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Tense Animals On Other Species of Pastoral Power
Tense Animals On Other Species of Pastoral Power
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CR: The New Centennial Review
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Tense Animals
On Other Species of Pastoral Power
Nicole Shukin
Sheep Followers
CR: The New Centennial Review, Vol. 1 1, No. 2, 2012, pp. 143-168, ISSN 1532-687x.
© Michigan State University Board of Trustees. All rights reserved.
• 143
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144# Tense Animals
within the history of the telephone. The invention of one of the first appa-
ratuses of "electric speech" was intimately mixed up, as it happens, in sheep
breeding. As Avital Ronell relays in The Telephone Book: Technology, ; Schizo-
phrenia , Electric Speech , in 1889, Alexander Graham Bell bought a piece of
land complete with the flock of sheep grazing on it, and undertook a series
of amateur breeding experiments over the next thirty years (1989, 337). The
possibility of multiplying the number of nipples on a ewe obsessed Bell, who
fiddled with breeding litters of sheep graced with not merely two but four, six,
even eight nipples. Through his "pregenetic tampering," Ronell writes, "the
multi-nippled, twin-bearing sheep did ultimately appear" (339). Although
Franklin never references Bells experiments among the earlier technologies
of animal breeding that she argues conditioned the cloning of Dolly, they are
a startling confirmation of her contention that the biotechnological exploits
and anxieties fulminated by Dolly s appearance have an often unexpected
kinship with the past.
What do these two anecdotes featuring Dolly and Bell- and the intimacy
of metaphorical speech and biological sheep that both raise- possibly have
to do with the question David Clark raises in this issue of "animals ... in
theory"? For starters, they serve to introduce sheep as the thread that I will
follow through a body of theory devoted to studying technologies of bio-
power and, more specifically, through the genealogy of pastoral power traced
by Foucault. There can be a perverse enjoyment in taking Foucault s analysis
of pastoral power literally by invoking biological sheep; after all, pastoral
power is "politics seen as a matter of the sheep-fold" (2007, 130). My larger
aim, however, is to catalyze discussion of the ways biopolitical thought is
prone to generating concepts- pastoral power, "bare life," and so on- that
displace animals from the material stakes of the discussion even as they
metaphorically summon them. Matthew Calarco has argued this point in
relation to Giorgio Agambens theorization of the "anthropological machine"
of Western culture and of bare life (2007). Similarly, remarking on Foucaulťs
analysis of pastoral power, Anand Pandian notes that his "genealogical ac-
count excises practical relations with animals from its narrative economy,
reducing pasturage to nothing more than a political metaphor for most
of Western history" (2008, 90). Sheep are metaphorically omnipresent yet
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of Species
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Nicole Shukin • 149
what differentiates this species of power from others (a word that he himself
never uses) (2007, 156). Before tracing this excision in detail, let me provide a
thumbnail sketch of the genealogy Foucault initiates with his claim that . .
with the Christian pastorate we see the birth of an absolutely new form of
power" (183). Although pastoral themes can be traced back to pre-Christian
Eastern and Hebrew thought, it is only in the early Christian Church that the
figure of a shepherd-flock relationship becomes all-organizing:
[0] ver millennia Western man has learned to see himself as a sheep in a flock
. . . Over millennia he has learned to ask for his salvation from a shepherd
[pasteur ] who sacrifices for him. lhe strangest form of power, the form of
power that is most typical of the West, and that will also have the greatest
and most durable fortune, was not born in the steppe or in the towns. . . .
[It] was born, or at least took its model from the fold, from politics seen as a
How does politics seen as a matter of the sheep-fold differ from sovereign
or disciplinary power? "Pastoral power," above all, "is a power of care" (127).
Writes Foucault: "All the dimensions of terror and of force or fearful violence
. . . disappear in the case of the shepherd" (128). Selfless service and even
willingness to sacrifice ones life for the flock is exemplified by Jesus as the
"first pastor" (152). Indeed, "entirely defined by its beneficence . . . the es-
sential objective of pastoral power is the salvation of the flock" (126).
Another feature of pastoral power is its double valence as a totalizing and
"an individualizing power" (Foucault 2007, 128).
