HUMAN EMBRYONIC AND FOETAL DEVELOPMENT

Project report submitted to Sri Ramakrishna Central School,

Coimbatore.

044 Biology

GRADE 11

Submitted by

NAME: KRISHNAPRIYA.G

REG NO: 04409

(Managed by SNR Sons Charitable Crust)

Affiliated to CBSE, New Delhi, Affiliation No: 1931006

SNR Sons College Campus, Aavarampalayam,

Coimbatore – 641006

2021 – 2022
 DECLARATION

I KRISHNAPRIYA.G, first year higher secondary students in science, of Sri

Ramakrishna Central School, Coimbatore, hereby declare that the project
report entitled “HUMAN EMBRYONIC AND FOETAL DEVELOPMENT”
Submitted to Sri Ramakrishna Central School in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of AISSCE Certificate under the guidance of Mr.
Nelson Nithaniel. V PGT Biology, Sri Ramakrishna Central School, Coimbatore,
during the period of 2021-22 is a Bonafied work done by me.

Place: Coimbatore Name: G.KRISHNAPRIYA

Date: Signature:
 BONAFIED CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work entitled “HUMAN EMBRYONIC AND
FOETAL DEVELOPMENT” submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement s
for the award of AISSCE certificate is a bonafied work submitted by
G.KRISHNAPRIYA with Reg no 04409

Of class XI during the year 2021-22

Place: Coimbatore

Date: Project guide

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Principal Office Seal

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank the almighty, without whose grace, my work would not have been
completed.

I express my sincere gratitude to our Principal Mrs. Pricilla Rani, Sri

Ramakrishna central School, Coimbatore for extending her support in
completing this project.

I Would like to express my sincere gratitude to Mr. NELSON NITYHANIEL .V

PGT Biology, Department of Biology for his valuable guidance and kind advice,
encouragement and creative suggestion at every stage of this project work,
Without his advice this project would have been incomplete.

I also extend my sincere thanks to all faculty members of the department for
their appropriate suggestions and sustained cooperation.

I acknowledge a deep sense of gratitude to my respondents, Librarians, Well

wishers and friends for their earnest support in all aspects.

Eventually, I express my heartfelt thanks to by beloved parents for their

blessings and continued support & encouragement in fulfilling this project.

Place: Coimbatore Name: G.KRISHNAPRIYA

Date: Signature :
 ABSTRACT

 Human embryonic development, or human embryogenesis, is the

development and formation of the human embryo. It is characterised by
the processes of cell division and cellular differentiation of the embryo
that occurs during the early stages of development.
 During each normal menstrual cycle, one egg (ovum) is usually released
from one of the ovaries, about 14 days after the last menstrual period.
Release of the egg is called ovulation.
 About 6 days after fertilisation, the blastocyst attaches to the lining of
the uterus near the top. This process is called as IMPLANTATION is
completely by 9 or 10.
 GESTATION is the period of time between conception and birth when a
baby grows and develops inside the mother's womb. Because it's
impossible to know exactly when conception occurs, gestational age is
measured from the first day of the mother's last menstrual cycle to the
current date. It is measured in weeks.
 Through the process of mitosis, the relatively enormous zygote directly
subdivides into many smaller cells of conventional size, suitable as early
building units for the future organism.
 This process is called cleavage and the resulting cells are blastomeres.
 The way in which the encapsulating membrane of the blastocyst
becomes the chorion, and the most deeply embedded part of it
becomes the foetal placenta, has already been described.
 There are still other important membranes that develop from those
portions of the inner cell mass of the blastocyst that are not directly
involved in becoming an embryo.
 INDEX
 Introduction
 Human embryonic and foetal development
 Stages of development of the foetus
Fertilisation
From egg to embryo
From fertilisation to implantation
Development of blastocyst
 Foetal development
 Development of the foetus and placenta
 Pre embryonic development
 Cleavage and blastulation
 Implantation and placentation
 Extra embryonic membranes
 Formation of the 3 primary germ layers
 Growth and differentiation
 Exodermal derivatives
Integumentary system
Mouth and anus
 Central nervous system
 Brain
 Spinal cord
 Peripheral nervous system
 Spinal nerves
 Cranial nerves
 Conclusion
 Bibliography
 INTRODUCTION

 Human embryonic development, or human embryogenesis, is the

development and formation of the human embryo. It is characterised by
the processes of cell division and cellular differentiation of the embryo
that occurs during the early stages of development.
 In biological terms, the development of the human body entails growth
from a one-celled zygote to an adult human being.
 Fertilisation occurs when the sperm cell successfully enters and fuses
with an egg cell (ovum). The genetic material of the sperm and egg then
combine to form a single cell called a zygote and the germinal stage of
development commences.
 Embryonic development in the human, covers the first eight weeks of
development; at the beginning of the ninth week the embryo is termed
a foetus.
 Human embryology is the study of this development during the first
eight weeks after fertilisation. The normal period of gestation
(pregnancy) is about nine months or 40 weeks.
 The germinal stage refers to the time from fertilization through the
development of the early embryo until implantation is completed in the
uterus. The germinal stage takes around 10 days.
 During this stage, the zygote begins to divide, in a process called
cleavage. A blastocyst is then formed and implanted in the uterus.
 Embryogenesis continues with the next stage of gastrulation, when the
three germ layers of the embryo form in a process called histogenesis,
and the processes of neurulation and organogenesis follow.
 HUMAN EMBRYONIC AND FOETAL DEVELOPMENT

