,i:" Grammar File

Page Page

Co mP dri son of adje ctivesl adverbs Reported speech

I Comparativesand superlatives 137 I Reportingstatements 147
2 os ...os 137 2 Reportingquestions 147
Conditionols 3 Reportingorders,requests,
I Summaryof forms t38 suggestions, etc. 147
2 Specialpoints r38 4 Reportingintentionsand hopes 147
Emphatic structures 5 Time reference t48
I lnversion t39 Speíling
2 Cleft sentences r39 I Capital letters t48
lnfinitive 2 Formingparticiples 148
I The to infinitive 140 Tenses:Present
2 lnfinitivewithout to t40 I Presentsimple t49
3 Perfectand continuousinfinitive t40 2 Presentcontinuous t50
-ing forms Tenses;expressing the future
| -ingforms as nouns t4l Summaryof forms and uses t50
2 Verb + -ingform l4l Tenses:present perfect
3 Other expressions+ -ingform t4l I Form t5l
4 Prepositions/comparatives + -ingform t4l 2 Generaluse t5l
5 Possessive+ -ingform t4l 3 Simplev. continuous t52
Modal verbs Tbnses:post
I lntroduction t42 I Pastsimple t52
2 Specialcharacteristics 142 2 Past continuous t52
3 Detailedinformation: ability 142 3 Past perfect r53
likelihood t42 4 Pasttensesto talk about
obligation t43 hypotheticalsituations r53
permission t43 Reference Lists
4 Semi-modals t44 -ingforms and infinitive
Participle clouses Reportingverbs
I Adjectivalparticiples(reduced t44 Verbs not usuallyused in
relativeclauses) continuoustenses
2 Adverbialparticiples 144 Verbs with a differentmeaning
3 After conjunctions/prepositions t45 in simpleand continuoustenses
Possive
I Form t45
2 Use t46
3 Specialpoints t46
Relotive clouses
I Definingrelativeclauses t46
2 Non-definingrelativeclauses 146
3 Relativeclauseswith prepositions t47

136
 GMI,IMAR FILE

r
ucmPorBon 1.3 Adverbs
Most adverbs form comparativesand superlativeswith
I Comparatives and superlatives rnore and rnost.
l,l Adjectives e,g. eoslý, more eosily,most eosl/y

One-syllable
adjectivesadd -erand -est. Adverbs with the same form as adjectivesform
e,gstrong,
stronger,
strongest comparativesand superlativesin the same way as
adjectives.
endsin -e,-r and -stare added.
lftheadjective
e.g fosq foste; fcstest
e'g'Wise,W/SeíWiSeSt
hord,horder,hordest
lftheadjectiveends in a consonant -y, thls changesto
-ier,
-iest. eorly, eorlier,eorliest
The following have irregular forms:
e.g.dry,drier,driest
we//,better best
lftheadjectiveends in a single consonant afrer a single
bodly, worse, worst
vowel,the consonantis doubled.
e'g'nat'hotter'hottesť 1.4 Qualifying comparatives
Thefollowinghave irregularforms: Heš no older|moreintelligent,etc
gooo, bettetbest hordly ony
)cd, rrorse,worst
Theygo a littlelslightly fosterlmore smoothly,etc.
far.fonher(.orfunhei), forthest(or furthest)
(quite)a lot
adjectiveswhich end in -y add -er and -est.
Two-syllable
e g iunny,funnter,funniest lots

f'lost
othertwo-syllableadjectivestake more and most. Peoplehove muchlfor /essfree time now.
eg,anctent,
moreoncient,most oncient toke far fewer doys off.
Thefollowing
two-syllableadjectivescan form
with either the endings -erl-estor with
superlatives
2 as ... as ...
moreimost.
cantman cruel gent/e hondsome likely moture 2.4 This structure can be used with adjectivesand
taÍO|i pieasont polite shollow simple stupid adverbs,and also with rnuch and many + noun. The
Adjectives
of more rhan two syllablesrake more and most. second os can be followed:
e'g'lnťerest/ng'
more /nterestlngmost interestlng
a by a noun, noun phrase Hei os tall os his father.
or object pronoun He thinksnobodyknows
1,7 few and less
as much os him.
(thecomparativeof few) is normally used before
fewer
b by a clause He's os toll os his father is.
nouns.
Pturat
e.g.fewerpeaple,feweropportuntties He thinksnobodyknows
iess(thecomparativeof /itťe)is norma||y used before as much os he does.

uncounta0lenouns. c by possible,ever l'll stay os /ongos possible.

e.g/esst/me,/essmoney or usuol He lookedos hondsomeos
ever.
|niníormal
Eng|ish,
however,/essis often used with p|ura|
nouns. The negativeis formed with not os ... or not so ... .
e'g'Iherewere/ess peaple thon / expecťed. e.g Shes not os corefulos she shouldbe,
He didnt do os weil os he hod hoped.
We hoven'thad so much rotn os lost yeor.

137
fu GMMMARFILE

7.2 Qua|iýing comparisons with os... os... 2.3 Special word order: os * adjective + olon r
noun * os...
Áis Just as hord-workingos B (is)
e,g.A ls os hord o workeros B.
olrnost
This is an a|ternativeand slight|ymore forma|way oí
A works neorly os hord os B (does). expressingthe meaningof Á worksas hardos B. |nthis
quite structure,it is essentialto placean indefinitearticle
twice beforethe noun.The negativeis formed with notos ,..
Ais not neorly os hord-workingos B (rš) or not such...
e,g.Thatwos os fine o gome os /Ve everseen.
not quite
It wosn'tas windyo day os hod beenforecast
not holf
l'm not suchon expertployeros you ore.
A doesn'twork nearly as hord os B ídoes).
quite
holf
X requires holf os much energyos Y (does).
twice as many ployersos Y (does).
fve tirnes

Conditionals
Mixed conditionals
l SummarY oÍforms
The conditionaltypes above can be combinedin
Type0: Conditions which are alwaystrue ways.The most common are:
lf Unreal conditionsin the pastwith an unrealpresent
present form + present form or imperative
future result.
When

e.g.Whenyou put so/ton lce,lt me/ts.

if yousee her,giveher my love.
e.g.lf you hod drivenfoster,we couldbe thereby
Typel: Conditionswhich are very probablein the
lf shehodn'tdecidedto chongejobs,she would
presentor future
goingto Chino nextmonth.
form + future form or Unreal conditionsin the presentwith an unrealpast
e.g.lf I leovenow,/1/mlssthe rushhour. result.

Type2: Conditionswhich are improbableor impossiblein

the presentor future
lf past simple/continuous + would,could,might+
e.g.lf I dtdn'ttrusthim,I wouldn'thove lethim look
infinitive
ofterthe boby.
e.g.lf you met the Presldent,whotwouldyou soy to him? lf I spokeJoponese,/ mighthove gotthotjob,
lf theylivedo bit neorerwe mightsee them more
often. 2 Special points
Type3: Unreal conditionsin the past
2.1 Conditional links
lf past peďect simp|e/continuous + wouldlshouldl Apart from i[ the followinglinks can be usedto
couldlmightor have + past participle introduceconditionalclauses:
unless os/solongos (thot)
suppose/supposing
hodn'twokenme, l'd hovebeen
e,g./f the telephone
providinglprovided(thot) oncondition(that)
lotefor my oppointment.
Shecouldhove goneto un:ersityif she'dwontedto,

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 GMMI4AR FILE

2.2 Punctuation 2.5 |nversion with shouldlwere I inÍinitive

Whenthe if clause comes first in the sentence, it is
ío|lowed by a comma. When the main c|ausecomes first,
n oc o m m ai s u s e d .
2.3 Should
ln very formal situations should+ subject (in type I
conditionals)and were + subiect + infinitivewith to (in
type 2 conditionals)can replace if;
e.g Shou/dyou need ony help,p/eosedon'thesltoteto
CONTOCL ME,

lntypeI conditionalsshould+ infinitive(without to) in Were we to increcse the loon,would you guorontee
theif clausemakes the condition less lilcely. reDovment?
eg lf youshouldneed ony help,lust/et me know.

