The Role of GIS and Expert Knowledge in 3-D Modelling,

Oak Ridges Moraine, Southern Ontario

C. Logan, H.A.J. Russell and D.R. Sharpe
Geological Survey of Canada, 601 Booth Street, Ottawa, ON, Canada, K1E 0E8
emails: clogan@nrcan.gc.ca; hrussell@nrcan.gc.ca; dsharpe@nrcan.gc.ca

F.M. Kenny
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 300 Water Street, Peterborough, ON, Canada, K9J 8M5; email: frank.kenny@lrc.gov.on.ca

GSC Contribution #2003096

Abstract

A basin analysis approach is used to help understand a complex aquifer system in the Oak Ridges Moraine and Greater
Toronto areas, southern Ontario, Canada. The aquifer complex consists of a sequence of discontinuous strata that have
a prominent regional unconformity. To help visualize this architecture, a stratigraphic database has been developed and
used to construct a 3-D stratigraphic model, through selective integration of disparate data. To accurately interpret
borehole logs, geological context was supplied by using expert knowledge constrained with a conceptual stratigraphic
framework. Utilizing a digital stratigraphic training framework derived from manually coded, high-quality data, an
expert system automatically interpreted and coded a large number of low-quality water well records. The expert system
was designed to emulate the manual borehole interpretation process by applying knowledge-based geological rules,
within the constraints of the digital training framework. Issues of poorly constrained interpolation due to sparse data
are addressed by the integration of additional spatial rules defined by thematic map coverages within the expert system.
As quantitative hydrogeological modelling moves to more regional scales, geological knowledge input becomes increas-
ingly more valuable. The availability of seamless geological mapping improves 3-D modelling and helps to limit the
effect of deficiencies in data coverage and data quality, often encountered in regional hydrogeological studies.

Résumé

Une approche d'analyse par bassin est utilisée pour aider à comprendre le système aquifère complexe dans la moraine
de Oak Ridges et les régions du Grand Toronto, dans le Sud de l'Ontario au Canada. Le complexe aquifère est consti-
tué d'une séquence de strates discontinues comportant une discordance régionale saillante. Pour faciliter la visualisa-
tion de cette architecture, une base de données stratigraphiques a été constituée et utilisée pour la mise au point d'un
modèle stratigraphique 3D, par une intégration sélective de données disparates. Afin d'interpréter correctement les don-
nées des rapports de forage, le contexte géologique a été défini à partir de connaissances expertes adaptées à un cadre
stratigraphique conceptuel. Utilisant un cadre stratigraphique numérique d'apprentissage défini à partir de données de
haute qualité codifiées manuellement, un système expert a codifié et interprété automatiquement une grande quantité de
rapports de forage de mauvaise qualité. Le système expert a été conçu pour émuler le processus d'interprétation

