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Mindfulness facets and problematic Internet use: A six-month longitudinal

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DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.03.018

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Running Head: Mindfulness and Problematic Internet Use

Mindfulness facets and problematic Internet use: A six-month longitudinal

study

Calvete, E., Gamez-Guadix, M., & Cortazar, N.

Preprinted version of

Mindfulness facets and problematic

Internet use: A six-month longitudinal
study
Article in Addictive behaviors 72:57-63 · March 2017
DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.03.018
 2

The aim of this study was to study the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations

between mindfulness facets and problematic Internet use (PIU) in adolescents. The

sample consisted of 609 adolescents (313 girls, 296 boys; Mean age = 14.21 years, SD

= 1.71; age range 11-18). Participants completed a measure of five facets of

mindfulness (describing, observing, acting with awareness, non-judging and non-

reacting) at the beginning of the year, and measures of several components of PIU

(preference for online social interactions, the use of the Internet to regulate mood,

deficient self-regulation and negative outcomes) at beginning of the year and six months

later. Findings indicated that non-judging is the only dimension of mindfulness that

predicts a decrease in preference for online social interactions over face-to-face

relationships. Moreover, non-judging indirectly predicted reductions in the rest of the

PIU components. The observing and acting with awareness dimensions of mindfulness

directly predicted less deficient self-regulation of Internet use and indirectly predicted

less negative outcomes through their impact on deficient self-regulation. Thus, these

dimensions seem to act when the maladaptive use of the Internet is consolidated. These

findings suggest that interventions should include approaches to develop those

mindfulness facets that protect against the development of PIU.

Descriptors: Problematic Internet use; mindfulness facets; adolescents.

 3

Mindfulness facets and problematic Internet use: A six-month longitudinal

study

In recent years, the Internet has taken on key importance in the lives of

adolescents and adults. The Internet is a valuable tool for leisure, work, academic

activities and social relationships, among others. It has also several advantages as a

medium for building emotional skills in young people (Monshat, Vella-Brodrick, Burns,

& Herrman, 2012). However, the Internet can also become the setting for several

maladaptive behaviors, such as Internet addiction and problematic Internet use (PIU)

(Pontes, Kuss, & Griffiths, 2015; Spada, 2014). PIU includes behaviors associated with

the loss of control over Internet use, cognitive preoccupation and continued use, despite

negative consequences in terms of interpersonal relations, academic studies and work

(Caplan, 2010). Several studies have found that PIU leads to important problems in

health, family relationships, and well-being (Gámez-Guadix, Calvete, Orue, & Las

Hayas, 2015; Gámez-Guadix, Orue, Smith, & Calvete, 2013). Furthermore, the

magnitude of the problem is increasing. A recent review of several nationally

representative samples of adolescents indicated prevalence rates of between 1% and

18% (Pontes et al., 2015). In this context, it is important to identify protective factors

that reduce the risk of developing PIU. Dispositional mindfulness is one such factor that

has been proposed as beneficial and providing protection against the development of

several psychological problems. In the current study, we examine whether several facets

of dispositional mindfulness protect against the development of PIU in adolescents.

Dispositional mindfulness

During the past decades, mindfulness-based interventions have experienced

considerable development within the so-called 'third wave' of cognitive behavioral

therapies. It has been proposed that the benefits of mindfulness training for health and
 4

well-being are mediated by an improvement in dispositional mindfulness. Thus, the

construct of dispositional mindfulness itself and its role in the emergence of several

psychological problems has become the focus of an increasing number of studies.

The study of the role of dispositional mindfulness in psychological problems has

been limited by the lack of consensus regarding the concept of mindfulness. In 2004, a

group of experts proposed a conceptualization of mindfulness as a two-component

construct. The first component consists of the self-regulation of attention so that it is

maintained on the immediate experience. The second component consists of adopting

an orientation toward one's experiences in the present moment, characterized by

curiosity, openness, and acceptance (Bishop et al., 2004). Although this two-dimension

perspective of mindfulness has predominated in the field, theory and empirical research

have also proposed additional components of dispositional mindfulness. Notably, Baer,

Smith, Hopkins, Krietemeyer, and Toney (2006) examined the mindfulness structure by

means of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of items from several

mindfulness questionnaires. They found that mindfulness includes five facets:1)

observing, which consists of attending to or noticing internal or external experiences; 2)

describing, or the use of words to describe inner experiences; 3) acting with awareness,

or attending to the present moment; 4) non-judging of inner experience, or the non-

evaluation of thoughts and feelings; and 5) non-reactivity to inner experience, or the

ability to let feelings and thoughts come and go, without getting caught up in them.