Human embryonic development, or human embryogenesis, is the

development and formation of the human embryo. It is characterised by the
processes of cell division and cellular differentiation of the embryo that occurs
during the early stages of development.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOETUS

FERTILISATION:

 During each normal menstrual cycle, one egg (ovum) is usually released
from one of the ovaries, about 14 days after the last menstrual period.
Release of the egg is called ovulation. The egg is swept into the funnel-
shaped end of one of the fallopian tubes.
 At ovulation, the mucus in the cervix becomes more fluid and more
elastic, allowing sperm to enter the uterus rapidly. Within 5 minutes,
sperm may move from the vagina, through the cervix into the uterus,
and to the funnel-shaped end of a fallopian tube—the usual site of
fertilization. The cells lining the fallopian tube facilitate fertilization.
 If fertilization does not occur, the egg moves down the fallopian tube to
the uterus, where it degenerates, and passes through the uterus with
the next menstrual period.
 If a sperm penetrates the egg, fertilization results. Tiny hair like cilia
lining the fallopian tube propel the fertilized egg (zygote) through the
tube toward the uterus. The cells of the zygote divide repeatedly as the
zygote moves down the fallopian tube to the uterus. The zygote enters
the uterus in 3 to 5 days.
 In the uterus, the cells continue to divide, becoming a hollow ball of cells
called a blastocyst. The blastocyst implants in the wall of the uterus
about 6 days after fertilization.
 If more than one egg is released and fertilized, the pregnancy involves
more than one foetus, usually two (twins). Because the genetic material
in each egg and in each sperm is slightly different, each fertilized egg is
different. The resulting twins are thus fraternal twins. Identical twins
result when one fertilized egg separates into two embryos after it has
begun to divide. Because one egg was fertilized by one sperm, the
genetic material in the two embryos is the same.
FROM EGG TO EMBRYO:

 Once a month, an egg is released from an ovary into a fallopian tube.

After sexual intercourse, sperm move from the vagina through the cervix
and uterus to the fallopian tubes, where one sperm fertilizes the egg.
 The fertilized egg (zygote) divides repeatedly as it moves down the
fallopian tube to the uterus.
 First, the zygote becomes a solid ball of cells. Then it becomes a hollow
ball of cells called a blastocyst.
 Inside the uterus, the blastocyst implants in the wall of the uterus,
where it develops into an embryo attached to a placenta.

FROM FERTILISATION TO IMPLANTATION:

 Once a month, an egg is released from your ovary into your fallopian
tube. After sex, sperm move from the vagina to the fallopian tubes,
where a sperm may fertilize the egg.
 The cells of the fertilized egg keep dividing as the egg moves to the
uterus, where it implants in the wall.
 DEVELOPMENT OF BLASTOCYST:
 About 6 days after fertilisation, the blastocyst attaches to the lining of
the uterus near the top. This process is called as IMPLANTATION is
completely by 9 or 10.
 The wall of the blastocyst is
one cell thick except in one
area. where it is three to
four cells thick. The inner
cells in the thickened arae
develop into the embryo
and the outer cells burrow
into the wall of the uterus and develop into the placenta produces
several hormones that help maintain the pregnancy.
 For example : the placenta produces human chronic gonadotropin which
prevents the ovaries from releasing the eggs and stimulates the ovaries
to produce estrogen and proestrogen continuously. The placenta aslo
carries oxygen and nutrients from mother to fetus and waste materials
from fetus to mother.
 Some of the cellsfrom the placenta develop into an outerlayer of
membranes (chorin) around the developing blastocyst. Outer cells
develop into an inner layer of membranes (amnion). Which form the
amniotic sac.
 When the sac is formed (by about day 10 to 12), the blastocyst is
considered is an embryo. The amniotic sac filled with a clear liquid
(amniotic fluid) and expands to envelop the developing embryo which
floats within it.