The shepherd counts the sheep; he counts them in the morning when he
leads them to pasture, and he counts them in the evening to see that they
are all there, and he looks after each of them individually. He does everything
for the totality of his flock, but he does everything also for each sheep of the
flock
. . . But, on the other hand, since he must save each of the sheep, will he not
find himself in a situation in which he has to neglect the whole of the flock
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150# Tense Animals
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Nicole Shukin • 151
liant moments in the entire course" (Foucault 2007, xix). The specificity of
government will, indeed, be unlocked by the double sense of "conduct":
. . . the word "conduct" refers to two things. Conduct is the activity of conduct-
ing ( conduire ), of conduction (la conduction) if you like, but it is equally the
way in which one conducts oneself (se conduit ), lets oneself be conducted {se
laisse conduire ), is conducted {est conduit ), and finally, in which one behaves
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152 • Tense Animals
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Nicole Shukin • 153
and "grazing"- are applied to both humans and animals in the region; these
idioms inspire him to trace alternative genealogies of pastoral power beyond
the time-space of European modernity privileged by Foucault. Pandian no-
tices, for instance, that a young herdsman describing the thievish behavior of
one of the water buffalos in his care deploys a term formerly used by colonial
administrators on disobedient members of the Kallar caste in the region,
criminalized as "thieves" by the 1871 Criminal Tribes Act. The herdsman's
remark prompts Pandian to examine this "image of criminal oxen" for how
it "depicted animal misconduct in moral terms as a problem of government,
one that identified bovine indiscipline with the mode of conduct at issue in
the regions most distinctive colonial history: thievery" (2008, 102).
The idiom of "grazing" similarly marks an intersection between the
government of animals and humans, referring to techniques used to cul-
tivate right conduct in unruly natures "deemed incapable of controlling
themselves," human and nonhuman alike (Pandian 2008, 88). Like "thiev-
ish," "grazing" possesses a genealogy that Pandian follows back to an era
of colonial policing, and even earlier, to representations in Tamil culture of
the effective rule of humans and other animals. In the postcolonial present,
"grazing" remains a common prescription for curing disobedience whether
it crops up in defiant schoolchildren or in oxen; as with the image of the
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154 • Tense Animals
thieving bull, Pandian emphasizes that the idiom of grazing "is far more than
an analogy, or turn of phrase, or purely symbolic likeness between man and
beast. It conveys instead the common defiance of a form of power to which
humans and animals alike have been submitted" (104).
Pandian shows that beyond physical docility, the moral conduct and
character of animals is at stake. The idiom of grazing reveals that governmen-
tality works to inculcate a "need even among animals for a faculty capable of
controlling desire" (2008, 103). Those qualities ostensibly exclusive to human
"souls"- control of desire, virtue, self-conduct- come into view as effects of
techniques of pastoral care and coercion that can be cultivated in other spe-
cies as well. "One could punish these oxen for behaving in particular ways,
but they would ultimately do only what they were accustomed to doing,"
writes Pandian. "Most effective in conducting' their conduct was the careful
cultivation of particular inclinations and dispositions" (103).
Perhaps most surprising is Pandians suggestion that, along with being
subject to conduct, other animals are granted a part in the immanent
resistance to pastoral power that Foucault terms "counter-conduct." The
vernacular expression of this resistance is described by Pandian as a "quality
of defiance that may be shared by men and bulls alike," underscoring his sug-
gestion that neither techniques of conduct nor practices of counter-conduct
can be confined to the human (2008, 104).
This final section departs from the anthropological attractions of "sheep fol-
lowing" and turns to a literary biopolitics to open the study of pastoral power
to questions of language and land as well as species. A literary biopolitics
is able to tense the study of pastoral power through fictional exercises not
available to anthropological or theoretical discourse, with "tense" connoting
two things. The first is the tension and complexity created for all species
when postcolonial acts of violence and postcolonial forms of pastoral power
are shown to overlap and compete over land, language and life. The second is
verb conjugation as the means through which relationships to time, history,
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Nicole Shukin • 155
and power- past, present, or future actions and states- are reproduced or
resisted in language.
Coetzee is notorious for his postmodernist deployment of metafictional
devices that draw attention to how the truth of history is constituted in lan-
guage by those with the most power to make authoritative claims to repre-
sentation. In Disgrace , the metafictional appearances of the perfective tense
arguably best exemplify Coetzee's literary biopolitics, by which I mean his
literary engagement with the technology of pastoral power analyzed by Fou-
cault. Yet I want neither to suggest some intention on Coetzee s part to write
a novel that dramatizes Foucauldian concepts, nor to subsume Coetzee's
literary imagination into Foucault's historical-political analysis by suggest-
ing that Disgrace illustrates his theory. Following Pandian, my contention is
rather that the novel helps to pluralize our understanding of biopolitics by
moving it away from a single origin in Foucault.