7,4 Were + infinitive (with to)

lntype2 conditionalswere * infinitivewith to in the if
clause
canbe used in formal contexts.
eg /iwe wereto occeptyourconditions, wouldyou be
to lncreosethe loon?
DreDared

Emphatic
structures Little,few, so, such when not followed by a noun.
e.g. Lltt/edo you know whot's ln store for you!
I lnversion 5o strongwos the wind that I could not control the
Thefollowingexpressionscan be placed first in a clause cor.
inorderto give more emphasisor a more dramatic Such is fote!
effect.
The subiectand verb are then inverted. lf there is
noauxiliary
verb, doldoesor did are used, as in a 2 Cleft sentences
quesuon. Cleft (or divided) constructions can be used to highlight
lorerl/seidom., Nowhere (e/se).. particular items of information in a sentence by putting
ll'e;,er i\ot (c sou//o thtng,etc) ... them into a separate clause of their own. They are used
li ro iime.. Not only...but olso... in both speech and writing, but are especiallyuseful in
!rte,noclrcumstcnces
... Hordlylscarcely ...uhen ... writing, where emphasiscannot be indicated by
a,tnacccount.. i\o sooner...thon ... intonation.There are two main types of cleft
i\0000/ In voin .., construction.

e,g,NeverhoyeI seen such an owful sight!
iJnderno circumstoncesmust you interruptthe
meeung.
Not c srng/eword would he say on the sublect.
Not on/ydoes he drop osh on the corpet,but he also
spr//s
hrstobocco,
Hardlyhad I sot down when the doorbellrang.
No soonerdid she hong out the woshtngthon tt
begonto rain.
Thefo|lowingadditiána|expressions can a|so be used in
thiswayin certaincircumstances.
Only
beíore
adverbof time (now,/oter,etc.) or when
qua|iýing
an introductoryphrase.
eg aniyno'wdo I understondwhy you behovedos you
rird,
)n),ytn Cornwollcon you buy real Corntshpostles,
Z.l WhatlThe thing, etc. + clause
This structure is used to place special emphasis on the
subject,object or complement of a sentence.
e.g. She wonts to hear evidencethot he cores.
Whot she wonts to hear is eyldencethot he cores.
(emphasison the object)
Lock of communlcotton cousesmost Droblems.
This kind of cleft sentence often uses general terms like:
the person (who), the thing (thot), the ploce (where), the
reoson (why), etc.
e'g' The thing thot CÚUSeSmost problemsls /ock of
communtcotion.
(emphasison the subject)
Lock of communicotionis the thing thot couses most
problems,
This structure can also emphasisethe verb, by using
doldoesor did as a substitute in the whot clause.
e g. She oppliedfor onotherjob.
Whot she did was (to) apply for another1ob.
B9
 #tr GMMMAR FILE
Thereis usuallyan impliedcontrastwith somethingthat
wassaidpreviously.
e.g.I con'thelpyou findo husbond.What I can do is help
you mokethe mostof yourlooks.
2.2 lt + be + that
This type of cleft structurecan put emphasison most
elementsof the sentence,except the verb. Like the whot
lnfinitive
I The to inÍinitive
The to inÍinitiveis used:
l.l t o e x p r e s sp u r p o s e .
e.g. Iheres o reporterhere to interviewyou.
I go swimming to try and keep my weight down.
1.2 after certain verbs (there is a list of the main ones
on page | 54).
e.g We con't offordto go out much.
Don't hesltoteto contoct me if you need help.
| .3 after the objects of certain verbs (there is a list of
the main ones on page 154).
e.g. You surelydon't expect me to come with you?
Could you remtndrne to post this lenel
Red couses people to feel in a hurry.
1.4 after the auxiliary verbs be and hoye.
e,g, Does she hove to be so oggresslveall the tíme?
The police ore to stort towing owoy vehlciessoon.
1.5 after adjectives.
e.g. They'rebound to be hungrywhen they orrive.
Fortunately,ltšnot líkelyto hoppen,
!.ó after too + adiective and adjective + enough'
e.p./ti lljsr1oohoťto eoL'
Are you fit enough to toke port in the roce?
1.7 as the subiect of a sentence.
e.g, Io spend so much money would be foolish.
To err is humon, to forgve divine.
140
type, it impliesa contrastwith a previousstatement.
e.g.Whot you soy isn'timportont,but how.
It isn'twhotyou soy that\ importontbut how.
(emphasison the subject)
The differences /ieln the woy men ond women
tolK
It'sin the woy men ond womentolk that the
differences /ie.(emphasison the adverbial)
2 lnfinitive without ro
The infinitivewithout to is used:
7.1 aftermodalverbs.
e.g,We couldtelephoneto see how she ls.
Why con'tyou be moreconsiderote?
2.2 after the objectsof certainverbs.
a moke,letand sometimeshelp
e.g.Shewouldn'tletme poy for thedamoge.
Youcon'tmokeme go.
Theporterwill help you corryyourcoses,
b heor,see,feel,notice,wotchwhen used in the sense
perceivinga completeaction.(When part of an action
perceived,an -ingform is used.)
e'g'Didn,tyouheorme shouÚ (Compare:l heardo
drippingso I got up)
I sow him go intothebuilding.
(Compare:/sow
him toll<ngto sorneone.)
2.3 afterwouldrother...,hod bener... and whynot.,.?
e.g I'drotherspeokto you in privote,
You'dbetterhurrvuD.
Why not tokea breolQ
3 Perfect and continuous infinitive
3. I The perfectinfinitive(to + hove+ past participle)
usedto refer to the past.
e.g,/t'susefulto hovehod some experiencein the
l'd liketo hoveknownhim better.
 GRAMMAR FILE

3.2 The continuous infinitive (belto be + -ing form)
a is usedfor actions which are or were happeningat
thetimeof speal<ing.
e g' it,snrceto be tolkingťOSomeonewho knows thelr
sublect.
b can be used with modal verbs.
e.g We could be lyingon the beoch lnsteod of sittingin
this trofficjom.
See Grammar File, page 145 for passive infinitives.

-rng
Torms 4 Prepositions/coniunctions a -ing form
I -ingforms as nouns 4.1 -ing forms can be used after any preposicion.
-ing
nouns,or gerunds,can be used with an article, with a . verb + preposition + -ing form
possessiveadjective,and with other determiners that go I flnallysucceededin stortingthe cor.
withuncountable nouns such as thislthot,somelany,much . noun + preposition + -ing form
lrťť/e,
morelless,all, etc. Doingyogo is o good woy of reloxing.
e g Youl/ enyoyths srnglng.
o adjective+ preposition + -ingform
Anycheatingwil/be severelypuntshed
He's good ot coming up with so/utrons,
l'mdotnglessdrtvingnow.
Other verbs, nouns and adjectivesfollowed by
Whenusedwith an article, an -ingnoun doesn't normally
prepositionsare listed on page 154.
akea directobject.

lnstead
of: * The signingthe treoty 4.2 -ingforms are used after the following time
wesay: The srgningof the treoty conjunctions: before, ofter,when, while,on, since.
lnstead
of: * The openingthe motorwoy e g. A[er checkng the door iaos secure/y/ocked,she /efi.
wesay: The openingof the motorwoy For more detailed information about participle clauses,
^An see Grammar File, pages 144-145.
of asteriskindicatesan incorrect utterance.
5
5 Possessive a -ing form
2 Verb .t'-ing form
An -ingform after a verb, preposition or other
verbsare íol|owedonly by -ingforms (or nouns).
Certain
'|ou expression may be interrupted by a possessivepronoun
e'g kno'whow he detestsgoing ťopalŤies'
(e.g.her) or noun + š to show a change of subject.
Letme know when you'veftntshedworking.
e.g We opilectoLedHelen'sofferingLo help.
need+ -ingform has a passivemeaning.
Note:
We opprecrotedher ofleringto help.
^E 'Ýo-ihou:eneedspotnt:ng'
I hope you won't mtnd my interruptingyou.
Thereis a list of verbs which are followed only by -ing I look forvrordto yourpining us.
formson page 154.A few verbs can talce both -ing forms
/ts no use her tryingto get out of it.
andinflnitives
with little differencein meaning,while
In informal speech, a noun or personal pronoun may be
thereareotherswhich can take both forms but with a
used instead.
difference
in meaning(see lists on page 154).