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GIS FOR THE EARTH SCIENCES
manuelle par l'application de règles de base de connaissances géologiques, dans le cadre du système numérique d'ap-
prentissage. Le problème des interpolations mal assurées dues à un manque de données est traité en intégrant d'autres
règles spatiales définies par des couvertures cartographiques thématiques au sein du système expert. Lorsque la mod-
élisation hydrogéologique quantitative passe à des échelles plus régionales, l'apport des connaissances géologiques
devient de plus en plus précieux. La disponibilité de cartes géologiques sans couture améliore la modélisation 3D et aide
à limiter l'effet d'hiatus dans la couverture et la piètre qualité des données qui afflige souvent les études hydro-
géologiques régionales.
INTRODUCTION
Background
In the Oak Ridges Moraine (ORM) and Greater Toronto areas
(GTA) of southern Ontario, approximately 30 years of municipally
funded, site-scale hydrogeological studies were completed in the
absence of a regional geological perspective. Consequently, these
local studies contributed little to defining the extent of aquifers,
controls on groundwater flow systems, or groundwater resource
potential at the regional scale. The lack of regional, conceptual geo-
logical knowledge in many hydrogeological studies has been high-
lighted as a serious shortcoming (e.g., LeGrand and Rosen, 1998).
Integration of existing geological knowledge and increased use of
conceptual approaches will help these studies cope with inherent
basin heterogeneities and vagaries within earth systems as it has in
the petroleum industry (e.g., Cherry, 1996). In addition, the increas-
ing need for regional, watershed (e.g., Gerber and Howard, 2002) to
basin-scale (e.g., MacFarlane et al., 1994) hydrogeological studies
and the proportionate decrease in data support, requires increased
collaboration between geologists and hydrogeologists toward
developing improved stratigraphic and hydrostratigraphic models.
Geologists and hydrogeologists often have significantly different
approaches to the creation of stratigraphic/hydrostratigraphic models
due to fundamental differences in their objectives (e.g., Anderson,
1989). Geologists attempt to understand the geological system by
mapping and developing process-based conceptual models, such as
sedimentary facies or event-stratigraphic models of a basin (e.g.,
Walker, 1992). Geologists use expertise and intuition to incorporate
qualitative information and sparse quantitative data to develop strati-
graphic context. Conversely, hydrogeologists strive to mathematically
model flow systems without necessarily developing a broader geolog-
ical knowledge base. For example, hydrogeological models are com-
monly simplified to continuous, layer-cake models to accommodate
data handling issues specific to numerical modelling software (e.g.,
MODFLOW). Numerical flow modelling may be improved by incor-
porating a more realistic stratigraphic model. A regional, 3-D strati-
graphic model that is a distillation of geological observations and
knowledge provides a stratigraphic framework and thus a sound basis
for subsequent hydrogeological model development.
A study by the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) and the
Ontario Geological Survey of the 11 000 km2 ORM area (Figure 1)
was initiated to provide a regional geological framework to better
plan and guide hydrogeological investigations. In the ORM area,
extensive geological study has resulted in a broad geological
knowledge base (e.g., Eyles, 1997). In recognizing this, a primary
task of this study was to assess the validity of existing conceptual
geological models. This analysis was carried out in the context of
evolving glacial processes and improved landform-sediment mod-
520
els. Widely applied in the petroleum industry, a basin analysis
approach was used to develop a better understanding of the geolog-
ical system (e.g., Miall, 2000). This approach progressed from data-
base development to geological and hydrogeological model devel-
opment to support quantitative assessment of a regional or basin-
scale flow system (Sharpe et al., 2002a).
Approaches to Stratigraphic Modelling
The approach to conceptual stratigraphic correlation in sedimentary
basins has evolved in recent years (e.g., Miall, 2000). In glacial set-
tings, a traditional approach entails lithostratigraphic mapping
based on till correlation (e.g., Karrow, 1967). This approach
assumes that glacial advance-retreat events produce laterally con-
tinuous and correlatable units, in 'layer-cake' fashion. Recently,
bounding surfaces and disconformities have been recognized as
important features of the glacial stratigraphic framework (e.g.,
Martini and Brookfield, 1995; Sharpe et al., 2004).
Rendering conceptual geological knowledge into a digital
form suitable for quantitative groundwater flow modelling has com-
monly been achieved by either correlating cross-sections or interpo-
lating point data from a stratigraphic database. Where a stratigraph-
ic succession could be identified based on adequate data, regional
correlations were commonly completed by matching physical prop-
erties and lithologic sections. This approach provides a direct
method of simplifying the level of geological heterogeneity by
allowing the geologist to interpret the data as stratigraphic correla-
tions are made (e.g., Alms et al., 1996; Thorleifson et al., 2002).
Once the cross-sections are made, however, interpreted boreholes
may not be digitally captured and therefore unavailable for future
model iterations. Interpretations are deterministic in nature and
because the model's integrity depends largely on the geologist's
ability to apply a set of correlation rules throughout the model area,
there is potential for inconsistent stratigraphic correlations from
section to section and across model iterations.
An alternative approach to regional stratigraphic correlation is
to rely on the spatial interpolation of stratigraphic assignments
stored in a database (Mossop and Shetson, 1994). This method
relies on a well-structured database that contains contact informa-
tion on all potential stratigraphic units, regardless of whether or not
they have a zero thickness in portions of the study area (Hughes,
1993). The stratigraphic database is then queried to produce point
datasets that are interpolated as individual layers. Although the
stratigraphic assignments in this type of database are also determin-
istic in nature, once made and vetted, they can be combined with
new data and re-interpolated without having to repeat the borehole
interpretation and stratigraphic coding process. This format also has
the advantage of being suitable for a variety of interpolation tech-
niques (e.g., Yarus and Chambers, 1994).