That said, raising the names of Foucault and Coetzee in the same breath
instantly sparks an encounter between two senses of pastoral: the (bio)politi-
cal and the literary. On the occasions when Coetzee has explicitly engaged
with pastoral, it hasrí t been with the Foucauldian analysis of power but with
a tradition of "white writing" in South Africa, a literary imagination of the
land and its settlement. Coetzee implicates white writing in a longer colo-
nial "Discourse of the Cape" that pivots on ethnographic observations of the
idleness of the Hottentots (a colonial misnomer for the Khoi people) as a
problem of conduct (1998). Indeed, Disgrace can be read as an exploration of
the intimate interface between a literary imagination of land and a history of
pastoral power, an interface that ultimately suggests postcolonial struggles
for land reform are enmeshed in technologies of moral conduct.
If a key economic means of European settler-colonialism in South Africa
was sheep farming (a gift of Spanish Merino sheep to the colony in 1789 led
to the rise of a powerful wool industry), one of its key cultural means was
the pastoral imagination of land advanced by the Afrikaner plaasroman , or
farm novel. Representing farm life as a pastoral idyll was complicated by the
problem of labor, however, given that one of the ways "expansive imperial-
ism justified itself" was by a logic of the land's improvement or perfectibility
which held that "those deserve to inherit the earth who make best use of it"
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156# Tense Animals
(Coetzee 1998, 3). The Khoi and San people were dispossessed of their terri-
tory by this reason, and white writings literary conventions protected it in
the realm of representation by erasing the generations of African labor that
materially supported white farm life: "If the work of hands on a particular
patch of earth, digging, ploughing, planting, building, is what inscribes it as
the property of its occupiers by right, then the hands of black serfs doing the
work had better not be seen," writes Coetzee (5).
"The Discourse of the Cape" fixated not only on the indolence of the na-
tives, but also on the conduct of the Dutch settlers whose descendents would
develop the tradition of white writing studied by Coetzee. These settlers were
viewed as dangerously prone to "regressing" into a state of native idleness
and betraying the image of human perfectibility and progress that Europeans
were expected to embody: "The spokesmen of colonialism are dismayed by
the squalor and sloth of Boer life because it affords sinister evidence of how
European stock can regress after a few generations in Africar writes Coetzee.
"In being content to scratch no more than a bare living from the soil, the Boer
seems further to betray the colonizing mission, since in order to justify its
conquests colonialism has to demonstrate that the colonist is a better stew-
ard of the earth than the native" (1998, 30-31). Coetzee references Foucault's
study in Madness and Civilization (1964) of seventeenth-century reform
movements in Europe that strove to stamp out "vagrancy and begging as
a way of life," and suggests that a work ethic first inculcated in Europeans
would be the model of conduct subsequently exported to South Africa: "In
the first hundred years or so of settlement, the idleness of the Hottentots is
denounced in much the same spirit as the idleness of beggars and wastrels
is denounced in Europe" (20, 21).
The literary and political senses of "pastoral" thus converge in the ten-
sion over work and idleness in South Africa, in the relationship between
white ownership of the land and the moral conduct that qualified one for
ownership. This would seem to go against Foucaulťs statement that "[t]he
shepherd s power is not exercised over a territory but, by definition, over a
flock ... a multiplicity in movement" (2007, 125). That is, it would seem to
confuse the telos of pastoral power, perfectibility, and the salvation of souls,
with the telos of sovereign power, control of land, and territory. Yet what the
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Nicole Shukin • 157
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Nicole Shukin • 159
he first urges her to stay the night by declaring that "a woman's beauty does
not belong to her alone. It is part of the bounty she brings into the world.
