Heutagogy and Lifelong Learning A Question of Self-Determined Practices in Post Secondary Education - 1-95

Heutagogy and Lifelong Learning
A Question of Self-Determined Practices in Post-Secondary Education
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Doctor of Philosophy Committee
of the
Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
in the Department of Education
Nicholas B. Daniel
B.A. University of Memphis, 2003
MDiv, Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary, 2007
May 7, 2021
Report of Dissertation Examination
for the Doctor of Philosophy Program
Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary
Candidate: Nicholas B. Daniel
Major Field: Education
Date Approved: April 23,2021
Dissertation Title: Heutagogy and Lifelong Learning

A Question of Self-Determined Practices in Post-Secondary Education
octoral Programs
Chairman of the Department
This dissertation meets the academic standards of Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary but
does not necessarily represent the views of the administration and faculty.
Abstract
This dissertation attempts to understand how students in post-secondary
education apply and participate in the self-determined learning model called
heutagogy and how it might impact their rate of success. The study aimed at
defining students’ perceptions of heutagogy as a framework for higher education
and to examine whether those perceptions significantly predict the success rate of
college graduates. The main research question that guided the study was: How can
heutagogy enable learner-generated content and context for enhanced learning in a
post-secondary education setting? The results of this study reveal several concepts
which underly student perceptions of self-determined learning and its use in the
college classroom.
The first chapter provides the reader with an introduction to the principles
of heutagogy and explains its significance in education, its relevance in society, and
the limitations of research. Chapter two presents the structure and strategy of the
literature review, where sources and professionals in the field of adult education
were consulted to identify current theories, practices, and characteristics. Following
is an explanation of the qualitative research and grounded theory methods that
shaped the research. The fourth chapter contains an extensive summary of the
results and how data analysis led to the discovery of emergent theories and
solutions. The final chapter summarizes the analyzed data and gives
recommendations for future research. The themes synthesized from the data helped
to answer the foundational research questions and suggest a possible intervention
to the problem of practice which is presented in the introduction.

ii
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction................................................................................................. 1
Statement of the Problem...................................................................................... 7
Purpose of the Study............................................................................................ 12
Research Questions.............................................................................................. 16
Significance of the Study...................................................................................... 16
Conceptual Framework........................................................................................ 18
Research Design and Rationale........................................................................... 22
Limitations............................................................................................................ 27
Definition of Terms.............................................................................................. 29
Chapter 2 Literature Review..................................................................................... 32
Purpose of Literature Review.............................................................................. 32
Strategy of Literature Review............................................................................. 34
Theoretical Framework.......................................................................................35
Inferences for Forthcoming Research................................................................ 38
A Brief History of Heutagogy.............................................................................. 40
Humanism.................................................................................................42
Constructivism......................................................................................... 45
Human Agency.......................................................................................... 46
iii
Capability.................................................................................................. 48
Complexity Theory.................................................................................. 50
Andragogy.................................................................................................52
Traditional Educational Practices...................................................................... 54
Teacher-Centered Approaches............................................................... 56
Learner-Centered Approaches................................................................57
Modern Educational Practices............................................................................ 63
The Internet and Personal Computers................................................... 64
Mobile Connectivity and Education....................................................... 66
Post-Internet Educational Practices................................................................... 68
Lifelong Learner Skills............................................................................. 71
Self-Determined Learning....................................................................... 74
Role of the Teacher...................................................................................75
Double-Loop Learning............................................................................. 77
Implications for Research................................................................................... 79
Chapter 3 Methodological Design............................................................................82
Introduction..........................................................................................................82
Contemporary Educational Research.....................................................83
Grounded Theory Research.................................................................... 85
Research Procedures............................................................................................86
Setting and Sample Selection.................................................................. 87

iv
Demography.......................................................................................................... 89
Phase 1: Analysis and Exploration..........................................................93
Phase 2: Coding the Data......................................................................... 94
Phase 3: Evaluation and Reflection...................................................... 96
Research Questions.............................................................................................. 98
Instrumentation ................................................................................................. 101
Initial Interview..................................................................................... 103
Mid-Term Evaluation............................................................................. 104
Final Discussion..................................................................................... 104
Data Analysis...................................................................................................... 105
Open Codes............................................................................................. 107
Axial Codes.............................................................................................. 108
Selective Coding..................................................................................... 109
Dependability..................................................................................................... 110
Ethical Procedures............................................................................................. 112
Chapter 4 Results and Findings............................................................................. 114
Presentation of Data.......................................................................................... 115
Initial Interview.................................................................................................. 119
The Value of Heutagogical Practices.................................................... 120
Previous Experience.............................................................................. 123
Mobile Devices in the Classroom.......................................................... 125

V
Role of the Professor.............................................................................. 128
Mid-Term Evaluation.........................................................................................131
Final Discussion.................................................................................................. 136
Chapter 5 Conclusion................................................................................................ 141
Interpretations................................................................................................... 142
Student Autonomy................................................................................. 143
Mobile Media Devices............................................................................ 144
Possible Interventions....................................................................................... 146
Learner Communities............................................................................ 147
Use of Social Media Devices.................................................................. 148
Professor as Learning Leader............................................................... 151
Recommendations for Future Research.......................................................... 152
Closing Remarks................................................................................................. 154
Appendices.................................................................................................................... 156
Appendix A: Introductory Items..................................................................... 156
Informed Consent................................................................................... 156
Explanation of Research & Information for Possible Participants.... 158
Introduction to the Theory Self-Determined Learning...................... 159
Appendix B: Instrumentation......................................................................... 160
Participant Questionnaire..................................................................... 160
Interview Protocol................................................................................. 161

vi
Mid-Term Evaluation............................................................................. 164
Appendix C: International Review Board Forms.......................................... 166
University of Memphis Cayuse IRB...................................................... 166
Bibliography................................................................................................................. 167
Books................................................................................................................... 167
Journals............................................................................................................... 170
Electronic Sources.............................................................................................. 179

1
Chapter 1
Introduction
Learning is one of the only topics in the field of psychology with which most
people are familiar. After all, it is one of the most basic and natural of human
experiences. Children learn to walk, to talk, how to get along (or not to get along)
with others. They learn language, algebra, biology, and a multitude of other subjects
and life skills in school and in everyday life. Even as adults, learning is a part of
maturing and developing as parents, spouses, employees, and almost every part of
life involves some type of learning. An understanding of learning, however, has
confounded teachers and psychologists for centuries, complicated even more by the
fact that there are so many ways for learning to occur. Nonetheless, psychologists
generally define learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior and thinking
based on experience.
What changes when learning occurs is behavior. Behavior is generally
defined as anything a person or animal does that can be measured.1 Learning,
though, cannot always be observed directly, so psychologists infer that learning has
occurred by noticing particular changes in behavior. A change in behavior is not, by
itself, learning—it reflects only the possibility that learning has occurred.
Consequently, psychologists and behavior analysts have to be careful to not assume
that changes in behavior necessarily reflect learning.
1Paul Chance, Learning and Behavior (Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2009),

389.
2
It is also possible for learning to occur without noticeable variations in
behavior. In some cases, learning is not apparent, at least not right away, from
changes in observable behavior. For example, when a teacher poses a question to
the class, although some students may know the answer, they do not offer it because
they simply do not feel like raising a hand, or they get nervous in front of a
classroom full of students. Learning and behavior are closely, but not perfectly,
related. Indeed, it is unusual for psychologists to speak of one without also speaking
of the other; however, psychologists typically study the relation between learning
and behavior by manipulating the environment in which behavior occurs.
For more than a century, education has suffered from the behaviorist’s
approach, which has engaged learning as, simply, a change in behavior. Rejecting
this view, educators today are tasked with helping learners survive in the ever
changing lifelong path of maturity. Alongside this revolutionary change in human
learning, the entire twenty-first century education system has been affected. There
are no longer traditional barriers to become an effective learner.2 Education is now
an adventure which places no limits on the power of the human mind to construct
knowledge.
To construct knowledge and to be capable lifelong learners, it is increasingly
apparent that students need to be the agents in their own learning; hence, they need
more than what traditional pedagogy and andragogy offer. Neither, it seems, is
2Lisa Marie Blaschke, Stewart Hase, and Chris Kenyon, Experiences in Self
Determined Learning (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform: 2014), 108.
3
qualified to develop completely self-determined learners.3 Heutagogy, on the other
hand, is the holistic educational model of self-determined learning, originally
defined by Hase and Kenyon in 2000. In Self-Determined Learning, they defined
heutagogy (based on the Greek for "self) as the study of self-determined learning.
While pedagogy and andragogy alone are not able to meet the needs of the
learners of the twenty-first century, this is especially true in higher education.
According to Stewart Hase, heutagogy has principles rooted in andragogy and has
often been defined as an extension of it.4 In addition, Blaschke claims that it applies
a universal approach to developing learner capabilities, with learning as an active
and proactive process where learners serve as "the major agent in their own
learning, which occurs as a result of personal experiences."5 As in an andragogical
approach, in heutagogy the instructor facilitates the learning process by providing
guidance and resources, but fully relinquishes ownership of that process to the
learner, who negotiates and determines what and how things will be learned.
A key concept in heutagogy is that of double loop learning and self-reflection.
In double loop learning, learners consider the problem and the resulting action and
3 Stewart Hase, ed., Self-Determined Learning: Heutagogy in Action (London;

New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013).
4Lisa Marie Blaschke and Stewart Hase, "Heutagogy: A Holistic Framework

for Creating Twenty-First-Century Self-Determined Learners," in The Future of
Ubiquitous Learning, eds. Begona Gros, Kinshuk, and Marcelo Maina, Lecture Notes in
Educational Technology (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2016), 25
40, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-47724-3_2.
5Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon, "Heutagogy: A Child of Complexity Theory,"

Complicity: An International Journal of Complexity and Education 4, no. 1 (July 1,
2007), 112. https://doi.org/10.29173/cmplct8766.
4
outcomes, in addition to reflecting upon the problem-solving process and how it
influences beliefs and actions. Double-loop learning occurs when learners "question
and test one's personal values and assumptions as being central to enhancing
learning how to learn."6 In this respect, the heutagogical approach can be viewed as
a progression from pedagogy to andragogy to heutagogy with learners likewise
progressing in maturity and autonomy. More mature learners require less
instructor control and course structure and can often be self-directed in learning
while less mature learners require a great amount of instructor guidance and course
scaffolding.7 Cognitive development of learners, a requirement for critical reflection
and discourse, can then be integrated with cognitive development progressing in
parallel with learner maturity and autonomy.
If seen as a perpetuation of andragogy, heutagogy further extends the
educational process all the way to the individual learner. In andragogy, curriculum,
questions, discussions, and assessments are designed by the instructor according to
the learner's needs. In heutagogy, however, the learner sets the learning course by
designing and developing the map of learning, from curriculum to assessment.8
Heutagogy, as a principle, emphasizes development of capabilities in addition to
6Chris Argyris and Donald A. Schon, Organizational Learning, Addison-

Wesley OD Series (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1978), 45-46.
7Natalie Canning and Sue Callan, "Heutagogy: Spirals of Reflection to

Empower Learners in Higher Education," Reflective Practice 11, no. 1 (February
2010): 71-82, https://doi.org/10.1080/14623940903500069 .
8Stewart Hase, "Heutagogy and E-Learning in the Workplace: Some

Challenges and Opportunities," Impact: Journal ofApplied Research in Workplace E
Learning 1, no. 1 (n.d.): 43-52.
5
competencies (andragogy). The practice of heutagogy can be seen as an approach
founded in andragogy and as an expansion of the existing concept.
The response of institutions of higher education to heutagogy, so far, has
been one of reluctance, which could be due to the impracticality of implementing a
full-blown educational framework of self-determined learning. While
acknowledging the need for pedagogy and andragogy, McAuliffe argues that "the
removal of the educator makes the concept of heutagogy impractical in a
credentialing institution."9 The question is, is it reasonable or even possible to
implement heutagogy’s trademark of learner-guided assessment in an institution of
higher learning.
The University of Western Sydney in New South Wales, Australia, has
implemented a heutagogical approach in its teacher education program by
redesigning programs to integrate learner-directedness through blended learning.
The system has been integrated into course design, development, and delivery,
however not in the area of summative assessment.10 Through this approach, the
university has identified the following benefits: improved teacher outcomes, more
capable teachers (learners), who are better-prepared for the complexities of the
learning environment, increased learner confidence in perceptions, engaged
9Marisha McAuliffe, "Does Pedagogy Still Rule?" Australasian Journal of

Engineering Education 15, no. 1 (January 2009): 13-18,
https://doi.org/10.1080/22054952.2009.11464018 .
10Jean Ashton and Linda Newman, "An Unfinished Symphony: 21st Century
Teacher Education Using Knowledge Creating Heutagogies," British Journal of
Educational Technology 37, no. 6 (November 2006): 825-840,
https://doi.Org/10.llll/j.1467-8535.2006.00662.x.
6
learners in communities of practice, learner scaffolding of peers’ learning processes,
improved ability of the learner to investigate ideas, and further development of the
learner’s ability to question interpretations of reality from their position of
competence.11
Likewise, Canning and Callan report on three higher education institutions in
the UK that have used a heutagogical approach. Findings from their research show
that the approach supports learner control of learning, collaborative reflection,
learner's self-perception and professional development, and critical thinking and
reflection.12 Reflective practice was found to help learners gain more control over
learning, as well as comprehend and apply what they have learned in practical
situations. Reflecting on the learning experiences and relating these experiences to
professional practice helped keep learners motivated to learn, to connect with other
learners, and to continue with the reflective process. Learners demonstrated both
competency and capability through self-awareness, articulation of "feelings,
experiences, and ideas," engagement in group discussion, self-directed investigation
in developing independent ideas, and self-confidence.13
Many educators in nursing, engineering, and education professions have
found heutagogy to be a credible response to the critical issues that learners are
faced with in the workplace and have designed their learning environments based
11Ashton and Newman, "An Unfinished Symphony," 826.
12Canning and Callan, "Heutagogy," 78.
13Canning and Callan, "Heutagogy," 80.