Since they proposed this model, several studies have examined the role of the five

mindfulness facets in psychological problems. Although most of these studies have

focused on depression (e.g., Ciesla, Reilly, Dickson, Emanuel, & Updegralf, 2012;

Royuela-Colomer & Calvete, 2016), some studies have also examined the role of

dispositional mindfulness in psychological problems involving emotion regulation

 5

impairment and difficulties in controlling one’s own behavior. For instance, some

studies have found that mindfulness is linked to lower levels of substance use in both

adults (Fernández, Wood, Stain, & Rossi, 2010) and adolescents (Brown, West,

Loverich, & Biegel, 2011; Calvete, Orue, & Sampedro, 2017; Calvete, Sampedro, &

Orue, 2014).

Mindfulness facets and PIU

Caplan (2010) proposed a cognitive-behavioral model of PIU that includes four

main components: the first component consists of a preference for online social

interactions over face-to-face relationships. The preference for online social interactions

increases the use of the Internet to regulate mood (the second component), which

involves using the Internet to relieve negative states, such as sadness, stress or anxiety

and poor self-regulation (Caplan, 2010; Gámez-Guadix, Villa-George, & Calvete,

2012). In addition, both the preference for online interactions and the use of the Internet

for mood regulation increase deficient self-regulation (the third component), which, in

turn, increases the likelihood of developing negative outcomes (the fourth component).

Deficient self-regulation includes obsessive thoughts and the inability to control or

regulate behaviors related to the Internet, whereas negative outcomes include a number

of health, academic and or social impairments as the consequence of Internet use

(Caplan, 2010). A recent longitudinal study has provided support for this causal model,

which emphasizes the presence of difficulties in self-regulation and emotional distress

(Gámez-Guadix et al., 2015). Furthermore, research has found that PIU is associated

with attention deficits (Yen, Yen, Chen, Tang, & Ko, 2009), depressive mood (Bernardi

& Pallanti, 2009; Kim et al., 2006), social anxiety and difficulties in social relationships

(Ko, Yen, Yen, Chen, & Chen, 2012). In contrast, individuals who rate highly in

dispositional mindfulness are characterized by better attention to and self-regulation of

 6

emotions, more positive mood and adequate interpersonal skills (Dekeyser, Raes,

Leijssen, Leysen, & Dewulf, 2008; Oberman, Pineda, & Ramachandran, 2007). Thus,

dispositional mindfulness should be associated with a lower PIU.

Nevertheless, evidence of the association between dispositional mindfulness and

PIU is scarce. Kuss, Van Rooij, Shorter, Griffiths and van de Mheen (2013) found that

the personality factor of conscientiousness, which has been associated with dispositional

mindfulness (Latzman & Masuda, 2013), acted as a protective factor in high/frequency

online gamers. More recently, Gamez-Guadix and Calvete (2016) conducted a study to

examine whether dispositional mindfulness was associated with PIU in a large sample

of adolescents. Their findings indicated that mindfulness is negatively associated with

all components of PIU: preference for online social interactions, mood regulation

through the Internet, deficient self-regulation, and negative outcomes of PIU.

Furthermore, some of the associations between mindfulness and PIU components were

indirectly mediated by other PIU components. For instance, mood regulation and

deficits in self-regulation mediated the association between mindfulness and negative

outcomes. However, their study had two important limitations. It was a cross-sectional

study, which prevents examining predictive associations between mindfulness and PIU.

In addition, they only examined the role of the acting with awareness component of

mindfulness. However, as described above, dispositional mindfulness includes several

other components. Whereas facets such as acting with awareness and observation reflect

the self-regulation of attention dimension of mindfulness proposed by Bishop et al.

(2004), other facets such as non-judging and non-reactivity to inner experience would

reflect the acceptance dimension. Thus, additional research is necessary to assess the

role of the multiple dimensions of dispositional mindfulness in PIU.