She has a duty to share it" (Coetzee 1999, 16). Significantly, these words are
echoed in the second half of the novel by a romantic who, despite himself,
is changed by an attack on Lucy s farm. This time, however, Lurie is rumi-
nating on the fate of two Persian sheep who are tied up and waiting to be
slaughtered for a party hosted by Lucy's black neighbor, Petrus. "Sheep do
not own themselves," Lurie thinks, "do not own their lives. They exist to be
used, every last ounce of them, their flesh to be eaten, their bones to be
crushed and fed to poultry" (123). The imperious ownership of the bodies
of women and animals by men and humans, respectively, is bound up with
ownership of the land by colonial settlers who improve it. Coetzee thus
interimplicates various exercises of biopower, such as the imperial desire
that treats land and women as bodies made for (sexual) conquest and the
discourse of species that allows for the sacrifice of animals. But by hav-
ing this concern for animal sacrifice voiced by an intransigent figure who
continues to resist an ubuntu philosophy of social togetherness, Coetzee
also hints that in Lurie's emergent sympathy for animals there lurks the new
grounds of a self-righteous ethnocentrism.
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160# Tense Animals
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Nicole Shukin • 161
every time it got excited by a bitch in the vicinity. Soon enough "the poor dog
had begun to hate its own nature," Lurie tells Lucy. "It no longer needed to
be beaten. It was ready to punish itself" (89).
In this complex passage, Lurie's canine analogy for sexual discipline and
punishment hints, firstly, that biopower operates on nonhuman animals
as well as human. But more dangerously, the anecdote supplies Lurie with
an animal alibi that he uses to rationalize (and naturalize) his own sexual
impulses. Adding to the complexity, Lurie evokes an image of disciplinary
power at the moment in the novel when, finding refuge on a rural small-
holding that is half dog kennel, half garden, the disciplining of animal na-
ture exists in increasing tension with its pastoral care across species lines.
Lurie's identification with the Kenilworth dog will soon be replaced by his
identification with an abandoned welfare mutt, and along with the disciplin-
ing of the body, it will be the conduct of the soul that connects the two. In
and through shifts in his animal identifications, Coetzee shows David being
reconstituted, albeit imperfectly, as a subject of pastoral power.
If the question of whether other animals are subject to pastoral power was
posed to Coetzee s novel, the text might also answer with the scene in which
Lurie agrees to make himself useful while staying with Lucy by volunteering
at the Animal Welfare Clinic. At the clinic he meets Bev Shaw, one of the 4 ani-
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162# Tense Animals
one that Coetzee shows intersecting tensely with the imperial desires repre-
sented by European Romanticism.
The discourse of species encoded in the pastoral metaphor of the sheep-
fold is dramatized in a conversation between Lurie and Lucy. "'The Church
Fathers had a long debate about them, and decided they don t have proper
souls,' he observes. 'Their souls are tied to their bodies and die with them.'
Lucy shrugs. Tm not sure that I have a soul. I wouldn't know a soul if I
saw one" (Coetzee 1999, 78-79). Lurie's implied agreement with the early
Church's theological verdict on animals is followed by his visceral reaction
to those who would expand the pastoral fold to include animals: "to me
animal-welfare people are a bit like Christians of a certain kind. Everyone
is so cheerful and well-intentioned that after a while you itch to go off and
do some raping and pillaging" (73). His words foreshadow, with tragic irony,
the raping that his daughter will in fact shortly suffer. Her sexual assault
by three black men, during which he is knocked unconscious, doused with
fuel and lit on fire, will shock Lurie out of his intractable Romanticism. But
the dogs deposited at Bev Shaw s clinic. The legacy of Romanticism is one of
the "monsters" in the novel that Coetzee suggests has to be lived with and
through to be immanently transformed (34).
Lucy s refusal to report her rape by three black men to the police and her
decision to keep the child violently seeded in her is scandalous from a West-
ern liberal humanist (and feminist) perspective. Yet it exemplifies the radical
promise of pastoral counter-conduct that Coetzee keeps imaginatively alive.
Its worth recalling that Foucault identified the police as pivotal agents of
the pastoral power excercised by the modern state. But it's also important
to mark the specificity of policing in South Africa under apartheid, since
the shepherds of the state also operated as secret police who perpetrated
many of the worst atrocities upon blacks struggling for freedom. The police
in South Africa represent an amalgam of the sovereign force that Foucault
aligns with the power to put to death, and the pastoral care that he aligns
with the work of keeping peace and good order.