Figure 1. The location of the study area in southern Ontario (inset) and simplified geology of the ORM-GTA region (modified from Sharpe
et al., 1997).
Objectives
This paper documents the development of a digital stratigraphic
model of a glacial sedimentary basin. We show how expert knowl-
edge was used to aid the interpretation and integration of diverse
data sources using a stratigraphic database approach to GIS model-
ling. This integration involved the use of a training framework of
higher quality data to help interpret and assign stratigraphic coding
to lesser quality data using an expert system. Issues pertaining to the
model integrity, testing and refinement are discussed by reference to
a single geological unit and hydrogeological applications of the
model in the region are reviewed.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The ORM-GTA in southern Ontario is underlain by Paleozoic rock
that is exposed along the Niagara Escarpment and nearby river val-
leys (Figure 1). The bedrock surface gently dips to the southwest
and is cut by valleys, such as the buried Laurentian Valley, that
extends from Georgian Bay to Lake Ontario (Brennand et al.,
1998). Across most of the area, bedrock is covered by a succession
SPECIAL PUBLICATION 44
of Quaternary sediment that is up to 200 m thick (Russell et al.,
1998a). Studies of Lake Ontario bluffs defined a formal stratigraph-
ic framework for the intercalated glacial and non-glacial sediment
(Figure 2a; Karrow, 1967). This succession is up to 100 m thick,
consists mainly of interstratified glacial lake sand, silt, clay and
interbedded diamicton (Eyles et al., 1985) and is here referred to as
Lower sediment (Figure 2). Overlying this is the regionally exten-
sive drumlinized Newmarket Till that was deposited beneath the lat-
est (late Wisconsinan) ice sheet (Karrow, 1967). The Newmarket
Till is readily identifiable as a thick-bedded, dense, sandy diamic-
ton with <15% gravel and high seismic velocities. These properties
can be correlated regionally and thus the till serves as a regional
marker (Figure 2a; Sharpe et al., 1997). Sandy interbeds <5 m thick
may also exist in this unit as discontinuous lenses (Boyce and Eyles,
2000). Newmarket Till commonly forms drumlinized uplands dis-
sected by tunnel channels (Brennand and Shaw, 1994). Tunnel
channels are up to 7 km wide, 40 km long and 200 m deep (Russell
et al., 2003b). ORM sediment, up to 150 m thick, infills the chan-
nels and overlies the Newmarket Till (Barnett et al., 1998). Halton
Till and glacilacustrine silt and sand incompletely overlie these
older ORM, Newmarket Till and Lower sediment units. Thin allu-
vium also occurs along modern incised river valleys. This strati-
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GIS FOR THE EARTH SCIENCES
graphic setting is the basis for the evolving conceptual geological
model of the study area (Figure 2).
Stratigraphic Framework
Previous Conceptual Models
The earliest geological models for the area were based on strati-
graphic data from the thick sedimentary successions exposed along
Lake Ontario bluffs (Coleman, 1932; Karrow, 1967), physiograph-
ic mapping (Chapman and Putnam, 1984), and from geological
mapping south of the ORM (Watt, 1957; Karrow, 1967). Tills and
inter-till sediment that can be dated were used as the basis for defin-
ing a formal stratigraphy (Figure 2; Karrow, 1967, 1974) that
emphasized lithostratigraphy and climatic cycles as the driving
mechanisms. The extensive tabular nature of well-exposed lake and
river bluff strata (Karrow, 1967) encouraged the use of an early con-
tinuous 'layer-cake' model that was subsequently applied to region-
al correlations of geophysical log signatures for distances >40 km
(Fligg and Rodriques, 1983; Eyles et al., 1985). Early landform sed-
iment models used drumlin field extents to correlate near-surface
units, inland from the lake bluff sections and to infer a glacial
advance/re-advance pattern. These early geological concepts are, in
part, the basis for the use of 'layer-cake' geological models in
Figure 2. The regional stratigraphic framework of the study area. a) Lithostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy (modified from Karrow,
1974, ages from Barnett, 1992. b) Conceptual stratigraphic architecture (modified from Sharpe et al., 1997).
522
groundwater flow studies and models in the ORM area (Howard et
al., 1997; Meriano and Eyles, 2003).
Development of the Regional Stratigraphic Model
Stratigraphic correlation within sedimentary basins now incorpo-
rates event stratigraphic analysis (e.g., Miall, 2000). Furthermore,
recent advances in glacial process understanding (e.g., Shaw, 1996)
may more accurately guide the construction of stratigraphic models
thus increasing the geological content in subsequent hydrogeologi-
cal analysis. Consequently, a reassessment of the stratigraphic
framework of the ORM area was appropriate.
Regional analysis by Shaw and Gilbert (1990) found evidence
for a number of meltwater floods that sculpted the glacial landscape
of south-central Ontario. Subsequent detailed field mapping
(Sharpe et al., 1997) and seismic reflection surveys (Pugin et al.,
1999) identified significant new elements in the stratigraphic archi-
tecture of the ORM region (Sharpe et al., 1996). A regional, late
Wisconsinan unconformity was recognized that consists of drumlin-
ized Newmarket Till, tunnel channels, and sculpted bedrock
(Barnett et al., 1998). The most important stratigraphic feature of
the unconformity was the identification of the tunnel channels and
their continuation beneath the ORM (Pugin et al., 1999; Barnett et
 SPECIAL PUBLICATION 44