7
on the approach. For example, Bhoyrub reports that heutagogy provides a learning
framework that addresses needs of students who must learn in an ever-changing
environment that is both complex and unpredictable.14 A heutagogical approach to
learning helps students become lifelong learners and to make sense of the necessary
uncertainties that accompany modern education.
Statement of the Problem
The invention of electricity sparked a chain of transformative events that did,
and continue to, redefine what it means to be human. Over the course of a half
century, two especially significant social effects became clear as a result. Individuals
gained control over light in homes and offices, independent of the time of day, and
the electric light brought networks of wires into homes and offices, making it
relatively easy to add appliances and other machines.15 In much the same way, the
evolution of the World Wide Web, and the rapid advancements in mobile technology
over the last two decades, have created a social transformation that is drastically
changing the way people communicate and interact with each other.
According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), cell phone
subscription achieved 97% penetration in 2015, up sevenfold when compared to
14John Bhoyrub et al., "Heutagogy: An Alternative Practice Based Learning

Approach," Nurse Education in Practice 10, no. 6 (November 2010): 326,
https://doi.Org/10.1016/j.nepr.2010.05.001 .
15J. S. Brown, (2006) "Growing up digital: How the web changes work,
education and the ways people learn," Change 32 no.2 (March/April), 11-20.
8
the year 2000 (Figure 1.1). In 2015, mobile broadband penetration stood at 47%, a
twelvefold increase since 2007, when mobile broadband was only beginning. In
2019 that rate had reached 75.2% of the world's population.16 This phenomenal rate
of acceptance and integration of mobile devices in daily life could be credited to the
social affordances that mobile devices embody.
Figure 1.1 Mobile-Cellular and Internet Subscriptions
2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2018
Fixed (wired) broadband subscriptions Mobile-cellular subscriptions
Percentages of households with internet Percentage of population using the internet
Source: International Telecommunication Union, Statistics.

https://www.itu.int/net4/ITU-D/icteye/#/topics/1105
16Doreen Bogdan-Martin, "Measuring digital development: Facts and figures

2019," itu.int, https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-
D/Statistics/Documents/facts/FactsFigures2 019.pdf
9
Three observations can be gathered from the chart provided above. At the
end of 2019, 53.6% of the global population, or 4.1 billion people, were using the
internet. The proportion of households with internet access increased from 18% in
2005 to 55% in 2018. Additionally, mobile broadband is the most dynamic market
segment; global penetration reached 83% in 2019, which is an increase of 20 times
since 2007.
The pervasiveness of mobile phones, cellular broadband, and an ever
growing list of mobile applications and options provides a mechanism that enables
connection, communication, collaboration, and abilities like nothing else in history.
Individuals can now easily create contextually rich data and share it with anyone
around the world, regardless of time or geography.17 These affordances have
allowed humanity to create data at a rate and amount never before witnessed.
Baiyun Chen and Thomas Bryer see this evidenced on social media platforms such
as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and many others.18
University learning and teaching practices, however, remain predominantly
embedded in didactic pedagogies that perpetuate teacher-centric learning methods.
Educators stuck in this paradigm fail to capitalize on the affordances of mobile and
social media technologies. According to Laurillard, the concepts professed by
17Thomas Cochrane and Roger Bateman, "Smartphones Give You Wings:

Pedagogical Affordances of Mobile Web 2.0 "Australasian Journal of Educational
Technology 26, no. 1 (March 7, 2010), https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.1098.
18Baiyun Chen and Thomas Bryer, "Investigating Instructional Strategies for

Using Social Media in Formal and Informal Learning," The International Review of
Research in Open and Distributed Learning 13, no. 1 (January 31,2012): 87-104.
10
Dewey, Vygotsky, Lave and Wenger, and Freire have long emphasized a learner-
driven, social constructivist approach to learning and teaching.19 This method
largely remains unrealized in modern educational systems that still value the
transmission model for teaching—where the learner is expected to sit, observe, and
acquire the knowledge to be learned from the expert at the front of the classroom.
Paul Adams explains, "The rapid rate of change in society, and the so-called
information explosion, suggest that we should now be looking at an educational
approach where it is the learner... who determines what and how learning should
take place."20
Since its beginnings in Australia in 2000, heutagogy has been presented as an
extension of andragogy but has received limited attention from higher education
and from researchers. Challenges of adopting a heutagogical approach are many,
such as academic resistance to change and a "fear of relinquishing power" (from
instructor to student), increased financial and learning pressure on students due to
new technology requirements, and a continued student focus on assessment and
grades rather than the learning process.21 While higher education is more accepting
of pedagogical and andragogical approaches within the institutional framework, it
19Helen Beetham, ed., Rethinking Pedagogyfor a Digital Age: Designing for

21st Century Learning, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2013), 69.
20Paul Adams, "Self-Determined Learning: Heutagogy in Action," British

Journal of Educational Studies 62, no. 4 (October 2, 2014): 476-478.
21Ashton and Newman, "An Unfinished Symphony: 21st century teacher

education using knowledge creating heutagogies," British Journal of Educational
Technology 37, no. 6 (November 2006): 825.
11
views heutagogy with more wariness since heutagogy places full control of learning
into the hands of the student; the process moves from curriculum development and
instructional format to assessment.
A lack of teacher preparedness and acceptance would require a shift in
learner attitude and a greater emphasis on scaffolding within the course design
process and on the development of learner autonomy skills. According to George
Veletsianos, Research Chair of Innovative Learning and Technology and Associate
Professor at Royal Roads University, creating competent and capable learners is
"critical to life in the rapidly changing economy and cultures that characterize
postmodern times."22 By incorporating heutagogical practice, educators have the
opportunity to better prepare students for the workplace and for becoming lifelong
learners, as well as to foster student motivation by cultivating students who "are
fully engaged in the topic they are studying because they are making choices that
are most relevant or interesting to them."23
Distance education has a particular affinity to the heutagogical approach due
to its inherent characteristics of requiring and promoting learner autonomy, its
traditional focus on adult learners, and its evolutionary and symbiotic relationship
with technology, all characteristics shared with this emerging theory. Because of
this affinity, distance education is in a unique position to provide a sustainable
22George Veletsianos, ed., Emergence and Innovation in Digital Learning:

Foundations and Applications (Edmonton, AB: Athabasca University Press, 2016), 33.
23Chris Kenyon and Stewart Hase, "Andragogy and heutagogy in

postgraduate work," In T. Kerry, ed., Meeting the Challenges of Change in
Postgraduate Higher Education, (London: New York, Continuum, 2010), 170.
12
environment for studying and researching this teaching and learning method and
for assessing and evaluating the theory's appropriateness as a theory of higher
education.
The residential learning environments for undergraduate students, however,
have long been described as complex and unpredictable. As a result, they
predominantly have maintained a traditional teacher-centered approach. Ensuring
high quality, practice-based learning, though, requires an intricate and responsive
educational intervention.24 Since all educational approaches initially require an
overarching theoretical framework to support, guide, and inform action, this
research explores the construct of heutagogy as a potentially highly congruent
framework for post-secondary undergraduate learning.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this research is to explore how post-secondary students
apply and participate in the self-determined learning model called heutagogy and its
impact on the rate of success. The research was designed to explore, at the
individual level, the engagement of self-determined learning as originally developed
by Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon. The ability to practice in rapidly changing
educational environments is substantiated in the recognition that the college of the
future will need teachers with sophisticated skills and increased knowledge. Any
24Deirdre C. Lynch, "Assessing Practice-Based Learning and Improvement,"

Teaching and Learning in Medicine 16, no. 1 (January 2004): 85,
https://doi.org/10.1207/sl5328015tlml601_17.
13
assessment of future staffing requirements for institutions must begin with
consideration of the probable pattern of imminent demands for education.
The challenge for educators and administrators, in considering heutagogy as
a potential learning theory will be to relinquish attempts to control and manage
learning experiences and instead to empower self-directed adult learners to
accumulate learning experiences within dynamic and unpredictable educational
environments.25 The indications are that the demand will continue to grow in the
United States through the first decades of this millennium and well beyond owing to
a number of demographic expectations.
For over a decade, there have been renewed calls for learning and teaching to
reconsider the types of skills and knowledge needed by students as learners who
face an uncertain future in this fast-changing technological world. Laurillard states,
"Digital technologies trigger a different kind of relationship between the teacher, the
learners, and what is being learned."26 Cochrane argues that digital technologies
provide an opportunity to revisit teaching practices by exploring new teaching
paradigms and labelling mobile and social media tools as "catalyst" for change.27 A
25Lisa Marie Blaschke, "Heutagogy and Lifelong Learning: A Review of

Heutagogical Practice and Self-Determined Learning," The International Review of
Research in Open and Distributed Learning 13, no. 1 (January 31,2012): 67,
https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.vl3il.1076.
26Blaschke, "Heutagogy," xvi.
27Thomas Cochrane, "Social Implications of Mobile Learning in Global

Learning Environments," in Pedagogical Applications and Social Effects of Mobile
Technology Integration, ed. Jared Keengwe (Hershey, PA: Information Science
Reference, 2013).
14
growing body of literature exists to investigate the role of technology and new
approaches for learning and teaching. The hope is to transition learning from a
spectator event to one that actively engages students through the use of mobile and
social media technologies. In fact, Helen Crompton and Diane Burke claim that
mobile learning is "growing at an exponential rate."28 Pachler, likewise, states that
"the mobility of digital technologies creates intriguing opportunities for new forms
of learning because they change the nature of the physical relations between
teachers, learners, and the objects of learning."29
One such pedagogical approach that has received a renewed lease of life
because of mobility and social media affordances is heutagogy, which refers to self
determined learning or learner-generated context. In their seminal paper,
"Experiences in Self-Determined Learning," Blaschke, Hase, and Kenyon argue that
learning and teaching has always been seen as a process where the teacher is the
orchestrator of all learning.30 Learning, then, is not just a cognitive process but also
a social phenomenon. The process not only takes place in one location but across
communities, locations, time, social contexts, and sites of practice.
28Helen Crompton and Diane Burke, "Review of Trends in Mobile Learning

Studies in Mathematics: A Meta-Analysis," in Mobile as a Mainstream - Towards
Future Challenges in Mobile Learning vol. 479, eds. Marco Kalz, Yasemin Bayyurt, and
Marcus Specht, (Cham: Springer International, 2014), 304.
29Norbert Pachler and Caroline Daly, "Narrative and Learning with Web 2.0
Technologies: Towards a Research Agenda: Narrative and Learning with Web 2.0,"
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 25, no. 1 (January 16, 2009): 6-18,
30Lisa Marie Blaschke, Stewart Hase, and Chris Kenyon, Experiences in Self
Determined Learning, 88.
15
This research study is undertaken to explore current and emerging theory
and practice. It is hoped that the findings will help to identify possible solutions or
models for use by other higher education practitioners in supporting learner
generated content and context-based learning and teaching. To determine how best
to create more inclusion of heutagogical practices in post-secondary education
courses, the paradigm of pragmatism was chosen specifically with the long-term
goal of facilitating change through an emergent theory. The research objectives
were to study how self-determined learning practices best serve a highly successful
educational environment and to make recommendations based on the findings with
the long-term aim of transferability to other educational programs.
Keeping up with educational research and discovering better methods of
instruction are paramount to the educational environment. Within pedagogy,
educators are expected to learn professionally and to develop throughout one's
career. They are, however, seldomly encouraged to explore the workings of the
mind and preferences of the learner. As a result, insight often depends on shared
knowledge from colleagues and personal experience. This knowledge sharing has
resulted in various neuromyths or ideas about how the brain works that are simply
not true. If educators are taught to consider the basic motivations and preferences
of the learner, it could translate to better practices in regard to curriculum and
educational praxis.
16
Research Questions
The overarching research question that guided this study was: How can
heutagogy enable learner-generated content and context for enhanced learning in a
post-secondary education setting? In addition, the secondary questions that helped
answer the main research question were: How did the use of mobile and social
media devices in the classroom enhance the learner experience in a post-secondary
education course? What is the role of the professor in facilitating a heutagogic
learning experience in post-secondary education?
Significance of the Study
Historically, learning in higher education had mostly been perceived as
acquisition of knowledge through traditional transmission/lecture models. This,
arguably, still remains the dominant practice in classrooms today.31 The
epistemologies underpinning such practices perpetuate learning that is devoid of
meaning and context and focuses almost entirely on knowing, leaving students with
the difficult task of situating the knowledge within the domain of professional
practice.
The findings from this study indicate that there are significant benefits to
using heutagogic and self-determined learning tools in post-secondary educational
environments; however, to exploit these learning gains, educators must step outside
31Tony A.W. Bates, Teaching in a Digital Age: Guidelines for Designing

Teaching and Learning for a Digital Age (Victoria: BCcampus, 2015), 104.
17
the shadows of didactic teaching practices and embrace new understandings of
educational processes and opportunities that new tools and technologies offer. The
effective and informed use of such affordances have the potential to offer an
enhanced learning experience that challenges the practices and beliefs of
established teaching paradigms. John Traxler, Professor of Digital Learning at The
University of Wolverhampton, UK, stresses the importance of mobile heutagogic
practices in modern education:
The capacity of mobile technologies to generate, share, store, access and

consume ideas, opinions, information and images, specific to people,
locations, communities and their contexts means that they are a
quintessential technology, challenging stability and authority of the
established educational forms.32
This study suggests that the emerging theories of heutagogy have the
potential to provide course designers with a robust framework for designing and
implementing a contextually situated learning experience. A blueprint emerges for
an approach where learners are able to direct and determine their own learning,
according to learning needs, through participation and personalization. The
suggestions for modern education provide practitioners and designers with trigger
points, ideas, and guidelines to help conceptualize and design a learner driven and
self-determined learning process where a learning environment where critical
affordances of learner-owned devices and purposefully selected heutagogic tools
are seamlessly embedded as part of the educational process.
32John Traxler, "Inclusion in an Age of Mobility," Research in Learning

Technology 24, no. 1 (January 2016): 31372,12.
https://doi.org/10.3402/rlt.v24.31372.
18
The current research also proposes implementation and facilitation
strategies that help build learner knowledge and competencies for effective use of
the chosen tools for learning. In particular, the findings highlighted that, for the
learner to effectively use heutagogy in the classroom, a reconceptualization of their
technological beliefs, knowledge, and understanding of their role in the learning
process was needed. This was deemed an important phase in enabling learning in a
technology-rich, self-determined environment. As a result, the emergent theories
provide strategies and guidelines that help learner visualize and act upon their part
in the educational process.
Conceptual Framework
Heutagogy, the conceptual framework of this research, is an adult learning theory
that can greatly inform teacher professional development. Heutagogy is built upon
tenets of humanism, constructivism, and the concept of human agency.33 In practice,
heutagogy focuses on what the learner wants to learn rather than what the teacher
thinks should be taught.34 The learner is acknowledged as the center of the learning
33Stewart Hase, "Self-Determined Learning (Heutagogy): Where Have We

Come Since 2000?,” Southern Institute of Technology Journal ofApplied Research
Special Edition, no. 1 (May 1, 2016): 21.
34Stewart Hase, ed., Self-Determined Learning: Heutagogy in Action (London;

19
process and teacher involvement is associated with the quality of the experience.35
As a result of the increased quality of self-directed learning, the value of the
experience intensifies, which shows promising results for the future of educational
practice.
Table 1.1 Core Tenets of Heutagogy
Core Tenets Connection

The role of the learner in the learning process is a
fundamental principle. As a result, the learner is:
Learner-Centered/
central to all activities in heutagogical practice
Learner-Determined
autonomous, self-motivated and has control of what is to
be learned and how it will be assessed
The learner has the ability to apply competencies in
different contexts. Learner capability is characterized by:
self-efficacy
Capability ability to communicate
creativity
ability to collaborate
and has positive value
Viewed holistically, where the learner is able to:
Self-reflection &
reflect on what has been learned
Metacognition
understand how it was learned—metacognitive skills
The learner is psychologically and behaviorally engaged
in the learning process. As a result, the learner reflects on
Double Loop Learning how it was learned and how it impacted on core beliefs
and values.
Learning is self-determined by the learner. As a result, the
learner has control over his/her own learning path and
Non-Linear Learning
process eventuating in
nonlinear learning.
Source: Lisa Marie Blaschke and Stewart Hase, Heutagogy: A Holistic Frameworkfor
Creating Twenty-First-Century Self-determined Learners, (Berlin: Springer, 2016), 28.
In a synthesis of the foundational theories and principles of heutagogy,
Blaschke and Hase outline a set of core tenets to describe the process. These
350rit Avidov-Ungar, "School-Based Professional Development as an