3 Other expressions + -ing form

which take -ingforms, such as cont
Otherexpressions
stond
andno use,are listed on page 154.

t4l
friŤř GMI'4MARF|LE
Modal verbs
! !ntroduction
Modal verbs are a specialkind of auxiliaryverb. Like
other auxiliaryverbs,they are alwaysused with a main
verb but modal verbs express an attitudeto what we say.
They can express how certain or uncertainwe are about
an event,or how willingor unwillingwe are to do
something,for example.
There are three so-calledsemi-modals:dore.needand
usedto. These havesome specialcharacteristicswhich
are describedlater.
The modalverbs in Englishare:
con mrght sholl would
could must should
moy oughtto will
Z Special characteristics
2.1 Modal verbs are followed by the baseform of the
verb or by the baseform of be (present)or hove(past)+
participle.
e.g.I mightgo. Youcouldrento cor.
Wouldyou liketo sit down?
Theymightbe havingdrnner,
He couldhoveleftthe countrv.
2.2 Modal verbs do not inflect,i.e.they do not take an
-s in the third person or -ingor -ed.
2.3 Modal verbs do not take the auxiliarydo. The
negativeis formed by addingnot.
e.g.Youcon'tgo in there,
It mightn'troinofteroll.
2.4 Questionsare formedby invertingthe subjectand
the modal.Modal verbs are also used in questiontags.
e.g.Musťyou mokethot noise?
Moy I comein?
You'djoin,wouldn'tyou?
2.5 Modal verbs haveno infinitive.Other expressions
must be used instead.
e.g.(con)Willyou be ableto helpme?
(must)l'm goÍngto hoveto leove,
2.6 Modal verbs haveno pastform, and other
expressionsmust be used instead.(For specialusesof
couldand would,see notes below.)
e.g.(must)I hod to chongethe tyre.
r42
(con)Wereyou ableto finda bonlQ
Did you monogeto find o bonlQ
3 Detailed information
3.! Abi|iý: con, could, able to
3.l.l Con is usedto talk aboutpresentabilityand
awareness.
e,g.Holidayscon domageyourheolth.
Con youhearme?
It can also be used to talk about future ability(but not
awareness),often with the idea of personalwillingness.
e.g' Can We meettonighď
I con gve you o lift tomorrow,
if you like.
3.1.2 As con has no infinitive,be ableto is used withwi{
goingto,usedtq etc.
e.g.We'llbe obleto gtveyou on onswersoon.
Will yoube obleto see the stoge7
/ usedto be oble to swm 20 lensthswithout
3.1.3 Couldis only usedto talk aboutgeneralabilityin
the past.To talk about a specificexampleof ability,we
use wos ableto. Couldn\ refers to both general and
specificability.
e.g.I coulddrivewhenI wos 15.
LuckilyI wos oble to finda toxi.
I couldn'tdrivetill I wos 25.
l'm ofroidI couldn'tflnd o toxi.
3,1.4 Could+ perfectinfinitiveis used to talk about
thingsmighthavebeen different.lt can also suggest
criticism.
e.g.He couldhovebeenon octor.(Buthe didn't
one.)
Youcouldhovetelephoned me to soyyou'dbe lote,
(Butyou dtdn'tphone)
3.2 Degrees of likelihood, assumptions and
deductions: n?ust, con't, could, may, might
3.2. I Could,moy and mightare used to talk aboutthe
possibilityof something.Strongpossibilityis indicated
addingwell;weak possibilityis indicatedby adding
be polsonous.
e.g.Don'teot iil lt couldlmoylmight
Pricesmightwe//rlse.
I mightpossiblybe wrong,
 GRAI'1I'1ARFILE

3.2.2Negativepossibilityis indicatedby maylmight+ e.g, You mustn't moke too much noiseor you'llwoke the
nct.
Couldn't
indicates impossibility. boby!
e.g.He mightnot hove our phone number. You don't have toldon't need to moke on
fhe news couldn'tbe better, oppointmentto see him.

3.2.3Must is used to say that you are cerrain that 3.3.5 Shou/dand oughtto express strong advice or
something is true or is going to happen,while cont is obligation.They are very close in meaning,but note the
to
usedto saythat you are certain that something is not differencein word order in the examples below. The past
trueor is not golng to happen (unavoidableassumptions is formed with a oerfect infinitive.
anddeductionsbased on what you know). e'g, I should reollytÍdythe houseup'
eg' /tmustbe ó o,clock.'
Theres the time stgnol' You reollyought to tidy the houseup.
t not Itcan'tbe her ot the door Shes owcy an holidoy. They shouldloughtto hove been more coreful.
lness.
3 , 2 , 4A s s u m p t i o n a
s n d d e d u c t i o n sa b o u t t h e p a s t a r e 3.3.ó Need exists both as an ordinary verb and as a
expressed by usinga períect infinitive. modal auxiliary.lt is used as a modal auxiliary mainly in
e,gHe couldhove beenheld up by troffic.(possibility) questions and negativestatements in the present tense,
vith will, Youmust hove been terrrfled,(certainty) to express lack of necessity,and in the expression needn't
Shecon'tlcouldn't
have tokenit (impossibility) hove done (see 3.3.7 below).
e.g.Need you oslJ
3,3 Obfigation: must, need, ought to, should You needn,tshout,l,m not deoÍ],
topptrt2
3.3.1.Mustand mustnt are used to say that it is very 3.3.7 Didn't need to v. needn'thave done:didn't needto is
ity in rmportant
to do, or not to do, something.This can be a used when something wasn't necessaryso wasn't done,
personal
recommendation,a strong suggestionor an while needn'thove is used when somethingwas done
"we
obligation
(seealso 3.3.2 below). even though it turned out to be unnecessary.
e g. Youmust try the tcecream. lt'sdelicious. e,g, He didn't need to go to cour-tbecousethe cose wos
Vtlemustn,ťforgeťto write ond thonk them for their dlsmissed.
iiasDitalitV. / needn'thove dressedsmortly.When I got there,
Youmust,try to be more punctuol. everyonewos in jeons,

3.3.2Obligationin the past is expressed by hod to. 3,4 Permission: can, may could
It now Obligation in the future can be expressed by rnustwhen
theobligation alreadyexists now. lf it will only exist in 3 . 4 . 1 T a l k i n ga b o u t p e r m i s s i o n
theíuture' willhoveto is used. Con and may are used to talk about what is and isnt
came e.g,He to/dme that I hod to try horder. permitted in the present.May not is more formal than
řcl mustte/ephoneflrst beforeyou orrivenext ttme, connot.
cte. if lrn lote,l'llhove to take o toxt. e'g. You con leave schoolwhen You ore | ó but you
connotvate.
3.3.3Mustv. hoveto: rnustusuallyexpresses an
Under the low you moy moke one phatocopyfor your
obligation
which comes from the speaker while hove to
personoluse,but you moy nat moke multiplecopies.
generally
expressesa more impersonal obligation.
Could and waslwereqllowedto are used to talk aoout
e.gYormustsend me o postcord.(friendspeal<ing)
')e 'bu activitieswhich were generally permitted in the past.
haveto have o viso to enter the countrv.ftravel
Jbv Only woslwereallowedto can be used to refer to
agentspeal<rng)
ssibly. permission given on a particular occasion.

