UNIT 11 LAND GRADING DESIGN

Structure
11.1 Introduction
Objectives

11.2 Need for Land Grading

11.2.1 Types of Land Fonnhg
1 1.2.2 Contra-kdications for Grading
11.3 Considerations in Land Grading Design
1 1.3.1 Overall Zonal Land Development Plan
1 1.3.2 Soil Survey Data
11.3.3 Crop Value
1 1.3.4 Inigatioil Methods
1 1.3.5 Guidelines on Earth Work
11.4 Steps in Land Grading Design
11.4.1 Choice of Method of Irrigation
11.4.2 Field Layout
1 1.4.3 Desirable Slopes
11.4.4 staking
1 1.4.5 Block Levelling
1 1.4.6 Topographic Map
1 1.4.7 Methods of Designing the Grade
11.5 Method of Least Squares (Plqe Method)
1 1.5.1 Ordinary Least Squares Equations
1 1.5.2 Variations of Cut-Fill Volumes
1 1.5.3 Practical Considerations
11.6 Cut-Fill Estimation: Improved Methods
1 1.6.1 End Area Method
1 1.6.2 Prismoidal Formula
1 1.6.3 Four-Comers Method
1 1.6.4 Comparison of Earthwork
11.7 Coiltour Benching
1 1.7.1 Contour Bunding
1 1.7.2 Profiling a Contour Bench
11.7.3 Bench-strip Location
11.8 Construction Procedures
11.9 Summary
11.10 Answers to SAQs

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Natural landscape is rarely plane enough for undertaking efficient cultivation. Land
developinent for agriculture requires levelling the land flat or preparing it to suitable
slopes, that is, grading.This is often a strenuous and expensive operation. It requires
surveying to be carried out first to get data on the natural profile of the terrain.
Decisions are to be made about suitable layout of field plots, roads, irrigation supply
channel system as well as the drainage system. Once an acceptable layout is arrived at,
the optimum grades are designed. Lastly, earth moving operations are to be undertaken
 -- - -

I
Land LevdUng and Gnding to construct irrigation supply channels, drainage ditches, and proceed for leveling or
grading the field plots.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
appreciate the need for land levelling,
decide on a suitable range of slopes to be provided,
determine the best slopes for land g a , based on earth movement
consideration, that is, balancing the cut and fill,
estimate v:$-fill volumes for contractual purpose,
-1"

design contour benches, and

choose appropriate construction procedures.

11.2 NEED FOR LAND GRADING

Availability of suitable land area is one of the basic requirements for a successful
agricultural practice. The nature of soil and topography of the land area are important
factors in this context. Natural terrain is usually an undulating ground, made up of
humps and depressions. The severity of this condition varies from area to area. If
cultivation is to be carried out on such undulating land, the plants and crops growing
there would have to contend with non-uniform distribution of soil moishlre while
growing.Such maldistribution of water and fertilisers lead to reduced yields and of
poorer quality. This would be the case irrespective of whether the water is directly
received from rainfall (as in the case of rain-fed areas) or through irrigation. If the
method of irrigation adopted is gravity-based surface irrigation, the land surface should
be developed into a plane area and it may also have to be graded or slopedmitably.
Such land development activity also includes proper laying out of systems for water
delivery as well as drainage apart from the water application arrangement.
With a properly formed land, infiltration effectiveness would increase, the moisture
regime would become more uniform and the problem of gully erosion can be reduced
throw a systematic drainage arrangement.
Land forming usually entails a substantial capital expenditure. So the associated
activities should be properly planned and designed and carefully executed; the land
thus formed should be properly maintained through the years.
11.2.1 Types of Land Forming
The topographical modification of a given field surface (landforming) may be
categorised into three types, such as :
i) Land smoothing (also called planing or floating) :It is the cuting off of
local elevations and filling up of local depressions, normally using the
machinery for a number of passes for earth cutting and then moving the earth
along different orientations. If necessary, this operation would be preceded by
a general clearing of the area, through felling of trees, clearing of bushes and
removal of pebbles and even rocky surface materials.
ii) Land levelling :It is the proc;ess of preparing an almost horizontal level field
surface. The final slope would be less than 0.5%.
iii) Land grading :It is the operation that modifies the ground surface into a
sloping plane, generally within 5% in the direction of flow .
\ L

11.2.2 Contra-indications for Grading

The= are certain conditions under which it is advisable not to undertake land grading,
as di&ussed below :
 a) Exposure of inferior soil :There are areas wherein the fertile top soil layer is
quite thin. If a significant proportion of the ground surface is to be cut or
scrapped to below this layer, then less productive soil gets exposed. The crop
growth in these patches would be affected unless intense fertiliser application
is undertaken as a compensatory measure.
b) Excessive earth moving :When the topography to be reformed is highly
undulating and irregular, then the volume of earth moving would become so
large as to become economically non-viable. (As a thumb rule, earth moving
exceeding 1500 cubic metre per hectare may be uneconomical.) Under these
conditions, pressurised irrigation system (sprinkle and trickle) would be a
better alternative, if contour benching is not suitable. In gome cases such lands
may be earmarked as pastures.

11.3 CONSIDERATIONS IN LAND GRADING DESIGN

In preparing the design-basis for land grading a number of aspects need to be
considered: i) overall layout of the irrigated area to be developed in terms of field
boundaries, water delivery systems, drainage system and farm roads, ii) soil survey
results, iii) economic value of the crops to be grown, iv) proposed irrigation method,
and v) guidelines that are available on earth work.

11.3.1 Overall Zonal Land Development Plan

An irrigation zone consists of a large number of fields (each-coveringan area of 50 ha
to 200 ha). With the use of a toposheet or aerial photographs, the gross elevational
features of the zone can be identified. A gravity based flow system can then be
proposed with reference to the relative elevations of its components, namely the water
delivery points, surface area to be irrigated and the inlets to the drainage system.
The field channel is to be aligned so as to command the area to be irrigated with at least
200 to 300 mm head. The field channels (less than 0.1 per cent slope) may be laid
almost horizontally to cover a long stretch of the field. The fields are laid out as nearly
rectangular as possible. Deviations from this may occur due to existing installations,
roadways or revenue and ownership boundaries. The length and width of the fields
would be iteratively decided considering the other related aspects also. The overall
layout would include the farm road system to facilitate movement of farm machinery,
transport of farm produce, and an access to the irrigation system. Drainage of rainfall
excess and also excess imgation water could be collected effectively to avoid
waterlogging and the consequent damage to crops. The layout of the drainage channel
system should also be decided prior to designing the land grades.

11.3.2 Soil Suwey Data

Soil profile of the locale shou!d indicate the nature of the top soil (such as clay, clay
loam, sandy loam, loamy sand or sand) and the subsoil below. The presence of hard
pans, and rock and slkali affected pockets in the top layer are of concern while deciding
the extent of grading. As mentioned earlier, the eventuality of scrappiilg of productive
soil and its compensation such as topping with native fertile soil or fertiliser may have
to be considered. The other option available is to adopt bench levelling or contour
bunding to avoid top soil loss. The nature of soil would also indicate the infiltration
capacity and the permeability of the soil, which are important factors in determining the
length of irrigation iuns in surface irrigation, along with the range of slopes that are
appropriate to the type of soil. The resistance to erosion by rainfall also varies with the
type of soil and this determines the maximum slope that can be adopted. The minimum
limit of the slopes should ensure proper drainage of rainwater.
11.3.3 Crop Value
As mentioned earlier land forming is an expensive operation. Therefore, higher the
economic value of the crops that would be grown, the higher can be the investment in
land development. Likewise, expenditure on the arrangements for imgation delivery
and drainage provisions can afford to be higher in that context.

- -
Lana ~ e v a ~gl s ~d r a d i i l
11.3.4 Irrigation Methods
The field slope and crosswise slope, to which a field is trimmed, have to be within
specific limits. These limits depend on the method of surface irrigation proposed to be
adopted. Otherwise, uniformity and application efficiency would be adversely affected
for the border strip and the check basin irrigation methods. It is ideal to grade land to a
uniform slope in the flow direction with no slope in the direction normal to it, such that
the irrigation water may propagate with a straight front. Furrow irrigation method can
accommodate a certain degree of cross slope within the field boundaries.
Where the cross slope could be removed only through excessive cutting, the field may
be divided into strips widthwise, so that the individual strips can be prepared with zero
cross slope, but set at different levels with respect to the adjacent strips. This type is
referred to as bench levelling.