al., 1998; Russell et al., 2003a). The tunnel channels commonly
erode through Newmarket Till, truncate the underlying succession
at multiple levels, and locally are floored by bedrock. This revised
architecture and resulting 3-D geometry may be defined as discon-
tinuous layered stratigraphy having incised channels that form a
'jigsaw-puzzle' (e.g., Weber and van Geuns, 1990). The spatial vari-
ability resulting from the tunnel channel system is hydrogeological-
ly significant because it provides hydraulic connectivity between
near surface aquifers and deeper confined aquifers (Desbarats et al.,
2001).
The stratigraphic model also incorporates sedimentological
variability. Thus, coarse tunnel channel sediment overlying the
unconformity is transitional upward into sand and silt of the ORM
(Russell et al., 2003a; Russell and Arnott, 2003; Sharpe et al.,
2003). Because similar sediment facies occur in lower sequences,
knowledge of stratigraphic architecture and lithofacies is required
to avoid incorrect stratigraphic interpretations in subsurface data. In
addition, specific stratigraphic units cannot be accurately resolved
due to the lack of deep boreholes and a dependence on uncertain
water well material descriptions. Hence, all sediment stratigraphi-
cally older than Newmarket Till was grouped as one unit - Lower
sediment (Figure 2).
ic modelling consistent with a basin analysis approach. One of the
first objectives of the study was the development of such a database
accessible to all project members (Russell et al., 1996). A simple
data model was developed using Microsoft® Access© to allow new,
cored boreholes and field mapping sites to be integrated with
archival borehole records (Figure 4).
Thematic GIS Training Data
Being the most readily observable portion of the sedimentary basin,
the mapped surface extent of stratigraphic units provides the most
consistent and reliable component of the stratigraphic model. To
constrain the stratigraphic model at ground surface, two thematic
GIS map coverages were developed: i) surficial geology map poly-
gons, and ii) glacilacustrine and alluvial polygons.
i) Surficial geology map polygons were developed from geo-
logical mapping completed for eight 1:50 000 scale National Topo-
graphic System (NTS) map sheets. This mapping combined with
reinterpreted geology from two existing geological maps provided
seamless, digital map coverage, thus establishing consistency
throughout the ORM study area (Sharpe et al., 1997). To support