3,3,4mustn'tv. don't hove toldon't need to: mustn't e.g.At schoo/,we could weor ony c/otheswe wonted,

expresses oport from jeons.

negativeobligationwhile the other forms
express When the World Cup wos on W, I wos ollowed to
absenceof obligation.
stoy up lote ond wotch.
Will be able tolwill be ollowedťoare used to ta|k about
future permission.
t43
:. GMMMAR FILE
3.4.2 Askingfor and givingpermission
When askingfor permissionto do something, con is the
leastformal,while couldand moyare more polite. The
additionof possibýor the use of the form t wonderif l ...
makesthe requestmore polite. Mightis very formal.
e,g.Con I borrowyourpen foro minute?
CouldI (possibly)useyour telephone?
Moy I useyournomeos o referee?
I wonderif I couldinterruptyoufor o moment?
MÍghtl mokeo suggestlon7
When replyingto a requestfor permission, only conand
moyare used.
e.g.Yes,(of course)you conlmoy,
No, (/'mofroid)you con't(connot)lmoy not.
4 Semi-modals: need, dore, used to
These verbs exist both as ordinary verbs and as modal
auxiliaryverbs.As modals,they havecertainspecial
and the mainpointsof theseare described
characteristics
below.
4., dore and need
These verbsare mainlyusedas modalauxiliariesin
questionsand negativesentencesin the presenttense.
Participleclauses
!ntroduction
Participle clausesare common in written Englishbecause
they enable the writer to convey information in a
concise, economical way, avoidingunnecessarywords.
There are two types of participle clause,which are
described below.
! ealectival participle ctauses(reduced
relative clauses)
Adjectival participle clauses have the same function as
relative clauses,which is to give further information
about a preceding noun. They can be expanded into a
full relative clause, and may be either defining or
non-defining.
!.1 Present participle clausesgenerally have an active
meaning. They are used to refer to actions that happen at
the same time as the main verb.
e.g. Ihe outhor's lotest book feoturing the famous
r44
The meaningis the same as when they are used as
ordinaryverbs.
e.g.I doren'twolk throughthe pork ot night.
How doreyou speokto me likethot?
We needn'thurrv,The film doesn'tstorttill B.
4.2 dare
In the presentsimple,doresometimestakes an -s in the
third personsingular, while the pastsimpleis usually
-d.
formed with Dore can also be used with the auxiliary
do and didn't,andwith the modalswill,wouldand should,
e.g.She'sthe onlyone whodoreschollenge him.
Don'tyoudoredo thotogoin.
Nobodydoredleovebeforethe end.
We didn'tdore tell him whotreollyhoppened,
Wouldyou dorego thereolone?
4.3 Used to
Usedto only refersto the past.In general,its use asa
modafauxiliary(Usedyou to ...?He usednot to ...)is
formal and less common than its use as an ordinary
with did.ln the negative,neyerusedto is often used
insteadof didn'tuseto.
e.g.Dldn'tyou useto ploy ln the schoo/orchestro?
He ncver trccd k1ir1n't rrse) fn he <n mann
detectlye in onother murder mystery,is her bestyeť
(= which feotures:non-deÍining)
Mony of the people woitingourlde the palocehod
been there for hours' (= who were wotting:deÍinin$
1.2 Adjectivalclausesformedwith a pastparticiple
a passivemeaning.The past participleshows howthe
noun has been affectedby an action.
e,g. Irees blown over by the storm were blocl<ngthe
rood' (= which had been blown over;deÍining)
We stoyed ot the hotel recommended by thetrovel
ogent' (= which hod been recommended:deíining)
Mony people,worriedobout their health,have
switched to o heolthier dlet. 1= who ore worried:
deíning)
2 Adverbial participle ctauses
2.4 Parcicipleclausescan indicatethe sequenceof
events.
The presentparticipleis usedwhen the actioninthe
 p a r t i c i pcllea u s ea n d t h e m a i n c l a u s eh a p p e na t a b o u t
the yecrs. (condrtion.,lf you seryice rt regulorly.
same ttme. )
Participle clauses usuallyhave the same subject as the
e.g,Turnrng the corner,I sow the old house.(= When I
mainclause.
turnedthe corner,I saw ..,I I turned the cornerond I
e,g. Knocked to the floor,the yose smoshed into pleces.
scw,.,)
Not: x Knocked to the floor,/ smoshed ťheyose lnťopleces'
He stormedout,of the room, slammingthe door
behtnhd r m .( = . . .a n d . )
IE 3 Participle clauses after prepositions and
Theperfectparticipleis used when there is a time
certain coniunctions
.Y difíerence
between two act|ons.
Participle clauses can be used after the following
,,] e.g.Hovrngftnrshedthe report,she went out
for o wolk. prepositions and conjunctions:despite,on, os, before,ofter,
2.2 Participleclausescan replace adverbialclauses of when, whenever,while, since,until.
reason,
resultand condition. e.g lfuiled my divtng test,desplte havtngtoken25 /essons,
e,g,Not berngan expert on the sublect,I con,t onswer /n some7obs,you hove to rettreon reochingóO'
tn.itquest/on.(reason) Heš perceivedos beinga hord mon,
Havrg livedtn the countrya long ttme,I knowa lot
oDOUt/ťsCusťoms and cu|ture'(reason/resurr7
Servtcedregulodythe englneshou/d/cst for mony

re
-h

Passive going to goingto be + p. participle

you,regoing to be tested.
I Form
Modals (present) modal + be + p. participie
l . l T h e p a s s i v ep u t s e m p h a s i so n t h e p e r s o n o r t h i n g The cor might be stolen.
affected by an action rather than on the agent (whoever Modals (past) modal + hove been+ p. participle
doestheaction).To change a sentence from active to He couldhave beenhurt.
passive, the object must become the subject of tne new !nfinitive to + be + past participle
sentence
and be followed by a passiveform.
He's hoping to be invited.
e.g,Active:Someonehas scrotchedmy cor.
Passive:My cor hos been scrotched.
1.3 Ger + past participle
1,2 The passiveis formed with the appropriate tense Get + past participle can be used as an alternativeto the
of
theverbto be + past participle. !g + past participle form in informal contexts. lt usually
suggeststhat the action described was accidental rather
Presentsimple omlislore+ p. participle than intentional.
He is colled 'Lofty'. e.g' Ihe trees goťblown down tn the storm'
Presentcontinuous omlislarebeing+ p. participle l'm afroidyour ft|egoť/osttn the move'
|m beingfollowed.
Presentperfect hoslhovebeen+ p. participle 1.4 An impersonal construction can be used after verbs
The door hos been lockeo. of mental processes,such as agree,ollege,believe,
feel,
Pastsimple judge, know, rumour, soy,think.
woslwere+ p. participle
It wos made of silver. a It + passive+ thot clause
Pastcontinuous woslwerebeing+ p. participle e.g,/t wcs ogreed thot membershlpfues shoutclbe ratsed,
The cat wos beingchosed. It ts hoped thot the summttmeetlng w// be successfl.r/,
Pastperfect hod been + p. participle
b Subiect + passive+ to infinitive/perfectinfinitive
The cup hod been broken. e g She is be/levedto hove o good chonceof wrnning.
Futuresimple He rs rumouredto hove had secretdecllngswtth the
willbe + p. participle
enemy.
They'llbe criticised.