11.3.5 Guidelines on Earth Work

It is obviously appropriate to plan the land grading operation so as to entail a minimum
of earth cutting, filling, and handling. One should set an upper limit on the cutting
depth, say, moving 150 mni. This might lead to a maximum of about 1500 cubic metre
of earth being moved per hectare. Let the volume of cut be in excess of the volume of
fill by about 20% to 50%. This is to take care of compaction of the fill that occurs over
time, shrinkage of the fill material and losses during handling. Keep in mind, also the
operational convenience for the machinery operator.

.11.4 STEPS IN LAND GRADING DESIGN

The total design of grading of fields in a farm land generally involves desk work as
- well as field work. It may be mentioned that desk work is involved both before as well
as after undertaking field survey. The various steps in the overall land grading exercise-
may be summarised as follows:
Pre-surltey Work (Desk Work)
1) Selection of irrigation method
2) Demarcation of field-plots in the lay-out
3) Selecting slopes appropriate for farming
Survey Work (Field Work)
4) Staking the plot
5) ~ a k i block
h ~ levels
Post-survey Works (Desk Work)
6) Topographic map preparation
7) Design of grading
i) Manual methods :
a) Contour adjustment method
b) Profile method
c) Plan inspection method
ii) Analytical method:
Least squares method
8) Finalisation of cut-fill ratio and formation levels.
The process may be repeated to come out with a satisfactory design in an ,
iterative manner. These steps are considered in some detail as given below:
 11.4.1 Choice of Method of 1rrkation
Considering the soil type, soil surface condition, the crops to be grown,
manpowerlmachinery employment; and availability of water in terms of volume, flow
rate and quality, the inigation method to be adopted is decided upon. If surface
irrigation. in general. is found more appropriate, the particular method that is most
suitable is to be decided, as described in Unit 7. The main types include level basin,
graded borders and furrow system.
11.4.2 Field Layout
i . In the overall layout the location and alignment of delivery channels, drainage
I
collection channels, and farm roads are fmalised and the proposed plan of these
facilities to be laid out on the area to be cultivated is plotted. In demarcating the field
plots, the method of imgation to be adopted, the overall land slope regime are taken
into considerafion. The plots are laid out in rectangular fashion to the extent possible.
The width and length of a plot are to be appropriate for the method of irigation that is
envisaged, and .also as per the perniissible slopes in one direction and in the transverse
I direction.
In the case of level basins, the plot dimensions are dependent on the infiltration
characteristics and the design flow rates of irrigation water. There are some guidelines
available on the area of a plot to be fixed for different soil types for a unit supply of
irrigation water at the delivery oint of the plot, expressed (say) in cm/ h. Thus, for a
field channel discharge of 1 m+' / h, the area of a plot in sand could be about 1200 m2,
and in clay about 6000 m2.
In the case of graded borders, the nature of soil suggests the border length. The typical
I range for sandy soil is 60 to 90 m, for loamy sand 75 to 150 m, for sandy loam 90 to
250 m, for clay loam 90 to 300 m, and for clay 180 to 350 m. The border width can be
as large as 60 m for a nearly level condition, about 20 m for a field slope of 0.1 to 0.5
per cent, and only about 6 m for steep slopes of 4 to 6 per cent.
The maximum length advisable for cultivated furrows varies with the nature of soil,
field slope and the depth of water applied. In the case of sandy soil, over a range of
I slope of 0.05 to 2 percent and for a range of average depth of water supply of 50 to
125 mm, the maximum length lies between 60 m and 400 m. Usually, this permissible
I length is largest for a slope of 0.3% and least for 0.05 as well as 2%. For clays the
maximum furrow length varies from 220 m to 800 m. When the use of farm machinery
is limited, the recommended maximum length varies over 60 to 120 m for sandy soils,
100 to 200 m for loams and 150 to 300 m for clay soil, the value chosen being
dependent on the slope of the plot.
11.4.3 Desirable Slopes
The type of soil and the method of surface imgation adopted govern the range of slope
that the prepared land should have. According to Michael (1978), the three types of soil
namely, heavy (clayey) soils, medium (loamy) soils, and light (sandy) soils can have
surface slopes lying in the ranges of 0.05 to 0.25%, 0.20 to 0.40% and 0.25 to 0.65%,
respectively.
According to Walker and Skogerboe (1987), level basins! are to be designed without
slopes in either the advance (predominant irrigation water flow) direction or across the
field. In the case of border irrigation, the cross slope should be zero, but the advance
slopes would lie between 0.5 and 3%. James (1988) indicates that the flow direction
(advance) slopes for border inigation can vary from 0.1% to 6%. Even a zero slope is
considered possible. In the case of fimows, thbindicated range of slope is 0.05%
to 2%.
If the average natural slopes are outside the permissible ranges, then terraces or
benches should be constructed (refer section 11.7). To determine the average natural
slope and the slope that should be adopted from the point of view of earth moving
operations, a topographic map is necessary. For that purpose, field work of staking and
block levelling has to be undertaken.
Land Lcvdllng and Grading
11.4.4 Staking
The first step in surveying the field is to mark the area with a grid system of stakes.
Typically woodei~stakes are about 1.2 m long and 25mm x 25mm in section. To mark
a point on the ground for levelling purpose, the stakes are driven into the ground to a
depth of about 0.3 to 0.4 m. The field may be encompassed by a square, a rectangle or a
general polygon, when certain areas on the border are to be excluded. The sides should
be along two principle directions (x and y in cartesian system, or N-S and E-W in
compass system.
It is preferable that the spacing between the stakes be uiliform and same in both the
directions, but it can be chosen to be different too. A suitable spacing out of 15 m,
20 m, 25 m and 30 m can be adopted depending on the ruggedness of the field. The
first step in establishing the grid on the field is to choose a comer as the origin and
locate the first stake at one-half spacing from both the axes passing through the comer.
Then row after row the stakes may be located and driven into the ground, thus
completing the grid. Alternatively, two parallel edge rows are set with stakes by
measuremeilt and the rest of the field can be covered with stakes by sighting the
appropriate reference stakes. Each stake represents a sub-area or a cell. If the spacing is
same in both the nom~aldirections (that is (A x = A y) the cell is a square. In case of
crooked-sided fields, a border cell within the field may be polygonal (usually
triangular). Such a situation leads to additional calculations in the analytical method of
determining the land grades.

11.4.5 Block Levelling

-
The existing ground elevation at each of the stakes is then to be measured and,
surveyor's level (dumpy level) and a levelling staff may be used for this purpose. The
reduced level of a nearby bench mark may be used for detem~iningthe R.L.s of the
stake locations; or an arbitrary datum may also be adopted, which is just a little lower
than the lowest point in the plot. Other than the stake-points, intermediate locations
having local peaks and depressions may also be covered and sl~ownin the plan as well
as in elevatioil to help in estimating and dealing with earth work. Once the survey work
is completed, the desk work of determining the formation levels with the best grade can
be taken up either by the 'eyeball' methods or analytical methods.
11.4.6 Topographic Map
The stake-grid niay be plotted to a scale of 1500 or 1:1000. In order to gain an
appropriate impressioil of the topography of the field: contour lines are drawn on this
map, based on the reduced levels determined by the field survey. The contour map, also
referred as the relief map, helps in visualising the feahires like the direction and degree
of land slope, ridges and valley. The recomnlended contour interval for different
natural ground slopes are O. lin for flat ground, 0.15 m to 0.25 m for mild slopes of 1% .
to 2%, 0.5 nn for 4% slope, lm for about T i : *;ope. Iildividual smaller plots can be
demarcated based on this map if the natural slope is quite high. The topographic map of
a mica1 field plot 1s shown in Figure I l .i .