Organizational Learning Mechanism: The Significance of Teachers’ Involvement,"
International Journal of Educational Reform 25, no. 1 (January 2016): 16-37,
https://doi.org/10.1177/105678791602500102.
20
elements, they wrote, (provided in Table 2.5) are the basic traits of heutagogy and
the factors that help differentiate it from andragogy. The principles help situate
heutagogic practice as a learning and teaching approach that is "critical to life in the
rapidly changing economy and cultures that characterize postmodern times."36
Educators who understand heutagogic concepts can impact student learning
through the use of newly learned techniques and sound practices such as inquiry or
exploration-based methods. According to Hase and Kenyon, exploration is more
effective for learning than more passive approaches.37 The use of exploration, an
essential aspect of heutagogy, may prove more effective for adult learners as well.
As the theoretical framework of this research, the use of heutagogy allowed for the
selection and examination of self-directed classrooms as a context for post
secondary educational environments.
The scope of teacher professional development and heutagogy in the
classroom is expansive. Firsthand experience as an educator of post-secondary
learning, on the part of the researcher, served as motivation to find alternative
methods and solutions. After reviewing the literature on professional education and
the discovery of heutagogy as an adult learning theory, new insight propelled this
research to examine whether heutagogy encompasses effective components of
higher education praxis. The broad range of possible professional learning topics
36Paul Anderson, Web 2.0 and beyond: Principles and Technologies, Chapman
& Hall/CRC Textbooks in Computing (Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2012).
37Hase and Kenyon, "The nature of learning," in Self-determined Learning:

Heutagogy in Action, eds. Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon (London, England:
Bloomsbury, 2015): 19-38.
21
required this research to limit the scope to post-secondary education at the local
university level.
The Difference Between Pedagogy, Andragogy, and Heutagogy
Learner maturity Learner maturity

and autonomy and autonomy
required (-) required (H
Instructor control and instructor control and

course structuring course structuring
required (d required (-)
Source: Lauren Davis, "Heutagogy Explained: Self-Determined Learning in

Education," Schoolology Exchange (April 2018).
https://www.schoology.com/blog/heutagogy-explained-self-determined-learning-
education
Heutagogy is a new field working to inform the field of education and
learner-centered classrooms. Interest in the role of self-direction in education led to
this field of study while reviewing literature. As a current adjunct professor in an
institution of higher learning, heutagogy is of particular interest to the writer.
Learning about the learner and motivating factors allows a teacher to achieve a
deeper understanding of the education process. Heutagogic concepts provide
impetus to challenge deeply rooted assumptions about learning and teaching based
on little more than what has occurred frequently in the traditional classroom. For
22
these reasons, the search for effective, self-directed professional learning came to
fruition.
Research Design and Rationale
This research study will be designed and implemented using a grounded
theory approach to interpret qualitative data. The goal of the grounded theory,
according to Glaser and Strauss, is “to generate a theory that explains how an aspect
of the social world works."38 In this, grounded theory research attempts to develop a
theory that emerges from and is, therefore, connected to the very reality that the
theory is developed to explain.
The following sections provide an overview of the activities undertaken
within the various stages of grounded theory. Phase 1 of research included
consultations with three instructors, teaching courses at a post-secondary college or
institution, to identify the educational problem. Following this, a thorough literature
review was conducted to identify the characteristics of a possible intervention, a
research method was selected to evaluate the design, and research questions were
developed to guide the study. The identification of the educational problem, in
collaboration with the practitioners, was presented earlier in this chapter. The
literature review conducted as part of the first phase is presented in Chapter 2 and
the research methodology is presented in Chapter 3.
38 Ylona Chun Tie, Melanie Birks, and Karen Francis, "Grounded Theory
Research: A Design Framework for Novice Researchers," Sage Open Medicine 7
(January 2019), 27, https://doi.org/10.1177/2050312118822927.
23
After confirmation of candidature, the researcher took the proposal to
practitioners for discussion and refinement. It was at this stage, Phase 2, where the
researcher introduced the study to participants and prepared an intervention for
implementation in two different contexts. Phase 2 included the collection of data
through interviews, forums, and researcher-designed surveys. The researcher
documented both Phase 1 and Phase 2, which formed a significant component of the
final prospectus document.
Phase 3 of this study consisted of collecting and analyzing qualitative data in
hopes of constructing a new theory that would be grounded in the data. In this, the
final phase, the data collected in Phase 2 (Chapter 3) were documented and
interpreted to propose a new set of core theories. These theories can be referred to
and followed by other similar practices within their specific educational context.39
Evaluation and reflections were useful at this phase, not only for the enhancement
of the sample and the educational intervention, but also for understanding the
learning environments in which the interventions were developed
The literature reveals that educators want to use heutagogy to inform
teaching practice in the classroom. The motivation to learn about relevant concepts
exists, but there is a disconnect between the motivation to use those concepts in
39Mariolina Pais Marden, Janice A. Herrington, and Anthony J. Herrington,

"Developing an Online Community of Learners for Second Language Students Using
Design-Based Research," Wollongong: University of Wollongong, Arts and
Humanities Commons, (January 1, 2009), 1862-67.
24
education and how teachers should learn about self-directed learning.40 The best
way to inform educators about relevant heutagogic concepts is still in question.
The persistent problems associated with traditional professional learning
paradigms suggest a need for alternative frameworks in education to advance the
new transdisciplinary field of heutagogy. Limited research exists on the subject
though, and there is a clear gap in the literature regarding the heutagogical
approach to learning. Despite the limitations, effective components of self-directed
learning were identified in the literature review which aligned with heutagogy.41 It
is concluded that heutagogy provides an effective framework for teacher learning
and post-secondary "higher" education.
The research was designed to explore, at the individual level, the engagement
of self-determined learning at the college level. The focus of the research involved
students at three different local universities. The majority of data was collected from
an Intro to Early Childhood Education course (ECED 1311) and a Teaching/Learning
course (ELED 3242) at The University of Memphis in Memphis, TN. A qualitative
research method was used to examine the relationship of the students' experience
to behavioral approaches in education. The researcher interviewed students
enrolled in both of the above courses for the Fall 2020 semester. Provided the
40Susan J. Pickering and Paul Howard-Jones, "Educators' Views on the Role of

Neuroscience in Education: Findings from a Study of UK and International
Perspectives," Mind, Brain, and Education 1, no. 3 (September 2007): 109-13,
https://doi.Org/10.llll/j.1751-228X.2007.00011.x.
41Avidov-Ungar, "School-Based Professional," 18.

25
sample population of the study was restricted to students at local universities, the
qualitative method was chosen for various reasons.
First of all, as noted by Creswell, qualitative research can offer valuable
insight on behavioral factors and is often the first step in developing a strategy.42
The qualitative research method was considered suitable because it is an approach
for exploring and understanding the connections of individuals or groups to a social
or human problem.43 Glogowska argued that researchers use qualitative methods to
study and examine phenomena from a nonobject perspective. As the goal of this
study was to understand behavioral factors through the exploration of participants’
perspectives, qualitative data collection methods aligned well with the project.
Since participants were not typically in direct contact with the researcher or
each other (COVID-19), the design allowed for qualitative data to be collected
concurrently from the same participants. The data were analyzed separately, and
the results then coded together, followed by interpretation and analysis. The study
supports the analysis of taxonomy and themes revealed in the behaviors that are
designed to enhance the current literature and predominant theories of adult
learning. It was determined that a grounded theory methodology was a good fit for
the study because, as Creswell notes, it "focuses on a process or an action that has
42John W. Creswell and J. David Creswell, Research Design: Qualitative,

Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, Fifth edition (Los Angeles: Sage, 2018),
3-4.
43Creswell and Creswell, Research Design, 4.

26
distinct steps or phases that occur over time."44 A grounded theory study has
movement or some action that the researcher is attempting to explain and was, thus,
considered most appropriate for this study.
According to Creswell, grounded theory is a qualitative strategy of inquiry in
which the researcher "derives a general, abstract theory of process, action, or
interaction grounded in the views of participants in a study."45 A grounded theory
approach fits this study well because it leads to the creation of transferrable
knowledge, which is helpful for practitioners and investigates unrealized and
unexplored possibilities in self-determined learning. The grounded theory research
model and its use in this study are described in detail in Chapter 3.
Specifically, a qualitative grounded theory research model was chosen to
examine the relationship between the inclusion of heutagogic methods and the
cognitive and sociocultural contexts of the participants. Interviews were conducted,
which determined the background of the sample group, their experiences regarding
self-determined learning, and the overall revealed felt values of the concept. The
research concluded with a final presentation and questions on the application of the
principles of heutagogy as compared to "traditional," teacher-centered learning
environments. The method of research and, as a result, the study helped to identify
44John W. Creswell and Cheryl N. Poth, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design:
Choosing among Five Approaches, 4th ed. (Los Angeles: Sage, 2018), 83.
45John W. Creswell and J. David Creswell, Research Design: Qualitative,

Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 5th ed (Los Angeles: Sage, 2018), 13.
27
possible solutions that support learner-generated content and context-based
learning and teaching.
Limitations
Limitations of the study include a newly developed survey instrument,
accessibility to the survey, and typical no-response rates to online surveys. The
study used a survey instrument which was researcher-designed and had not been
used in previous research regarding professional learning or heutagogic inquiry.
The specific scope of the research study required the development of a new survey,
which means instrument reliability and validity may be in question. Chapter 3
outlines the steps taken to increase the reliability and validity of the survey
instrument. The use of this survey in future research would help identify issues in
reliability and validity.
The study was also greatly limited by the small sample size of seven students.
Response rates depended largely on personal relationships as people are, generally,
more likely to respond to surveys from close contacts.46 Occasionally in the process
of this research, participants were not readily responding to emails or doing so in a
timely manner. A larger sample size would have accommodated for a lack of
response or extended reaction time. Although the geographic location of
participants was narrow, the majority of respondents came from a variety of
46Amany Saleh, and Krishna Bista, "Examining Factors Impacting Online

Survey Response Rates in Educational Research: Perceptions of Graduate Students,"
Journal of MultiDisciplinary Evaluation 13, no. 29 (2017): 68.
28
backgrounds and regions. Deeper representation from several universities or even
states may have helped to generalize the study results to other settings and
populations.
The researcher conducted interviews and focus groups with the students at
the end of the course. The questions and techniques used during these research
methods may have triggered the students to reflect, interpret, or align their learning
experiences with the aim of designed intervention and the study. This may have
created a positive "researcher effect" by guiding the learners' thinking and
reflections in favor of the findings reported in the study.47 To minimize this effect,
the findings in the study were informed by the coding of data collected using
multiple methods (surveys, interviews, focus groups, artefacts, and researcher
reflections).
The researcher's role in the process might also be an area of limitation. The
researcher collaborated with the practitioners in designing the learning and
teaching processes within the study. The practitioners, having acknowledged the
critical need for pedagogical and technological guidance, welcomed the researcher
as a non-teaching member of the course. The researcher worked with the teachers
and students on a regular basis by informing and guiding the use and critical
elements in the learning and teaching process and becoming an additional and
valuable resource in the facilitation of the course. This level of resourcing may not
be feasible or optional for other practitioners using a similar approach.
47Matthew B. Miles and A. M. Huberman, Qualitative Data Analysis: An

Expanded Sourcebook, 2nd ed (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1994).
29
Since the scope of the study was delimited to data collection from local
institutions, the findings are specific to that site and not generalizable. One limit of
the study is generalizability; however, the intent was to use grounded theory in
order to find an emergent theory, which would then be a starting point for
additional research studies. None of these limitations had a direct impact on the
theory of heutagogic methods in the classroom in this study. The limitations,
however, do indicate opportunities for future research and for building new
understandings and ways of enhancing the design principles.
Definition of Terms
Following is a list of terms and definitions used in this research project.
Pedagogy: often linear or paced instruction, typically associated with how
lessons or instruction is designed for children.48 The learner is told what, how,
when, and why the concept is being learned.
Andragogy: also known as self-directed learning, andragogy was theorized by
Malcolm Knowles, who identified adult learning as more complex than typical
pedagogy. Andragogy is based on theories of humanism and constructivism
providing adult learners greater control of the context in learning.
Self-directed learning: a process in which individuals take the initiative, with
or without the help of others, to diagnose their learning needs, formulate learning
48Fred Garnett and Ronan O'Beirne, "Putting Heutagogy into Learning," in

Self-determined Learning: Heutagogy in Action, eds. Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon
(London, England: Bloomsbury, 2015): 134.
30
goals, identify resources for learning, select and implement learning strategies, and
evaluate learning outcomes.
Heutagogy: self-determined learning. Cochrane and Narayan argued that it
"does not imply an abdication of the responsibility of a teacher but involves a
reconceptualization of the roles of the teacher and learner."49
Self-determined learning: an active, constructive process whereby learners
set goals for their learning and then attempt to monitor, regulate, and control their
cognition, motivation, and behavior, guided and constrained by their goals and the
contextual features in the environment.
Instructional technologies (IT): include the use of information and
communication technologies into instruction such as SMART boards, computers,
audiovisual materials, internet technologies and applications, and used according to
the characteristics and needs of the subject, learners, instructors, and context.50
Microlearning (ML): is a catch phrase for a variety of new technologies and
web applications used for learning that uses "digital micro content." ML uses small
learning units and short-term learning activities. People engage in ML when
49Thomas Donald Cochrane, "Critical Success Factors for Transforming

Pedagogy with Mobile Web 2.0: Transforming Pedagogy with Mobile Web 2.0,"
British Journal ofEducational Technology 45, no. 1 (January 2014): 66,
50Hakan Sarac, "Use of Instructional Technologies by Teachers in the

Educational Process: Metaphor Analysis Study," European Journal of Educational
Research 7, no. 2 (April 15, 2018), 189, https://doi.Org/10.12973/eu-jer.7.2.189.
31
"seeking information to build new knowledge in networked digital media
environments such as email, mobile phones, Google, and Web 2.O."51
Social media: "the entire set of tools, services, applications that interact with
users using internet technologies."52 Examples of social media applications include
Facebook, YouTube, Vimeo, and Twitter for social networking and research.
A review of the literature follows including the use of instructional design for
changing educational behaviors, social learning, microlearning, andragogy,
institutional readiness, mobile technology, and scenario-based learning design.
51Ajit Jaokar, "Mobile Web 2.0, Microlearning, Intertwingularity, and Mobile

widgets." Educational Technology, 47(6), 44.
52Sarac, "Use of Instructional Technologies by Teachers," 190.

