out. It also protects the stability of the ground surface upon which the rig is mounted by provid-
ing a circulation system for the drilling mud. Stovepipe carries no weight from the wellhead
equipment and may be pushed into the ground or into the seabed using a pile driver.

Figure 18: Casing with threaded with threaded joints. (Hossain and Al-Majed, 2015)

b) Conductor pipe

Because the conductor is the first casing string to be run, it has the biggest diameter. To protect
near-surface unconsolidated formations and shut off shallow-water zones, the conductor pipe is
run from the surface to a shallow depth. It allows for mud circulation during the initial drilling
phase. It protects the surface of unconsolidated formations from erosion caused by mud circula-
tion, which might compromise the rig foundations' integrity.

30
 Figure 19: Conductor pipe with riser in the sea. (Hossain and Al-Majed, 2015)

c) Surface casing

Following the conductor casing, the surface casing is installed at a depth of 300-450 meters be-
low ground level or seabed. It's utilized to keep weak formations from collapsing at shallow
depths and poorly cemented surface beds from washing away.

d) Intermediate casing

Intermediate casing is determined by the depth of the well and the geology of the region. It's fre-
quently placed below or above an over pressured zone in the transition zone. It's used to guard
against troublesome formations including mobile salt zones, collapsing shales, and thief zones,
etc.

31
 e) Production casing

Production casing is the last casing string placed in the hole and it reaches the top of the pay for-
mation. The key purposes of this casing include; isolating producing zones, controlling reservoir
fluids, and allowing selective production in multi-zone production. This is the string that is used
to finish the well and make holes for hydrocarbon production.

5.2.3 Casing connection

The casing strings are transported piece by piece to the rig side. As a result, as each length is run
in the well, it must be linked with threaded connectors. Individual casing joints are connected us-
ing a threaded connector. It is made up of a pin and a box. There are three types of connections:
threaded and linked, integral-joint, and flush joints.

5.3 Cementing
The cementing procedure entails preparing cement slurry by mixing powder cement with water
and various additives and injecting it into the annular area between the casing and the wellbore.
Oil well cementing is the process of placing cement slurry in the annulus space between the well
casing and the rock formations surrounding the wellbore.(Hossain and Al-Majed, 2015)

Figure 20: Cement being pumped into the casing(Devereux and Devereux, 2012)

32
5.3.1 Objective of cementing
 To prevent formation collapse by supporting the wellbore walls.
 To establish zonal isolation between geological strata in order to prevent gas or fluid mi-
gration between them. 
 To prevent infiltration of water into oil-producing zones.  
 To keep the casing in place and prevent it from collapsing under pressure by supporting
and sealing it.  

5.3.2 Cement application

a) Primary cementing

Primary cementing is the process of sealing a casing or liner string in a cement sheath. Primary
cementing operations have three basic goals: zonal isolation to prevent fluid movement in the an-
nulus, casing or liner string support, and protection of the casing string from corrosive formation
fluids.

b) Squeezing cementing

Squeeze cementing is the technique of injecting cement into a limited zone behind the casing,
such as casing leaks or flow channels in formations. It's a repair job that's needed later in the
well's life to fix poor main cementing.

5.4 Summary
Casing technology is one of the most important pillars in oil industry operations. It is very impor-
tant to give it higher attention during good construction. The failure to select the optimum casing
will lead to losing the well. The fundamental aspects of the casing, its design criteria and the se-
lection procedure are outlined here. Cementing on the other hand played a vital role by providing
the different functions throughout the life of a well. Different classes of cement and admixtures
have been designed for the different well conditions. The properties of cement can be improved
by incorporating new additives in the cement mix

33
Chapter 6: Well completion

6.1 Introduction
Once a new hole has been drilled to the target level, the choice is taken whether to install the pro-
duction casing and finish the well or to plug and abandon it. This crucial assessment comes after
a thorough analysis and review of well test data (coring, logging, and so on).

In petroleum engineering, well completion is the process of making a drilled well ready for pro-
duction or injection. Well completion is defined as “the design, selection and installation of
equipment and the specification of treatment and procedures necessary to allow a safe and con-
trolled flow of hydrocarbon from the well and thereafter to bring the well into production which
satisfies the operator’s objectives for the field development”.