145
2 Use 2.4 to makea statementmore formal and impersonal,
and often deliberatelyto avoid mentioningthe agent.
The passiveis used:
e.g.Yourlicencehos beenrevoked,
2,1 when the agentis not known or not important,or It was feltthot he wos ot foult.
when the agentis obviousfrom the context. Ihls ls be/levedto be the onlyexomplein the county,
e.g.Theroof'sbeenrepoiredot lost.
I'mhopingto be promotednextyeor. 3 Special points
3.1 make, hear, see are followed by an infinitive without
2,2 when the agent is people in general (to avoid using
to in the active, but by the infinitive with to in the
you or one)
passive.
e.g. Iickets con be reseryed by colling the Box Offrce.
e.g. They mode me leove.I was mode to leove.
The centre of town should be ovoidedduringrush
I heord thern shout.They were heard to shout.
hour.
I sow him go into the building,He was seen to go lnto
the building.
2,3 when the action or event is more important than
the agent,as in describing processes or scientific
3.2 /et has no passive form. Instead,the verb allowis
experiments.
usedin the passive.
e,g. Ihe birds ore fust cleaned with mild detergentto
e.g.Theydidn'tlet me poy for the domoge.I wosn't
removethe oil ,..
ollowedto poy for the domoge.
Woter is then odded to the míxturein the test tube

Relativeclauses Notes
a Whom is very formal and mainlyused in written
I Defining relative clauses
English.
A defining relative clause makes it clear who or what e.g.Ihe mon whomI met yesterdoy.
we're talking about and is essentialto the meaningof the Less formally,we would say:
sentence.
Themon (who)I met yesterdoy.
e.g. /'rnofroid I've/ostthe book thot you lent me.
b Whosecan refer to both people and things.
e.g.Ihe womonwhosedogron owoy;A housewhose
Special points
collopsed.
a Thotoftenreplaceswhoor which. c Thatnormallyfollows superlativesand words like
b The relative pronoun can be omitted when it is the somethingl
anythinglnothing
IallI noneImany and few.
object of the clause.
e.g, Ihe typewriterthot you so/d me hos gone wrong. 2 Non.deÍining relative clauses
OR Ihe typewriteryou sold me hcs gone wrong.
A non-definingrelativeclausegivesextra information
c Commas are not used before the relative pronoun.
abouta personor thingand is not essentialto the
meaningof the sentence.
subiect obiect possessrve e.g.We wenton on excursionto o wild lifepork whtch
People wholthot wholwhomlthat wds rnteresa/ng
Things whichlthat whichlthot whose
PIace where Special points
Time when a Who and whichcannot be replacedby that.
Reason why b The relativepronouncannotbe omitted.
c A commais normallyusedbeforethe relative

r46
 3 Relative clauses with prepositions In more formal English,the preposition can be placed at
lfa defining
or non-definingrelativeclause contains a the beginningof the clause. In this case the relative
verbwith a dependent preposition,this preposition is pronoun whichor whom must be used.
usually
placedat the end of the clause: e,g. Theres the house in which we used to /rve,
e'g'Theresťhehouse (thot) we used to /ivejn, The President,to whom / spoke yesterdoy,is very
Ihe President,who I spoke to yesterdcy,ts very concerned.
concerned. See Study Box, page 188 for more examples of relative
clauseswith prepositions.

Reported
speech e,g.He told me to woit in the queue.
/ osked her to switch off the centrol heattng.
I Reporting statements
Her doctorodvisedher to stop smoklng.
Toreportwhat someone said, we use a reporting verb Other reporting verbs which can be used with this
ío|lowed
by athot c|ause.In iníorma|speech and writing, structure include invite,order and worn.There is a fuller
thot
maybe omitted. list of suchverbs on page 155.
e g 5hesoid she hcd been to on tntervtew.
1toldyou l'd be lote. 3.2 To report a suggestion,we can use a thot clause.
There
is a list of reporting verbs which can be used with This clause often contains the verb shou/dbut may also
ťhot
c|auses on page |55. contain an infinitive.
e.g, The Mancger suggestedthot we shouldput our
2 Reportingquestions camplatntin writing.
The Monoger suggestedwe put our Comp|alntÍn
Note:
Reportedquestions use normal word order and do
wrrting,
nothavequestionmarks.
Other reporting verbs which can be used with this
2,1 Yes/noquestions structure include demond,insistand recommend.There is
Toreporta yeslnoquestion,we normally use osk followed a í u | | e r| i s to f s u c h v e r b s o n p a g e | 5 4 .
byani[clauseor a whetherclause. Yes/noquestions with
3.3 To report suggestions,advice, recommendations,
orareusuallyreported with whetherclauses.
cI etc. we can also use certain reporting verbs + -ing.
eg Tlteycsked lf we hcd ony children.
e,g,He suggestedbreoktngthe journey in Chester.
I askedwhetheryou wonted teo or coffee.
The doctoradvtsedtoktngo holidoy.
There
is a listof other verbs which can be used with if
Steyerecommendedtryingthe sťeok'
andwhether clauseson page |55.
There is a list of theseverbs on page 155.
2,2 wh questions
Toreporta wh question'we use the wh word íol|owedby 4 Reporting intentions and hopes
thereportedclause. To report a stated intention or hope, we can use either a
e g.5neoskedwhy she hod to poy a depostt. thot clause or a to infinitiveclause after certain verbs.
le ,tonterlto know where the bonk was. e.g,/ pro,.nlsedto be back beforemtdnight.
T h e ri es a l i s to f v e r b sw h i c h c a n b e u s e d i n t h i s I promtsedthot I would be bock before midntght.
structure on page |55. Note: A thot clause must be used if there is a change of
subject.
3 Reportingadvice, orders, requests, Other reporting verbs which can be used in this way
suggestions,
etc. include hope,proposeand threoten.There is a fuller list of
such verbs on page |54.
3.1 Toreportan order, request,etc. which has been
madeto someone,we can use a to infinitiveclause.

r47
ii;' GMMMAR FrLE

Time reference Notes

When reportingspeech,the tensesand time expressions a lt is not necessaryto changethe tense when the
are normallychangedas follows: reportingverb is in the presenttense or when the
originalwords are stilltrue.
Direct Speech Reported Speech
e.g.He soyshls cor hos brokendownand he'swoitingfor
Presentsimple Past simple
o mechonic.
Presentcontinuous Past continuous
ProfessorCooperexploinedthat fomílytenslonsoften
Present perfect Past peďect
eruptwhen the fomilyis thrusttogetherlncessont/y
Past simple Past perfect
Past perfect Past perfect b Certain modal verbs (could,would,should,oughtto,
shalllwill shouldlwould mrght)dont changein reported speech.
canlmoy couldlmight e'g.l míghtbe bock lote,
rnust mustlhqdto I saidI mightbe backlote.
now then
todoy thot day
tomorrow the nextlfollowing doy
yesterdoy the doy beforelthepreviousdoy
this that
here there
ogo before