FETAL DEVELOPMENT:
 GESTATION is the period of time between conception and birth when a
baby grows and develops inside the mother's womb. Because it's
impossible to know exactly when conception occurs, gestational age is
measured from the first day of the mother's last menstrual cycle to the
current date. It is measured in weeks.
 This means that during weeks 1 and 2 of pregnancy, a woman is not yet
pregnant. This is when her body is preparing for a baby. A normal
gestation lasts anywhere from 37 to 42 weeks.
 WEEK 1 to 2:
 The first week of pregnancy starts with the first day of a woman's
menstrual period. She is not yet pregnant.
 During the end of the second week, an egg is released from an ovary.
This is when you are most likely to conceive if you have unprotected
intercourse.
 WEEK 3:
 During intercourse, sperm enters the vagina after the man ejaculates.
The strongest sperm will travel through the cervix (the opening of the
womb, or uterus), and into the fallopian tubes.
 A single sperm and the mother's egg cell meet in the fallopian tube.
When the single sperm enters the egg, conception occurs. The combined
sperm and egg is called a zygote.
 The zygote contains all of the genetic information (DNA) needed to
become a baby. Half the DNA comes from the mother's egg and half
from the father's sperm.
 The zygote spends the next few days traveling down the fallopian tube.
During this time, it divides to form a ball of cells called a blastocyst.
 A blastocyst is made up of an inner group of cells with an outer shell.
 The inner group of cells will become the embryo. The embryo is what
will develop into your baby.
 The outer group of cells will become structures, called membranes,
which nourish and protect the embryo.
 WEEK 4:
 Once the blastocyst reaches the uterus, it buries itself in the uterine
wall.
 At this point in the mother's menstrual cycle, the lining of the uterus is
thick with blood and ready to support a baby.
 The blastocyst sticks tightly to the wall of the uterus and receives
nourishment from the mother's blood.
 WEEK 5:
 Week 5 is the start of the "embryonic period." This is when all the baby's
major systems and structures develop.
 The embryo's cells multiply and start to take on specific functions. This is
called differentiation.
 Blood cells, kidney cells, and nerve cells all develop.
 The embryo grows rapidly, and the baby's external features begin to
form.
 Your baby's brain, spinal cord, and heart begin to develop.
 Baby's gastrointestinal tract starts to form.
 It is during this time in the first trimester that the baby is most at risk for
damage from things that may cause birth defects. This includes certain
medicines, illegal drug use, heavy alcohol use, infections such as rubella,
and other factors.
 WEEK 6 TO 7:
 Arm and leg buds start to grow.
 Your baby's brain forms into 5 different areas. Some cranial nerves are
visible.
 Eyes and ears begin to form.
 Tissue grows that will become your baby's spine and other bones.
 Baby's heart continues to grow and now beats at a regular rhythm. This
can be seen by vaginal ultrasound.
 Blood pumps through the main vessels.
 WEEK 8:
 Baby's arms and legs have grown longer.
 Hands and feet begin to form and look like little paddles.
 Your baby's brain continues to grow.
 The lungs start to form.
 WEEK 9:
 Nipples and hair follicles form.
 Arms grow and elbows develop.
 Baby's toes can be seen.
 All baby's essential organs have begun to grow.
 WEEK 10:
 Your baby's eyelids are more developed and begin to close.
 The outer ears begin to take shape.
 Baby's facial features become more distinct.
 The intestines rotate.
 At the end of the 10th week of pregnancy, your baby is no longer an
embryo. It is now a foetus, the stage of development up until birth.
 WEEK 11 TO 14:
 Your baby's eyelids close and will not reopen until about the 28th week.
 Baby's face is well-formed.
 Limbs are long and thin.
 Nails appear on the fingers and toes.
 Genitals appear.
 Baby's liver is making red blood cells.
 The head is very large -- about half of baby's size.
 Your little one can now make a fist.
 Tooth buds appear for the baby teeth.
 WEEK 15 TO 18:
 At this stage, baby's skin is almost transparent.
 Fine hair called lanugo develops on baby's head.
 Muscle tissue and bones keep developing, and bones become harder.
 Baby begins to move and stretch.
 The liver and pancreas produce secretions.
 Your little one now makes sucking motions.
 WEEK 19 T0 21:
 Your baby can hear.
 The baby is more active and continues to move and float around.
 The mother may feel a fluttering in the lower abdomen. This is called
quickening, when mom can feel baby's first movements.
 By the end of this time, baby can swallow.
 WEEK 22:
 Lanugo hair covers baby's entire body.
 Meconium, baby's first bowel movement, is made in the intestinal tract.
 Eyebrows and lashes appear.
 The baby is more active with increased muscle development.
 The mother can feel the baby moving.
 Baby's heartbeat can be heard with a stethoscope.
 Nails grow to the end of baby's fingers.
 WEEK 23 TO 25:
 Bone marrow begins to make blood cells.
 The lower airways of the baby's lungs develop.
 Your baby begins to store fat.
 WEEK 26:
 Eyebrows and eyelashes are well-formed.
 All parts of baby's eyes are developed.
 Your baby may startle in response to loud noises.
 Footprints and fingerprints are forming.
 Air sacs form in baby's lungs, but lungs are still not ready to work outside
the womb.
 WEEK 27 TO 30:
 Baby's brain grows rapidly.
 The nervous system is developed enough to control some body
functions.
 Your baby's eyelids can open and close.
 The respiratory system, while immature, produces surfactant. This
substance helps the air sacs fill with air.
 WEEK 31 TO 34:
 Your baby grows quickly and gains a lot of fat.
 Rhythmic breathing occurs, but baby's lungs are not fully mature.
 Baby's bones are fully developed, but are still soft.
 Your baby's body begins storing iron, calcium, and phosphorus.
 WEEK 35 TO 37:
  Baby weighs about 5 1/2 pounds (2.5 kilograms).
 Baby weighs about 5 1/2 pounds (2.5 kilograms).
 Your baby keeps gaining weight, but will probably not get much longer.
 The skin is not as wrinkled as fat forms under the skin.
 Baby has definite sleeping patterns.
 Your little one's heart and blood vessels are complete.
 Muscles and bones are fully developed.
 WEEK 38 TO 40:
 Lanugo is gone except for on the upper arms and shoulders.
 Fingernails may extend beyond fingertips.
 Small breast buds are present on both sexes.
 Head hair is now coarse and thicker.
 In your 40th week of pregnancy, it has been 38 weeks since conception,
and your baby could be born any day now.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOETUS AND PLACENTA:

At the end of the 8th week after fertilisation (10th week of pregnancy) the
embryo is consider a foetus. During this stage, the structure that have already
formed grow and develop. The following are markets during pregnancy:

 By 12 weeks of pregnancy: The foetus fills the entire uterus.

 By about 14 weeks: The sex can be identified.
 By about 16 to 20 weeks: Typically, the pregnant woman can feel the
foetus moving. Women who have been pregnant before typically feel
movements about 2 weeks earlier than women who are pregnant for
the first time.
 By about 24 weeks: The foetus has a chance of survival outside the
uterus.