11.4.7 Methods of Designing the Grade

There are two categories of methods of determining the formation surface of an earth
work: manucll method and the analyticctl method. An experienced person might be able
to decide effectively the formation parameten by using a topographic map by
eye-judgement in a few trials. In contour aaju~tmen? method, a set of modified contour
lines are sketched so that the desired slope is possible to be imparted to the land
surface. A typical case is shown in Figure 11.2. In the p r ~ j i l emethod, representative
cross-sections of the land surfaces are plotted and a formation line is drawn based on
eye-judgement over the line that is the avorage of the existing cross-sections, so that an
appropriate slope would be realised, while satisfying the (cutfill) ratio criterion. A
typical iIlustration of the proposed line is shown in Figure 11.3. A more experienced
technical person may be able even to assign formatioil level values directly that would
satisfy the grading requirement; this method is called the plan inspection method.
These methods have been described elaborately by h;lichael(1978).
 Luwl Grading D d g n I

L L E
oL" 2-
Land Levelling and Grading

Contour interval = 0.25m

////cut area - Existing conlour

PLAN FORM \\\\fillarea -- For mat ion contour

-- Formdtton profile - Existing. prof i l l

Flgure 11.3: Protile Metlmd-AII Exan~ple

The method of least squares has been applied to derive expressions for the optimum
values of slopes in both Ule advance direction and cross-direction. The resulting plane
leads to minimum for the sum of the squares of its deviations from the existing ground
surface, while ensuring that the cut-volume will be equal to fill-volume. This method
can be classified as analytical. The rlumerical computations to evaluate the slopes are
most direct when the stake-grid forms a rectangle (n stakes per row and m stakes per
-
column) all cells enclose an area of (A x.A y). When the grid layout is not rectangular,
but encoinpases a polygon, the nuinber of stakes in a row may vary from row to row. In
addition, the area represented by a border cell nlay be only a fraction of (A x.A y). The
weighted least square procedure that takes into account the variation in the area
represented by the different cells can be used to derive the expressions for the optimum
slopes under such conditions.

11.5 METHOD OF LEAST SQUARES (PLANE

METHOD)
You might have already studied the application of the least squares metho'd, say for
fitting an optiilluin straight line through a set of points, such that the resulting sum of
squares of deviation attains a ~nininluinvalue. The same nlethod can be applied here to
evaluate the land slope that would result in a ininimunl of cut or fill, when the volume
of cut equals the volume of fill. Let us now consider the basic equations and the steps
involved in applying the least square inethod for land grade design.
 Land Grading Design
11.5.1 Ordinary Least Squares Equations
Let us start with the case of a rectangular field, which has been staked at uniform
intervals (A x=A monstant) in x and y directions (orthogonal axes). Let us choose the x
co-ordinates along the main direction of imgation water flow. Let the existing
elevation of ground surface be z(x, yyl and the appropriate formation surface that is to be
determined, be represented by h(x,y). Then, in terms of the optirn~unslopes Sxand Sy,
and the elevation of the formation surface at the origin h (0,0), (all to be determined),
the equation of the formation surface can be expressed as follows:

Then, the cut or fill to be executed at any point would be given by :

This amount would be a cut fit is positive, and it would be a fill if it is negative.
The values of Sx and Sy and h (0,O) can be obtained based on the least squares error
criterion. The following four-step procedure can be followed for this purpose:
i) Determine the average elevation of each series of stakes in both the
directions;
ii) Locate the centroid, in plan, of the field plot.
iii) Compute the best-fit slopes Sx and Syusing the equations pertinent to the leasr
square method; and
iv) Compute the parameter h (0,0), which is the formation elevation at the origin,
on the condition that the average field elevation should be the elevation of the
formation surface at the centriod, for the cut volume to balance the fill
volume.
Let us use the subscript i to identify the series of stakes aligned in y-direction or S-N
direction (it" column of stakes) andj for the series of stakes aligned in x-direction or
W- E direction bdhrow of stakes). Then, any grid point can be specified by 0)). Let the
maximum number of columns of stakes be M and the maximuin number of rows of
stakes be N. Then the average elevation of the ith column, Zi is given by:
N

Likewise, the average elevation of thejth row,j'2 is given by :

M

Let the origin be located at one half the grid spacing in each direction from the first
stake position. Then the distances of the centroid from the origin, such as Xc and Yc,
can be determined through the following equations:

Herein Xc is the x-distance from the origin to the ith stake-column and Y, is the
y-distance from the origin to the.jfhstake-row.
Land Levelling nnd Grading Next the optimum slopes are computed using the following equations.

Finally, to obtain the parameter h (0,O) we need the average elevation of the field plot
Zc. This can be computed using any one of the following equations :

Then, h (0,O) =Z C - a . XC) -(Sy. Yc) ...(11.11)

Thus, all the formation surface parameters, SX.Syand h (0.0) can now be evaluated.
It may be noted that a field plot may not be perfectly rectangular: it might by a general
polygonal figure. Revenue boundary demarcations, layout of roads or canals may lead
to such a field condition. However, a rectangle can always be superscribed on any other
shape. Some blocks within this rectangle may fall only partially"within the field
boundary, while some may be wholly outside the field boundary as shown in
Figure 11.4 (a). To +a1 with such a condition, we can adopt a weighting-method. The
weightage factor (w,) would be the fraction of the area of the block around the stake
(ij) which falls within the field boundary (the standard block area- (A x.6 y). The value
of w, would lie between 1.0 and 0.0. In Figure 11.4(a), each block A has a weightage
factor of 1.0, block B has a factor of 0.5, iwd C has 0.0.
Using the weightage factor concept, we can rewrite tho equations for the average
elevations and the Co-ordinates of the centroid as follows:

Defining, Wi = C w,.,
j= 1
 M Land Grading Design
and, Wj=Cwii
l=l

We can write:

I I 1
2 -
A
'

l
0

A
I
l
i I i ' ;
,----I-- -1 - - J - - A - - -I
1 - ' I
I
' I . I ' I ,Sta

A , *# I A
I b

Weightage for A = 1.0 ,B = 0.5 ,c = 0.0

&are 1 1 . q ~ :) A Fldd Plot with CeUs with Mfferlng Weightuges Due to Boundary Alignment

It may be pointed out that the equation defining Sx, S' and h (0,O) remain unchanged.
The weighting factor concept is useful when one wants to adopt different values of
A x and A y for different blocks; especially the boundary blocks may sometimes have to
be fixed with smaller or larger widths than the standard block dimensions (A x and A y).
When A x and A y values for a boundary block are greater than the standard values used
for most of the blocks, the weightage factor wg can be greater than 1.00 such a case -
is shown in Figure 11.4(b).
In the equations for the slopes Sx, Sy one can avoid dealing with large values if the
distances x and y are scaled in terms of the standard block sizes A x and A y.

i.', : ts the 1 aluc efrllc we~ghtagefactor M), fc?rblock P # n Fiyur(: 11 :(a) '
Land Levelling end Grading

1 2 3 4 \Sl.kD

Figure ll.d(b): A Plot wit11 Cells with D i t Y c ~ l gWeiglrtages Strkcv with Lincqunl Cells

Example 11.1
A rectangular field 180 m x 150 m is to be levelled to make it suitable for irrigation.
Figure 1 1.1 shows the locations of stakes and the existing field elevations at the
stake-locations. For convenience, values with reference to a datum level of +35.00 are
given. To help in visualisi~lgthe nature of the field surface as it exits, contours at
0.25 m i~ltenlalsare also shown plotted. The recorded minimum elevation happens to
be 1.20m and the maximum to be 2.37 m.
To facilitate the application of least square equations, the origin and the Cartesian
co-ordinate axes are to be specified suitably. In this example, the bottom left hand
comer of the field is chosen as the origin and the axes are ~narkedas shown in the
figure. Then in the x-direction, there are six stakes in all the rows: thus along the x-axis.
i.e. i = 1 to 6. The number of stakes in the columns along y-axis is 5, such that j =1 to 5.
The si7s of the standard rectangle (in the present case it is a square) is 30 m x 30 m,
with an area of 900 m2. The stake (1,l) is at a half distance along both the axes, that is,
at the point (15 In: 15 m).

Solution
Row-wise Average Elevations
n the values of Zi, for i = 1 to 6, work out as: 1.61,l SO, 1SO,
Based on ~ ~ u s t i o11.3,
1.60,1.89 and 2.00 m.
Like-wise, based on Equation 11.4, the average elevations along the x-direction, Zj, for
the 5 rows at different y-coordinates are obtained as: 1.77, 1.70, 1.66, 1.62. and
1.67 m.
The average elevation of the entire field, as per Equation 11.9 as well as by Equation
11.10works out as 1.682 m.
Co-ordinates of the Centroid
Using Equation 1 1.5 and Equation 11.6, the co-ordinates of the centroid are obtained as
Xc= 90 ~nand Yc = 75 m.
 Optimum Slopes Land Grading Design

Let us compute the best slope along the x-direction using Equation 1 1.7. Let us first
evaluate the individual terms of this equation.
The frrst term in the numerator
M
Zx,Zi=(15 X 1.61)+(45 X 1.50)+(75 X 1.50)+(105 x 1.60)
i= 1

+ (135 x 1.89) + (165 x 2.00) = 957.3 (The ~111itof this quantity being m2)

The second tern1 in t l ~ numerator

e

The f ~ sterm
t in t l ~ edenominator

The second term iil the denominator:

Thus, the optimum slope in x-direction (in percentage) is 0.307%.