SpelIing e.g.Ihe Nl/e Mount Eyeresť TheSohoroDesert

Mors The Block Forest
I Capital letters ó with doys,months,festivolsand historicolperiodsbut
Capital letters are used: not seasons.
I at the beginningof o sentence. e.g.Tuesdoy Morch Eoster the Middle Ages
2 in headings and sub-heodings for reports,articlesand (butsummer,wínter, etc.)
so on. Also in the tites of books,plays,films,porticular 7 with the namesof certainprofessions or positions
worksof art, scientific
/ows,etc. In this case,the main when usedas tides for particularpeoplebut not
words havecapitalswhile the articlesand smaller used generally.
prepositionsusuallydo not. e.p. /et me introdtre vatt tn the Princinnl íhut /U /rke
e,g,lntroduction Focuson AdvoncedEnglish Homlet becomethe principolof o collegeone doy.)
Bock to the Future Mono Liso Boyle'sLaw
3 with nomesof people(alsoanimalsand other things 2 Forming participles
which haveindividualnames),manufocturers, shops,hotels,
2,1 Doubling consonants
government deportments,etc.
The finalconsonantis doubledin verbs:
e.g.Mr MortinHoll Ford Quicksove
I which haveonly one syllableand which haveone
The Rome Hilton Deportmentof Educotion
vowel followed by one consonant.
4 with nomesof countries,cities,towns,regions,oreos,
e.g.stop- stopping
streets,etc.,and with odjectives and nounsdescribing
run,trop,swrm,ftt clop
notionolityor ploce of originbut not with easg west, etc.
Exceptions:Final-w, -x and -y are never doubled.
on their own.
e.g.Fronce Athens the Middle Eost Soho 2 which havemore than one syllablebut where
FifthAvenue French o Dutchmon Bovarion final syllable is stressed and has one vowel followed
one consonant.
5 with nornesof rivers,mountoinsand other geographicol
66
,-6'-."'ng
ra6raÍ-ra1rafti

feotures.Also with planetsbut not the sun,earth or

begn,odmiSreferoccunforget
moon.
Exceptions:There are a few verbs where the final

148
c o n s o n ains td o u b l e d e v e n t h o u g h t h e s t r e s s i s o n t h e 2.2 Other points
firstsyllable: I V e r b s w h i c h e n d i n a c o n s o n a n t+ - e n o r m a l l yd r o p
e.g,',orship, ktdnop,hondtcap t h e e b e f o r e t h e e n d i n g- i n g .
I whichend in J after one vowet. e , g ,) - e e z e . ^ e e l i ' r g
',
.r'i'ei
conCei:']'
conťrol,stgna|.|.,,
fu|ftl Main exceptions:cge ogeing,dye - dyetng
e2.qu1rret quarreiltng
2 Final -y after a consonant changesto -i before -ed.
N o t et h a ti n A m e r i c a n E n g l i s ht h e r e a r e s o m e v e r b s e.g.rry - uteo
w h e rteh e f i n a l- / i s n o t d o u b l e d .E x a m p l e sa r e s h o w n
3 Final -y after a vowel does not normally change in this
witha 'i'.
way.
Theíina| consonantis therefore not doub|ed in veros: e.g. enloy enloyed,ploy - plctyed
a '.'.hel.e thet.eare two vowe|sÍb||owedby a consonant Exceptions:pcy - potd,loy - latd,soy sa/d
e . gs / i e e p s v r / e e p / (nRgu l e 2 1 . 1 )
4 The ending -ie changesto -y before -ing.
b wherethere are two final consonants
e.g,/ie lytngdte dytng
e'g,Ýlarn warning(Ru|e2 | l)
5 Verbs which end with -c usuallyadd -k before -ed or
c lrherethe stressis on the f rst of two syliables -tng.
e q / i m r t l m r t n g( R u l e2 . 2 )
e.g.ponic panicked,picntc picnicking
d where|nal / ío||owstwo vowe|s
e g '5 | e Ú / s ť e o / i n( gR u i e2 , 1 3 )

renses:
Present d i f í e r e n c ei n m e a n i n gb e t w e e n t h e p r e s e n t s i m p | ea n d
p r e s e n tc o n t i n u o u s .T h e r e i s a l i s t o f t h e s e v e r b s o n p a g e
I Presentsimple |5 5 .
Form e.g / thinkyou'rewonde{u/(opinion)
I m thrnktngobout,whot you satd eorller (mental
'o^' eg S"' 1,n.. \o.,9,r
process)
Negative:
ooesnt /dont + oase Íbň
ooldoes+ sublect + base form?
Question; ) . 4 T h e p r e s e n ts i m p l ea l s o h a s c e r t a i n s p e c i a lu s e s i n
reviews,sports commentaries,dramatic narrative and
Use when reporting what you have heard or been told (with
soyltelllheor).
| . I T h e p r e s e n ts i m p I er e í e r st o s i t u a t i o n sw h i c h a r e e.g. DustrnHoffmon,who plays the hero,gives o flne
long-term or permanentand to general truths such as peformance.
scientific
facts. B/ockpcsses the boll to Whtte but he mrsses.,,
e.g5ireworksfor the Foretgnaffrce. There l om, oll o|onein ťhehouse,ond the doorbel|
I ior,eckissrco/
musrc. dngsl
NrneDioneas travelroundthe sun, I hear you'vedecrdedto mave.

1.2 lt canalso refer to regular or repeated actions. I . 5 T h e p r e s e n ts i m p l e c a n b e u s e d t o t a l k a b o u t f u t u r e

e ? !e s,.,,'rnrsduring htslunch break every doy. p|answith reference to timetab|esand itineraríes(see
i,li.',tirs
spendChr-istnroswith my famtly. G r a m m a r F i l e ,p a g e 1 5 0 ) ,a n d i s a l s o u s e d i n t i m e c l a u s e s
introduced by when,os soon os, ofter,i[ etc. (The present
1,3 lt is usedwith certain verbs to express thougnts,
perfect can also be used in time clauses;see seccion on
í e e l i nigmsp' r e s s i o nasn d i m m e d i a t er e a c t i o n s .
present perfect below.)
e; lls lec rdstesst/'onge,
e,g, The troin leovesot mtddoy.
Do youwont ta try the lacket onl
l'll let you know tf o fax orrives.
Note:
With cerrainverbs e.g. think,feel,there is a

r49
 GMMMAR FILE
2 Present continuous
Form
Negative:omlislorenot + -ing
Question:islore1- subject+ -ing?
Note: Certainverbs do not usuallyoccur in continuous
tenses(seepage |55).
Use
2.1 The present continuous is used to talk about
actions which are happeningat the moment of speaking
or which are changingor developingat the present time.
e,g. Don't dislurb him, he's working.
My typing'simproving,
Tenses:expressingthe future
Summary of forms and uses
Form
going to
e.g.We're goingto hovea porty
Areyou goingto invitejohn?
e.g. / thlnk I'm goingto foint
Future simple
e.g.He'//be fortytnJune.
Tomorrow willbe coldond wet.
e.g.Iknow,I'llphoneforo toxi,
e.g.Shc//I giveyouo lift?
Willyou helpme withthisboý
e.g.l'll hit you if you do thotogoin.
Don'tworry,I won'tbe lote.
e.g./ supposeyou'llbe prettybusy.
Do you thinkhe'llcome?
e.g.Ihereso cor pullingup outside.
Oh,thot'llbeJim,
Present continuous
e'g' Whot ore you doingthíseveniný
Thecor'sbeinsservicedtomorrow
Present simple
e.g. What timedo you orriveat Heothrow?
We coll ot Veniceond Athens.
ís to
e.g You ore Lo do exoctly os I soy.
e.g. Ihe Presrdentrs to vlsltRome.
150
2.2 lt can also refer to actionsor situationswhich are
temPorary.
e.g.l'm helpingout in the kitchenuntiltheyfindo new
chef.
2.3 The presentcontinuouscan be used with olwoysor
foreverto describea habitwhich the speakerfinds
annoying.
e'g' Why ore you forevercritícisíng
me?
2.4 The presentcontinuousis also quiteoften usedto
expresspre-arrangedfuture actions (see Grammar File,
page |50).
e.g.Nlge/i comrngroundto see us tonrght,
Use
I To exoressoersonalintentron.
The actionhasusuallybeenconsideredin advanceand some
arrangements may havebeen made.
2 To makea predictionbasedon what you know íeelor cansee,
I To expressa futurefaď or prediction,
2 To expressa suddendecision.
3 To expressan offeror request,
. '- pvnrecc
4 Tn -,'ř. '.-*. a;f a promlse.
r fhreet
5 To expressan opinionaboutthe futureafterverbs likethlnk,
suppose,expect,doubtif andalsowith probobly
6 To expressstrongprobabrlity
To expressa pre-arranged futureaction.Similarin meaningand
to goingto but with lesssenseof personalintention.
To expressthe certainíuture,a íxed futureeventusua||y
based
a timetableor programme.
I To expressan instructionor orden
2 To talk about an aďion or eventwhich has been arranged,
ofÍicia||y.
 GMMMAR FILE