32
Chapter 2
Literature Review
Purpose of Literature Review
In Phase 1 of this research, the need for a contextually embodied approach to
facilitating heutagogic practices into a college curriculum was established. A critical
step in any grounded theory study is to conduct a thorough literature review to
explore the problem of practice. This is done, primarily, to investigate applicable
theoretical frameworks or models as a basis for the formulation of possible
interventions. This literature review provides a brief overview of how educational
psychology and practice has progressed and how it has been influenced by advances
in technology and a largely self-determined society.
Professional development is experienced by educators around the world to
improve understanding of content and pedagogy. The premise of teacher education
is, basically, adults learning what and how to teach more effectively in and out of the
classroom. Methods used to teach and educate vary globally, and so do methods of
teaching adult learners. Unfortunately, traditional, top-down, teacher-directed, and
passive participatory approaches still inhibit professional learning experiences for
educators.1 Educators with negative perceptions of professional development and
1Goudarz Alibakhshi and Najibeh Dehvari, "EFL Teachers’ Perceptions of

Continuing Professional Development: A Case of Iranian High School Teachers,"
PROFILE Issues in Teachers' Professional Development 17, no. 2 (July 1,2015): 29-42,
https://doi.org/10.15446/profile.vl7n2.44374.
33
institutions of higher education may experience ineffective designs and frameworks
of educational practice.
Ineffective designs and practices tend to ignore the perceptions and
individual needs of student learners. Understanding the perceptions of students,
however, can uncover more effective methods, provided they are often the ones
who experience, and are affected by, the educational environment.2 More effective
methods or components of development do exist and mostly align with a self
determined, heutagogical framework for adult learning.
The literature shows a growing understanding for the necessity of heutagogy
to enhance the use of self-determination in education. This research seeks to
understand how post-secondary students apply and participate in the self
determined learning model called heutagogy and its impact on the rate of success.
While there is evidence of teacher professional development on the subject, there is
no existing literature on the effectiveness of those approaches in post-secondary
education, which supports the purpose of this study.
Knowing that education is an experience, the focus of professors and
administrators should not only be on the content (the what) of learning but should
also be concerned with methods (the how) of learning. Heutagogy, as a theory, might
provide a successful framework to help design the process of post-secondary
educational experience. This literature review explores heutagogy as an effective
professional learning framework, specifically to inform future teachers of self-
2 Stewart Hase, ed., Self-Determined Learning: Heutagogy in Action (London;

34
determined learning practices and principles which may help bridge the existing
gap between learning and education.
Strategy of Literature Review
The initial search focused on identifying literature in several areas pertaining
to the purpose of this research. The first goal was to locate literature focused on
heutagogically based teacher professional development and educational concepts.
This specific search resulted in the identification of few studies and provided
evidence for the need for research in this area. The challenge associated with such
an approach was the specific framework, heutagogy, and its connection to post
secondary educational environments.
Heutagogy and self-determined learning can be used interchangeably, which
created another challenge for the literature review. A more general search explored
teacher professional development about such concepts, so the following, more
general, searches were made to target the major components of this study:
heutagogy (self-determined learning) as a theory and its practical implications, the
field of web and social development, and teacher professional development.
The literature search was conducted through the Atriuum Catalog, the online
library EBSCO eBook Database, and OPAC, ERIC through Mid-America Baptist
Theological Seminary. Searches were limited to full-text availability and peer-
reviewed literature. An online search was also conducted, wherein the Heutagogy:
35
Community of Practice website was found.3 This website, curated by respected
heutagogy experts, Blaschke and Booth proved to be a valuable and appreciated
resource to the researcher. Searches were also conducted through Google Scholar
and JSTOR to identify scholarly studies and published books on the components
previously mentioned.
The following names, words, and phrases were used in the literature search
regarding the theory of heutagogy, the field of web and social development in
education, and teacher professional development: heutagogy; heutagogical
professional learning; heutagogical professional development; Stewart Hase; Chris
Kenyon; Lisa Blaschke; Web 2.0, social media in the classroom, professional
learning; professional development; neuroscience; self-determined learning; adult
learning theory; effective professional learning; effective professional development;
adult learning; teacher perceptions of professional development; andragogy;
double-loop learning; traditional professional development; and problems in post
secondary education.
Theoretical Framework
Heutagogy and self-determined learning served as the theoretical framework
of this research. Originally developed by Hase and Kenyon in 2000, heutagogy
focuses on what the learner wants to learn rather than what the teacher thinks
3https://heutagogycop.wordpress.com/annotated-bibliography/
36
should be taught.4 Contrary to pedagogy, at its core, heutagogy places the learner at
the center of the learning process and capable of seeking out information and skills
from available sources.5 The passions and interests of the individual drive the
learning of those who learn heutagogically.
Self-directed learners require relevant experiences which are meaningful to
themselves rather than the facilitator. Similarly, educators, who are learning in the
professional setting, require relevancy and support to make appropriate changes
when returning to the classroom.6 Heutagogy allows for the adult learner to self
evaluate the relevancy of a potential learning experience.
The perceptions of educators, in regard to professional learning about
heutagogic concepts, should impact decisions made in the design of post-secondary
learning so appropriate changes to instruction can occur. According to Reaves and
Cozzens, perceptions of teachers who felt safe and supported had significantly
higher self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation.7 Greater intrinsic motivation can be
4Stewart Hase, ed., Self-Determined Learning: Heutagogy in Action (London;

5Eric Belt, "Applying heutagogy in online learning: The side model." in

Experiences in Self-determined Learning, eds. Lisa Marie Blaschke, Chris Kenyon, and
Stewart Hase (Middletown, DE: Amazon Publishing, 2014), 202.
6Bob Dick, "Crafting learner-centered processes using action research and

action learning," in Self-determined learning: Heutagogy in action, eds. Stewart Hase
and Chris Kenyon (London, England: Bloomsbury, 2015), 44.
7Shemon J. Reaves and Jeffry Allen Cozzens, "Teacher Perceptions of Climate,

Motivation, and Self-Efficacy: Is There Really a Connection," Journal of Education and
Training Studies 6, no. 12 (October 11, 2018): 48,
https://doi.org/10.11114/jets.v6112.3566.
37
tied to an experience when the learning is relevant and applied in a real context.
Professional learning facilitators should work to provide a context within which
learning is enabled. A professional learning context with a rigid, linear structure
does not lend to differing teacher perceptions of relevancy.
A fallacy exists when learners believe learning can only occur with reliance
on a controlling structure or compliance to an all-knowing facilitator. Facilitators or
consultants may spark interest or provide insight, but learning should begin prior to
or extend beyond a single large group setting. Blaschke and Hase stated, "learning is
not a group activity even if the experience is."8 Students learning in a group setting
bring diverse experiences and perspectives which influence the relevancy and
potential outcomes of the present learning experience.
Opportunities for teachers to gain other perspectives of a topic or focus of
study allow for growth and learning. Heutagogy allows for the learner to learn how
learning works rather than another person defining what, how, and why something
should be learned.9 As learning is constructed through heutagogy, the learner
should play a major role in all aspects of the learning experience rather than solely
consuming content. The role of the learner extends from the design to the
assessment of the learning experience.
8 Kay S. Dennis and Amber Dailey-Hebert, "Transformative Perspectives and

Processes in Higher Education: Concluding Thoughts," in Transformative
Perspectives and Processes in Higher Education, eds. Amber Dailey-Hebert and Kay S.
Dennis (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015), 244,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09247-8_14 .
9Hase and Kenyon, Self-Determined Learning, (2013), 7.

38
Inferences for Forthcoming Research
The convergence of the affordances of new technologies and emerging
heutagogic practices portray a changing educational landscape. McLoughlin and Lee
argue that "there is a need to rethink models of teaching and learning."10 In a rapidly
changing educational landscape, Chatti, Agustiawan, Jarke, and Specht state that
learning should be viewed as "personal, social, distributed, ubiquitous, flexible,
dynamic and complex in nature."11 More learner-centered and self-directed teaching
and learning approaches are needed.
Similar concerns are echoed by Gros, who states that the complexity of the
modern society necessitates learning and teaching practices that help develop
learner competencies such as "higher-order thinking skills, problem solving,
systems thinking and the ability to communicate, collaborate, and interact
effectively with others."12 Emphasizing the need for learning to be "more authentic,
contextual and social in nature," Gros offers an educational approach that supports
self-direction and lifelong learning skills. With regard to the demand of the modern
society on learning, Blaschke stresses that teachers in today's global knowledge
economy also need to revisit their role in order to develop learners who have the
10McLoughlin and Lee, "The Three P's," 10.
11Mohamed Amine Chatti et al., "Toward a Personal Learning Environment

Framework," International Journal of Virtual and Personal Learning Environments 1,
no. 4 (October 2010): 66-67, https://doi.org/10.4018/jvple.2010100105 .
12Begona Gros, Kinshuk, and Marcelo Maina, eds., The Future of Ubiquitous
Learning: Learning Designs for Emerging Pedagogies, Lecture Notes in Educational
Technology (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2016), v.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-47724-3.
39
capability to effectively and creatively apply skills and competence to new situations
in an ever-changing, complex world.13
The growth of social media for educational purposes has not grown
proportionally with the use of social media for personal reasons. Today, integrating
mobile formats with social media provides unprecedented opportunities for self
direction and learning through an iterative process of "micro" experiences. Dewey
suggested that the social environment and social interactions of teaching and
learning are of paramount importance to the quality of one's learning.14 This form of
social learning affects the quality of an individual's learning process as a dimension
not necessarily captured in traditional methods of educational practice. The use of
social learning, however, can help remove long-standing barriers between formal
and informal learning.
Breaching this barrier shows a potential to leverage the informal workspace
where the vast majority of learning occurs. Hattie, in a massive, ongoing meta-study
of effects on teaching and learning, consistently found social aspects of teaching and
learning at the top of the list of the most impactful factors and interventions.15
Sebastian Waack reported collective teacher efficacy was the number one factor
13 Amber Dailey-Hebert and Kay S. Dennis, eds., Transformative Perspectives

and Processes in Higher Education (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015),
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09247-8.
14John Dewey, "Experience & Nature," The Paul Carus Lectures Series 1
(Chicago, Ill. [a.o.]: Open Court, 1994), 42.
15John Hattie, "Influences of Student Learning" (Lecture, University of

Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, August 2,1999).
40
contributing to student learning.16 This and other research supports the use of
heutagogic strategies in instructional design and educational practice.
A Brief History of Heutagogy
Heutagogy refers to self-determined learning. According to Stewart Hase,
heutagogy is a combination of two Greek words, heuriskein for "discover" and auto
for "self."17 Hase and Kenyon write that heutagogy is learner-centered, holistic,
future focused, and intent on acquiring lifelong learning skills through active and
proactive processes.18 As an approach to education, it aims to empower the learner
on where, how, and when learning occurs. Hase and Kenyon place this in a process
where the individual is viewed as "the major agent in their own learning, which
occurs as a result of personal experience."19 As a result, heutagogy places emphasis
on high learner autonomy and on the facilitation of learning experiences that build
competency and capability.
As a discipline, heutagogy advocates active learner engagement in authentic
contexts (formal and informal learning environments) for creating new knowledge.
16Sebastian Waack, "Hattie Ranking: 252 Influences and Effect Sizes Related
To Student Achievement," Visible Learning, March 2018, https://visible-
learning.org/hattie-ranking-influences-effect-sizes-learning-achievement/ .
17Stewart Hase, email message to Nicholas Daniel, April 22, 2021.
18Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon, "Heutagogy: A Child of Complexity

Theory," Complicity: An International Journal of Complexity and Education 4, no. 1
(July 1,2007), 114. https://doi.org/10.29173/cmplct8766.
19Hase and Kenyon, "Heutagogy: A Child of Complexity," 112.

41
The result is a learning process where the learner is central to the creation of
content and context (learner-generated content and context) for their own
advancement.20 Hase and Kenyon wrote that people are lifelong learners; they gain
and create knowledge in many and varied ways through their interactions in real
time by interacting with the environment. As a result, they continue. According to
Hase and Kenyon, people create ideas, enhance their creativity, and "re-learn how to
learn."21
Heutagogy was conceptualized in the year 2000. Triggered by frustration
with educational practices dominated by outdated, traditional teaching paradigms,
Hase, Kenyon, and other practitioners recognized a need to "acknowledge learning
as being an extremely dynamic experience occurring in a world that was (and is)
highly complex, non-linear and ever changing."22 Malcolm Knowles defined the
concept of self-directed learning as "Initiative, with or without the help of others, in
diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and
20Lisa Marie Blaschke, "Heutagogy and Lifelong Learning: A Review of

Research in Open and Distributed Learning 13, no. 1 (January 31, 2012): 56,
https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.vl3il.1076.
21Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon, "Heutagogy and Developing Capable

People and Capable Workplaces: Strategies for Dealing with Complexity." (The
Changing Face of Work and Learning Conference, University of Alberta, Canada,
2003), 3.
https://researchportal.scu.edu.au/discovery/search?vid=61SCU_INST:ResearchRep
ository.
22Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon, "From Andragogy to Heutagogy," UltiBase

5, no. 3 (2003), 43,
https : //webarchive.nla.gov.au /awa/20010220130000/http ://ultibase.rmit.edu.au/
Articles/dec00/hase2.htm.
42
material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning
strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes.23
The founding assumption of andragogy is that humans grow in capability
and, thus, in their ability to be self-directed. As a result, a person's experience in the
world has the potential to act as a source in learning and this potential should be
exploited in the process. According to Knowles, andragogy assumes that the
learners are naturally task-oriented or problem-oriented. The learning experience
for the students should, therefore, focus on problem solving tasks and activities that
have personal relevance and motivation for the learners.24 Heutagogy builds and
improves upon this and other historical concepts, which are presented below.
Humanism
Carl Rogers took a humanistic view of learning in which students should be
at the center. The humanistic approach focuses a great deal on student choice and
control over the course of an education.25 Students are encouraged to make choices
that range from day-to-day activities to, when necessary, setting future life goals.
This allows for learners to focus on a specific subject of interest for any amount of
23Malcolm Shepherd Knowles, Self-Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners

and Teachers (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Cambridge Adult Education, 1980), 18.
24Knowles, Self-Directed Learning, 18.
25Mark K. Smith, "Carl Rogers and informal education," The encyclopedia of

pedagogy and informaleducation, (1997-2004), www.infed.org/thinkers/et-
rogers.htm
43
time they deem appropriate, within reason. It is important, from this approach, for
students to be motivated and engaged in the material that is taught, which happens
when the material and topics are considered something the students need and
choose to know.
Humanistic education practice also tends to focus on the felt concerns and
interests of the learner as interconnected with the intellect. It is believed that the
overall mood and feeling of the individual student can either hinder or foster the
process of learning. Humanistic educators, as a result, believe that both feelings and
knowledge are important to the educational process.26 Unlike traditional educators,
humanistic teachers do not separate the cognitive and affective domains. This
method affects curriculum in the sense that lessons and activities provide focus on
various aspects of the student and not simply rote memorization.
Humanistic educators tend to view grades as irrelevant and self-evaluation
as the most meaningful aspect of the educational process. Grading, it is thought,
encourages students to work for a grade and not for intrinsic satisfaction.27
Educators of this sort disagree with routine examinations because they teach
students to memorize content instead of engaging in meaningful education.
In the humanistic learning theory, teachers and students have specific roles
for success. The overall role of a humanistic teacher is to be a facilitator and role
26Lynn Senior, A Teacher's Guide to 14-19 Policy and Practice (London; New
York: Routledge, 2017), 51.
27Jerome S. Allender and Donna Sclarow Allender, The Humanistic Teacher:

First the Child, Then Curriculum, (New York: Routledge, 2016), 16-21.
44
model, not necessarily to be the one teaching the course. This approach focuses on
helping students develop learning skills. Students are responsible for learning
choices, so helping them understand the best ways to learn is key to their success.
Denise Murray describes the teacher's role in humanistic language education:
The teacher's role in humanistic teaching is to guide and assist learners as

they take on more responsibility for their learning. Envisioning the teacher
as a facilitator requires a change in standard teaching approaches. The
purpose of the facilitation is to move the responsibility for learning from the
instructor to the student so that, ultimately, students take responsibility for
learning with teachers providing assistance, encouragement, and monitoring
in the learning process.28
A teacher who approaches the classroom as a facilitator of learning tends to be more
supportive than critical and more understanding than judgmental. Their job is to
foster an engaging environment for the students and to posit inquiry-based
questions that promote meaningful learning.
In heutagogic education, these conditions are frequent, especially as the
teacher or facilitator begins to understand the importance of the journey as being
controlled by the individual learners. Learner-centeredness is at the core of
heutagogic practice. Learners of all ages have the ability to learn, but they must first
be empowered.29 Empowering an educator in a professional learning setting
demonstrates the core conditions, proposed by Rogers, as being met or, at a
minimum, recognized. In post-secondary education courses, educators can be
28Denise E. Murray and MaryAnn Christison, What English Language