In order to evaluate the optimum slope in y-direction using Equation 11.8, the four
terms on the right band side of this equation are to be computed. Thus, we have :
I N N
z Y , Z 1 = 6 3 9 . 9 111' ; 2

J = 1

N / M 7

I
Therefore, Sy = 0.095%
Elnploying a computer program suitable for use on a personal computer (James, 1988),
this example problem has bekn solved. The resulting values of optimum slopes are
obtained as Sx = 0.306% and Sy = 0.095%. (The small differences from the manually
computed values are due to the rounding off to two decimal places the values of Zi and
Zj). Let us adopt tl~ecomputer-based results in further calculations given below.
Using the optimum values of slopes, the third parameter h (0,O) in Equation 1 1 . 1 1 can
now be computed, (writing Zc = h ( Xc , Yc )) as follows:
Land Levelling and Grading
h(O,O)=h(Xc,Yc)-Sx.Xc-Sy.Yc

Now, from Equation 11.9, h (XC,Yc) = 1.682 m; and SX7 0.00306, Xc = 90 m,

Sy= 0.00095 and Yc = 75m. Therefore, we have:

We can now calculate the formation level as per these slopes for any location within
the field, in particular at any of the stakes. For instance, at the location of the stake
(1,1),x= 15 m andy= 15 m.Then,wecanwritewithreferencetoEquation 11.1:

Since this formation level is higher than the natural ground level of 1.05 m at this stake,
the standard square area represented by this stake needs to be filled up through a height
of 1.453 - 1.050 = 0.403 m.
Likewise, for the stake (6,2), X = 15 + 5 x 30 = 165 m, and Y =15 + 30 = 45 m.;and
the formation level works out as

Since the natural ground level here is higher at 2.04 m, the levelling operation involves
a cut of 2.04 - 1.883 = 0.1 57 m. The volume of cut over this square is 0.157 x 900 =
141.3 m3.
The increments in the formation-levels at the various X-distances of 15,45,75, 105,
135, and 165 m are 0.0459,O. 1377,0.2295,0.3213,0.4131 and 0.5049 m respectively
for SX= 0.306%. Likewise for Y=15,45,75, 105, and 135 m ywith Sv= 0.095%, the
increments in the Ydirection work out as 0.01425,0.04275,0.07125,0.09975 and
0.12825 m, respectively (refer Figure 113). Tile formation level at any of the stakes
can be calculated based on its X and Y distances from the origin. The results, rounded
off to three decimal places are shown in Table 11.1. For clarity, values are entered in
the cells at each stake with the following notation: contents of the fmt quadrant is the
formation level, the second quadrant contains the existing ground level, the height of
cut is entered in the third quadrant and the height of fill is shown in the fourth quadrant.
At any of the stakes, either the third quadrant or the fourth one would carry a value. as
both cut and fill would not be necessary at the same location. It is noted that a
maximum cut of 0.515 nl is required and a maxi~numfill of 0.345 m is needed. The
total volumes of cut and fill both equal to 2599 m3.
Tilhle 11.2 : Stake-wise Cut/Fill Requirements
 Lnnd Gnding Design
Notation: All values in metres

Sx = 0.306% Sy=0.095% ;Volume of cut = Volume of fill = 2599 m3

-
y dl rectional
average elevation S + * Sd

4 4 # S x = 0.3%
0
e 1.25

(a) Optimized grades along x direction -

-
x directional

'Z 1.50 = 0.1 %

e
I I,
1.25

-. ( b ) Optimized grades along y-direction

I
I Fipre 11.5: Eye Judgement-bd Profile Method AppUed to Exan~ple11.1

11.5.2 Variations of Cut-Fill Volumes

The computed volumes of cut and fill depend on the following parameters: i) elevation
of the formation-plane, as measured at the centroid, and ii) slope of the formation
I
plane.
Variation with Centroidal Elevation
When the centroidal elevation is set equal to the average elevation worked out from the
I natural ground levels at the stake-locations, the volume of cut would be equal to the
volume of fill for any chosen slope. Thereby the cut/fill ratio is equal to unity, for this
chosen slope, within the range of practical interest. When the formation plane is set at

1 an elevation higher than the average field elevation, the cut-volume for a given slope
decreases and the fill-volume increases -and, the cutlfdl ratio decreases below unity.
This feature is effectively brought out in Figure 11.6.
In this figure, the volumes of cut and of fill and also the cutlfill ratio for different
centroidal elevations of the formation surface varying from 1.62 m to 1.74 m are shown
plotted, for specific values of slopes arbitrarily chosen as S ~ 0 . 3 % and Sy= 0.1%. Over
this range of centroidal elevation, cut-volume is largest at 3740 m3 and the fill-volume
least at 2066 m3 for h (Xc. Ye) = 1.62 m.The cut-volume is smallest at 2079m3 and the
fill-volume largest at 3645 1113 when the centroid elevation is 1.74 m. The cutlfill ratio
has its largest value of 1.81 for 1.62 m and least value of 0.57 for 1.74 m. As expected,
when the centroidal elevation equals the average terrain elevation, namely, 1.682 m, the
L,;mcl L,evelliig ancl Grading cut is equal in volume to the fill at 2599 m3. with a cutlfill ratio of 1. A plot as shown in
Figure 11.6 would be useful when a cutlfill ratio is larger than 1 is to be adopted, may
be, due to practical considerations.

r
E
-
Y

-
U

e2 3000
--
.-
--
r

0
0
I-

average elevati

160 1.62 1.64 1.66 1.68 1.70 1.72 1.74 1.76

Formation -
llevation at the centroid

Field skp.r : Sx = O.lgl. or 1 m 1000; Sy=QOeIe

Figure 11.6: Valriations of Cut, Fill aad their Rntiv wit11the Fonl~ntion-
Elevation at the Centroid for the Exan~ple11.1

Variation with the Slope of Formation Plane

It is obvious that, in general, the volume of cut and fill would be larger when the slope
of the formation plane is steeper, than when it is milder. In ordcr to get an idea about
tile nature of variation, tlie cuts are evaluated for different slopes and are shown plotted
in Figure 11.7 with respect to Esanlple 11.1. The plane is assunled to pass through the
centroid at the average elevation, so that the cut-volume equals the fill-volume. Also,
the slope is imposed iu one direction only. keeping tlie slope in the other direction as
x r o . Accordingly, Z is set at 1.682 m for all the cases, and the range of slope in
X-direction is considered as 0%)to 1.0% (that is, flat to 1 in 100). Typical results are
sun~marisedas follows:
Witli Sy = 0. the cut is 3047 m' for Sr = OK. it is least st 2624 in3 for S*-.0.333% and
highest at 4568 nl" for Sx = 1%. The corresponding values for the cases with Sx= O are
3047 1n3, 2867 m3 and 5054 m3 for & = G%, 0.2% and 1%: respectively. The least
values correspond to slope that is closest ro the average slope of the existing terrain in
that direction, and this is not necessarily the case when the formation plane is flat and
horizontal. The case with Sx= 0. Sy =O represents the level basin. It may be recalled that
with thc opti~numslopes in the bvo directions. namely Sx = 0.306% and Sy =0.095%,
the. cut volume is 2599 m3. Over the field area of 27000m2 (=I80 ni x 150 m). the
average height of cut and of fill is 2599127000 = 0.096 ni. that is about 96 mm. You
may recall that the reco~nmendedmaxiniu~nis 150 mm. thus the present quantum of
excavation is acceptable. Figure 1 1.7 shows tlie variation of earth work with the slope
of formation.
Improved esti~natesof cut and fill volumes, especially when tlie grid sizes are not all
identical, are possible by adopting the prisnioidal formula or tllc average-end-area
method or the four-comers neth hod suggested by the United States Department of
Agriculture (Michael. 1974: James, 1988).
 Land Grading Design

Slope ( 1 in-)

Land slope (.I.)