The lungs continue to mature until near the time of delivery. The brain
accumulates new cells throughout pregnancy and the fist year of life after
birth.

As the placenta develops. It extends tiny

hair like projections into the wall of the
uterus. The projections branch and
rebranch in a complicated tree like
arrangement. This arrangement greatly
increases the area of contact between the
wall of the uterus and the placenta. So
that more nutrients and waste materials
can be exchanged. The placenta is fully
formed by 18 to 20 weeks but continues
to grow throughout pregnancy. At
delivery, it weighs about 1 pound.
PRE-EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT:

 Much of the embryonic developmental machinery (the cellular

apparatus) used in human development is similar to that used by other
vertebrates as well as some invertebrates.
 The machinery is essential for four processes: cell proliferation, cell
specialization, cell interaction, and cell movement.
 During these processes, the approximately 20,000–25,000 genes in the
human genome give rise to as many as 100,000 different proteins, which
give the conceptus form and substance.

CLEAVAGE AND BLASTULATION:

 Through the process of mitosis, the relatively enormous zygote directly

subdivides into many smaller cells of conventional size, suitable as early
building units for the future organism. This process is called cleavage
and the resulting cells are blastomeres.
 The tendency for the progressive increase in cell numbers to follow a
doubling sequence is soon disturbed and then lost. Each blastomere
receives the full complement of paternal and maternal chromosomes.
 Subdivision of the zygote into blastomeres begins while it is still high in
the uterine tube. The cohering blastomeres are transported downward
chiefly, at least, by muscular contractions of the tubal wall.
 Such transport is relatively rapid until the lower end of the tube is
reached, and here cleavage continues for about two days before the
multicellular cluster is expelled into the uterus.
 The full reason for this delay is not clear, but it serves to retain the
cleaving blastomeres until the uterine lining is suitably prepared to
receive its prospective guest.
 Since the human egg contains little inert yolk material and since this is
distributed rather evenly throughout the cytoplasm, the daughter cells
of each mitosis are practically equal in size and composition.
 This type of cleavage is known as total, equal cleavage. The sticky
blastomeres adhere, and the cluster is still retained for a time within the
gelatinous capsule—the zona pellucida—that had enclosed the growing
and ovulated oocyte.
 There is no growth in the rapidly dividing blastomeres, so that the total
mass of living substance does not increase during the cleavage period.
 By the fourth day after fertilization, a cluster of about 12 blastomeres
passes from the uterine tube into the uterus.
 At this stage the cluster is called a morula. By the time some 30
blastomeres have been produced, pools of clear fluid accumulate
between some of the internal cells, and these spaces soon coalesce into
a common subcentral cavity.
 The resulting hollow cellular ball is a blastula of a particular type that
occurs in mammals and is called a blastocyst; its cavity is the blastocoel.
 An internal cellular cluster, eccentric in position and now named the
inner cell mass, will develop into the embryo.
 The external capsule of smaller cells, enveloping the segregated internal
cluster, constitutes the trophoblast. It will contribute to the formation of
a placenta and foetal membranes.
 During its stay within the uterine cavity, the blastocyst loses its
gelatinous capsule, imbibes fluid, and expands to a diameter of 0.2 mm
(0.008 inch); this is nearly twice the diameter of the zygote at the start
of cleavage. Probably several hundred blastomeres have formed before
the blastocyst attaches to the uterine lining.

IMPLANTATION AND PLACENTATION:

IMPLANTATION:
 The trophoblast of the
blastocyst exerts an
enzymic, destructive
influence on the swollen
uterine lining, leading to
erosion of both the
superficial epithelium of the uterine lining and also its deeper connective
tissue.
 This early stage of invasion ends in a few days. The blastocyst is then
completely buried within a more superficial and compact layer of the
total uterine lining.
 While the blastocyst is completing this phase of implantation, its original
shell of cellular trophoblast steadily proliferates a multitude of cells that
lose their outermost membranes and merge. The result is a thick
peripheral layer consisting of a common mass of cytoplasm in which
many nuclei are embedded. This external investment is called syncytial
trophoblast.
 The implanted blastocyst next proceeds to establish itself as dependent
upon the uterus. The syncytial trophoblast becomes a spongy shell
containing irregular cavities.
 This expanding mass destroys connective tissue and glands encountered
in its path. Both the cellular and derivative syncytial trophoblast have
the capacity of destroying such tissue.
 The erosive process also taps uterine capillaries connected to spiral
arteries; blood liberated from the capillaries is taken up into the
trophoblastic lacunae.
 The spiral arteries are then invaded by the trophoblast and increase in
diameter; they are now known as uteroplacental arteries and are no
longer under maternal vasomotor control.
 This conversion process ensures that an adequate volume of blood
reaches the implanted embryo. (Altered uteroplacental blood flow is a
core predictor of abnormal pregnancy and intrauterine growth
restriction.)
 Erosive activities decline in intensity by the end of the third week of
development, and at this time the sac is completing the first phase of its
specialization.
 Occasionally a fertilized egg fails to reach the uterus, implanting and
beginning to develop elsewhere. This outcome is called an ectopic, or
extrauterine, pregnancy.
 The most common ectopic site is the uterine tube—this type of
pregnancy, if not treated, can be fatal for the mother—but the
peritoneum lining the abdominal cavity and even the interior of the
ovary are also involved, though rarely.
 The unsuitability of all these sites for continued development usually
leads to early death and resorption of the embryo.
PLACENTATION:
 The irregular strands of
invasive syncytial
trophoblast constitute a
first stage in the
formation of true villi
which form part of the
placenta and are briefly
described below.
 Primitive connective tissue soon lines the interior of the blastocyst wall
and this complex of trophoblast and connective tissue is then named the
chorion.
 Connective tissue promptly grows into the trophoblastic strands, and
blood vessels develop in the tissue. The result is the production of many
chorionic villi, each resembling a tiny, branching bush.
 In the fourth week of development, the essential arrangements have
been established that make possible those physiological exchanges
 between mother and foetus that characterize the remainder of
pregnancy.
 The deepest embedded portion of the chorionic wall becomes the so-
called chorionic plate of the developing placenta. From the plate extend
the main stems of chorionic villi, which give off progressively subdividing
branches.
 In general, the side branches are free, whereas apical ones tend to
attach to the maternal tissue and serve as anchors. The villous trees
occupy a labyrinthine space between the villi that was created by
erosion of the uterine lining.
 Trophoblast not only covers the chorionic plate and its villi but also
spreads like a carpet over the eroded surface of the maternal tissue.
 Tapped uterine arteries open into the trophoblast-lined intervillous
space, their blood bathing the branches and twigs of the villous trees.
This blood drains from the intervillous space through similarly tapped
veins.
 Arterial blood of the embryo, and later foetus, passes through vessels of
the umbilical cord to the chorionic plate. Thence it is distributed to the
villous stems, branches, and twigs through vessels in their connective-
tissue cores. Return of this blood to the foetus is by a reverse route.
 The circulation of maternal blood through the intervillous space is wholly
separate from foetal blood coursing through the chorion and its villi.
 Communication between the two is solely by diffusive interchange. The
barrier between the two circulations consists of the trophoblastic
covering of villi, the connective tissue of the villous cores, and the thin
lining of the capillaries that are contained in the villous cores.
 The placenta serves the foetal in several ways, most of which involve
interchanges of materials carried in the bloodstreams of the mother and
foetus. These functions are of the following kinds:
 Nutrition
 Respiration
 Excretion
 Barrier action (e.g., prevention of intrusions by bacteria)
 Synthesis of hormones and enzymes.
EXTRA EMBRYONIC MEMBRANES:
 The way in which the encapsulating membrane of the blastocyst
becomes the chorion, and the most deeply embedded part of it
becomes the foetal placenta, has already been described.
 There are still other important membranes that develop from those
portions of the inner cell mass of the blastocyst that are not directly
involved in becoming an embryo.
YOLK SAC:
 Cells splits off from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst and fashion
themselves into a primitive yolk sac.
 The roof of the sac then folds into a tubular gut whereas the remainder
becomes a vascularized bag that attains the size of a small pea.
 In other vertebrates such as amphibians and birds the yolk sac is large
and contains a store of nutritive yolk but in humans and other true
mammals there is practically none.
 A slender neck the yolk stalk soon connects the rapidly elongating gut
with the fast growing yolk sac proper.
  The stalk detaches from the embryo from the embryo intestine early in
the second method but the shrunken sac commonly persists and can be
found in the expelled afterbirth.

AMNION:

 A cleft separates the outermost cells of the blastocyst from the

remainder which then becomes the embryonic disk.
 The split off thin upper layer is the amnion which remains attached to
the periphery of the embryonic disk.
 As the disk folds into a cylindrical embryo, the amniotic margin follows
the under folding, and its line of union becomes limited to the ventral
(frontward) body wall, where the umbilical cord attaches.
 The amnion becomes a tough, transparent, nonvascular membrane that
gradually fills the chorionic sac and then fuses with it.
 At the end of the third month of pregnancy, the nonplacental extent of
this nearly exposed double membrane comes into contact with the lining
of the uterus elsewhere.
Fusion then obliterates the uterine
cavity, which has been undergoing
progressive reduction in size. the
remainder of pregnancy, the only
cavity within the uterus is that of the
fluid-filled amniotic sac.
 Clear watery fluid fills the amniotic sac. The embryo is suspended in this
fluid and thus can maintain its shape and mold its body form without
hindrance.
 Throughout pregnancy the amniotic sac serves as a water cushion,
absorbing jolts, equalizing pressures, and permitting the foetus to
change posture. At childbirth it acts as a fluid wedge that helps dilate the
neck of the uterus. When the sac ruptures, about a quart of fluid
escapes as the “waters.” If the sac does not rupture or if it covers the
head at birth, it is known as a caul.
ALLANTOIS:
 The allantois a tuber of endoderm the inner most layer grows out of the
early yolk sac in a region that soon becomes the hindgut.
 The tube extends into a bridge of mesoderm the middle germ layer that
connects embryo with chorion and will become incorporated into the
umbilical cord.
 The human allantoic tube is tiny and never becomes a large sac with
important functions as it does in many other mammals and in reptiles
and birds.
 In the second month it ceases to grow and it soon is obliterated. Blood
vessels however develop early in its mesodermal sheath and these
spread into the chorion and
vascularize it.
 Throughout pregnancy they will
keep the embryo in close
relationship with the mother’s
uterine circulation.
UMBILICAL CORD:

 As the ventral body wall closes in the yolk stalk and allantois are brought
together along with their mesodermal sheaths and blood vessel
 Enclosing everything is a wrapping of amnion. In this manner a
cylindrical structure, the umbilical cord, comes to connect the embryo
with the placenta.
 It will serve the embryo and foetus
as a physiological lifeline
throughout the pregnancy. The
mature cord is about 1.3 cm (0.5
inch) in diameter, and it attains an
average length of nearly 50 cm (1.6
feet).