Teachers Need to Know. Vol. 3: Designing Curriculum, ESL & Applied Linguistics
Professional Series (New York, NY: Routledge, 2014). 197.
29Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon, eds., Self-Determined Learning: Heutagogy

in Action (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013), 59.
45
empowered to construct new learning upon previous understandings, knowing well
what still needs to be learned.
Constructivism
Like humanism, constructivism places the learner at the center of the
educational experience. A person’s reality and learning are constructed upon
previous experience and require active involvement from the student.30
Constructivism is based on the idea that people actively construct or make their
own knowledge, and that reality is determined by experiences as a learner.
Basically, learners use previous knowledge as a foundation and build upon it with
new experiences. Individual experiences make learning unique to each learner.
In the same way, heutagogy relies on a person’s understanding of what is
known and understood in order to construct further learning. Boon Hou Tay wrote
that "People make sense of the world in their own time, when connections are made
and not at a predetermined moment."31 Teacher-directed approaches often rely on a
set time for learning to occur, which increases pressure on the learner to make
meaningful connections.
30Samuel Yoders, "Constructivism Theory and Use from 21st Century

Perspective," Journal ofApplied Learning Technology 4, no. 3 (Summer 2014): 12.
31Boon Hou Tay, "Transitioning from pedagogy to heutagogy," in Self

Determined Learning: Heutagogy in Action, eds. Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon
(New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013), 190.
46
Within heutagogy, the learner is constantly constructing new meaning to
previous understandings and context through reflection and experiential learning.
Heutagogy's holistic approach takes into account the learner's prior learning
experiences and how they might influence the learning process.32 By considering
these past experiences and the learner's current experience and reflecting upon
these, the learner moves into a growth process that has the potential to lead to
transformative learning.
Prior experiences act as platforms for future learning. When teacher
education is isolated or does not extend beyond one session, the platform may or
may not be used for further learning. Professional education designed without time
for reflection inhibits potential construction of new learning. Through heutagogy, a
learner-centered approach, the future learning is not isolated, nor prescriptive.
Instead, the learning is constructed through a series of natural choices as human
agency is championed.
Human Agency
Human agency is the notion that people have the capacity to make choices
and then act on those choices in the real world. Embedded in humanism and
constructivism, humanism also relies on a learner-centered approach to learning.
Albert Bandura characterized human agency by a number of core features that
32Lisa M. Blaschke, "Heutagogy and Lifelong Learning: A Review of

Research in Open and Distributed Learning 13, no. 1 (January 31,2012): 56.
47
operate through phenomenal and functional consciousness. These include the
temporal extension of agency through intentionality and forethought, self
regulation by self-reactive influence, and self-reflectiveness about one's capabilities,
quality of functioning, and the meaning and purpose of one's life pursuits.33 To
Bandura, agency is inherent in students’ ability to regulate, control, and monitor
their own learning. A learners’ effectiveness in regulating their cognitive, affective,
and behavioral processes as they interact within the learning environment is critical
to their academic success.
Human agency is integral to the theory of heutagogy as people are
considered able to make critical decisions regarding personal growth and learning.
Agonacs and Matos assert that, within heutagogy, the learner is able to have agency
throughout the whole learning experience.34 Self-directed learners need to be in
control of the context of learning in addition to the content.35 Students who
experience courses in which agency is not encouraged, or even permitted, may have
difficulty owning the learning process. Taking choice away from capable learners
further limits potential learning and numbs motivation to attach relevance to the
33Albert Bandura, "Toward a Psychology of Human Agency: Pathways and

Reflections," Perspectives on Psychological Science 13, no. 2 (March 2018): 134,
https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617699280.
34Nikoletta Agonacs and Joao Filipe Matos, "Perspective on MOOCS as

Heutagogy Instances" (International Technology, Education and Development
Conference, Valencia, Spain, 2017). https://doi.org/10.21125/inted.2017.1538.
35F. Garnett and R. O’Beirne, "Putting heutagogy into learning," in Self

Determined Learning: Heutagogy in Action, eds. Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon
(London, England: Bloomsbury, 2015), 133.
48
assigned experience. Acknowledging human agency deepens the learning
experience and relevance, so the learner becomes more capable when the context is
no longer in the learner's control.
Capability
One aim of teacher education is to enhance the practice and capability of
facilitators in the classroom. Capability, defined by Hase and Kenyon, is a learner's
capacity to use competencies in new contexts and challenging situations.36 Teachers
constantly find themselves in new experiences in the classroom setting, despite
having taught the same content or grade level for years. New experiences in the
classroom allow for embedded teacher professional development but do not
necessarily allow for proper reflection. Teaching the same content to a new group of
students requires capable educators with adaptive skills.
Although one may become capable through traditional pedagogies, the use of
heutagogy nearly guarantees the ability to take appropriate and effective action to
formulate and solve problems in both familiar and unfamiliar and changing settings.
Indeed, the application of knowledge and skills gained during learning in new or
uncertain experiences is what defines capability.37 In pedagogy, the learning may
36Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon, "Heutagogy: A Child of Complexity

Theory," Complicity: An International Journal of Complexity and Education 4, no. 1
(July 1,2007), 113. https://doi.org/10.29173/cmplct8766.
37Nikoletta Agonacs and Joâo Filipe Matos, "Perspective on MOOCS as

Heutagogy Instances" (International Technology, Education and Development
Conference, Valencia, Spain, 2017). https://doi.org/10.21125/inted.2017.1538.
49
have been chosen by the teacher without learner agency and the learner may
interpret such learning as only applicable to specifically provided scenarios.
Heutagogy works to prepare learners for the unexpected, rather than the
simple task of finding solutions to specific problems. Mike Ramsay writes that
"Educators must build learners' capabilities to enable them to be leaders of their
own learning."38 Capable learners who are confronted with new problems are able
to use prior knowledge and competencies to work towards a solution. Capable
people tend to have high self-efficacy, know how to learn, and are able to work
collaboratively.
Further, self-efficacy, a person's belief in their ability to succeed in a
particular situation, is linked to positive teaching performance.39 Teachers are
capable of taking ownership of the educational process when they are empowered
to do so.40 When learning is not forced to follow a specifically linear-route pedagogy,
capability to construct new learning abounds. The professional learning experience
becomes purposeful and relevant rather than prescriptive and mandated. Higher
38Mike Ramsay, John Hurley, and Gavin Neilson, Workplace learning for
nurses," In S. Hase and C. Kenyon (Eds.), Self-determined learning: Heutagogy in
action (London, England: Bloomsbury, 2015), 86.
39Albert Bandura and Jacobs Foundation, eds., Self-Efficacy in Changing

Societies: Papers Based on the Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference Held Nov.
4-6,1993, at the Johann Jacobs Foundation Communication Center, Marbach Castle
(1993; repr., Annual Conference, Cambridge: Cambridge Univ., 1999), 12.
40Ryan Flessner, ed., Agency through Teacher Education: Reflection,

Community, and Learning (Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield, 2012), 168.
50
education, which acknowledges human agency and capability, acknowledges the
complexity of the learning journey ahead.
Complexity Theory
Complexity theory contributes to a heutagogic process as learning becomes a
nonlinear concept. Elizabeth Walton proposed professional learning be viewed as a
complex system rather than a single event.41 Traditional education is typically a
single event which specifies the learning for subsequent sessions, regardless of
learner interests or current capabilities. This does not allow for continuity, which is
needed for learning to be properly constructed. Commissioning one master-teacher
to design, implement, and assess the professional development of several learners
minimizes the effectiveness of what learning experiences may be produced. These
restraints lead to teacher-centered, single session programs. The knowledge or
skills learned, if not used, are forgotten soon after the class dismisses.
In complexity theory, an organism senses and responds to its environment.
The process, in iterating itself, produces dynamic and continuous change
recursively. "Complex adaptive systems" scan and sense the external environment
and then make internal adjustments and developments in order to survive in those
41Elizabeth Walton, "'You Can Train Us until We Are Blue in Our Faces, We
Are Still Going to Struggle': Teacher Professional Learning in a Full-Service School,"
Education as Change 18, no. 2 (July 3, 2014): 319-33,
https://doi.org/10.1080/16823206.2014.926827.
51
changing external environments.42 This is a theory of activity, proactivity and
reactivity, where the system evolves itself from within.
The complex system, as a whole, should be understood in addition to the
individual parts that create the system. One cannot consider the organism without
considering its environment.43 The emphasis is on collective, relational behavior
rather than on isolationism. The whole is greater than the sum of the parts.
Heutagogic educational systems, institutions, and practices exhibit many features of
complex adaptive systems; they are dynamic and emergent, unpredictable, and non
linear organizations operating in unpredictable and changing external
environments. This type of educational practice would shape and adapt to macro-
societal and micro-societal change and, through self-organization, respond to and
shape the environments of which they are a part. The effective heutagogic learning
environment is constantly adapted to changes, which are often unpredictable.
Complexity theory itself is one of change, evolution, and adaptation. As a theory it is
often in the interests of survival, and often through a combination of cooperation
and competition.44 It breaks with traditional reductionist, analytically fragmented
42Mitchell M. Waldrop, Complexity: The Emerging Science at the Edge of Order

and Chaos 1. Touchstone ed. (New York, NY: Touchstone, 1993), 294.
43Angelique Keene, "Complexity Theory: The Changing Role of Leadership,"

Industrial and Commercial Training 32, no. 1 (February 2000): 15-18,
https://doi.org/10.1108/00197850010311121 .
44Arthur Battram, Navigating Complexity: The Essential Guide to Complexity

Theory in Business and Management (London: Industrial Society, 1999).
52
approaches to education and replaces them with organic, non-linear, and holistic
approaches.
Andragogy
Malcolm Knowles was, perhaps, the central figure in US adult education in
the second half of the twentieth century. As an educator, he is well known for the
use of the term andragogy as synonymous to adult education. According to Knowles,
andragogy is "the art and science of helping adults learn."45 Andragogy refers to any
form of or approach to adult learning. Knowles' theory asserts that Andragogy is
composed of five main assumptions about how adult learners process information
differently than children and four principles for applying these assumptions. These
five main assumptions are: Self-Concept, Adult Learner Experience, Readiness to
Learn, Orientation to Learning, and Motivation to Learn.46
Knowles’s theory of andragogy is an attempt to develop a theory specifically
for adult learning. In its broadest definition, Knowles claims that self-directed
learning describes a process, where "Individuals take the initiative, with or without
the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals,
45Malcolm S. Knowles, The Modern Practice ofAdult Education: From

Pedagogy to Andragogy, Rev. and updated (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Cambridge Adult
Education, 1980), 43.
46Malcolm S. Knowles, The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species (Houston, TX:

Gulf, 1984), 12.
53
identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing
appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes."47
In practical terms, andragogy recommends that educational professional
development focus more on the process and less on the content being taught.
Strategies such as case studies, role playing, simulations, and self-evaluation are
most useful. Andragogy is aimed at designing and managing processes that facilitate
the acquisition of content.48 With such a strong emphasis on process design,
andragogical practices often serve as content resources for peers, supervisors, and
specialists.
Knowles’ model of andragogy is largely founded on the theories of humanism
and constructivism. The self-directed learner has more control of the context of
learning, but the teacher remains mostly in control of the content and how learning
proceeds.49 Instructors, then, would adopt a role of facilitator or in-class resource
rather than lecturer or grader. Jamie Halsall also contends that heutagogy, extending
further from andragogy, holds the learner in control of the what, how, and why of
47Malcolm S. Knowles, Self-Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and

Teachers (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Cambridge Adult Education, 1980), 18.
48John R. Rachal, "Andragogy's Detectives: A Critique of the Present and a

Proposal for the Future," Adult Education Quarterly 52, no. 3 (May 2002): 210,
https://doi.org/10.1177/0741713602052003004.
49Reem Rachel Abraham and Ramnarayan Komattil, "Heutagogic Approach to

Developing Capable Learners," Medical Teacher 39, no. 3 (March 4, 2017): 295-99,
https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159X.2017.1270433.
54
the learning process.50 While andragogy strives to develop learner competencies,
heutagogy reaches further and encourages the development of competencies and
capabilities.
Traditional Educational Practices
Traditional contexts for learning were almost entirely classroom based
before the introduction of the world-wide web. The activities, tasks, and
connections the learners engaged in and created were defined within the physical
realm of the traditional learning space. Annand contends that most learning
experiences were orchestrated and mediated by the teacher, who was the only
source of knowledge.51 Early pedagogies for learning and teaching emerged in an
era when knowledge was limited and only accessible through an expert. This system
encouraged behavioral teaching practices that viewed learning as, simply, the
transfer of knowledge, where the learner was perceived as an "unknowable black
box" who played an irrelevant and passive role in the learning process.52 According
to Blaschke and Hase, behavioral teaching practices provided an effective
50Jamie P. Halsall, Jason L. Powell, and Michael Snowden, "Determined

Learning Approach: Implications of Heutagogy Society Based Learning," ed. Sandro
Serpa, Cogent Social Sciences 2, no. 1 (August 25, 2016),
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2016.1223904 .
51David Annand, "Re-Organizing Universities for the Information Age," The

International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning 8, no. 3
(December 5, 2007), https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v8i3.372.
52Meredith Farkas, "Participatory Technologies, Pedagogy 2.0 and

Information Literacy," Library Hi Tech 30, no. 1 (March 2, 2012): 84.
55
framework that met the demands of the industrial revolution—that was to "prepare
and maintain people to fit an economic model of society."53
In the late 1950s, learning models began to shift from behavioral teaching
approaches to learning and teaching theories based on cognitive sciences. Peggy
Ertmer and Timothy Newby hold that the focus moved at this point, beyond the
transfer of knowledge model, to enabling "complex cognitive processes such as
thinking, problem solving, language, concept formation and information
processing."54 In particular, cognitive learning theories placed an emphasis on "how
information was received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind."55
Barab and Plucker, however, argue that during the cognitive revolution,
learning and knowing were "self-contained processes" that resided in the mind of an
individual learner.56 They claim that the cognitive view of learning was founded on
the separation of the learner from the learning context, which effectively isolated
53Lisa Marie Blaschke and Stewart Hase, "Heutagogy: A Holistic Framework

for Creating Twenty-First-Century Self-Determined Learners," in The Future of
Ubiquitous Learning, eds. Begona Gros, Kinshuk, and Marcelo Maina, Lecture Notes
in Educational Technology (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2016),
27, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-47724-3_2.
54Peggy A. Ertmer and Timothy J. Newby, "Behaviorism, Cognitivism,

Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Design
Perspective," Performance Improvement Quarterly 26, no. 2 (2013): 50,
https://doi.org/10.1002/piq.21143.
55Ertmer and Newby, "Behaviorism," 51.
56Sasha A. Barab and Jonathan A. Plucker, "Smart People or Smart Contexts?