Figure 11.7: V A t i o l ~of Cut UIIII FU with Furn~atio~~

Slope for the Erull~ple11.1

11.5.3 Practical Considerations

There are two issues which arise from practical considerations regarding in the design
of land grading such as:
i) The volume of cut should exceed the volulne of fill by about 15% to 50%, and

ii) The quantum of haulage of earth from cut areas to fill areas should be
minimised. Also after accomplishing the initial land grading as per design
there is need to maintain the design grades in the long run, since the land
levels tend to get altered sightly due to various reasons over the seasons.
These aspects are discussed, herein, with reference to their significance.
CutIFill Ratio
The need to genetate a larger cut-volume than the fill-volume arises due to following
reasons:
i) There would be a gradual co~npactionof the soil in the fill areas during and
after the colnpletio~lof the levelling operations. Usually, in this co~mection,a
shrinkage factor of 20%)to 40% is assumed.
ii) Earth may be required for ~niscellaneouspurposes, such as raising the
elevations of nearby farm roads or forming supply channel portions in filling.
 L d Lcvdlhg md Gmding iii) Certsun amount of soil may be lost in the transit during the haul-fill
operations.
iv) There is the problem of optical illusion faced by earth moving machinery
operators that results in addit~onalfilling between the stakes called crowning.
While the usual range of cuthill ratio adopted is 1 2 to 1 6, extremes like 1.1 and 2.0
are also necessitated under certain conditions. In case of heavy soils and deep cuts, I . 1
may be a reasonable value, but when llght textured soils especially with high organic
content coupled with small cut depths, are to be levelled, a cut/fill ratio as high as 2.0
may have to be adopted.
We have already seen that the lower the elevat~oilof the fonnation plane at the
centroid, the higher is the cutlfill ratio. A decrease in the formation plane by 10 mm
would increase the difference between the cut-volume and the fill-volume by about 100
m3 per hectare. Once an appropriate cutlfill ratio value 1s decided by judgement, the
height of the formation plane, which is at the optimum slope, can be worked out.
Minimum Haulage
Tlle nlagnitude of haulage of the excavated earth (expresed, say, in tonne-metres)
depends on the location of the cut-area from which the earth is moved, and the
fill-area; and the route that is followed for this operation. The assignment of the cut-
and fill-area and the routing to connect tl~einshould be optimised. Additional aspects to
be considered include empty rehli-n trips, and restrictions on machinery movement.
Computer programs have been developed based on techniques like transportation
method of linear programming to work out the minimal equipment movement; these
are particularly useful where the earth work volumes are really large.
Periodic Maintenance
The made-up levels of surface-irrigated fields undergo gradual changes due to
agricultural operations and the action of irrigation water. So as a sequel to large scale
land levelling operations. periodical maintenance levelling should be undertaken to
sustain high irrigation efficiency. Cut areas need additional care, such as: i) in case of
insufficient top soil, fertility management should be undertaken through addihon of
chemical fertilisers. and ii) when cut areas face soil salinit?/. leaching provision must be
made.

11.6 CUT-FILL ESTIMATION: IMPROVED METHODS

We have cons~deredso far. for the calculation of cut and fill volumes, only stake-based
values. These include the existing elevation. the design-elevation and the area of the
surrounding cell. This approach is conve~~ient in denc iny the leas1 squares cquatlons.
However, the cut-fill volumes thus estimated havc been found to be not accurate
enough for contracting purpose. Three other !* hods have been proposed for a more
accurate estimation of cut-fill volumes -i) the End Area Mctl~od,ii) Prisllioidal
Formula. and iii) the Four-comers Method. These methods are explained through their
application to the situation depicted of Example 11.1.

11.6.1 End Area Method

We consider the cut or fill profile along different series of stakes, say, In X-direchon.
We compute the cut-fill volume between the adjacent series of stakes, thus covering the
entire field area. The following forniula can be used to compute the volume between
row-1 and row-2:

;.I =Dr (
API+&z
1 , .. (11.111)
/
where, VFll= Volume of fill reqmred between row-1 and row-2 of stakes in the
X-direcbon; AF1,AFZ= Cross-sectional area of fill along row-1 and row-2,
I respectively; and Dy = the depth of fill.
56
I A similar formula call bc \witten for evaluating tlic cut volu~iiebctwee~irow-1 and
row-2. With suitable ~iiodificatioiisof the nuinbcrs of the pair of rows, we can compute
Land Grading Design

I the cut-fill volulnes for other segments contained by rows (2 aid 3), (3 and 4) and (4
and 5) . Of course, we should compute A F I ,~ 4 , ~. 4 ~2 3,A F and
~ .4,:5 as a pre-requisite; as
also ACI to Acj. The profile for row-1 is shown in Figure 1 1.#(a). and that for row-2 in
Figure 11.8(b).

CUT
C bm. 30m -0.2 Cut 8
I Fill depths
0.0 (m)
0.0
#a t* 4 \ 19 12 t l (5.1) (6*1) (7.1)

(a) Stake lables and end points

0.2
Cut (L
0.0 Fill depths
I-\

0.4
(b) Stake lables and end points

Flgurc 11.8: Cut u11l Pill ProNes alorlg Selected Rows for the Ernn~ple11.1 (a) Along Row-1. (b) Along Row-2.

As regards the boundary portions, the end-state value is assumed to hold good. Thus
between (0,l) and (1,l) the cut is constant at 0.345 ni. Likewise between (6.1) and
(7,1), the cut is assumed to be constant at 0.5 15 ni . In the reach between (4,l) and (5,l)
the forniation requirement is partly fill and partly cut. But the fill varies linearly from
0.11 1 m to zero over a length of 5.56 m, and the cut varies linearly from zero to 0.487
m over the rest of the 30 m spacing which works out to be 24.44 m. Based on the
eeometn, of the ~rofilethe fill and cut areas are summed UD as follows:

In a similar manner: areas for otlier sectiolis are worked out, sutd presented in the
~ - I I - - :-A
-. *-LI-.
Land Levding ant1 Grading Description Row Numbers
1 2 3 4 5
Area of 20.603 17.108 13.297 19.178 12.095
Fill-section
(m2)
Area of 28.706 10.179 8.437 17.288 17.679
Cut-section
(m2)

Using the Equation 11.18. the fill values seuarated by 30 m are worked out for sections 1
1 and 2 shown below: .

After calculating such values for the other sections, the total volume of fill is obtained
as:

VP = V F +~ v P~1 3 + + v F 4 5 +Volume for Boundary strips

= 565.66 + 456.08 + 487.13 + 469.10 + (Fill volume for bottom strip
+ Fill volume for top strip)

Similarly, the total volume of cut for the field is obtained as j

Vc = 583.28 + 279.24 + 385.80 + 524.5 1 + Volume for boundary strips
= 1772.86 + (Cut volullie for the bottom strip + Cut volume for the
top strip)

Note that the values are same for both cut and fill and is less by about 131 m3
compared to the estimated value of 2599.3 m' as obtained, based on the assumption
that fill or cut over the area of the surrounding cell for a given stake is a constant.

11.6.2 Prismoidal Formula

In this case, we need to consider tluee profiles to estimate the volume between the end
sections. The formula for cut-volume for the strip between section 1 and 2 is given as 1
under:

Herein,
1/CI2 = volunie of cut between section 1 and 2,

.&I = area of cut along section 1 1,

4 ~ 2= area of cut along s e c t p 2, and

. d o l 2 = area of cut along a section midway between section 1 and 2.