FORMATION OF THE THREE PRIMARY GERM LAYERS:

 The inner cell mass, attached to the deep pole of the implanted
blastocyst, is sometimes called the embryoblast, since it contains the
cells that will form an embryo.
 The cellular mass enters into the process of gastrulation, through which
the three primary germ layers segregate.
 Then the gastrula stage, the next advance after the blastula, begins to
take form.
 First, cells facing the cavity of the blastocyst arrange into a layer known
as the hypoblast. The thick residual layer, temporarily designated as
epiblast, is the source of a definitive uppermost sheet, the ectoderm,
and an intermediate layer, the mesoderm.
 In this second phase of gastrulation, some cells of the epiblast migrate to
the midline position, then turn downward and emerge beneath as
mesoderm.
 Such cells continue to spread laterally, right and left, between the
endoderm and the residue of epiblast, which is now definitive ectoderm.
 The site where the migratory mesodermal cells leave the epiblast is an
elongated, crowded seam known as the primitive streak.
 Similar migrating cells produce a thick knob at one end of the primitive
streak. Their continued forward movement from this so-called primitive
knot produces a dense band that becomes the rodlike notochord.
 The germ layers are not segregated sheets whose cells have
predetermined, limited capacities and inflexibly fixed fates in carrying
out organ-building activities.
 Rather, the layers represent advantageously located assembly grounds
out of which the component parts of the embryo emerge normally,
according to a master constructional plan that assigns different parts to
definite spatial positions and local sites.
 Thus, although the germ layers have developmental potencies in excess
of their normal developmental fates, their ordinary participation in
organ forming does not deviate from a definite, standard program.
 Only the principal functional tissue is designated in the name of each
primary germ layer. In a few instances, such as the suprarenal (adrenal)
glands and the teeth, a compound organ has important parts of different
origin.

The derivatives of the primary germ layers are presented in the table

ECTODERM
Epidermis
Cutaneous derivatives
Epithelium of: Mouth, Oral glands
  Nasal passages
  Sense passages
Central nervous system
Peripheral nervous system
 Hypophysis, Suprarenal medulla
MESODERM
Epithelium of: Circulatory system
 Spleen, Lymph nodes
 Urogenital system
 Body cavities
Connective tissues,Blood, Bone marrow
Muscular tissues
Skeletal tissues
Suprarenal cortex
ENDODERM
Epithelium of: Pharynx
Thyroid, Thymus
Parathyroid
Digestive tube,Liver, Pancreas
Larynx, Trachea, Lungs
Urinary bladder, Urethra
Vestibule, Vagina

GROWTH AND DIFFERENTIATION:

 Growth is an increase in size, or bulk. Cell multiplication is fundamental

to an increase in bulk but does not, by itself, result in growth. It merely
produces more units to participate in subsequent growing.
 Growth is accomplished in several ways. Most important is synthesis, by
which new living matter, cytoplasm, is created from available foodstuffs.
Another method utilizes water uptake; a human embryo of the early
weeks is nearly 98 percent water, while an adult is 70 percent fluid.
 A third method of growth is by intercellular deposition in which cells
manufacture and extrude non living substances, such as jelly, fibres, and
the ground substance of cartilage and bone.
 Because of these activities, a new born baby is several thousand million
times heavier than the zygote from which it developed.
 Uniform growth throughout the substance of a developing organism
would merely produce a steadily enlarging spherical cellular mass. Local
diversities in form and proportions result from differential rates of
growth that operate in different regions and at different times.
 The particular program of starting times and growth rates, both
externally and internally in the human embryo, constitutes its
characteristics growth pattern.

 Abnormal growth occurs occasionally, and growth may be excessive or

deficient. Also, such departures may be general or local, symmetrical or
asymmetrical. General gigantism usually starts before birth, and the
oversized baby continues to grow at an accelerated rate.
 In a reverse manner, general dwarfism may exist before birth, with the
individual continuing to grow only a small amount after birth and with
growth then stopping at the usual time.
 In another departure from the usual growth pattern, the individual may
be average in size at birth and grow normally for a while, with growth
then coming to a premature arrest.
  In a developing organism,
differentiation implies
increasing structural and
functional complexity. One kind
of differentiation concerns
changes in gross shape and
organization.
 Such activities, related to
molding the body and its
integral parts into form and
pattern, comprise the processes
called morphogenesis.
 The processes of
morphogenesis are relatively simple mechanical acts:

Cell migration
Cell aggregation, Forming masses, Cords, and Sheets,
Localized growth or Retardation, Resulting in enlargements or
constrictions,
Fusion,
Splitting, including separation of single sheets into separate layers,
Formation of cavities in cell masses, and forking of cords,
Folding, including circumscribed folds that produce inpocketings
and Outpocketings,
Bending, which, like folding, results from unequal growth.
  The emerging cell types are discrete entities, without intermediates; for
example, a transitional form between a muscle cell and a nerve cell is
never seen.
 Neither can different, local parts of a cell carry out different types of
tissue specialization, such as nerve at one end and muscle at the other
end. Nor can a cell, once fully committed to a particular type of
specialization, abandon it and adopt a new course.
 Under certain conditions, differentiated cells may, however, return to a
simpler state. Thus, under a changed environment, cartilage may lose its
matrix, and its cells may come to resemble the more primitive tissue
from which it arose.
 Nevertheless, despite such reversal and apparent simplification
(“dedifferentiation”) these cells retain their former histological
specificity. Under suitable environmental conditions they can
differentiate again but can only regain their previous definitive
characteristics as cartilage cells.
 The final result of histogenesis is the production of groups of cells similar
in structure and function. Each specialized group constitutes a
fundamental tissue.
 There are several main types of such tissues: each of the three germ
layers gives rise to sheetlike epithelia, which cover surfaces, line cavities,
and are frequently glandular ectoderm also forms the nervous tissues,
and mesoderm also produces the muscular tissues and it differentiates
into blood and the fibrous connective tissues (including two further
specialized types, cartilage and bone).