Cognition, Ability, and Talent Development in an Age of Situated Approaches to
Knowing and Learning," Educational Psychologist 37, no. 3 (September 2002): 165,
https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3703_3.
56
the body from its mind, the self from the world, the content from its context, and the
ability from those situations in which one is competent. As a result, traditional
cognitive learning and teaching approaches ignored the importance of context, the
environment the learner was situated in, and failed to consider learner actions in
the process.
Teacher-Centered Approaches
Teacher-centered pedagogy is associated with traditional conceptions of
teaching in which instructors prioritize acquiring pertinent content knowledge as a
primary learning objective. The teacher is the fulcrum of the learning environment,
having a greater wealth of knowledge about the subject being taught, relative to
students' inexperience and lack of knowledge.57 This distinction can engender a
hierarchical relationship between teacher and students in the classroom. Teacher
student relationships primarily are defined by intellectual explorations chosen by
the teacher, in which the teacher is an arbiter and distributor of knowledge, and
students are receivers of knowledge.58 In the shadow of these dominant and
established teaching paradigms, voices arose that challenge the limitations and
propose new forms of educational practices.
57Gloria Brown Wright, "Student-Centered Learning in Higher Education,"

International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 23, no. 3 (2011):
94.
58Wright, "Student-Centered Learning," 95.

57
The emergent pedagogies, such as constructivism in its many forms (Bruner,
Dewey, Piaget, et al.), andragogy (Knowles), and humanism (Rogers) situated the
learner at the center of knowledge construction either individually or in
collaboration with others. They took into consideration the learner's historical,
social, and cultural backgrounds as the basis for effective learner development. 59
While these learner-centered pedagogies existed alongside the behaviorist and
cognitive teaching paradigms, they largely failed to capture widespread
implementation and use in learning and teaching.
Learner-Centered Approaches
Learner-centered pedagogies emerged from constructivist learning theory
and represent a countermovement to traditional teacher-centered pedagogical
practices. Educators who use learner-centered pedagogy view knowledge through
lenses of social and relational processes and, therefore, prioritize students'
individual processes of constructing personal knowledge and understanding rather
than rote mastery of course content.60 These instructors must be comfortable with
the uncertainty and needed flexibility that come with self-reflection and change,
59Randall M. Moate and Jane A. Cox, "Learner-Centered Pedagogy:

Considerations for Application in a Didactic Course," The Professional Counselor 5,
no. 3 (June 2015): 382, https://doi.Org/10.15241/rmm.5.3.379.
60Marlies Baeten, Filip Dochy, and Katrien Struyven, "Using Students'

Motivational and Learning Profiles in Investigating Their Perceptions and
Achievement in Case-Based and Lecture-Based Learning Environments,"
Educational Studies 38, no. 5 (December 2012): 491-506,
https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2011.643113.
58
both in themselves and their students.61 Such instructors place learning at the
center of the classroom environment where both teacher and students share
responsibility for creating a meaningful learning experience. In contrast, teacher
centered instructors assume the majority of responsibility for teaching and ensuring
that learning is occurring, and they represent the most prominent aspect of the
learning environment rather than having that space filled by the topic of interest.
The primary task of an instructor using a learner-centered approach is to
create an environment that is conducive to learning. Although a strong grasp of
course content and use of lecture may be helpful in this endeavor, they represent
only two of several important components of such a learning environment. Brown
stated that the focus on the process of learning and the context in which learning
occurs is considered to be as or more integral than the specific content knowledge
presented to students.62 McCombs described some characteristics of learning
environments that are based on learner-centered assumptions:
[Learning is] non-linear, recursive, continuous, complex, relational, and

natural in humans ... Learning is enhanced in contexts where learners have
supportive relationships, have a sense of ownership and control over
learning processes, and can learn with and from each other in safe and
trusting learning environments.63
61Garrett McAuliffe and Karen Eriksen, Teaching Strategies for Constructivist

and Developmental Counselor Education (Westport, Conn: Bergin and Garvey, 2002),
1.
62Kathy Loboard Brown, "From Teacher-Centered to Learner-Centered

Curriculum: Improving Learning in Diverse Classrooms," Education 124, no. 1
(2003): 3-13.
63Jeffrey Cornelius-White, "Learner-Centered Teacher-Student Relationships

Are Effective: A Meta-Analysis," Review of Educational Research 77, no. 1 (March
2007): 113-43, https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298563.
59
Instructors using a learner-centered approach foster supportive
relationships and cultivate a safe learning environment by diffusing power
differentials between the teacher and students. Instructors diffuse power
differentials by intentionally creating opportunities for students to become active in
the classroom, honoring and utilizing student learners' individual experiences and
perspectives, and treating students as partners in the learning process.64 Instead of
the instructor acting as the primary arbiter of content with intellectual queries and
structure in a classroom, a learner-centered instructor favors democratic and
collaborative approaches to teaching that empower students to be active
participants in their learning.
An example of this practice occurs when an instructor intentionally defers
from immediately answering a student's question and redirects the question to the
students in the classroom. Such an approach diminishes the instructor’s role as
"expert" and connotes a belief that learners possess the collective knowledge,
experiences, and perspectives to provide useful insight to answer the question, and
effectively encouraging students to become intellectually active in the classroom.
Such collaborative learning is an important aspect of learner-centered
teaching. Collaboration is a social process believed to help students develop
problem-solving skills, challenge their beliefs through honoring many viewpoints in
64Ruth Deakin Crick and Barbara L. McCombs, "The Assessment of Learner

Centered Practices Surveys: An English Case Study," Educational Research and
Evaluation 12, no. 5 (October 2006): 423-44,
https://doi.org/10.1080/13803610600697021 .
60
the classroom, and construct deeper personal understandings of course content.65
Maryellen Weimer posits that instructors can nurture collaborative relationships by
following two learner-centered principles: students prefer to have a sense of
ownership and control over their learning experiences, and students should receive
opportunities to teach each other what they have learned.66 Herein, student
learners’ preferences and opinions are taken into account, when possible, during
course planning and when selecting reading assignments or major course projects.
As a result, student learners perceive that they are able to shape their learning
experience in a meaningful way. After students have engaged in self-directed
learning projects, they are then given opportunities to deepen their learning by
sharing what they have learned with others in the class.
In addition to increased autonomy to construct learning experiences, student
learners are given freedom to pursue areas of intellectual interest in the classroom.
Learner-centered instructors provide opportunities for their students to explore
topics of interest in depth by adhering less strictly to course content.67 Course
content is used as a starting point for stimulating intellectual exploration in
students. Students are encouraged to explore content and topics of interest when
65Kathy Brown, "From Teacher-Centered," 6.
66Maryellen Weimer, Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to

Practice, The Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult Education Series (San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass, 2002).
67Marlies Baeten, Katrien Struyven, and Filip Dochy, "Student-Centred

Teaching Methods: Can They Optimise Students' Approaches to Learning in
Professional Higher Education?" Studies in Educational Evaluation 39, no. 1 (March
2013): 14-22, https://doi.Org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2012.ll.001.
61
their instructors create space for inquiry, discussion, or other spontaneous learning
experiences in the classroom.
Learner-centered instructors favor flexible approaches to teaching that
create space for students to learn about topics of interest with greater depth, rather
than teacher-centered approaches that ensure a broad coverage of course content.
In this framework, students garner more autonomy and responsibility for their own
learning by building on their own "unique background knowledge and
experiences."68 By giving students the opportunity to take part in their own learning
process, the teacher no longer acts as the "sage on the stage" but as the "guide on the
side."
According to Gloria Brown Wright of Central Connecticut State University,
student learners' active role and sense of autonomy during class can be
counterbalanced by learner-centered instructors taking a more peripheral role,
acting as guides who encourage students on their own path of inquiry and
understanding. She notes that students are no longer viewed as "empty vessels to
be filled with knowledge but as seekers to be guided along their intellectual
development journey."69 Teachers using a learner-centered approach help facilitate
students' learning interests as they arise by guiding discussion and inquiry while
being mindful to incorporate various learning experiences in the classroom.
68Michael J. Hannafin, "Student-Centered, Open Learning Environments:

Research, Theory, and Practice," in Handbook of Research on Educational
Communications and Technology, ed. J. Michael Spector (New York: Springer New
York, 2014), 708, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-l-4614-3185-5_51.
69Gloria Brown Wright, “Student-Centered," 93.

62
Incorporating flexible and varied teaching practices (e.g., lecture, multimedia,
experiential activities, and discussion) is a key aspect of facilitating a learner
centered classroom environment.70 Teachers using a learner-centered approach
attempt to formulate their teaching practices based on the learning preferences of
students in the classroom, unlike those who use teaching practices that are based on
the instructors' preferences. Dollarhide claims that, by teaching with a learner
centered focus, educators may increase the likelihood that students will perceive the
classroom as a positive learning environment.71 Students’ positive appraisal of a
learning environment can help them to see the purpose and meaning in their
learning experience, which Randal Moate writes "may in turn influence their use of a
deep approach to learning."72
This heutagogic approach to learning, in which students of education are
reflective and ascribe personal meaning to knowledge, can help prepare students
for the future when they will be required to think independently and tolerate
ambiguity. Post-secondary educators teaching with a learner-centered focus are
concerned with helping students develop how they think (e.g., critically, reflectively,
70Kathy Brown, "From Teacher-Centered," 8.
71Colette T. Dollarhide, Alexanderia T. Smith, and Matthew E. Lemberger,

"Counseling Made Transparent: Pedagogy for a Counseling Theories Course,"
Counselor Education and Supervision 46, no. 4 (June 2007): 242-53,
https://doi.Org/10.1002/j.1556-6978.2007.tb00029.x.
72 Randall M. Moate and Jane A. Cox, "Learner-Centered Pedagogy:

Considerations for Application in a Didactic Course," The Professional Counselor 5,
no. 3 (June 2015): 384, https://doi.Org/10.15241/rmm.5.3.379.
63
complexly) rather than simply what they think (i.e., memorization of specific
content).
Modern Educational Practices
The arrival of the internet brought new opportunities and abilities that
disrupted the established practices of education and offered potential to implement
student-centered learning. The internet has been increasing teachers' access to a
vast amount of resources in a multitude of formats while concurrently decreasing
their dependencies on print resources. Some of the resources are of high quality, but
others are unorganized and unauthenticated and searching and verifying the
information resources poses a challenge to teachers already pressed for time.73
Teachers are increasingly using online resources in their planning activities, and
recent research shows evidence of expanding use of online resources by teachers in
the area of instruction and for teacher-directed use.74
A study by Williams, Grimble, and Irwin found that, although teachers
recognize that electronic databases are more reliable, they instead frequently turn
73Samuel Abramovich, Christian D. Schunn, and Richard J. Correnti, "The Role

of Evaluative Metadata in an Online Teacher Resource Exchange," Educational
Technology Research and Development 61, no. 6 (December 2013): 863-83,
https://doi.org/10.1007/sll423-013-9317-2.
74Mimi Recker, "A Study of Teachers’ Use of Online Learning Resources to

Design Classroom Activities," New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia 13, no. 2
(December 2007): 117-34, https://doi.org/10.1080/13614560701709846.
64
to the open internet for information.75 Even with these shifts in practices, only a
handful of researchers within the last few years have gone beyond examining the
technical aspects of teachers' use of technology to attempt to understand how
instructors find and use online resources for their instructional purposes.76 While
the Internet provides new resources, the question is whether and how teachers are
able to make use of these resources in their instructional planning and what this
means to the collaborative efforts between self-directed students and teachers.
The Internet and Personal Computers
The advent of the internet in the early 1990s brought with it the ability to
access vast amounts of data and information. This version of the internet, oft labeled
Web 1.0, was viewed mostly as a platform to access and deliver static information. It
allowed only basic forms of user interactions through services such as instant
messaging, bulletin boards, and email.77 It was a platform that mostly perpetuated
75Teresa Williams, and Bonnie Grimble, "Teachers' Link to Electronic

Resources: A Case Study of Awareness, Knowledge, and Influence," School Library
Media Research vol 7, no. 1 (January 2004): 7.
76Bethany Carlson and Sharon Reidy, "Effective Access: Teachers’ Use of

Digital Resources (Research in Progress)," OCLC Systems & Services: International
Digital Library Perspectives 20, no. 2 (June 2004): 65-70,
https://doi.org/10.1108/10650750410539068 .
77Paul Anderson, Web 2.0 and beyond: Principles and Technologies, Chapman
& Hall/CRC Textbooks in Computing (Boca Raton: CRC, 2012).
65
passive user interactions and was mono-directional in nature.78 Web 1.0 preserved
the principles of early teacher-centered pedagogies where learning assets were pre
packaged into media discs and the creation of web-based resources were left to an
individual to create. According to Gunawardena, Hermans, and Richmond, learning
during the early Web 1.0 era was characterized by the following:
Learning was formal and structured. Learning was teacher-centered, web

based, virtual and blended. Learning was top-down and followed a
command-and-control model with a focus on pushing content to the
students. Content created by the learner(s) was kept within the realms of the
classroom environment. Learning had a clear management and hierarchical
structure. Learning was viewed as an event that could be scheduled and
planned.79
The arrival of the internet did, however, initiate a significant shift in
education. Among other things, it provided educational institutions open access to
data and information, with the potential of empowering the learner in an otherwise
teacher-centered environment, thus challenging established teaching and learning
practices.80 Indeed, the earliest versions of the internet experienced significant
development in the 1990s due to rapid advancements in technology and user
78Mark J. W. Lee and Catherine McLoughlin, eds., Web 2.0-Based E-Learning:

Applying Social Informatics for Tertiary Teaching (IGI Global, 2011), 22.
https://doi.org/10.4018/978-l-60566-294-7 .
79 Charlotte N. Gunawardena, "A Theoretical Framework for Building Online

Communities of Practice with Social Networking Tools," Educational Media
International 46, no. 1 (March 2009): 5,
https://doi.org/10.1080/09523980802588626.
80Mark J. W. Lee and Catherine McLoughlin, eds., Web 2.0-Based E-Learning:

Applying Social Informatics for Tertiary Teaching (Hershey PA: Information Science
Reference, 2011).
66
friendly features. These capabilities brought opportunities for implementing and
exploring new teaching and education practices across the globe.
Mobile Connectivity and Education
By the year 2000, the infrastructure of the world wide web and its
capabilities had evolved into something very different from its predecessor, labeled
"Web 2.0" by Tim O’Reilly in 2005.81 Web 2.0 denotes a phenomenon characterized
by the affordances of web tools that, according to Catherine McLoughlin, encourage
"active participation, connectivity, collaboration and sharing of knowledge and ideas
amongst users."82 This new version of the web outlined a shift in the way the
internet was perceived and used—moving away from a predominantly mono
directional platform to one that:
Allowed individual production and user-generated content. Enabled

formation of virtual communities. Provided access to data on an 'epic scale.’
Provided an architecture of participation. Enabled connectedness between
people. Provided people with open access to user-created data to be able to
edit and remix the original.83
81Tim O’Reilly, "What Is Web 2.0: Design Patterns and Business Models for
the Next Generation of Software," Communications & Strategies 65, no. 1 (August 23,
2007): 17-37.
82Catherine McLoughlin and Mark Lee, "Social software and participatory

learning: Pedagogical choices with technology affordances in the Web 2.0 era," in
ICT: Providing Choices for Learners and Learning. Proceedings ascilite Singapore
2007, eds. Simon Atkinson, C. McBeath and A. Soong Swee Kit (Singapore: Centre for
Educational Development, Nanyang Techn. pp. 664 - 675.
83Paul Anderson, Web 2.0 and beyond, 14-26.