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Nicole Shukin • 163
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164# Tense Animals
Mont Blanc, "to take over entirely, is the perfective of usurp upon ; usurping
completes the act of usurping upon" (Coetzee 1999, 21). Later he expounds,
"The perfective, signifying an action carried through to its conclusion'
(71). The perfective evokes the usurpation of Africa by Europeans, and the
admixture of sovereign force and loving reason that rationalizes European
rights to the land, black labor, and the bodies of women and animals. Lurie's
desire for Melanie s "perfect" body is a condensed expression of the discourse
of human perfectibility underpinning empire (19). But the pivotal question
Coetzee arguably raises with the perfective tense is this: how to change the
imperial cultures and subjectivities that have been violently implanted in
South Africa, how to reroute their driving logics and introduce the "new"
into history on a biopolitical level?
In relation to two of the European cultures implanted in Africa, pastoral
and Romantic, consider Luries Romantic ideology, drawn from Blake, that
the disgraced father tells his daughter he has lived by: "Sooner murder an
infant in its cradle than nurse unacted desires" (Coetzee 1999, 69). What
might Lurie s Romantic ideology look like in the perfective, followed through
to its ultimate conclusion? Coetzee supplies one answer with the allusions to
incest that litter his novel: even daughters, by this logic, would be sexual fair
game for their fathers. Lurie himself, stroking Lucy s foot while he reflects
on the fathers love he has felt for her, strangely queries "Has it been too
much, that love? . . . Has it pressed down on her? Has she given it a darker
reading?" (76). And if one reads Coetzee s allusions to incest allegorically, one
is given an image of the imperialist past screwing the future of South Africa,
preventing the emergence of the new.
To conjugate or tense romantic love differently, to write the conditions of
possibility of a future that doesn't simply reproduce the sins of the imperial
fathers, is arguably to torque it in the direction of the pastoral love exemplified
by Lucy in her surrender of white ownership of the land and of human perfect-
ibility. Romantic passion and pastoral compassion share the etymological root
of "pathos," after all, a capacity for feeling that, depending on how it is or isn't
realized, underpins sexual conquest, suffering, the possibility of sympathy,
the pathological or apathetic. (Jacqueline Rose examines an extraordinary
application brought before the South African TRC by a South Asian woman
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Nicole Shukin • 165
confessing to apathy, one of the many "sins of omission" that was not rec-
ognized within the framework of the commission [2003].) Indeed as Lurie
composes an opera on Byrons life, his defense of romantic desire begins to
be overtaken by pastoral compassion as he hears the plaintive voices of those
lives marginalized or abandoned by a poet who was himself accused of incest:
his aging lover Teresa, his abandoned daughter. And in the coup de grâce
of the novels critique of Romanticism as European high culture, the opera
is opened to the "lament" of a dog and the lowly "plink-plonk" of a country
banjo (Coetzee 1999, 215, 184). Not only does Coetzee s novel in this way thema-
tize the potential hospitality of Romanticism, it unexpectedly protects what
David Clark describes in a different context as a "hospitality to romanticism"
by paradoxically privileging feeling over reason in the events that challenge
Luries Romantic ideology (2007, 163). The novel even hints that the culture of
Europe personified by Lurie is culpable not by virtue of being overly Romantic,
but for not being Romantic enough. By now Lurie s work at the Animal Welfare
Clinic has taken on an irrational, heartfelt tone: he shepherds the dead bodies
of dogs put down by Bev Shaw to the local incinerator, and "saves the honour
of corpses because there is no one else stupid enough to do it" (Coetzee 1999,
146). Lest readers get lulled into thinking that the imperial legacies personified
by Lurie can be redeemed in such short order, however, Coetzee shows him
continuing to indulge the old "rights of desire" when, on a return to the city, he
picks up a prostitute who is "younger even than Melanie" (194). His compas-
sion for dogs is never perfectly paralleled by a historical overcoming of the
white patriarchs incestuous desire to reproduce the same.
As for Lucy, she diverts the perfective force of rape away from the "conclu-
sions" that would seem to inevitably follow from it (interracial hatred, aban-
donment of farm life, abortion) and into a literal practice of pastoral care by
deciding to tend the seed violently planted in her. When Lucy tells Lurie she
is pregnant, he exclaims "I thought you took care of it" (Coetzee 1999, 197).
Lucy s retort: "I have taken care" (198). Again, their different inflections of
the word "care" gives glimpse into the species of pastoral counter-conduct
characterized by Lucy, one which turns the tense legacies of colonialism and
apartheid into the future imperfect conditions of possibility of living together
on the land.
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166 • Tense Animals
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