ORM GIS MODELLING

The development of the ORM stratigraphic

model has involved a detailed process of
data acquisition, validation and integration.
Data sources were systematically integrated
using an expert system and GIS techniques
to produce a series of conformable strati-
graphic surfaces (Logan et al., 2001). To
make effective use of disparate data sources,
a hierarchical approach to data integration
was adopted. Data regarded as high-quality
based on the rigour with which it was col-
lected, interpreted and reported were used to
help interpret or "train" data of lesser-quali-
ty. As will be discussed in the following sec-
tions, Ontario Ministry of the Environment
(MOE) water well records, due to drill core
recovery and reporting problems, are regard-
ed as relatively low quality. Accordingly,
data were divided into 2 groups based on
overall quality: training data and water well
records. Training data are composed of two
components: subsurface data and thematic
GIS map coverages. In this section, we out-
line these data sources as well as the data-
base analysis techniques and GIS processes
that were used to produce the ORM 3-D
stratigraphic model (Figure 3).

Geospatial Database

Data Model

A comprehensive geospatial database is the Figure 3. Flow chart representing the main data components and process used in the ORM
foundation of stratigraphic/hydrostratigraph- stratigraphic modelling method.

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GIS FOR THE EARTH SCIENCES
Figure 4. The ORM stratigraphic data model for a) high-quality training data, and b) low-quality water well data.
this mapping effort, approximately 9000 shallow (<5 m) field
observations were collected. Thicker sequences (up to 40 m) were
recorded at river sections, lake bluffs and quarries. Vertices extract-
ed from DEM-controlled polygon perimeters were used to ensure
that the 3-D model conforms to surface mapping (Logan et al.,
2001).
ii) Glaciolacustrine and alluvial units consist of relatively thin
sediment (<5 m) and are stratigraphically younger than the units
modelled in this study. These units were not explicitly modelled
because their thin, highly discontinuous nature makes them hydro-
geologically insignificant. For modelled units, stratigraphic infer-
ences in the subsurface are made based on stratigraphy mapped at
the surface. Consequently, areas obscured by glaciolacustrine and
alluvial units represent gaps in the surface mapping control. These
thin units can cover large areas of older strata and, depending on
their location, often one or more modelled unit is absent beneath
them. The potential disconformity may not be detected in water
well logs unless these situations are recognized from surface map-
ping. To ensure an appropriate stratigraphic assignment of underly-
ing borehole units, a shallow glaciolacustrine and alluvial unit
thickness maximum is imposed and an older "surface" stratigraphic
code is assigned to individual glaciolacustrine polygons. The new
code identifies the next youngest possible strata directly below the
disconformity.
524
The volume of glaciolacustrine and alluvial units can be easi-
ly determined where hydrologically significant. Upper surfaces of
these units are defined by their mapped extent and the DEM. Their
volume is then the residual from subtracting the youngest modelled
surface (i.e., Halton Till) from the topographic DEM, where these
sediments are mapped. There is, therefore, no need to interpolate
the glaciolacustrine and alluvial surface directly.
Subsurface Training Data
Located predominantly in an urban setting, this study was able to
utilize over 4800 archival boreholes from OGS regional mapping,
geotechnical engineering reports from urban infrastructure develop-
ment (e.g., foundation studies) and hydrogeological site investiga-
tions (Russell et al., 1996). These data plus 6 new and 18 existing
continuously cored boreholes, 50 line-km of seismic reflection data
and 857 field mapping sites formed the subsurface component of
the training data.
Water Well Records
Given the size and complexity of the area, substantially more sub-
surface data was needed than could be extracted from the training
data to support adequate resolution of a digital model. Over 58,000
provincial water well records were obtained and incorporated into