67
According to Blaschke and Hase, the rapid development of technology,
alongside the proliferation and use of the internet, has drastically changed the way
people live, work, and study.84 In particular, the affordances of social media tools
and mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets, have impacted upon every
facet of human life and have transformed and changed societal values due to their
pervasive and participatory nature.85
The ability to easily access, capture, create, and share content and data with
social media tools and mobile devices has led to the creation and consumption of
data and information at a phenomenal rate. The universality of modern powerful
mobile devices, accompanied by the affordances of social media tools, has blurred
the boundaries between, work, learning, and play.86 Rosemary Luckin writes that
the confluence of these affordances allows people to create, share, and "digitally link
experiences across, between, and within multiple locations, multiple people, and a
range of subject matter."87 Marking the dawn of the information age and the end of
84Blaschke and Hase, "Heutagogy," 32.
85George Siemens, Kathleen Matheos, "Systemic Changes in Higher

Education.," Technology and Social Media 16, no. 1 (2010): 32.
86Catherine McLoughlin, and Mark J. Lee, "The Three P’s of Pedagogy for the
Networked Society: Personalization, Participation, and Productivity," International
Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 20, no. 1 (2008): 4.
87Rosemary Luckin, "Learning Contexts as Ecologies of Resources: A Unifying

Approach to the Interdisciplinary Development of Technology Rich Learning
Activities," International Journal on Advances in Life Sciences 2, no. 3-4 (January
2010): 155.
68
the industrial revolution, this shift has also brought a major transformation in the
way people learn.
According to Siemens and Matheos, the change is seen in an "increased
freedom of the learners to access, create, and re-create content."88 McLoughlin and
Lee, however, noted that, while social media tools have provided access to data and
information, the main shift is in the "architecture of participation" as it encourages
the creation and sharing of digital artefacts by groups, teams, and individuals.89 The
participatory nature of social media tools and its affordances facilitate social aspects
of learning, such as communication, collaboration, co-creation of knowledge, and
learner empowerment in terms of choice and access to content.
Post-Internet Educational Practices
In the last two decades of the twenty-first century, rapid rise, advancement,
and ownership of mobile devices have taken heutagogic learning tools and
capabilities to another level. Social media tools on mobile devices have provided
increasing advantages and enabled new ways of self-direction and engagement such
as learner mobility and the ability to create and capture contextually rich data and
88Siemons and Matheos, "Systemic Changes," 3.
89McLoughlin and Lee, "The Three P’s," 10.

69
content in and across multiple frameworks.90 As a result, the convergence of mobile
and social media affordances offers new opportunities and approaches for learning
that is student-centered and facilitates lifelong learning through communication and
collaboration.
This approach can also encourage reflective, self-directed learning and
provide social learning that considers learner context and history.91 The methods
perpetuated by social media and self-determined learning tools enable the learner
to take control and responsibility of their own education by permitting learner
choice in the process, which is a clear shift from teacher-centered to learner-
centeredness.92 According to Farkas, pedagogical practices have always reflected the
affordances of the context in which they are implemented and used.93 For example,
even though sociocultural and social constructivist views of learning and teaching
have existed for nearly a century (Dewey, 1916; Dewey and Bentley, 1946; Freire,
"John Cook and Patricia Santos, "Three Phases of Mobile Learning State of
the Art and Case of Mobile Help Seeking Tool for the Health Care Sector," in Mobile
Learning Design, ed. Daniel Churchill et al., Lecture Notes in Educational Technology
(Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2016), 315-33, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-
10-0027-0,19.
91Saleh Al-Sehri, "Context in Our Pockets: Mobile Phones and Social

Networking as Tools of Contextualising Language Learning" (10th World Conference
on Mobile and Contextual Learning, Beijing, China: Research Gate, 2011).
"Grainne Conole and Pnagiota Alevizou, "A Literature Review of the Use of
Web 2.0 Tools in Higher Education" (Walton Hall, UK, The Open University, 2010),
20.
"Meredith Farkas, "Participatory Technologies, Pedagogy 2.0 and

Information Literacy," Library Hi Tech 30, no. 1 (March 2, 2012): 87,
https://doi.org/10.1108/07378831211213229.
70
1970; Vygotsky, 1978), their potential in learning are only now being realized
because of the alignment and advancements in technological resources.
Anderson states that active learner engagement is normally associated with
constructivist learning paradigms. He also argues, however, that all forms of
constructivism "share an understanding that individuals construct knowledge that
is dependent upon their individual and collective understandings, backgrounds, and
proclivities."94 A constructivist learning experience actively engages the learner in
the learning process and encourages social and collaborative process for the
construction of knowledge where learning tasks and activities are situated in
meaningful and authentic contexts.95 According to McLoughlin and Lee, the
ubiquitous benefits of heutagogy help operationalize the central tenets of a
constructivist learning paradigm and are now pushing conceptual understanding,
leading to new extensions and theories.96
94 Paul Anderson, Web 2.0 and beyond: Principles and Technologies, Chapman
& Hall/CRC Textbooks in Computing (Boca Raton: CRC, 2012), 27.
95Jan Herrington, Ron Oliver, and Sue Stoney, "Engaging Learners in Complex,
Authentic Contexts: Instructional Design for the Web," Southern Cross University 1,
no. 1 (2000): 2.
96C.atherine McLoughlin and Mark J. W. Lee, "Future Learning Landscapes:

Transforming Pedagogy through Social Software," Innovate Journal of Online
Education 4, no. 5 (2008).
71
Lifelong Learner Skills
The concept of lifelong learning was first articulated by Basil Yeaxlee, who
argued that learning is a lifelong endeavor that continues beyond university
education and encompasses everyday interactions and actions.97 Yeaxlee's place in
the canon of adult education was achieved through the publication of Lifelong
Education: The Encyclopedia ofInformal Education in 1929. This book, according to
Angela Cross-Durrant, was of seminal importance to the field of education. She
writes, "It represents the first formal attempt of this century to combine the whole
of the educational enterprise under a set of guiding principles with each phase of
agency (formal, informal and non-formal) enjoying equal esteem."98
There is a growing acknowledgment and understanding that learning
eventuates beyond the formal boundaries of an institute and encompasses formal,
non-formal, and informal learning situations. Kind and Evans provide a broad
definition of this "lifelong" approach to education, "It is the development of human
potential in the areas of knowledge, values and skills, through a continuously
supportive process that is stimulating and empowering and that fosters confidence,
creativity, and enjoyment in all roles and circumstances."99
97Terry Kind and Yolanda Evans, "Social Media for Lifelong Learning,"
International Review of Psychiatry 27, no. 2 (March 4, 2015): 130,
https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2014.990421.
98Angela Cross-Durrant, "Basil Yeaxlee and Lifelong Education: Caught in

Time," International Journal of Lifelong Education 3, no. 4 (October 1984): 280,
https://doi.org/10.1080/0260137840030403.
"Kind and Evans, "Social Media for Lifelong Learning," 125.

72
Figure 2.2 - Lifelong learner skills and characteristics
The learner sets his/her own goals

The learner is actively involved in the and actively seeks ways and
Active learning process and in the construction motivation to achieve it.
of knowledge. Attempts to solve problems and has
good time-management skills.
The learner is provided with a
collaborative learning environment Guides and supports others.
where he/she learns appropriate group Is able to network and connect with
Cooperative
actions and interactions through people.
building a shared understanding of the Is an effective team member.
tasks, goals and responsibilities.
Is able to creative ideas and is
The learner has the freedom and
solution focused.
opportunity to express their ideas and
Creative Is imaginative and innovative.
thinking, leading to creativity and
Is able to handle a task regardless
originality.
of the level of difficulty.
The learner is able to conceptualize,
apply, analyze, and evaluate information Seeks multiple perspective when
Critical that is gathered through observation, faced with a situation.
experience, reasoning or Is inclusive and considerate.
communication.
The learner is capable of and is allowed
Is thoughtful.
the space to construct his/her own
Examines his/her own thought
Strategic understanding and knowledge. The
processes.
learner is also cognition of his/her own
Seeks alternatives.
learning process - metacognition.
Is self-driven and self-regulated.
The learner has control over the Is reflective.
Autonomous
learning and learning processes. Utilizes available resources wisely
and effectively.
Source: Sabrina Leone, Characterisation ofa Personal Learning Environment as a
Lifelong Learning Tool, SpringerBriefs in Education, (New York: Springer, 2013), 10.
Sharples states that the notion of lifelong learning is generally exploited to
provide people with the skills and knowledge needed "to succeed in the rapidly
changing world."100 In order to facilitate lifelong learning, students must be made
100Mike Sharples, "The Design of Personal Mobile Technologies for Lifelong

Learning," Computers & Education 34, no. 3-4 (April 2000): 177,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1315(99)00044-5 .
73
responsible for their own learning, must acquire skills such as perseverance,
adaptability and initiation, and should learn to be self-regulated. These
characteristics (explained further in Figure 2.2) can help the learner recognize and
actively seek avenues for learning from any situation on an ongoing basis.101
The principles of lifelong learning approaches advocate active learner
participation in the learning process, learner autonomy, and ownership. In this
respect, Dron and Anderson state that "social software has become one of the most
central means of enabling lifelong learning."102 They explain that search engines,
such as Google and Yahoo, are becoming the first port of call for learners seeking
new knowledge and information while social media tools enable collaboration and
communication without the learner having to give up freedom over time, place, or
direction. The openness and autonomy afforded by social media tools in the
classroom enable self-directed and self-regulated learning. Here, the learner is free
to seek and determine their own learning path in formal and informal contexts by
connecting and accessing communities and information in varied and multiple
formats.
101Sabrina Leone, Characterisation of a Personal Learning Environment as a

Lifelong Learning Tool, SpringerBriefs in Education (New York: Springer, 2013), 10.
102Jon Dron and Terry Anderson, "Learning and Teaching with Social Media,"
in Ubiquitous Learning Environments and Technologies, eds. Kinshuk and Ronghuai
Huang, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin
Heidelberg, 2015), 9, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44659-l_2.
74
Self-Determined Learning
Andragogy, as self-directed learning focused on competency development, is
reconceptualized in heutagogy as self-determined learning which is focused on
developing capabilities. As the rapidly changing educational terrain continuously
advances and expands, today’s educational institutions require lifelong learners
who are both competent and capable. While no post-secondary program of study
can really prepare students with all of the knowledge and competencies needed, it is
within the realm of possibility to determine what knowledge and skills need
continuous development and how to access them for the learner.
Heutagogy extends andragogical theory and is focused on developing
learners’ autonomy and enabling them to take control of their own learning. The
principles of heutagogy allow the learner to design and negotiate learning content
and process with facilitation from an instructor. Guiding learners to define self
directed questions is one of the biggest challenges facing developers of heutagogical
courses. Hase and Kenyon hold that designers must be "creative enough to have
learners ask questions about the universe they inhabit.”103 The creation of
curriculum and assessment requires flexibility and individualization so that new
understandings can be explored as new paths are developed.
On the whole, heutagogy recognizes learning as nonlinear and self
determined. It enables the learner to contextualize concepts, knowledge, and new
103Chris Kenyon, and Stewart Hase, "Moving from Andragogy to Heutagogy in

Vocational Education," in Research to Reality: Putting VET Research to Work
(Australian Vocational Education and Training Research Association (AVERTA),
Adelaide, Australia, 2001), https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED456279.pdf.
75
understanding while using experiential learning techniques, collaborative learning,
and reflection.104 Heutagogical principles extend beyond andragogy and single-loop
learning into self-reflexive, double-loop learning. The learner not only focuses on
the acquisition of knowledge and skills but on deeper learning, metacognition, and
the questioning of assumptions and beliefs. As a result, the learner develops
research skills and learns how to discern ideas and content discovered throughout
the learning process.
Role of the Teacher
The teacher’s role in a heutagogical framework changes as the teacher allows
the learner to explore. The teacher begins acting more as a mentor, guide, or
facilitator as needed for students to determine their own learning.105 The role
provides a useful framework for creating confidence among learners and as a result,
capability begins to increase.106 For this new role, Hase has recommended the title
104Begona Gros, Kinshuk, and Marcelo Maina, eds., The Future of Ubiquitous
Learning: Learning Designs for Emerging Pedagogies, Lecture Notes in Educational
Technology (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2016), 28,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-47724-3.
105Amnon Glassner and Shlomo Back, "Exploring Heutagogy in Higher

Education: Academia Meets the Zeitgeist" (Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2020),
207, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4144-5.
106Insung Jung, Open and Distance Education Theory Revisited: Implications

for the Digital Era. (Hagen, Germany: FernUniversitat, 2019), 77.
76
of teacher should be replaced with "learning leader."107 The learning leader in the
heutagogic framework, according to Hase, should "relinquish their pedagogical
role"; otherwise, student ownership may be hindered.108 In this sense, the teacher
still plays an active role by providing numerous amounts of resources and
recognizing the importance of informal learning, but the leaner is enabled to explore
essential content.
Heutagogy, then, can be seen as a form of empowering learners, which is a
measure of success in effective professional development.109 Rather than promoting
a hierarchy within the learning experience, heutagogy establishes a mutual respect
between those involved in the learning process. Empowerment builds commitment
and creates a sense of belonging. Acceptance and ownership are basic human needs
that can be satisfied in the classroom.110 A central role of the learning leader, then, is
to explore how the learning is changing the perceptions, skills, or knowledge of the
individual learner.
107Stewart Hase, "4 Characteristics of Learning Leaders," Teaching, December

13, 2017. https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/4-characteristics-learning-
leaders/.
108Stewart Hase, "Self-Determined Learning (Heutagogy): Where Have We

Come Since 2000?," Southern Institute of Technology Journal ofApplied Research
Special Edition, no. 1 (May 1, 2016): 25.
109Orit Avidov-Ungar, "School-Based Professional Development as an

Organizational Learning Mechanism: The Significance of Teachers' Involvement,"
https://doi.org/10.1177/105678791602500102.
110Kathryn S. Whitaker, and Monte C. Moses, "Teacher Empowerment: A Key

to Restructuring," The Clearing House 64, no. 2 (December 1990): 127.
77
An overreliance on the pedagogical framework of learning inhibits what
learning can become. Van Leeuwen and others boldly pointed out that schools and
teachers are important to many learners but are not always essential to learning.111
In reality, any learning that occurs outside of the construct of formal education
provides evidence of such a claim. Cognitive engagement increases when learners
have the freedom to choose learning strategies and resources and autonomy from
teacher control. A person associating learning with only a teacher or classroom
ignores learner agency and capability, and traditional learning paradigms
exacerbate such associations.112 The learning leader in heutagogy acts as a compass,
metaphorically speaking, rather than as a map. The teacher provides some direction
and guidance but not a specific route to a learning goal.
Double-Loop Learning
Key breakthroughs in helping people understand the dynamics of learning
are the concepts of single-loop, double-loop, and triple-loop learning. The concepts
are largely from the works of Chris Argyris and Donald Schon. According to
research, school educators engage in all three approaches throughout the year.
111Anouschka van Leeuwen, Lisette Hornstra, and Barbara Plunger, "Need