Aboutto/due to
e g,Ihe butldingls due to be completedsoon. To tall<about actionsor eventswhich are expected to happen,
He'sabout ta onnouncethe resu/t, u s u a l l yf a i r l ys o o n .
Futurecontinuous
eg its awfulto think I'llbe workingthrstlme I To tall<about an action whrch will be in progressat a point in the
nert week/ future.
e.g Ihe big storeswill be hovingthetrwtnter 2 To ta||< about an action or event which wi|1happen as a maťceroí
sc/essoon. courSe,
ei Vlrllyou be checktngout todoy? 3 To express a requestfor informationrather than a request for
action.
e,g r/,/hercs
Nlge/tonightl
Hell be pefurmingsomewherewith htsband, 4 To express strongprobabilty
/ expect.
Futureperfect
e g iney v,ttll
have recetvedour letterby Mondoy. To tall<about a future event which will be comp ete by a time
w h ' C Á: s | u r t h e ri n t h e í u L u . e '
Futureperfect continuous
e q i'//hovebeenworkingtn thtscompanyfor To tal|<about the durattonoí an action,aS seen from a point in the
/ eJ' fe t 4P"1. future.

Tenses:
presentperfect l've been going to Scotlandevery summer stnceI wos
a chtb.
I Form
Simple: hr.rs/hcrve
+ pglt part. pl" 2.2 The present perfect simple is used to refer to an
'
c,g.He\ so/dhis cor action or state which was completed in the past but
l
w h e r e t h e t i m e i s u n k n o w n o r u n i m p o r t a n t .T h e p r e s e n t
Negativehcs/hovenot + past partic ple result is generallymore imporrant than when or how the
i.lsslhove
Question: + subJect+ past partlciple? action or event occurred.
Continuous: . a \ a ' e b é . n I p . e s e n Io a .r c . p I e
.1] The following expressions are often used:
1a1u.-4.9nnt ylstenns. lust,olreody,before, ever,neven yet, still
Negative:hoslhavebeen + ir"lg e,g.Yourfathersjustcome in.(= He's here.)
i'ye seen thot film olready.(= | don't want to see it
Question:haslhave+ sublect + been -rng?
agan,)
N o t eC:e r t a i nv e r b sa r e n o t u s u a l l yu s e d i n c o n t i n u o u s
Ihe TVs been repoired (= lt is now worl<ing.)
t e n s eSse. el i s to n p a g e 1 5 5 .
Have you ever been to Nepol?(= Can you tell me
about it?)
2 Generaluse

2.1 Boththe present perfect simple and the present 2.3 The present perfect can be used in time ctauses
períect
continuousare used to reíer to actions or states introduced by when,os soon as, ofter to describe an action
;e
whichbeganin the past and have continued up till now. which will be completed before the action in the main
Since
is usedto express the starting point, and for is used clause.
toexpress
its duration. e.g We'll moke the onnouncementance everyonehos
Theío||owing orrived.
time expressionsare often used:
rliei/ iecently so for up till now You con buy o cor after you'vepossed the driúngtest.
e.gi"e hoda coldfor a week.
re hosn'tbeenprocttsinpon the plano sa much lately
1,0,,.,,
longhaveyou lived in thtsflot now?

l5l
3 Simple v. continuous 3.4 The present perfect simple suggests that an action
is complete while the present perfect continuous
3.1 In some casesthere is littledifferencebetweenthe suggeststhat it is still incomplete.
two forms. e'g, i'vepointedthe kitchen'(The job is ínished.)
e.g,/'velivedhereoll ny life. I've been pointingthe kitchen.(The job is probably
I'vebeenlivinghereoll ny life. uníinished.)

3.2 The presentperfectcontinuoustendsto emphasise 3.5 The present perfect continuous can be used for a
how longan actionhas continued. series of repeated actions but the present perfect simple
e g. /ts beenroiningoll doy. must be used when the actual quantity of actions or
l've beenwoitingforhours. finished products is mentioned.
e.g. /'ve been knocking on the door for oges.
3.3 The presentperfectcontinuousmaysuggestthat an l've knocked on the door ten tirnes.
actionis temporaryratherthan long-termor permanent.
e.g.He s beenstoyrngwith hisslstertll/he flnds
somewhere to live.

Tenses:past 1.4 When we report two actions which happenedat

the same time, and it is the result that is important,we
I Past simple can also use the past simple in each case.
Form e'g. Ás it grew dorker,we found it more difficultto follow
the potn,
Regular verbs:
e.g.Theywolkedtowordsus 2 Past continuous
Negative: didn't+ baseform Form
Question: dld + subject+ baseform?

Use Negative: Wosn,tlweren,ť + -lng

l.l The past simple is used to refer to completed
actions or events which took place at a particulartime or
over a period of time in the past.
e g. We meť/ost summer'Do you remembel
I stoyed with my uncle until I found o flot of my own,
1.2 The past simple can also refer to repeated actions
in the past.
e,g. He went br o walk every day beforelunch.
Note: lt is also possible to use used to or would + base
form with this meaning.
e.g. He used to go for o wolk ,.,
He wouldgo for o wolk...
1.3 When two actions happen quickly,one after the
other, we usuallyuse the past simple in each case.
e.g. When the oil worninglightcome on, I switchedoff the
engrne.
Question: woslwere + subjeď + baseform?
Note: Someverbsdo not usuallyoccur in continuous
tenses.See the list on page I55.
Use
7.1 The pastcontinuousrefersto actionsor
which were unfinishedat a particular time in the past
also emphasiseshow long an action continued.
e.g. You were livingtn Brightonthen,weren'tyou?
I wos gettingcolderond colder all the time,
2.2 lt is often used to refer to an action which was
going on when a second shorter action interruptedit
e.g. / wos drivinghome when I heord the news on the
radio.
2.3 The past continuous is often used to describe
background to events in a story.
e.g. /t wos o beoutiful doy. The sun wds shiningond
birds were slnging

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2 , 4 T h e p a s tc o n t i n u o u sc a n b e u s e d t o d e s c r i b et w o
actions which happenedat the same time when we are
moreinterestedin the fact that they happenedtogether
than in the result.
e.g l/hiie I wos wotttngfur him to ring,he wcs out hovtng
a goodttme,
2.5 The past continuous can be used with o/woysor
to emphasisethe frequency oí an action. In this
forever
case,
the speal<er is often expressingcriticism or
annoyance.
e g.Ihey,,lereolwoyshovingloud porties whtchwent on
rrriihe eo/-/y
houis.
e,g./ recognlsed him os soon os I saw hrm.
Afterhe left the offtcehe went to co//ecthls cor from
the goroge,
3 . 3 T h e p a s t p e r f e c tc o n t i n u o u si s u s e d w h e n t h e f i r s t
a c t i o n c o n t i n u e dí o r s o m e t i m e o r w a s u n f i n i s h e d .
e,g. The fire had been burntngfor some time before the
ftre brigode ornved.
l'd been hoptngto meet her for oges when I bumped
tntoher by chonce.
4 Past tenses used to talk about
hypothetical situations