EXODERMAL DERIVATIVES
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM:

 The skin has a double origin. Its superficial layer, or epidermis, develops
from ectoderm. The initial single-layered sheet of epithelial cells
becomes multi layered by proliferation, and cells nearer the surface
differentiate into a horny substance.
 Pigment granules appear in the basal layer. The epidermis of the palm
and sole becomes thicker and more specialized than elsewhere. Cast-off
superficial cells and downy hairs mingle with a greasy glandular
secretion and smear the skin in the late foetal months the pasty mass is
called vernix caseosa.
 The deep layer of the skin, or dermis, is a fibrous anchoring bed
differentiated from mesoderm.
NAILS:
 Nails develop in pocketlike folds of the skin near the tips of digits. During
the fifth month specialized horny material differentiates into
proliferating ectodermal cells.
 The resulting nail plate is pushed forward as new plate substance is
added in the fold. Fingernails reach the fingertips one month before
birth.
 Hairs produced only by mammals, begin forming in the third month as
cylindrical buds that grow downward from the epidermis into the
dermis.
 Cells at the base of the hair bud proliferate and produce a horny,
pigmented thread that moves progressively upward in the axis of the
original cylinder.
 This first crop of hairs is a downy coat named lanugo. It is prominent by
the fifth month but is mostly cast off before birth. Unlike nails, hairs are
shed and replaced periodically throughout life.
SEBACEOUS GLAND:
 Sebaceous gland develop into tiny bags each growing out from the
epithelial sheath that surrounds a hair. Their cells proliferate,
disintegrate, and release an oily secretion.
 Sweat glands at first resemble hair pegs, but the deep end of each soon
coils. In the seventh month an axial cavity appears and later is continued
through the epidermis.
 The mammary glands, unique to mammals, are specialized sweat glands.
In the sixth week a thickened band of ectoderm extends between the
bases of the upper and lower limb buds.
 In the pectoral (chest) region only, gland buds grow rootlike into the
primitive connective tissue beneath. During the fifth month 15 to 20
solid cords foretell the future ducts of each gland. Until late childhood
the mammary glands are identical in both sexes.
MOUTH AND ANUS:
 The mouth is a derivative of the stomodaeum, an external pit bounded
by the over jutting primitive nasal region and the early upper and lower
jaw projections.
 Its floor is a thin membrane where ectoderm and endoderm fuse
(oropharyngeal membrane). Midway in the fourth week this membrane
ruptures, making continuous the primitive ectodermal mouth and
endodermal pharynx (throat).
 Lips and cheeks arise when ectodermal bands grow into the mesoderm
and then split into two sheets.
 TEETH have a compound origin: the cap of enamel develops from
ectoderm, whereas the main mass of the tooth, the dentin, and the
encrusting cementum about the root differentiate from mesoderm.
 The salivary glands arise as ectodermal buds that branch, bush like, into
the deeper mesoderm.
 Berrylike endings become the secretory acini (small sacs), while the rest
of the canalized system serves as ducts. The palate is described in
relation to the nasal passages.
 A tiny pocket detaches from the ectodermal roof of the stomodaeum
and becomes the anterior, or frontward, lobe of the hypophysis, also
called the pituitary gland. The anterior lobe fuses with the neural lobe of
the gland.
 A double-layered oval membrane separates the endodermal hindgut
from an ectodermal pit, called the proctodaeum, the site of the future
anal canal and its orifice, the anus. Rupture at eight weeks creates a
communication between the definitive anus and the rectum.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:
 Both the brain and the spinal cord arise from an elongated thickening of
the ectoderm that occupies the midline region of the embryonic disk.
gutterlike neural groove.
 Further growth cause the folds to meet and fuse thereby creating a
neutral tube. The many layered wall of this tube differentiates into three
concentric zones first indicated in embryos of five week.
 The innermost zone bodering the central canal becomes a layer
composed of long cells called ependymal cells which are supportive in
function.
  The middle zone becomes
the grey substance a layer
characterized by nerve
cells.
 The outermost zone
becomes the white
substance a layer packed
with nerve fibres.
 The neutral tube is also
demarcated internally by a
pair of longitudinal grooves
into dorsal and ventral
halves.
 The dorsal half is a region
associated with sensory
functioning and the ventral half with motor functioning.
 The grey substance contains primitive stem cells, many of which
differentiate into neuroblasts. Each neuroblast becomes a neuron, or a
mature nerve cell, with numerous short branching processes, the
dendrites, and with a single long process, the axon.
 The white substance lacks neuroblasts but contains closely packed
axons, many with fatty sheaths that produce the whitish appearance.
The primitive stem cells of the neural tube also give rise to non-nervous
cells called neuroglia cells.
BRAIN:
The head end of the neural plate becomes expansive even as it closes into a
tube. This brain region continues to surpass the spinal cord region in size.