Supportive Collaborative Learning: Are Teachers Necessary or Do Students Support
Each Other's Basic Psychological Needs?," Educational Studies, October 21,2020,1
16, https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2020.1835613 .
112Lorella Terzi, "Capability and Educational Equality: The Just Distribution of

Resources to Students with Disabilities and Special Educational Needs "Journal of
Philosophy of Education 41, no. 4 (November 2007): 757-73,
78
Single-loop learning involves learning that stays within the current organizational
beliefs system and does not change the status quo. Single loop learning deals with
how an organization achieves existing objectives and goals within the existing
norms.113 It does not attempt to rectify gaps between espoused theory and theory in
use.
Double-loop learning, on the other hand, requires self-reflection on the
learning process. It also involves the examination of underlying beliefs, norms, and
values and results in major changes to the institution.114 Consequently, double-loop
learning is a quality of heutagogy as learners are challenging and adapting current
values and beliefs. Deghaidy described the need for cognitive dissonance in order to
change teacher beliefs and practices through professional learning, which requires
double-loop learning.115 A heutagogic approach would encourage learners to reflect
on and assess learning and then to show capability by applying the learning to other
areas.
The educational professional, as well as other learners in the classroom, can
play critical roles in double-loop learning by sharing contrasting beliefs about
teaching and practice. Snowden and Halsall explained reflective practice as a key to
the success of the heutagogical approach, allowing for greater learner control and
113Chris Argyris and Donald A. Schon, Organizational Learning II, Addison-

Wesley OD Series (Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 1978), 23.
114Argyris and Schon, Organizational Learning, 155.
115Heba El-Deghaidy, and Nasser Mansour, "Science Teachers' Perceptions of

STEM Education: Possibilities and Challenges," International Journal of Learning and
Teaching, 2015, https://doi.Org/10.18178/ijlt.l.l.51-54.
79
application of the learning.116 To question the effectiveness of current techniques
would allow for reflection and exploration of new or adapted versions—positively
influencing future educational practice.
Implications for Research
The theory of heutagogy has, indeed, been successfully applied in online
distance and higher education settings. It has even been applied to teacher
education programs.117 Heutagogy offers a teaching and learning framework for
teacher professional development in which teachers are at the center of developing
and executing the entire learning process. Such a process requires teachers to take
active roles in the design and implementation of education though. In the workshop
setting, teacher involvement in the development process is positively correlated
with the quality of learning.118 As a result of the increased quality of educational
environments, the value of the entire institution increases, showing promise for the
use of self-directed practices (heutagogy) as a framework.
116Jamie P. Halsall, Jason L. Powell, and Michael Snowden, "Determined

Learning Approach: Implications of Heutagogy Society Based Learning," Cogent
Social Sciences 2, no. 1 (August 25, 2016), 14.
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2016.1223904 .
117Reem Rachel Abraham and Ramnarayan Komattil, "Heutagogic Approach

to Developing Capable Learners," Medical Teacher 39, no. 3 (March 4, 2017): 295
99, https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159X.2017.1270433.
1180rit Avidov-Ungar, "School-Based Professional Development as an

Organizational Learning Mechanism: The Significance of Teachers’ Involvement,"
https://doi.org/10.1177/105678791602500102.
80
Heutagogy, additionally, is more comprehensible when the philosophies and
concepts foundational to the theory are understood. Capability and complexity are
core to the theory of heutagogy, but it is built upon tenets of humanism,
constructivism, and the concept of human agency.119 It is applicable to learners in all
stages of life but should not necessarily replace all pedagogical elements of
learning.120 Instead, heutagogy can be a valuable extension of pedagogy and
andragogy once specific skills or knowledge are gained.
Neuroscience, information regarding brain plasticity, has played an integral
role in the development of the theory and practice of heutagogy. As neuroscience
advances, so does the understanding of how people learn.121 This research supports
learner-centered approaches to education and casts doubt on much of the current
orthodoxy surrounding educational practice. Understanding how the brain
functions and how learning occurs can be influential on what is taught and how the
concept or content can best be learned. Educators who understand heutagogic
concepts can impact student learning through the use of proven, self-determined
techniques or a greater use of these established practices.
119Stewart Hase, "Self-Determined Learning," (May 1, 2016): 21.
120Barbara A. Brandt, "The learner's perspective," in Self-determined

Learning: Heutagogy in Action, eds. Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon (London,
England: Bloomsbury, 2015), 99.
121Hase and Kenyon, "The Nature of Learning," in Self-determined Learning:

Heutagogy in Action, eds. Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon (London, England:
Bloomsbury, 2015), 19-38.
81
The significant gap in the literature regarding how educators can use
heutagogy in the classroom validates this research. Although it exists as a theory,
little can be found as to which methods are most effective or recommended for the
future of education. This review of literature has examined the how and why of
heutagogic practice and identified effective components which may influence the
success of students in a post-secondary education course.

82
Chapter 3
Methodological Design
Introduction
The purpose of this research is to understand how post-secondary students
apply and participate in the self-determined learning model called heutagogy and its
impact on the rate of success. The research was designed to explore, at the
individual level, the engagement of self-determined learning, originally developed
by Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon. The focus of the research involved college
students in state-sponsored and private universities across the southeastern United
States. Pools were taken from an Introduction to Early Childhood Education course
(ECED 1311) and a Teaching/Learning course (ELED 3242) at the University of
Memphis in Memphis, TN.
This chapter presents the research methods and design of the study. First, an
overview of the current state of educational research and design is provided.
Following is an in-depth explanation of grounded theory research and its
appropriateness for researching heutagogic educational models. How this approach
guided the study, including detailed participant information, data collection
methods, ethical concerns, and validity will also be provided.

83
Contemporary Educational Research
With more than a century of research, it has been argued that educational
exploration has made very little impact on practice. Lagemann notes that
educational research has failed to create transferable knowledge and, hence, has
limited usability.1 Research in education has maintained a prolonged focus on
evaluating traditional teaching paradigms where learning is viewed as transmission
of knowledge or as an individual and isolated process within the learner.
Hattie and Marsh, in a meta-analysis study of the relationship between
research and teaching, found that there was "zero relationship." Specifically, the
subjects taught by a teacher and the research they undertook had no correlation
between them.2 The authors conclude their findings by stating that "the origins of
universities came from the transmission of knowledge, culture and values." The
research was not seen as an integral part of teaching or a teacher's role.3 The
recursive and stagnated relationship between research and practice has
perpetuated decades of inquiry that has failed to acknowledge the complex nature
of learning and teaching. This pattern fails to consider the "importance of affect (or
Christopher M. Hoadley, "Methodological Alignment in Design-Based

Research," Educational Psychologist 39, no. 4 (December 2004): 203-12,
https://doi.org/10.1207/sl5326985ep3904_2 .
2John Hattie and H. W. Marsh, "The Relationship Between Research and

Teaching: A Meta-Analysis," Review of Educational Research 66, no. 4 (December
1996): 507, https://doi.org/lO.3lO2/OO346543O66OO45O7.
3John Hattie and Herbert W. Marsh, "One Journey to Unravel the Relationship
between Research and Teaching," in Research and Teaching: Closing the Divide? An
International Colloquium (Marwell Conference Centre, Winchester, Hampshire,
2004), 10.
84
feeling) and conation (or will) as well as the role of context."4 At a fundamental level,
van den Akker argues that the key issue in educational research is the limited, or
complete lack of, collaboration between researcher and teachers, resulting in little
change or improvement in practice.5
Over the last decade, education has seen drastic changes due to the rapid
advancement and affordances of technology. The integration of technology in
education and research in this domain has been an equally contested area though.6
Some of the main issues that plague research in educational technology are the lack
of theoretical underpinnings that inform the use and design of technologies and
learning environments, and appropriate choice of research methodologies.7 The
problem with research in education and educational technology is that "education
research is often divorced from the problems and issues of everyday practice."8
4Sasha A. Barab and Jonathan A. Plucker, "Smart People or Smart Contexts?

Cognition, Ability, and Talent Development in an Age of Situated Approaches to
Knowing and Learning," Educational Psychologist 37, no. 3 (September 2002): 177,
https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3703_3.
5Thomas C. Reeves, "Design-Based Research and Educational Technology:

Rethinking Technology and the Research Agenda," Educational Technology & Society
11, no. 4 (January 2008): 34.
6Helen Beetham, Rethinking Pedagogy for a Digital Age: Designing for 21st
Century Learning (Routledge, 2013), https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203078952.
7Jorgen Holmberg, "Studying the Process of Educational Design - Revisiting

Schon and Making a Case for Reflective Design-Based Research on Teachers'
'Conversations with Situations/" Technology, Pedagogy and Education 23, no. 3 (July
3, 2014): 293-310, https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2014.942748.
8Eric Baumgartner, Saun P. Brophy, Christopher Hoadley, "Design-Based

Research: An Emerging Paradigm for Educational Inquiry," Educational Researcher
32, no. 1 (January 2003): 5, https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X032001005 .
85
Additionally, the lack of consideration given to context in which research is
conducted often fails to speak directly to the problems of practice that lead to the
development of usable knowledge.9 Amiel and Reeves propose a more orderly
approach, where "educational researchers of all areas should be encouraged to
move towards more systematic and collaborative methods of investigation that can
promote research that makes a difference.10 A methodology that promises to bridge
the gap between research and practice and is capable of producing transferable
knowledge is grounded theory research.
Grounded Theory Research
Grounded theory was developed by American sociologists Glaser and Strauss
in 1967 to describe a new qualitative research method they used in their research
Awareness of Dying. In this study, they adopted an investigative research method
with no preconceived hypotheses and used continually comparative analysis of
data.11 The posited theories were considered to be so truly grounded in the data
that they named this new approach, "grounded theory."
The goal of grounded theory is the generation of theories rather than the
testing of hypotheses. Grounded theory investigates actualities in the real world and
9Eric Baumgartner, "Design-Based Research," 6.
10Tel Amiel and T. Reeves, "Design-Based Research," 31.
11Barney G. Glaser, Anselm L. Strauss, and Elizabeth Strutzel, "The Discovery

of Grounded Theory; Strategies for Qualitative Research:," Nursing Research 17, no.
4 (July 1968): 364, https://doi.org/10.1097/00006199-196807000-00014.
86
analyzes the data with no preconceived ideas or hypothesis.12 In other words,
grounded theory suggests that theories emerge inductively from the data.13 Though
it can be used in different types of research, grounded theory is often adopted to
formulate hypotheses or theories based on existing phenomena or to discover the
participants’ main concern and how they continually try to resolve it.
With no rigid structure or prescribed rules, researchers must work entirely
on their own, which often leads to uncertainty about how to get the analysis process
started. Grounded theory research, especially when conducted with the constant
comparative method of data analysis, is "a labor-intensive task that requires the
researcher to invest time in the processes of analysis and data collection."14
However, the freedom that grounded theory gives to the researcher may also be one
of its biggest challenges when it is put into practice.
Research Procedures
A qualitative research method was used to examine students’ perceptions to
behavioral approaches to learning. The researcher interviewed students enrolled in
education courses for the Fall 2020 semester at the University of Memphis. There
12Glaser, Strauss, and Strutzel, "The Discover of Grounded Theory," 364.
13James W. Chesebro and Deborah J. Borisoff, "What Makes Qualitative

Research Qualitative?" Qualitative Research Reports in Communication 8, no. 1
(October 15,2007): 3-14, https://doi.org/10.1080/17459430701617846.
14 Saron M. Kolb, "Grounded Theory and the Constant Comparative Method :

Valid Research Strategies for Educators," Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational
Research and Policy Studies 3, no. 1 (2012): 83.
87
were four sections of Early Childhood and Educational Leadership courses offered
during the semester with approximately 20 students enrolled in each class section.
The researcher cooperated with the University of Memphis Department of
Leadership and the individual professors for the selection of the courses, ECED and
ELED, as pools for possible candidates.
Setting and Sample Selection
For the fall semester of 2020, The University of Memphis offered four
sections of (residential) Intro to Early Childhood Education courses at the ECED or
ELED level. In order to gain an adequate population of research participants for a
qualitative research project, the researcher surveyed possible subjects in all of the
offered courses and several students from various universities. No required sample
size exists to satisfy the methods of qualitative research because it is inherently
non-statistical.15 Consequently, a sample of seven college students was chosen to
complete the research.
The research strategy included an introduction to the study, via an
Explanation of Research and Introductory Survey and an Informed Consent Form,
both distributed in August 2020. Those students who responded with interest were
asked to sign the Informed Consent, complete the Introductory Survey, and return
both to the researcher by the end of August 2020. The Explanation of Research
^Christine Welch Michael Wood, "Qualitative' and 'Quantitative' Useful

Terms for Describing Research?" Methodological Innovations Online 5, no. 1 (2010):
60.

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Heutagogy and Lifelong Learning

A Question of Self-Determined Practices in Post-Secondary Education

Submitted to the Doctor of Philosophy Committee

Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary

of the Requirements for the Degree

in the Department of Education

B.A. University of Memphis, 2003

MDiv, Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary, 2007

Candidate: Nicholas B. Daniel

Major Field: Education

Date Approved: April 23,2021

Dissertation Title: Heutagogy and Lifelong Learning

Chairman of the Department

This dissertation attempts to understand how students in post-secondary

education apply and participate in the self-determined learning model called

defining students’ perceptions of heutagogy as a framework for higher education

heutagogy enable learner-generated content and context for enhanced learning in a

were consulted to identify current theories, practices, and characteristics. Following

is an explanation of the qualitative research and grounded theory methods that

to answer the foundational research questions and suggest a possible intervention

to the problem of practice which is presented in the introduction.

Statement of the Problem...................................................................................... 7

Purpose of the Study............................................................................................ 12

Significance of the Study...................................................................................... 16

Research Design and Rationale........................................................................... 22

Chapter 2 Literature Review..................................................................................... 32

Purpose of Literature Review.............................................................................. 32

Strategy of Literature Review............................................................................. 34

Inferences for Forthcoming Research................................................................ 38

A Brief History of Heutagogy.............................................................................. 40

Traditional Educational Practices...................................................................... 54

Modern Educational Practices............................................................................ 63

The Internet and Personal Computers................................................... 64

Mobile Connectivity and Education....................................................... 66

Post-Internet Educational Practices................................................................... 68

Lifelong Learner Skills............................................................................. 71

Role of the Teacher...................................................................................75

Implications for Research................................................................................... 79

Chapter 3 Methodological Design............................................................................82

Contemporary Educational Research.....................................................83

Grounded Theory Research.................................................................... 85

Setting and Sample Selection.................................................................. 87

Phase 1: Analysis and Exploration..........................................................93

Phase 2: Coding the Data......................................................................... 94

Phase 3: Evaluation and Reflection...................................................... 96

Instrumentation ................................................................................................. 101

Initial Interview..................................................................................... 103

Mid-Term Evaluation............................................................................. 104

Final Discussion..................................................................................... 104

Data Analysis...................................................................................................... 105

Open Codes............................................................................................. 107

Axial Codes.............................................................................................. 108

Selective Coding..................................................................................... 109

Ethical Procedures............................................................................................. 112

Chapter 4 Results and Findings............................................................................. 114

Presentation of Data.......................................................................................... 115

Initial Interview.................................................................................................. 119

The Value of Heutagogical Practices.................................................... 120

Previous Experience.............................................................................. 123

Mobile Devices in the Classroom.......................................................... 125

Role of the Professor.............................................................................. 128

Final Discussion.................................................................................................. 136