Referring to the mid section between 1 and 2 as one with a Y-label of 1.5, we obtain: Land Grading Design

C or F (1: 1.5) = 112 (F 0.403 + F 0.014) = F 0.209 m

In this notation, F and C as prefix indicate fill and cut, respectively. Note that at the
point (4, 1.5) which is midway between the two points, one point carries a fill and the
other a cut. The larger of the two values decides whether it would be a fill or a cut at
the mid section and half difference between these two values is the magnitude at the
mid section. (Similar consistent results would be obtained if fills are treated as positive
quantities and cuts are treated as negative quantities.) A similar procedure is then
applied to other adjacent pairs of sections too. The resulting areas required for the
computation of the volumes of cut and fill by the prismoidal procedure are obtained as
follows:

RowlCross-section Label
%scrip tion
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Fill-section 20.603 18.712 17.108 13.274 13.297 15.010 13.297 15.467 12.095
area (12)

Cut-section 28.706 19.396 10.179 7.378 8.437 11.651 19.178 17.270 17.679
area (m2)

From the three profiles, we l':t the following values, for earth work in cutting:

=28.706 in2 ; Acnr l 2 = 19.396 ; AC2= 10.179 m2

Then as per Equation 11.19, 11,,, =30 (28.706 + 4 x 19.396 + 10.179) = 582.34 m3
6
Similarly, the fill volume between section 1 and 2 works out as:

V',, =$(20.603 + 4 x 18.712 + 17.108) = 562.795 m3

M e r working out for other sections, the total fill volume is summed up as:
VF= 562.8 + 4 17.5 + 462.6 + 465.7 + Fill volume for the bottom and top strips

= 1908.6 + (20.603 x 15) + (12.095 x 15)

= 2399 m3

Similarly, the total cut volume is computed as :

VC= 582.3 + 240.6 + 361.7 + 520.2 + Cut volume for the bottom and top strips

Herein, also the total cut volume is equal to the total fill volume. It is less than 2599 m3
by 200 m3.
Land Levdling rad Gnding
11.6.3 Four-Corners Method
clr
In this-method, the basic grid area that is considered is formed out ol'four adjacent
stakes, as a square or a rectangle. Note that this grid is different from the basic cell
surrounding a stake. The equations for computing the volumes of cut and fill within a
given grid area can be expressed as:

and

where,
k = the index for the grid centre in Xdirection

1 = the index for the grid centre in Y-direction

m = index for stakes requiring fill
n = index for stakes requiring cut

Nc = number of stakes out of the four that require cut, which can differ
with k, I
AM= area of the grid formed around the centre point pertaining to k, I

Vm = volume of cut in the k,1grid

VPU= volume of fill in the k, I grid
CI,= depth of cut at the nth stake forming a comer of the k,kgnd
F,,, = depth of fill at the mth stake forming a comer of the k,I grid.

Let us carry out sample calculatiens for two grids, identified by (k = 1,1= 1) and
(k= 4,1= 2). These are shown in Figure 11.')(a) and 11.9(b).

a) Grid with Lable ( 1 , l ) j Grid wlUl lable (42)

b

Figure 11.9: Typlcal Grid Used in the Fwr-cornen Mdhad

For the grid (1,1), the four comers in anti-clockwise order are (1,1), (2,1), (2,2) and
(12).The corresponding levelling requirements are F 0.345, F 0.137, F 0.316 m yand
F 0.014 all being fills. Thus, we have:
All = 30 x 30 = 900 m2

m = {1,2,3,4)
n = {nil) i.e., none of the stakes requires cutting

900
Then, 1/cll = -

4
4 10 =I;$+
NC= 0; so, here, 4-NC = 4

02
o

Herein, Fm = 0.345 + 0.137 + 0.316 + 0.014 = 0.812 m

m-l

900 x (0'812)2 -
Then, Vpll = - -- x 0.812 = 182.7 m3
4 0 + (0.812)

For the grid (4,2), the four comers are (4,2), (5,2), (5,3) and (4,3). The respective
levelling requirements are C 0.041, C 0.159, F'0.02 and F 0.168, all in metric units.
Accordingly,

For this grid we can write:

The volumes of cut and fill required for all the grids as per the four-corner method, are
worked out by the procedure as shown above, and are given in Table 11.2.
P P P W W W W W
h)-OW w 4 m u

P P P P
Vlcnu,cn
P P P P
Vl Ul u, Vl
w\C\C\C\C w\CwU)w
C C O C C O C C O O
c o c c 0 0 0 0 O O C C C c c c o c

coo-
b 'c.:& i, PPPPP--
O C C C P - V l
gg28888 PPPPP
c o c - w
C 4 U P OOC'4JwRh) O\040000 WOOWW
C m C P C C C P W O P O P P C O O O W O O 4 P

C C C O
La'w .o .c
WBPOC
occz
P . C P P
C C W
C, g .g: . g g g
W\CCWCCC
C O C C O C -
c c k L, Ll ;c w
0 C W C V l O\ a?
W C C O O = W w m w P C C C C C C W C W P O
 Table 11.3: CutIFill Volumes from the Four Methods L a d Grading Design

SI. Nu. Method Volume of Percent of Level Grid

cut-rnd-fill (m )

I 2 I ~ n urea
d 1 2470 1 95
I
3 P~ismoidal 2400 92

4 Four poii~t 23 90 92

[Note :All the values are rounded off to the nearest 10 m?]

The results from the more detailed methods based on prismoids and four-points can be
taken as accurate. It is noted that in Example 11.1, the level grid method overestimates
by about 8%. The prisiiioidal method is considered a good compromise between
accuracy and manual effort involved. Recently developed coqputei packages for
terrain modeling use higher accuracy procedures.
By way of applying a manual method or cut-fill zonation' Figme 11.10 shows a
subjective delineation for this example, based on the contour-inspection method.

C 0 .2.00
2.00- Formation -Surface -1 .so
1.so- A/
Prof il - 1 .OO
1-00,

Formation Surface contour lines ( m)

-*
0
-
8. ?
- Z
- -
? -
o
=!
8
N

uf Cut and F
Figure 11.10 : DeL~c?rtio~~ il
l Zolles by Cu~~tuur-l~~speetiut~
hlctllud

A general agreement with the results of the least square method ma?. be observed.
Certain degree of experience with a few cases is desirable for adopting this approach
for serious esti~nationof earthwork volumes.
 The four-conier mcthod_is to be applied tbr calculating cut aid fill volurnc f o r a
grid cvith all area 400 mL. In one case the grid (3.2) (with the four comers are
(3.2). (4,2j, (4.3) and (3.3)) has the folla\\~iagrespective levelling requireinents in
lueters: C 0.073, F 0.032, F 0.145 aid C 0.083
a) Write down the m-set and n-set and indicate the value of Nc.
b) Work out tlie volume of the cut and fill in this grid and the ratio of-cut and fill.

11.7 CONTOUR BENCHING

When natural slope of the land, to be cultivated, is quite steep (more than 6%, say) and
is highly undulating, surface imgation by gravity can be adopted only when the land is
fashioned into a number of stepped, leveled or mildly graded strips. In order that the
earth work is within reasonable limits, not more than, say 2500 m3 per ha, the strips
would have to be shaped so that they broadly follow the natural contour shapes. (You
may recall, that under nornial circumstances, the limit of earthwork haulage was earlier
proposed as 1500 m3/ha.) Then each strip is levelled as an independent terrace. The
vertical level difference between successive terraces or benches would preferably be in
the range of 0.3 to 0.6 m; however, 1 m difference may be accepted in special cases.
Once benching with a cross slope in the range of zero to 0.5% and a very mild
longitudinal slope along the contour is carried out, any of the surface imgation methods
such as border strips, check basins or furrows can be adopted.
We should note that terracing i.e. contour benching, may also be adopted as an
alternative to contour bunding (discussed below), which has been established as an
effective measure for soil and water conservation. When rain water is forced to follow
a cascaded path, its power to crode top soil gets decreased substantially. Thus, hill
slopes can be protected against serious gully erosion in regions with very heavy
rainfall. On the otlier hand, even in semi-arid or arid regions, contour bunding may be
adopted as a water conservation measure. Figure 11.11 shows a typical basin and then
in contrast a terrace.

Drain
Ditch

Original Ground Lave1

Figure 11.1I : (a) A Bnsin, @) Termres

11.7.1 Contour Bunding

Contour farming or contour cultivatiop would be more appropriate than up-and-down
cultivation in highly undulating terrain. In order to'control soil erosion and to improve
water conservation, in such situations, both mechanical measures and biologi~al
measures are adopted. Terracing or bunding forms an important mechanical measure.
A bund made of absorptive sod helps in increasing the detention time of water and in
charging the soil. These benclches are level and are suited for regions with average
rainfall less then 600 mm. Absorptive bunds are laid out along contours for
impounding water. They are suitable for low rainfall areas with permeable soils. They
are referred to as level-terraces or contour-terraces. On the other hand, when the
rainfall regime is wet there is necessity to lead away runoff water; and so special
terraces are constructed that are on slight grade. These are diversion type terraces. The
bunds may be either open ended (for diversion type) or hooked up at the ends (as for
absorptive type). For safety of the bund, surplus arrangement is to be provided. Figure
11.12 (a) and 11.12 (b) show the absorptive contour bund and diversion terrace,

brnatraam

(01 Abrorptwa typa Contour bund

shauw C h8nnrl
Ommrtraam

0 1 Oivmrrion typm Contour bund

Figure 11.12: Typlcd Ccmtour Bund
(a) Absorptive Type
(b) Diversion Type

11.7.2 Profiling a Contour Bench

The cross-sectio~chaldimension of a bench has to be f m t decided upon while designing
contour benches. Figure 11.13 indicates differeht dimensions and slopes involved in
conceiving a contour bench; and different notations are explained below:
BW = Width of cultivable bench (m)
tw = Top width of bund (m)

b w = Width of bund portion (m)

TW= Total width of one terrace (m)

BA= Height of one bench (m)
dh = Height of the bund 1 dike (m)
Sb= Cross slope of bench (normal to contour line ) -SbV :IH
S,I= Side slope of bund trapezium -SdV :IH
Then from simple geometry, the height of the bench, the terrace width and the cross
slope'are related as given below :
Bh=TwxSb ... (1 1.22)

... (1 1.23)
IdandLwdling and Grading

F]
Then, Tw - Tlrr - = Bw + tlv + 2 8 x -
s Id

Tw = PI!? fW + 2dh x
1 Sd

(=)
Note that the height of the terrace does not appear explicitly in this equation.

