CHAPTER 2: Climate

[From Sir’s Lec Vid]

The more ghg we emit, the larger climate changes will be.
Impacts on:
/ Health
/ Environment
/ Economy
Matter on how we can adapt. Can we survive?

The Physical Environment

Living organisms - require physical conditions to survive
Survival - can be equated to
Habitability - ability of the physical environment to support life
In order for the organisms to survive, they have to interact w the physical environment
/ over generations (physical environment is the guiding force of natural selection)
/ over short periods (physical env. Influences physiology and resource availability)

Climate vs. Weather

Weather - atmosphere → place → short period of time (day, night, …)
- changing
- same elements w climate: solar radiation, temp, humidity, wind speed & direction,
precipitation…
- main diff w climate: duration
Climate - long-term average pattern of weather
- often used to describe larger areas: local, regional, global
Climate change have severe effects than the usual changing of weather.

Earth Intercepts Solar Radiation

Earth’s weather patterns are influenced by solar radiation
EM energy → produced by the sun
EM energy - measured by wavelength (dist between successive wave crests) and frequency
Shorter wavelength = higher energy
All objects emit radiant energy (depends on the temp of the object)
- hotter object, more energetic photons, shorter wavelength
What happens to solar radiation when it reaches the Earth?
Only 51% of solar radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere
Once sun’s energy reaches earth, it is intercepted by the atmosphere.
- small part is directly absorbed (particularly by ozone and water vapor)
- some reflected back by clouds and earth’s surface
- most of the radiation however is absorbed by the earth’s surface
- atoms in the substance move faster, and warm
- absorbed energy transforms into heat energy
Heat energy - impt role in regulating temp of earth’s crust, surface water, &lower atmosphere

Every surface absorbs and reflects energy on varying degrees based on color and texture:
Dark - absorbs more visible radiation
Light-colored - reflect more visible radiation
Shiny - reflect more
Rough - absorb more

Intercepted Solar Radiation Varies Seasonally

- because of earth’s and sun’s relationship
- amt of solar radiation intercepted by earth’s surface varies by latitude
Gradient: decreasing temp from equator to poles
As latitude increases, temp decreases.
Seasons - result of earth’s tilt (23.5o) and movement
[From Book]
2.1 Net Radiation
Solar radiation - EM energy from the Sun
- behave either as waves or particles
- waves, described in terms of wavelength and frequency
- the hotter the object, the more energetic emitted photons, and the shorter the
wavelength
Earth intercepts solar energy in the form of shortwave radiation
- some reflected back into space
Albedo - reflectivity of a surface
Earth emits energy back into space in the form of longwave radiation
- a portion is absorbed by gases in the atmosphere and radiated back to surface
Greenhouse effect - when longwave rad is absorbed by ghg in the atmosphere and emitted
back to the surface (=warmer)
Greenhouse gases (ghg) - water vapor, CO2, etc.
Net radiation - difference between incoming shortwave and outgoing longwave radiation
- function: surface temperatures
There is a distinct latitudinal gradient of decreasing net surface radiation from the equator
toward the poles.

2.2 Seasonal Variation

Amount of solar radiation intercepted by Earth varies markedly with latitude
Tropical regions near equator - receive greatest amount
High latitudes - receive the least
Earth tilts on its axis
- parts of Earth encounter seasonal differences in solar rad
- give rise to seasonal diff in net rad and temp
Vernal & Autumnal Equinox - sun is directly overhead at the equator
- equator greatest solar rad
- 12 hrs each day and night
Summer solstice (23.5o N) - days are longer in Northern Hemisphere
- winter in Southern Hemi
Winter solstice (23.5o S) - shorter days in Northern Hemi
- summer in Southern Hemi
Global mean annual temp:
It is warmest in the tropics and declines toward poles

2.3 Atmospheric Circulation

From equator to midlatitudes - there is annual surplus of net rad
From midlatitudes to poles - there is annual deficit
Latitudinal gradient of net rad gives rise to global patterns of atmospheric circulation
ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone) - convergence of winds from N and S of equator
Law of Angular motion - object moving from greater circum to lesser will deflect tin spin
direction
Spin of Earth on its axis deflects air and water to the right (Northern Hemi)
and to the left (Southern Hemi)
= Coriolis Effect (G.C. Coriolis)
3 cells of global air flow occur in each hemisphere: (notes next time)
2.4 Ocean Currents
Global patterns of wind (Coriolis effect) cause major patterns of ocean currents
Each ocean dominated by gyres (great circular water motions)
- clockwise in NH
- counter clockwise in SH

2.5 Atmospheric Moisture

Atmospheric Moisture - measured in terms of relative humidity
Air said to be saturated if evap rate = condensation rate
Saturation vapor pressure - max amt of moisture the air can hold at any given temp
- increases w temp
Relative humidity - amt of water in the air, expressed as a percentage of the max amt
the air could hold at a given temp
Dew point temperature - temp at which saturation vapor pressure is achieved (relative
humidity = 100%)

2.6 Precipitation
Wind, temp, and ocean currents produce global patterns of precipitation
- account for regions of high precipitation the tropics and
dry climate at approx 30oN and S latitude
ITCZ - not stationary; tends to migrate towards regions of the globe w warmest surfacetemp

2.7 Continentality
Land surfaces heat and cool more rapidly than water (because of less specific heat)
= land areas farther from coast experience greater seasonal variation
- pattern called Continentality
Interior of continents - generally receive less precipitation than coastal regions

2.8 Topography
Temp declines w altitude
 - higher elevations will have consistently lower temps
Lapse rate - rate of decline in temp w altitude
Mountainous topography - influences local and regional patterns of precipitation
- as an air mass reaches a mountain, it ascends, cools, becomes saturated w water
vapor, and releases much of its moisture at upper altitudes of the windward side
Rain shadow - more precipitation in windward side, drier in leeward side of mountain

2.9 Irregular Variation

Irregular variations in the trade winds give rise to periods of unusually warm waters off the
coast of the western South Amerca - El Nino
- a global event arising from large-scale interaction between the ocean and the
atmosphere
ENSO - El Nino-Southern Oscillation
Southern Oscillation - oscillation in the surface pressure (atmospheric mass) between …
Upwelling - consequence of trade winds blowing westward across the tropical Pacific
- tropical oceans flow westward; = warmer eastern Pacific, more precipitation
Little Ice Age - period of cooling… 1780 …

2.10 Microclimates
Local variations - reflect topography, vegetative cover, exposure, and other factors
Angles of solar radiation cause marked diff between north- and south-facing slopes
South-facing slopes - receive most solar energy