 Three enlargements are prominent:

Forebrain
Mid brain
Hind brain
 The forebrain gives rise to two secondary expansions, the telencephalon
and the diencephalon. The midbrain, which remains single, is called the
mesencephalon. The hindbrain produces two secondary expansions
called the metencephalon and the myelencephalon.
 The telencephalon out pouches right and left into paired cerebral
hemispheres, which overgrow and conceal much of the remainder of the
brain before birth. Late in foetal life the surface of the cerebrum
becomes covered with folds separated by deep grooves.
 The superficial grey cortex is acquired by the migration of immature
nerve cells, or neuroblasts, from their primary intermediate position in
the neural wall.
 The diencephalon is preponderantly grey substance, but its roof buds off
the pineal gland, which is not nervous tissue, and its floor sprouts the
stalk and neural (posterior) lobe of the pituitary.
 The mesencephalon largely retains its early tubular shape. The
metencephalon develops dorsally into the imposing cerebellum, with
hemispheres that secondarily gain convolutions clothed with a grey
cortex.
 The myelencephalon is transitional into the simpler spinal cord. Roof
regions of the telencephalon, diencephalon, and myelencephalon
differentiate the vascular choroid plexuses—including portions of the pia
mater, or innermost brain covering, that project into the ventricles, or
cavities, of the brain. The choroid plexuses secrete cerebrospinal fluid.

SPINAL CORD:

 For a time, the spinal cord portion of the neural tube tapers gradually to
an ending at the tip of the spine. In the fourth month it thickens at levels
where nerve plexuses, or networks, supply the upper and lower limbs;
these are called the cervical and lumbosacral enlargements.
 At this time the spine begins to elongate faster than the spinal cord. As a
result, the caudal (hind) end of the anchored cord becomes
progressively stretched into a slender, non-nervous strand known as the
terminal filament.
 Midway in the seventh month the functional spinal cord ends at a level
corresponding to the midpoint of the kidneys. Both the brain and the
spinal cord are covered with a fibrous covering, the dura mater, and a
vascular membrane, the pia-arachnoid. These coverings differentiate
from local, neighbouring mesoderm.
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:
 In general, each craniospinal nerve has a dorsal (posterior) root that
bears a ganglion (mass of nerve tissue) containing sensory nerve cells
and their fibres and a ventral (anterior) root that contains motor nerve
fibres but no nerve cells.
 Ganglion cells differentiate from cells of the neural crest, which is at first
a cellular band pinched off from the region where each neural fold
continues into ordinary ectoderm.
 Each of these paired bands breaks up into a series of lumps, spaced in
agreement with the segmentally arranged mesodermal somites.
 Neuroblasts within these primordial ganglia develop a single stem and
hence are called unipolar. From this common stem, one nerve process,
or projection, grows back into the adjacent sensory half of the neural
tube.
 Another projection grows in the opposite direction, helping to complete
the dorsal root of a nerve. Neuroblasts of motor neurons arise in the
ventral half of the grey substance of the neural tube.
 They sprout numerous short, freely branching projections, the dendrites,
and one long, little-branching projection, the axon. Such a neuron is
called multipolar.
 These motor fibres grow out of the neural tube and constitute a ventral
root. As early as the fifth week they are joined by sensory fibres of the
dorsal root and continue as a nerve trunk.

SPINAL NERVES:
 spinal nerves are sensorimotor nerves with dorsal and ventral roots. A
network called a brachial plexus arises in relation to each upper limb and
a lumbosacral plexus in relation to each lower limb.
 The spine, elongating faster than the spinal cord, drags nerve roots
downward, since each nerve must continue to emerge between the
same two vertebrae.
 Because of their appearance, the obliquely coursing nerve roots are
named the cauda equina, the Latin term for horse’s tail.

CRANIAL NERVES:

 Cranial nerves arise in relation to embryonic branchial arches but have

origins similar to the spinal nerves.
 The olfactory nerves (cranial nerve I) are unique in that their cell bodies
lie in the olfactory epithelium (the surface membrane lining the upper
parts of the nasal passages), each sending a nerve fibre back to the
brain.
 The so-called optic nerves (II) are not true nerves but only tracts that
connect the retina (a dislocated portion of the brain) with the brain
proper. Nerves III, IV, VI, and XII are pure motor nerves that correspond
to the ventral roots of spinal nerves.
 The acoustic nerves (VIII) are pure sensory nerves, each with a ganglion
that subdivides for auditory functions and functions having to do with
equilibrium and posture; they correspond to dorsal roots.
 Nerves X and XI are a composite of which XI is a motor component.
 CONCLUSION

 This study has given u a complete knowledge about FERTILISATION AND

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT.
 Fertilized ovum (zygote) become an embryo. As organs develop and the
body organizes into complex organ systems, that embryo will turn into a
new born baby.
 Development certainly does not stop there, however—humans nurture
their young for years as they undergo physical, cognitive, and sexual
development.
 Embryonic development is extremely important because it lays the
foundation for further development to be able to proceed correctly.
 Most of the time, the process goes exactly as planned; however, this is
not always the case. In medical school, you will learn all about the wide
spectrum of teratology—the study of birth defects.
 You will also able to understand the process of fertilisation, the time laps
for the offspring to grow, its development, etc..
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Wikipedia
Britannica
Medline plus medical encyclopedia
www.mayoclinic.org
Shutterstock
www.msdmanuals.com
Lumenlearning.com
www.sciencedirect.com
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
www.nature.com