2 . ó T h e p a s tc o n t i n u o u si s u s e d i n ť h ee x p r e s s i o n sl 4.1 Past tenses can be used after the following

woswonderingiflwhether and / wos hoping(thot)... as a way expressionsto tall<about situationswhich do not exist
ofmaking an invitation,a request, etc. more polite. These or events which did not happen but which we are able to
expressionsrefer to the present/future,not the past. imagine.
e,g/ ',,rcsv,ronderng
if you would like to join us? I wish wouldrother suppose/supposlng if
if only os tflos though
3 Past perfect
The past simple is used for present or future reference.
Form
e,g,/ wlsh l hod o ccr (l havent )
Simple: ,i66 + past partrciple I'dratheryou dtdn'tsmoke,(You are smol<ing or may
e,g,He had alreo,! l"ft:_ do in future.)
He behovesos tf he ownedthe p/oce.(He doesn't.)
Negative:
itadn't t pastparticiple
' ' Supposeyou dtdn'tget thejob, whot wouldyou do?
Question:0 s-pjo61+ pastpartcipel
Note; / wish + would is used to express a wish for
Continuous: had been 1 -rng somethingto change in the future. lt cannot be used to
e,g,/r1been wottngfor on hour I refer to oneself.
Negative: been + ing
trcrdn't e.g,/ wlsh the weotherwouldtmprove.
hcd * sublect+ been + ,tng? I wish you would stop going on cbout tt.
Question:
N o t eS: o m ev e r b sd o n o t u s u a l l yo c c u r i n c o n t i n u o u s The past perfect is used for past reference.
lenses. Seelist on page I 55. e.g.lf onlyhe hod te/ephonedbeforehe come. (He
ddnt)
Use l'd ratheryou hodn'ttold me. (You did te I me )
He speoks os if he hod done oll the work htmself
3,1 The pastperfect refers to actions which happened, (He didn't.)
orsituations
which existed, before another action at a Supposlngyou hod had on occident!(Youdidn't.)
particular
time in the past.
e,g.l-heshophod closedby the time / got there. 4.2 The past simp|e is a|so used after the expression /tš
,//heni reochedthe frontdoor,I realisedI hod lost my (highlobout)time.
e.g /ts htghtime we /eft.(lt'slate and we haven'tleft
vet.)
3,2 Thepastperfect is used to mal<ethe order of
events
clear.lt's not necessaryto use it when the two
actions
happenquickly,one after the other, or when the
orderoíeventsis c|ear anyway.

153
a. GMMMARFILE

ReferenceLists ó Verbs fol|owed by a to infinitive

-ing forms afford decide learn swear

and infinitive
agree demand long tend
I Verbs followed by -ing forms aim deserve manage threaten
appear expect mean undertake
admit detest involve resent
arrange fail neglect volunteer
adore dislike keep resist
ask fight offer vow
appreciate dread lie risk
attempt guarantee pause wait
avoid endure loathe sit
beg happen plan want
celebrate enjoy mention stand
care help prepare refuse
commence face mind suggest
choose hesitate pretend seem
consider Íancy miss
consent hope promise wish
contemplate finish postpone
dare intend prove yearn
delay go practise
deny imagine report
7 Verbs which take an object followed by a to
inÍinitive
2 Verbs followed by a preposition + -ing form
advise forbid leave tell
admit to benefit from get on with resort to
allow force order urSe
agree with care for insist on succeed in
ask get persuade want
aim at confess to object to think oí
encourage help prefer warn
apologisefor count on pay for vote for
expect intend recommend
approve of depend on put up with
beg invite remind
believe in feel like rely on

8 Verbs followed by -ing forms or a to inÍinitive

3 Nouns followed by a preposition + -ing form
a With little differencein meaning
hope of idea of way of attempt cease fear love
difficultyin thought of method of begin continue hate prefer
bother deserve like start
4 Adjectives followed by a preposition + -ing form
b With a difference in meaning
bad at capableof guilty of
come + -ing move in a particular way
good at excited about tired of
good for fed up with keen on come + to inf graduallystart doing something
bored with fond of nervous of dread + -ing be fearful about a future action
dread + to inf (used only with úink)
5 Other expressions followed by -ing forms
regret + -ing be sorry about an action in the
can't bear go (e.9.camping) no good regret + to inf (with soy, tell, inform and onnounce)
cant help spendtime/money(on) no use be sorry about a present action
can't stand not worth
remember refers to an action before the
lforget + -ing moment of rememberingor
remember/ refers to an action after the
forget + to inf of rememberingor forgetting
stoP + -ing finish an action
stoP + to inf interrupt an action in order to do
something else
trY + -ing make an experiment
try + to iní make an effort to do something
difficult

r54
 GMI4MAR FILE

Reportingverbs Verbs not usually used in continuous tenses

I Verbs followed by thot clauses admire detest impress mean seem
adore dislike include owe sound
400 decide'i' mention
astonish doubt involve own stop
a0mrt deny observe suggest
be envy keep please suppose
2 0rpp doubt persuade suPPose
believe exist know possess surprise
announce estimate promise'k sweart'
belong íit lack prefer survive
answer expectt' ProPose t el l
concern forget last reach suspect
arSue explain remark think
consist hate like realise understand
boast fear remember threatenx
contain hear love remember want
claim feel repeat understand
deserve imagine matter satisfy wish
comment íind rep|y warn
c o mp l a i n guaranteex report
hope'r'
Verbs with a different meaning in simple
confirm reveal
consider insist say
and continuous tenses

"These
verbs can also be followed by to infinitiveclauses. Verb Simple tenses Continuous tenses

2 Verbsfollowed by if and whether clauses aPPear = look/seem = take part in (a

trial/play/film)
asK remember see = feel confidentthat = waiting for sth/to
exPect
know say
be pregnant
feel = havean opinion = physical sensation
3 Verbsfollowed by clauses beginning with wh =
nave = organising/actions
POSSeSS
words
(e.g. a bath)
decide guess reveal thinl< hold = have a certain capacity = physical contact
describe imagine say understan
d with hands
discover l<now see wonoer look = nave an aPPearance = action of seeing
discuss learn suSSest measure = have a certain length = action of taking a
explain realise teacn measurement
forget remember t el l see = use your eyes = meeting
smell = have a certain smell = action oí sme||ing
4 Verbsfollowed by object + to infinitive clause something
think = have an opinion = mental
advise forbid remind warn Process
taste = have a certain taste = action oí tasting
ask instruct teacn
something
beg invite t el l
weigh = have a certain weight = action of
command recommend urge
weighing something

5 Verbsfollowed by a thot clause containing should

l n s o m e c a s e st h e m e a n i n g sl i s t e d u n d e r ' C o n t i n u o u s
advise insist recommend
tenses' can be used in simple tenses, e.g.she'shovinga
beg ř' -'''
nraÍor rAnl |Óct

both, she has o both everymorning,but the meaningslisted

0eman0 ProPose susSesr
u n d e r s i m p l et e n s e s c a n n o t b e u s e d i n c o n t i n u o u st e n s e s .
ó Verbs+ -ing form

admit deny mention propose

recommendregret rePort suggest

155