Origin01 Ground
Slopr

Flgure 11.U:Dbnenslum of a Contour Fknch

There are certain guidelines regarding the various dimensions from practical point of
view, such as, width of the cultivable bench BW should preferably be an
integer-multiple of the maximum width of the machinery to be employed, in case of
mechanized agriculture. The convenient range of width is 5 to 15 m. Of course, the
correspondiilg vertical difference BW should be in the range of 0.3 to 0.G m. The
longitudinal slope of the terrace should be sufficient to lead the excess water so as to
safely pass down drop-structures connecting adjacent terraces. while at the same time
limiting the water velocity to avoid erosion -of soil. Further the bund I dike should be
high enough to contail1 the higher of the expected maximum depth of design runoff and
the irrigation supply depth in any one session. There should also be a free board of
about 100 to 150 mm for purposes of safety, etc. The top width of the bund may be set
equal to the height of the bund. The side slope may be chosen from within the range
1V: W (that is 0.5V : 1H) and 2V : lH, depending on the type of soil used for bund
formation, because the bund would usually be in filling.

Example 11.2
Design a contour bench cross-section for the following mildition :
The average cross slope of the natural ground at the terrace is 5%. The width of the
cultivable part should be a multiple of 2.5 m. The bund side slope may be 1V: W
and its top width, 0.5 m. The maximum depth of any single irrigation episode is 140
mm ;and the design storm runoff depth may be taken as 180 nun.
Solution
The bench width B m a be either 2.5,5 or 7.5 or 10 m ( a multiple of 2.5 m). We do
not choose to consider widths above 10 m because the elevation-difference between the
adjacent benches may exceed 0.G m, since the cross slope is 5%.
We may note that tw = 0.5 IT/. Sd= 0.5; and we can choose d as (0.18 + 0.15) = 0.33
m. Herein, 0.18 m is the runoff depth which is &her than the maximum irrigation
depth. Also, 0.15 m is the free board assumed. The slopes are specified as, Sb = 5% =
0.05 (or 1 in 20) and Sd = 0.5 ( since the bund side slope is 0.5 vertical to 1 horizontal).
Then, using Equation 11.24, the total terrace width is given by:

i
Tw = Bw + 0.5 +

= 1.111 (1.82+Bw)

Let us now. with the help of this relationship. get TI,, for different BW values . We can
also calculate the elevation-difference between adjacent benches, that is, Bh as the
product of TWand Sb. Th
We may recommend a bench width of 7.5 nl leading to a total terrace width of 10.4 m,
and terrace height of 0.5 m

.,
. .r';::.- !; :;i;i!C>!~:<
.. "
is i~ be cgrried out for 2: tcrra~n\vith a land slope oE4?4 Tile
,. !i * .: ,- .: , .%r7 .la,
;,. ,j

.;.. ..%,.
. i:i.t14 bc: in rnu!aiyles of 2 nl. Tile buud would !lave a top width
.. "
of i .iH: 1 k' 'The ~ n ; ! s i l ~ l l ~depth
1
.: i i t :;i?i; srGi: )-ii\i>cs rn of irrig;-ltlon water to
,.; .,...
,:: ,...,- :>,.;
.,; ,>,.,I :c i I?:.' ~:::u.;:id a.hc ii~!ensityof sionn nm off may be laicen as 230 m m .
-. ." :!......' &.--
:':..< ...,%..
>$;; ."
.$\?didli:: ific bund may be taker? its 0.21n. Estililate a suitable step height
f. - j , - ,...
I I I ..;:.. ,rccr?and st~liable lxidtir.
<

11.7.3 Bench-strip Location

While the profiling procedure as explained in the previous section is quite objective,
the delineation of the terrace boundaries in plan-form is more subjective. Let us
consider the case when the contour map of the zone to be terraced is available. The
procedure in essence consists of the following steps :
i) Divide the zone into key-areas made up of groups of adjacent contours. Each
key-area is expected to possess nearly uniform topographic features. The
contour-differences need not be the same for all the key-areas. This is a
subjective operatioi
ii) For each key-area, one can compute the average elevation along selected
straight lines (with arbitrary spacing in between- these are referred to as
random-lines) adross the terrace. The coordinate of the location of the point
of average elevation on the original ground as per the average slope along a
random line may then be computed for each random line. The locus of these
points on the successive random lines generates a guiding line, which may be
treated as the basis for shaping the contour bench in plan, if the bench is level
in the longitudinal direction.
On the other hand, if there is a finite longitudinal slope (usually quite mild),
the locus of average elevation points and the guiding line deviate. One can
compute the location of a guiding-point corresponding to the point of average
elevation on each random line, by working out the separation between this
pair of points on the random line caused by the non-zero value of longitudinal
slope. Then the locus of the guiding point becomes the guiding line to shape
the contour strips in the corresponding key-area. Such guiding lines are to be
idenwied for all the key-areas.
iii) After obtaining the guiding line for each key-area, a band of width equal to
Tw (total width of the terrace) could be sketched.encompassiilgthe guiding
line. As many band width as are necessary to cover a key-area are then
sketched parallel to the master strip for that key-area. This is a subjective
operation.
iv) When the strip delineation is carried out for each key-area, there may not be a
perfect match between bounding lines of the strips at the edge of adjacent key
areas. Thus, there could develop overlapping areas andlor buffer areas not
Land Lwdling d,
Grading
directly covered by any of the strips having standard widths. These are to be
merged with any one of the neighbouring strips.
It is important to note that larger the extent of the buffer areas the larger would be the
deviation between total cut and total fill.
One may then repeat the step of defining the shape of the master strip for the pair of
adjacent key-areas concerned. Thus, it leads to a trial-anderror approach.
These steps are considered in detail, in Example 11.3.
Example 11.3
In Figure 11.14 is shown the contour pattern of an area for which a contour bench
layout is to be evolved. The longitudinal slope of the land is 1 in 500.
Solution
With reference to Figure 11.14 the area measms 45 m x 30 m in size. The range of
contours is 1.25 m to 2.50 m with reference to a datum level of + 1320 m.
Step 1
i) We may divide the zone into two key areas, the fvst one to be bounded by the
contours 2.75 m and 2.25 m. The second area would include 2.00 m, 1.75 m
and 1.50 m.
ii) The longitudinal reach is covered through nine random lines (dashed). In
Table 11.4 (a) and 11.4 (b), the computations pertaining to the key area I and
11, respectively, are presented. Since there is a non-zero longitudinal slope
(1 in 500), we have to fvst mark out the lines connecting the points of average
elevation for each of the two key areas, to be followed by locating the guide
points.

As a typical instance of calculations, considering the key area 11, and the random line
4, we find that the 2.00 m-contour is located at 19.75 m from the base line. Likewise,
the distances of the intersections of 1.75 m and 1.50 m contours on the random line 4
are obtained as 23.25 m and 27.75 m. Based on the first moment, we obtain the
distance of the average contour as 23.58 m from the baseline. Table 11.4 (a) gives the
set of values of all the random lines for key-area I covering the contours 2.75 m down
to 2.25 m. Likewise Table 11.4 (b) presents these values for the key-area I1 .