Overview of the current study

 7

The aim of this study was to study the cross-sectional and longitudinal

associations between mindfulness facets and PIU components in adolescents. The

identification of those facets associated with a lower PIU should guide the development

of preventive interventions of PIU. As mentioned above, PIU has been associated with

self-regulation and attention deficits. Thus, in this study, we expected that the

mindfulness facets of acting with awareness, observation and description of experiences

would be negatively associated with the PIU components of the use of the Internet to

regulate mood and deficient self-regulation. In addition, as PIU is associated with

emotional distress and depression, the mindfulness facets related to acceptance (i.e.,

non-judging and non-reactivity to inner experience) would be negatively associated

with the use of the Internet to regulate mood and the negative outcomes of PIU. Finally,

as the cognitive-behavioral model of PIU includes indirect relations between their

components, we also hypothesized that the predictive association between mindfulness

facets and certain PIU components, such as negative outcomes, would be mediated by

other PIU components such as deficient self-regulation.

Method

Participants

The initial study sample was made up by 749 adolescents between 11 and 18

years of age. From the initial sample, 609 participants completed the measures during

the two waves of the study (permanence rate= 81.30 %). A series of t-tests were

conducted to examine the differences in all study variables at T1 among the adolescents

who completed both waves and those who failed to complete the study. None of these

differences was significant.Thus, the final sample comprised 609 adolescents (313 girls,

296 boys). The mean age was 14.21 years (SD = 1.71; age range: 11-18). The

participants were students selected from 6 randomly chosen schools in Bizkaia and
 8

Araba (Spain). The students voluntarily participated by completing the study

measurements on two different occasions, 6 months apart.

Measures

Problematic Internet use. We used the Generalized and Problematic Internet

Use Scale 2 (GPIUS2; Caplan, 2010; Gámez-Guadix, Orue, & Calvete, 2013), which

consists of 15 items grouped into four distinct subscales: a) preference for online social

interactions (3 items; e.g., “Online social interaction is more comfortable for me than

face-to-face interaction”); b) mood regulation (3 items; e.g., “I have used the Internet to

make myself feel better when I’ve felt upset”); c) deficient self-regulation (6 items; e.g.,

“I find it difficult to control my Internet use”); and d) negative outcomes (3 items; e.g.,

“I have missed social engagements or activities because of my Internet use”).

Participants responded on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 6

(strongly disagree). This scale has good psychometric properties, including construct

and convergent validity, and adequate reliability (Caplan, 2010; Gámez-Guadix et al.,

2013). In the present study, the reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) of the subscales ranged

from α = .75 for negative outcomes to α = .86 for deficient self-regulation.

The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer et al. 2006). The

FFMQ is a 39-item self-report questionnaire that measures five distinct facets of trait

mindfulness: Observing (e.g., “ I notice the smells and aromas of things”), describing (e.g.,

“I am good at finding words to describe my feelings”), non-judging of inner experience

(e.g., reverse-scoring item: “I disapprove of myself when I have irrational ideas”), acting

with awareness (e.g., reverse-scoring item: “I am easily distracted”), and non-reactivity to

inner experience (e.g., “I pay attention to my feelings without getting lost in them”). The

items are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never or rarely true) to 5
 9

(very often or always true). In this study, we used the Spanish version of the FFMQ that

was adapted for use with adolescents (Royuela-Colomer & Calvete, 2016). Cronbach’s α

coefficients were: observing= .70, acting with awareness= .78, describing = .71, non-

reactivity = .58, and non-judging = .80.

Procedure

The schools were selected randomly and included both public and private schools. The

study’s procedures and objectives were explained to school administrators. After obtaining

their permission, we informed the adolescents that we were conducting a study among

young people to explore their mindfulness capacity and their usage of new technologies. All

participants were told that their participation was voluntary and that their responses would

remain anonymous. All of the recruited students consented to participate in the study.

Parents were also notified and given the option to refuse to allow their child’s participation.

Adolescents were encouraged to ask questions if they had any trouble answering the items.

The adolescents completed the study questionnaires in their classrooms. The questionnaires

took 40-60 minutes to complete. The Ethics Committee of the (masked university) approved

this study.