6.2 Types of well completion

The type of completion is determined by the reservoir's structural and/or geological properties,
formation rock type, and hydrocarbon presence. Completions can be classified into two cate-
gories: conventional completions and smart completions.

Figure 21: Different completion methods at production formation zones. (Renpu, 2011)

34
In the oil and gas sector, there are various different types of well completions. Open-hole comple-
tion, un-cemented liner completion, cased and cemented completions, and perforated completions
are the four types.

6.2.1 Open-hole completion

In the open-hole completion technique, production casing is set and cemented to a depth just
above the zone of interest (i.e. producing zone). Open-hole completion means that the oil reser-
voir is completely exposed during the completion of a straight or horizontal well.

Figure 22: Open-hole completion (Renpu, 2011)

6.2.2 Un-cemented linear completion

Un-cemented liners are designed to solve production issues associated with open-hole comple-
tions and to increase their use in various formation types. In an unconsolidated formation where
sand is expected to develop, an un-cemented liner may be employed.

6.2.3 Cased and cemented completion

Due to technical concerns pertaining to the hole's stability, case-hole completions are more often
employed. This is the most prevalent sort of bottom-hole finishing procedure, especially in off-
shore wells where they are more widespread. The production casing or liner is placed and ce-
mented through and beyond the producing zone or zones in this sort of completion. Shooting
holes in the casing or liner establishes communication with the reservoir.

35
6.2.4 Perforated completion
Because of the selectivity, flexibility, cheaper prices, greater safety, and simplicity that these
types of completions give, they are the most preferred across the world. The pay section is selec-
tively perforated and the production casing is cemented through the producing zone.

Figure 23: Perforated liner at production zone. (Hossain and Al-Majed, 2015)

6.2.5 Multi-Zones completion

The development of processes for multi-zone well completions has been prompted by the intro-
duction of directional and multilateral drilling. In general, the multilateral well completion tech-
nique combines selected and many functions. It also has the unique feature of combining many
bores that converge into a mother well. The number of wells, their direction, disposition, and in-
clination to the vertical, as well as the kind of completion and isolation chosen for the well, all in-
fluence the development of different systems.

6.3 Factors influencing well completion design

One of the most difficult duties in drilling operations is well completion selection. The optimal
completion is the one that has the lowest initial and ongoing expenses and satisfies the criteria for
the majority of its life. These factors include; reservoir and mechanical considerations.

a) Reservoir consideration

36
In summary, reservoir considerations include the location of various fluids in formations pene-
trated by the wellbore, their flow through the reservoir rock, and the rock's properties. The pro-
duction rate is sometimes used as the starting point for well completion design since it delivers
the best economic return.

b) Mechanical consideration

Mechanical considerations include; functional requirements, operating conditions, component de-

sign, component dependability, and safety. The well's mechanical configuration is critical for do-
ing what has to be done in terms of managing the flow of reservoir fluids, such as oil, gas, and
water. Well completion design is a difficult mechanical challenge to solve. Both in terms of
equipment and procedure, the installation must be kept simple. All operating situations, as well as
accompanying pressure and temperature forces, should be anticipated by selected designs. The
well must be constructed with safety in mind.

6.4 Completion equipment and materials

The tools used to put together completion strings in a well are various and diverse. As a result,
only the most important features will be discussed in this chapter. Casing, cement, perforating,
and sand or gravel packs are all components of completions, as are production equipment like
tubing and packers, stimulation, and surface flow control like a wellhead or Christmas tree.

a) Perforating and Sand or Gravel packs

Perforation is done on the casing and cement to allow the hydrocarbons to enter the wellbore.
This process involves running a perforation gun through a wireline, slackline or coiled tubing and
a reservoir-locating device into the wellbore. When the reservoir level is reached, the gun is fired
to make holes in the well's sidewalls, allowing the hydrocarbons to flow into the wellbore. Bul-
lets can be fired into the sidewalls of the casing or jets, or shaped charges can be discharged into
the casing to create holes.