the modelling process. In lesser-developed areas, water well records
often provided the only source of subsurface information for sever-
al kilometres. Also an invaluable source of hydrogeological data,
the water well database was, however, used with caution due to
issues of data quality, reliability, and resolution (Russell et al.,
1998b). Wash boring, the most common method of water well
drilling, employs a fluid to transport material to the surface.
Although efficient, this method does not provide a continuous core
for accurate logging. Hence, for reliability concerns related to
drilling method and location accuracy, it was decided that water
well records would be used in a secondary role in developing the
ORM 3-D model.
Data Coverage
The data available to define the ORM area stratigraphy decreases
greatly with depth. Many water wells intercept shallow aquifers
and, as a result, they do not penetrate the complete stratigraphic
thickness of the ORM and older units (Figure 5). For example, over
40% of the water wells with a depth of >10 m penetrate less than
1/3 of the stratigraphy. Because few archival geotechnical/hydro-
logical studies catalogued the entire stratigraphy in their study
areas, high-quality borehole data is also scarce at depth. For exam-
ple, the overall data point density ranges from ~2.6 / km2 for the top
of the ORM unit, to ~1.6 /km2 for the Lower sediment/Newmarket
Till contact (Figure 6).
The reduction of data support with depth is also evident with
geology map polygon coverage. Geology map polygons represent
the exposed portion of stratigraphic units at ground surface. A larg-
er percentage of younger units are exposed than older units in the
ORM study area. For example, both the Newmarket Till and the
older Lower sediment units are approximately equally widespread
throughout the study area, however only ~1% of the Lower sedi-
ment unit is mapped at surface compared to 23% of the Newmarket
Till. Because the geometry of unit surface exposures can be direct-
ly determined by the topographic DEM, the surfaces of younger
units have substantially more data support than those of older sur-
Figure 5. Example N–S cross-section across the crest of the ORM showing poor data depth coverage and version 1 stratigraphic surfaces.
SPECIAL PUBLICATION 44
faces. By integrating map geology polygons into the 3-D model
building process, more data control and geological intuition is
applied to surface interpolations than would otherwise be supplied
by subsurface point data alone.
Spatial Data Preparation
Most of the archival borehole records were obtained either in hard-
copy or in a variety of poorly documented, flat digital formats. A
substantial amount of data standardization and quality assurance
was undertaken before this data was integrated and assembled into
database tables.
Missing Stratigraphy
Due to stratigraphic unit discontinuities resulting from erosional or
non-depositional episodes (e.g., tunnel channels), often one or more
stratigraphic units are missing in borehole logs. To maintain strati-
graphic consistency throughout all subsurface data and to fully cap-
ture the geological interpretation, zero thickness units were inserted
in the stratigraphic database to represent missing stratigraphy, there-
by ensuring the complete stratigraphy was recorded at each bore-
hole. The addition of zero thickness records at stratigraphically
appropriate depths in the data tables ensures that the interpolated 3-
D model will accurately show zero thickness at proper locations and
elevations while honouring stratigraphic relationships.
Georeferencing
Although the North American Datum (NAD) 83 projection datum
was introduced in the mid-1980s, as late as the mid-1990s some
topographic data was only available in NAD 27. Since archival data
used in the ORM study spans the transitional datum period, much
of the data had to be transformed from NAD 27 to NAD 83 to match
the modelling projection. Georeferencing of much of the archival
data was complicated by unreported datums, non-standard and
unreported projection systems (e.g., Modified Transverse Merca-
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GIS FOR THE EARTH SCIENCES
Figure 6. Example 20 km2 area showing data coverage for a) ORM surface, and b) Lower sediment surface.
tor), or a lack of a georeferenced location map. Due to the age of
most reports (i.e., pre 1980s), borehole coordinate datums were
assumed to be NAD 27 unless otherwise indicated. Archival reports
that relied completely on georeferenced location maps of the study
site to show borehole locations were scanned and geocoded in a
GIS. In other cases, coordinates were established by visual estima-
tion or converted from a local coordinate system to UTM projec-
tion. Reported coordinates were visually verified by plotting on a
digital topographic base.
Despite the fact that water wells were captured in a digital for-
mat with UTM coordinates, there often existed problems with loca-
tion accuracy (Kenny et al., 1997). Ministry of the Environment
(MOE) water well reports require only a hand-drawn diagram and
lot and concession numbers to indicate well location. Using this
information, coordinates and elevations are later determined and
appended to a database by the MOE. Unfortunately, lot and conces-
sion identifiers are not unique within the Ontario municipal cadas-
tral fabric and water well location diagrams often lack the informa-
tion necessary to accurately locate the well. In addition, data entry
mistakes have caused obvious location errors ranging from 10s to
100s of kilometres. To identify location errors, a systematic location
checking protocol was implemented. A comparison of recorded
526
MOE UTM coordinates with 1:10 000 scale Ontario Basic Mapping
(OBM) cadastral polygons coupled with a comparison of MOE ele-
vations and the ORM DEM were preformed using spatial queries in
a GIS (Kenny et al., 1997). This process indicated that approximate-
ly 30% of the water well dataset were potentially mislocated.
However, due to the tendency of water wells to be clustered, a rea-
sonably high level of redundancy exists in the dataset. Because of
this, a decision to omit well records with these potential location
errors was made.
For consistency in the stratigraphic model building process, a
hydrologically conditioned DEM (Kenny et al., 1999) was used as
an elevation datum (i.e., elevations were extracted from the topo-
graphic DEM and applied to all data components). In addition to
eliminating any possible elevation errors present in new or archival
data, this level of standardization allowed for the seamless integra-
tion of geological map polygons whose elevations were also
extracted from the DEM.
De-clustering
Training data is generally too sparse to warrant systematic de-clus-
tering. However, some clustered borehole logs from intensive site
 SPECIAL PUBLICATION 44