Results

Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics (mean and SD) and the Pearson

correlations for the study variables. The majority of cross-sectional associations (at time

1) between the facets of mindfulness and PIU components were significant and in the

expected direction. Specifically, the strongest associations were found between the

facets of mindfulness of non-judging and acting with awareness with all the components

of PIU, the correlations of which were significant in all cases (all, p < .001). The total
 10

score for mindfulness correlated -.29 with T1 problematic Internet use and -.28 with T2

problematic Internet use (both, p < .001).

Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the longitudinal relationships

between five facets of mindfulness and PIU components. Goodness of fit was assessed

using the non-normed fit index (NNFI), the comparative fit index (CFI), the root mean

square error of approximation (RMSEA) and the standardized root mean square residual

(SRMR). NNFI and CFI values of .90 or higher indicate a good fit. RMSEA and SRMR

values lower than .08 indicate an adequate fit (Byrne, 2013). Due to a violation of the

normality assumption that was observed in the data (normalized Mardia's coefficient =

32.48), the robust maximum likelihood (ML) estimation method was employed, which

includes the Satorra–Bentler-scaled χ2 index (S–B χ2) and other corrected statistics.The

structural equation models were tested via maximum likelihood using EQS 6.1.

First, an initial model was estimated that included all the relationships between

the facets of mindfulness measured at T1 and the PIU components at T1. The model

also included the autoregressive path from each PIU component in T1 to the same

component at T2. This approach allowed for the examination of the extent to which T1

predictors accounted for a change in a T2 variable over time. PIU components at T2

were included, according to the relationships specified in the cognitive-behavioral

model of PIU (e.g., preference for Internet use is expected to increase the probability of

deficient Internet self-regulation which, in turn, increases negative outcomes).

Cross-sectionally acting with awareness was negatively and significantly

associated with a preference for online relationships (.16, p<.001), mood regulation (-

.24, p<.001), deficient self-regulation on the Internet (-.30, p<.001) and negative

outcomes (-.19, p<.001). Non-judging was also significantly associated with lower
 11

scores on the preference for online relationships (.19, p<.05), mood regulation (-.19,

p<.001), deficient self-regulation on the Internet (-.22, p<.001) and negative outcomes

(-.24, p<.001). In addition, describing was significantly associated with lower scores on

the preference for online relationships (-.09, p<.01). The other associations between

mindfulness facets and PIU components were not statistically significant.

With regard to longitudinal paths, the initially estimated model showed that

some paths were not statistically significant. For example, the paths from a T1 nonreact

to T2 PIU components were not statistically significant. These paths were removed

from the model, which was re-estimated based only on the significant paths (see Fig.

1). The fit indexes for the estimated final model were satisfactory: χ2 (42, N = 609) =

134.43, NNFI = .92, CFI = .95, RMSEA = .060 (90% CI: .049, .072) and SRMR = .048.

Fig. 1 shows the estimated final model. Following the approach used by Cole

and Maxwell (Cole & Maxwell, 2003), unstandarized coefficients and standard errors

are presented. The estimated model showed several direct relationships between T1

mindfulness facets and T2 PIU components. Thus, higher T1 non-judging was

associated with a significantly decreased T2 preference for online social interactions

and with less T2 negative outcomes. In adition, we found that higher acting with

awareness and observing scores at T1 reduced the probability of more deficient self-

regulation on the Internet at T2. Finally, higher T1 describing scores were associated

with a reduced probability of T2 negative consequences. The autoregressive paths for

the preference for online social interaction, the use of the Internet for mood regulation,

deficient self-regulation, negative consequences and problematic alcohol use between

T1 and T2 were all closely correlated and significant.

 12

The model shown in Figure 1 also suggests the presence of several indirect

relationships between mindfulness facets and the PIU components. Thus, we also

analyzed the significance of these indirect effects. The data supported the following

indirect relationships between mindfulness facets and PIU components: an indirect

association between non-judging and mood regulation (z = -2.67; p < .01), non-judging

and negative outcomes (z = -2.59, p < .01), observing and and deficient self-regulation

(z = -2.62, p < .01), observing and negative outcomes (z = -2.25, p < .05), and finally,

and indirect relationship between acting with awareness and negative outcomes (z = -

2.86, p < .01).