b) Downhole gauge

This is an electronic or fiber optic sensor to provide continuous monitoring of downhole pressure
and temperature. Gauges either use a 1/4 control line clamped onto the outside of the tubing string

37
to provide an electrical or fiber optic communication to the surface or transmit measured data to
the surface by the acoustic signal in the tubing wall.

c) Well simulation

Sometimes, petroleum exists in a formation but is unable to flow readily into the well because the
formation has very low permeability, which is called natural low permeability formation. In addi-
tion, formation damage happens around the wellbore caused by the invasion of perforation fluid
and charge debris. Therefore, it is sometimes necessary to clear up the permeable path so that
there will be a smooth production of hydrocarbon. The main purpose of well stimulation is to in-
crease well productivity and to increase ultimate well recovery.

Figure 24: Matrix acidizing process(Renpu, 2011).

6.5 Summary
Well completion is the key factor in maintaining good well conditions in order to deliver the re-
quired oil rate with a minimum cost for producing and surface processing units.

It also takes into account the long-term benefit of reservoir total recovery. This chapter discusses
the general well-completion procedure, equipment needed, and their functions.

38
 General conclusion
Hydrocarbons reservoirs (oil and gas reservoirs) are located deep formation in the subsurface.
The recovery of these hydrocarbons is done through various methods and techniques of well
drilling. The understanding of reservoir conditions helps in predicting the timing and maturation
of hydrocarbons and also in estimation of the reserves.

The geological location of hydrocarbons well and the rock formation of the area play an impor-
tant role in deciding which method of drilling, the type drill bit and of drilling rig suitable for hy-
drocarbons extraction. The choice and proper application of drilling fluid is essential in a success-
ful well drilling. Proper casing and cementing of the borehole is an important aspect and reduces
problems faced by the well during the whole production lifetime. Well completion procedure is a
key factor in maintaining proper well conditions that satisfy the required production capacity.

The continuous discovery of more oil and gas globally has led to a tremendous breakthrough in
drilling technology. More hydrocarbons discoveries and advancement of technology will also as-
sist in finding simple, safer and economical means of oil and gas recovery from the subsurface.

39
 References

Barker C. (1985) - Composition and Properties of Petroleum, in: Developments in Petroleum Sci-
ence. Elseiver, pp. 11–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-7361(08)70564-8
Devereux S., Devereux S. (2012). Drilling technology in nontechnical language, PennWell Corp,
Tulsa, Okla.
Fang H., Duan M. (2014) - Offshore Oil and Gas Drilling Engineering and Equipment, in: Off-
shore Operation Facilities. Elsevier, pp. 141–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-
396977-4.00002-0
Hossain M.E., Al-Majed A.A. (2015) - Fundamentals of Sustainable Drilling Engineering, pp
785.
Jager J. (2020) - Concepts of conventional petroleum systems, in: Regional Geology and Tecton-
ics: Principles of Geologic Analysis. Elsevier, pp. 687–720. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-
0-444-64134-2.00022-5
Ma T., Chen P., Zhao J. (2016) - Overview on vertical and directional drilling technologies for
the exploration and exploitation of deep petroleum resources. Geomech. Geophys. Geo-
energ. Geo-resour. 2, 365–395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40948-016-0038-y
Renpu W. (2011) - Well Completion Mode Selection, in: Advanced Well Completion Engineer-
ing. Elsevier, pp. 75–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385868-9.00002-6
Selley R.C., Sonnenberg S.A. (2015) - Generation and Migration of Petroleum, in: Elements of
Petroleum Geology. Elsevier, pp. 191–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386031-
6.00005-9
Selley R.C., Sonnenberg S.A. (2015) - Methods of Exploration, in: Elements of Petroleum Geol-
ogy. Elsevier, pp. 41–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386031-6.00003-5
Selley R.C., Sonnenberg S.A. (2015) - The Physical and Chemical Properties of Petroleum, in:
Elements of Petroleum Geology. Elsevier, pp. 13–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-
386031-6.00002-3
Selley R.C., Sonnenberg S.A. (2015) - The Reservoir, in: Elements of Petroleum Geology. Else-
vier, pp. 255–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386031-6.00006-0

40