studies were considered to be redundant at a regional scale and
hence not digitally captured. Water well data, on the other hand, are
plentiful but not evenly distributed throughout the study area. They
tend to be clustered around rural communities, along roads and
around water bodies. Water well data redundancy and clustering
were reduced with the aid of an arbitrary 0.5 km2 grid. Within each
grid cell, well records were ranked according to favourable attrib-
utes (i.e., depth, number of intervals, bedrock recorded). By elimi-
nating shallow and redundant wells, the total number of location-
verified water well records was reduced to nearly half while main-
taining a similar level of data coverage (Logan et al., 2002).
Re-drilled Water Wells
An additional step was taken to recover water well information that
would otherwise be lost as a result of de-clustering. In an effort to
improve water quality or capacity, some homeowners will have an
existing well extended to greater depth. In these cases, the driller
begins recording material descriptions at the bottom of the existing
well and a new report is submitted to the MOE. The pre-existing
well depth is described as "previously dug/drilled" in the new
report. However, in the MOE water well archival process, reports
for new well extensions were not combined or associated with the
original report. Because the de-clustering process, as described
above, preferentially selected deeper wells in clustered groups, the
deeper well report would tend to be chosen over the shallower orig-
inal report. The "previously dug/drilled" interval of the selected
well record provides no information, how-
ever, so a process to identify and combine
these associated well records was devel-
oped. A spatial query was used to identify
and group wells that were within 500 m of
extended wells. If the total depth and "previ-
ously dug/drilled" interval of two wells in
local groups were within ± 2 m, the two
records were merged to provide a complete
stratigraphic description. This process im-
proved over 800 water well records.
development efforts, Viewlog© borehole visualization and data
management software was also used.
In the water well dataset, statistics based on database and GIS
queries were used to detect unreasonable unit configurations and
sediment descriptions. For example, a comparison of sedimentolog-
ical logging of borehole core and archival data indicated that the
thickness of fine-grained units, particularly clay was grossly over-
estimated (Figure 7). The reported unit thickness more commonly
represents a stratigraphic unit thickness rather than that of a sedi-
mentological unit. This is particularly true for water well records in
which clay intervals can measure up to 30 m thick compared to sev-
eral centimetres in sedimentologically logged core (Russell et al.,
1998b).
Standard Material Coding
Material descriptions were standardized to allow the disparate litho-
logic coding systems and free-form descriptions used in the archival
sources to be integrated with new data. The water well records illus-
trate the scope of this problem with descriptions assigned to three
fields from a choice of 81 possible descriptors. This permitted a
possible number of descriptive permutations exceeding 500,000. In
the ORM dataset there were 1900 unique descriptions. This prob-
lem was solved based on knowledge from geological mapping and
a literature review of glacial environments. A standard coding
scheme of eight principal sediment descriptors was used to recode

Data Vetting

Visual inspection of computer-generated

borehole cross sections were the primary
means of inspecting training data, however
due to their large numbers, water well data
was assessed via comprehensive database
and GIS queries.