Discussion

PIU among adolescents represents an emerging problem in current societies.

Whereas previous studies have focused on risk and vulnerability factors, this study

examined the protective role of several dimensions of dispositional mindfulness in

problematic Internet use by adolescents.

Cross-sectional findings at the baseline revealed that acting with awareness and

non-judging were the dimensions of mindfulness that were most closely associated with

all PIU components. Longitudinal analyses provided information on which mindfulness

dimensions predict the decrease of PIU over time. According to these analyses, non-

judging is the only dimension of mindfulness that predicts a decrease in the preference

for online social interactions over face-to-face relationships. Non-judging represents the

acceptance facet of dispositional mindfulness (Brown & Ryan, 2003), and has been

found to be associated with fewer depressive symptoms and rumination (e.g., Royuela-

Colomer & Calvete, 2016). It is possible that adolescents who score low in non-judging

present difficulties accepting social relationships with peers as they are. They could try
 13

to find alternative forms of social relationships through the Internet that are less

stressful. Moreover, non-judging indirectly predicted the rest of the PIU components.

Thus, through the preference for online social relationships, non-judging predicted less

use of the Internet to regulate mood, difficulties in self-regulation of Internet use and

negative outcomes of Internet use. These results are congruent with previous studies

showing that low non-judging is the mindfulness component most closely related to

lower scores for depression and neuroticism (Christopher & Gilbert, 2010; Giluk,

2009), which in turn, have been consistently related to PIU (e.g., Spada, 2014; Van der

Aa et al., 2014). These findings suggest that the lack of acceptance of current feelings

and thoughts, which are characteristic of adolescents who score low in non-judging,

initiate a process of chained elements, culminating in the loss of control over Internet

use and significant negative emotional consequences.

In contrast, the observing and acting with awareness dimensions of mindfulness

seem to act once the maladaptive use of the Internet has been consolidated. These

dimensions predicted less deficient self-regulation of Internet use, which involves

compulsion and loss of control. Moreover, observing and acting with awareness

indirectly predicted fewer negative outcomes through their impact on deficient self-

regulation. Interestingly, observing played an adaptive role in relation to PIU. This

finding contrasts with the results of previous studies, which have found that observing

can be maladaptive in samples of people who do not meditate (Baer et al., 2006, 2008;

Royuela-Colomer & Calvete, 2016). These previous studies have focused on other

psychological problems, such as depression, and none of them examined the role of

observing in PIU. Observing could therefore play a role in the prevention of the loss of

control that is involved in problematic Internet use.

 14

In any case, the above findings are consistent with our hypothesis, as these two

dimensions of mindfulness - observing and acting with awareness - involve the

component of mindfulness as it is related to the self-regulation of attention. According

to Brown and Ryan (2003), mindfulness consists of enhanced attention to and

awareness of current experience or the present reality. They considered that this aspect

of mindfulness is foundational to mindfulness. The findings are also consistent with the

significant associations between acting with awareness and all PIU components that

were obtained in the study by Gamez-Guadix and Calvete (2016). However, as

mentioned, their study was cross-sectional and did not include other mindfulness

dimensions.

Overall, in the current study, the role of other mindfulness dimensions was less

relevant. Describing predicted less negative outcomes, and non-reacting to inner

experiences did not predict changes in PIU over time. Cross-sectional associations with

PIU were also low for these dimensions.

The effect sizes of the longitudinal paths between the mindfulness dimensions

and PIU components were small. However, these paths should be considered in the

context of the rigorous statistical analyses performed. Associations were controlled

between all the variables at T1 and included auto-regressive paths between T1 and T2

variables. Therefore, the longitudinal paths represent statistically significant changes

over time. The time elapsed between measures was six months, and it is not very likely

that substantial changes in the problematic Internet use would take place over such a

very short period.

This study has some limitations that should be considered when interpreting the

results. One limitation is that the non-reacting dimension of mindfulness displayed low
 15

consistency in the study sample. It is possible that the lack of significant results for this

dimension is due to the lower internal consistence of this subscale. A second limitation

is the exclusive use of self-reports to assess the variables of the study, which can

overestimate the association between variables. Although self-reports are probably the

best approach to assess dispositional mindfulness, other approaches, such as behavioral

measures and other-reports, would improve the validity of the results.