Table 11.4(a) : Computations, vis-a-vis, Example (11.3)

Key area 1 Random Lines

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Contour Distance from N-S Bare Line

2.75 -3.25 0.50 3.25 3.75 4.25 4.25 3.75 0.00 -5.75

2.50 4.25 7.0 10.20 10.75 9.0 10.0 9.25 7.5 5.5

2.25 9.0 11.75 14.75 15.5 16.75 16.25 15.50'14.25 11.0

 Land Grading Design

Distance in metres
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
A B C D E F

' w
zc n
a
m Key Area 1 2.75,2.50,2.25 0 Location of Avemged
Key Area P 2d00,1.75,1.50 Elevation
Location of Guiding
Datum = + 1320 Point

Figure 11.14 : Developing of Guiding L i e for Co~~tour

Benching
LaB Levdilng utrl Grading Tahle 11.4(b): Computations, vis-a-vis, Example (11.3)
Key area I1 Random Lines

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Contour Distance from N-S base line

2.00 14.25 16.5 19.0 19.75 19.5 20.0 19.75 19.5 18.75

1.75 18.25 21.5 23.0 23.25 23.0 23.0 23.25 22.5 21.75

contour

Then we compute the average land slope along each rand0111 line in each key-area.
Sufficiently accurate value of the slope may be obtained using the extreme contours in
each key-area. Thus the average slope along random line 4, in key-area I is given by:

where, 3.75 and 15.5 are the distances of respective contours from the base line.
Percentage slope values for other random lines are also computed in a similar manner.
These are included in Table 11.4 (a) and 11.4(b).

Since there is a lollgitudinal slope of 1 in 500, we need to work out the location of the
guiding points as distinct from the average contour points. These offsets are worked out
based on the longitudinal distance between adjacent random lines, which is uniformly 5
m in the present case.'We assume also that these two points namely, point of average
elevation and the guiding point coincide for the first random line. From then on we
note that the longitudinal fall gives rise to an offset between each successive random
line pairs as :

Now, random line 2 has an average cross slope of 4.44%. Thus the offset between the
two points along the random line 2 is obtained as :

The values corresponding to the other random lines are contained in the Table
11.4 (a) and 11.4 (b).

The guiding points are connected through a smooth line to obtain the guiding line for
key -area I and also for key-area 11.
 LaEd ClwPisrg Design

A suitable choice is made for the value of terrace width as shown in example (1 1.2).
Let us assume that in the present case, we choose 6 rn as the width of the terrace. We
sketch a band or a strip of width 6 m around the guiding lines so as to contain them
within the master strips, one each for each key-area. Figure 1 1.15 shows one such
possibility. The area in between is now covered by strips sketched parallel to the
master strip in that particular key-area. It is seen that the there are two small portions
emerging as buffer areas. These have to be absorbed in one of the adjacent strips.
Since the buffer areas are quite small we may conclude that a strip demarcatio~ishave
been carried out quite satisfactorily.

I
~ u i d i n gline 1

Figure 11.15 :Sketching uf Tern~ceStrip Bou~~duries

Cut-fill asscsslilelit call be made treating each bcllch as a separate field. Becausc of the
nature of the slope. we would find that cutting will be required ]\ear the higher terrace
and filling 1\0uld be liecessary over tlic other half towards Ilic lower terrace. As usual.
Land Levelling and Gruding allowances for compeilsation towards compaction, fonnation of bund, irrigation and
drainage cllannels have to be made.
It might appear that, in tlie present example, the master strips could as well have been
heuristically sketched even without going through this kind of rigorous calculations.
However, rvlien the coiitour lines pattern is quite jagged. such calculations would
become necessary.
In the execution of the work. staking of the bench layout would be carried out on the
field. Bench foriliation would be undertaken to cover a cascade of 3 to 4 terraces in a
series of excavation-cunl-fill operations. This will be done alteniatively. once
down-the-slope followed an up-the-slope pass. Tlie haulage distances would be limited
to the width of a bench and would onl!. very rarely span across the benches. The
longitudinal slope grading \vill have also to be camcd out smii~ltaneously,and finally
land-snioothing, using wooden floats or levclcrs should be carried out.

11.8 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES

Except in tlie case of very small areas, say less than a few hectares. it is preferable to
employ machineq~for land grading operations. After the design is completed, wooden
stakes will be driven into tlie groulld indicating the extent of cut-and-fill at the points.
The grade stakes are so driven into die ground that tlie top indicates the target level at
that point. A colour scheme, in which a red line as well as a blue line are marked on the
stake such that the red line would coincide with tlie existing ground level and tlie blue
line would indicate tlie target level, is usually adopted. At points where cutting is
necessary the red line will be on top and the blue line would be lower than the red line
by an ai~iouiltequal to tlie depth of cutting at that point. Thus a stake will be prepared
for every one of the grid or cont~olpoints. The machine operator would be guided by
the stakcs and would work towards fonniiig the ground to confomi to the blue lines at
the various grid points. Prior to initiating the haul operations. the operator would decide
on the cut zone and fill zone to be as close as possible aid localized. These can also be
planned earlier using computerized procedures. Tlie machine based earth work
operations are expected to fonii the land surface within plus or minus 30 mm. Details
of construction procedures are available in references such as by Michael (1978).
Unit 12 of the course presents tlie salient features of earth ~iiovingequipment suitable
for land grading operatiolis and also for Iald drainage-related constnlction activities.
In developed counties the advances are quite inipressive in this aspect. For instance,
laser- directed ~~iachiiles
have provisio~lsto record desired excavation quantities and are
guided automatically to achieve desired slopes (jgrades) and also to optimally plan the
haulage movements. Global Positio~iingSystems (GPS) are innovative strategies that
have enhanced the accuracy aid ease of execution of surveying operations. This
developmelit has been made use of in earth moving equipment.
The develoernents in co~nputerizedm:iiy$i; illld design of land grading requirements
are even more interesting. Digital Terrain Mcdels (DTM) car1 accept remotely sensed
data and thus reduc!: rhe drudger). of field surveying. Fie!d-survey is also benefiting a
lot from electronic tntolslirvey sfofions..A more recent dcvelopment is the
Geographical Infonnatlon Systeni (CIS) x:.hich can be used to carry out land operations
planning including land grading. Some c;i tlic computer packages contain sophisticated
processi~~g modules, such as. Triarlgulateci irregular Network (TIN) surface modelling
capabilities. These include :
i) interpolation of surface elevation values.
ii) geileration of contours:
iii) calcl~lationsof surface length, surface area, slope and aspect, spline,
iv) gelleratioli of Thiesseii polygons. volamet~icand cut-fill analysis,
v) extraction of i~nportantsurface features, and
vi) generatioil of profiles of a surface.
In a developing country like ours. the prevalence of conventional and t~aditio~lal
impleinents and procedures is a stark fact. It is so in the field of land grading also.
However, the existence of newer, more powerful hcilities should be judiciously
considered in executing pro-jects such as large-scale conlmand arca preparation.
In this context, it is interesting to take note of a recent report. Figurc 11.16 - a
Photo - shows an implement for levelling and grading that has been indigenously
evolved as an appropriate - technology, which nicely blends the traditional and the
modem elements.

Figure 11.16: hltlieenuus Trrraeer-rum-Leveller

I11 this Unit we first considered the necessity for land grading, and then dwelt on the
various considerations influencing the design of land grading. Step-by-step procedure
of land grading is presented. Analytical methods for deciding the best slopes that
nliniinise the cut-and-fill operations. and improsed methods of cut-fill cstinlation were
presented. A special h p e of land grading called contour benching was discussed in
some detail. Soine issues related to land formation as an earth work activity wcre also
.
considered. Certaiii recei~tdevelopments such as GIs, GPS, and their role in
inodemizing land grading operations were indicated

11.10 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
The weightage factor for the block (or cell) nlarked as D = 0.5, since the area within the
field boundar), is equal to half of the standard square of 20 m x 20 m.
SAQ 2
a) m = (2,3) : n = (1.4) : i\'c. = 2 and so 4 - !\Ir. = 2
 v~3.2
Ratio of cut Lo fill in this grid = - = 0.77
L'k3.2

SAQ 3
We will consider terrain width of 4 m. 6 ni, 8 m and 10 m respectively; and work out
1
the total width of the available bench and the corresponding elevation difference of tlie
terraces.
In the present case t~ = 0.5 m

Thenl:also 4, = (0.23 + 0.2) ,= 0.43m

The dope of natural ground = Sb= 0.04

Assigning diferent values to Sw . we compute a range of values of TW : and then

We nlay adopt a Bw of 6 or 8 m.