Despite the above limitations, the results of this study have important

implications for interventions. Dispositional mindfulness is modifiable through

mindfulness-based interventions. Therefore, a promising method to prevent and reduce

PIU is through such interventions. The most commonly used mindfulness-based

intervention programs with adolescents are the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction

program (Kabat-Zinn, 2003) and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (Segal,

Williams & Teasdale, 2002). The Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction program aims to

develop mindfulness skills through the practice of body scanning, sitting meditation,

breathing meditation, and mindful movement. The Mindfulness-Based Cognitive

Therapy program combines meditation training with cognitive therapy strategies. Both

programs are focused on the development of acceptance and emotion-regulation in

individuals. Future research should test the effects of mindfulness training in

adolescents who present PIU. Importantly, the studies should examine which

mindfulness dimensions mediate the effects of the intervention in each of the different

PIU components. The study of the mechanisms through which the intervention acts is

key to identifying the components of the interventions that should be emphasized and to

provide additional information for theoretical and research applications (Kazdin, 2007).
 16

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Table 1. Means, standard deviations and correlations among trait mindfulness and PIU components.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

1. T1
Observing
2. T1 .18**
Describing
3. T1 Acting -.04 .22**
aware
4. T1 Non- -.14** .19** .35**
judging
5. T1 .39** .30** -.02 -.09*
Nonreacting
6. T1 POSI -.09* -.17** -.17** -.19** -.08

7. T1 MR -.02 -.03 -.25** -.19** -.03 .52**

8. T1 DSR .02 -.09* -.32** -.24** -.02 .53** .58**

9. T1 NO -.09* -.11** -.21** -.24** -.06 .54** .52** .68**

10. T2 POSI -.08* -.16** -.14** -.18** -.08 .42** .33** .33** .29**

11. T2 MR -.02 -.05 -.18** -.18** .02 .22** .47** .36** .22** .58**
 22

12. T2 DSR -.09* -.08 -.30** -.21** -.05 .30** .39** .62** .40** .49** .56**

13. T2 NO -.10* -.14** -.23** -.23** -.03 .27** .30** .42** .37** .49** .47** .67**

14. T1 .50** .66** .58** .52** .50** -.26** -.18** -.26** -.26** -.23** -.16** -.27** -.27**
Mindfulness

15. T1 Total -.06 -.11** -.31** -.26** -.03 .75** .79** .91** .80** .40** .40** .56** .43** -.29**
PIU
16. T2 Total -.09* -.11** -.27** -.24** -.05 .33** .44** .53** .36** .73** .80** .89** .78** -.28** .53**
PIU
Mean 3.14 3.21 3.31 3.48 2.91 1.86 2.36 2.17 1.76 1.64 2.34 2.07 1.60 3.25 2.07 1.95

Standard .71 .63 .70 .73 .58 1.02 1.28 1.09 .94 .99 1.39 1.13 .87 .45 .90 .93
Deviation

Note. POSI= Preference for online social interactions, MR= Mood regulation , DSR= Deficient self-regulation, NO =Negative outcomes,
PIU=Problematic Internet use. * p<.05; ** p<.001.
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Figure 1. Estimated final model between T1 mindfulness facets and T2 PIU components.

T1 Observing T2 Preference for online

social interactions

.18 (.04)***
-.15 (.05)**
T1 Describing
-.10 (.04)*

-.09 (.04)*

-.14 (.05)** T2 Deficient

T1 Acting aware self-regulation
.23 (.03)***

.65 (.05)*** .49 (.04)***

T1 Non-judging
-.09 (.04)*
T2 Negative Outcomes

T2 Using the Internet

T1 Non-reacting
for mood regulation

Note. *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001.The values given are non-standardized coefficients (standard errors are in parentheses). The estimated

model includes the autoregressive paths from each PIU component in T1 to the same component at T2: T1 and T2 preference for online social
 24
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interactions [.39 (.05)**], T1 and T2 using the Internet for mood regulation [.34 (.04)], T1 and T2 deficient self-regulation [.46 (.04)], and T1 and

T2 negative outcomes [.09 (.04)*].