As a way of checking coded units and

stratigraphic assignments in the training data,
several iterations of borehole cross-section
inspections were completed during the mod-
elling process. In addition to detecting cod-
ing errors, these data visualizations served as
the primary means of testing and refining the
conceptual model. Initially these cross-sec-
tions were produced with unreleased utilities
written in AutoLISP® and MapBASIC®,
and later with BoreHole Mapper© MapInfo© Figure 7. A comparison of archival data and sedimentological data. Note the contrast in
add-on. To help streamline continuing model reported unit thickness, sediment classification and sedimentary structures.

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GIS FOR THE EARTH SCIENCES

sediment descriptions from all data sources (Russell et al., 1998b).
In some cases, multi-word descriptors were recoded to more mean-
ingful geological terms (e.g., clay-gravel-silt recoded to diamicton).
For the water well records, this material description reclassification
was completed through an automated database operation, whereas
for training data it was applied interactively by geologists.
et al., 2001). This comparison indicates that archival data over
reports fine-grained sediment, often by an order of magnitude or
greater (Figure 9). For example, by comparing water well records
with borehole core data, clay is overestimated by 1500% in the
western ORM likely at the expense of fine sand.

The integrity of the automated water well reclassification was

checked against other elements of the water well records (i.e., inter-
nal checks) and against manually coded training datasets (i.e., exter-
nal checks; Russell et al., 1998b). An example of an internal check
was a comparison of the principal material codes against screened
interval. Assuming well screens are placed at water bearing inter-
vals, permeable materials (e.g., sand or gravel) are expected within
screened intervals. This check found that 84% of the screens corre-
sponded to sand and gravel thus confirming the validity of the cod-
ing protocol. Two external tests completed on the recoded water
well records illustrate some of the problems with reliability, accura-
cy and material unit resolution. A comparison of water well record
units at a depth of one metre and the geology map indicate large
variations in the material distribution by geological map unit
(Figure 8). This is most likely due to poor descriptive accuracy in
well reports. However, part of this variation may reflect internal
map unit heterogeneity. A further test completed in the western
ORM compared material descriptions of all archival data with
recoded sedimentological descriptions of continuous core (Russell

Figure 9. a) A comparison of Oak Ridges Moraine composition

Figure 8. External comparison of recoded water well material des-
criptions at 1 m depth with geological map polygons (modified from
Russell et al., 1998a). Note a much better correlation for ORM
aquifer material than for Newmarket Till aquitard. The grey band
indicates material that best matches the surficial geology map unit.
Note the high percentage of reported clay.
based on archival datasets and GSC data. Note radically different
reporting of fine-grained sediment, clay and silt between datasets.
b) Moraine composition using sediment facies coding of continuous
core and outcrop sections. Most clay in archival data (a) is most
probably sediment facies Sg and Sr. Agency abbreviations: MTO -
Ministry Transport Ontario (geotechnical); RMP - Regional
Municipality of Peel; RMY - Regional Municipality York; GSC-Bh -
Geological Survey of Canada (sedimentology); IWA - Interim Waste
Authority (hydrogeology); MOE - Ministry of Environment water
wells. Material abbreviations: Cl - clay; Di - diamicton; Gr - grav-
el; Sa - dune scale cross-stratified sand; Si - silt; Sg - graded fine
sand - silt; Sr - ripple scale cross-laminated sand (from Russell et
al., 2001).

528

The water well material code reclassification system has been
adopted by MOE, and subsequently, feedback from other groups
working with water well records has been received and assessed.
For example, a possible scenario for misidentifying unusually large
boulders led to a revision of the reclassification rules (T. Warman,
personal communication, 2002). To avoid abnormally thick grav-
el/boulder units and excessively deep bedrock, thick intervals (>3
m) of MOE-coded bedrock followed by a thin (<1 m) non-bedrock
interval are now interpreted as actual bedrock and not as boulder or
gravel. Although not intended nor designed for use outside of the
ORM study area, to date the knowledge-based rules seem to be
robust in Quaternary sediment elsewhere in Ontario.
Stratigraphic Interpretation and Coding
In the context of a sound conceptual stratigraphic framework, mate-
rial descriptions in high-quality training data were interpreted strati-
graphically by geologists. Thickness and elevation ranges defined by
geological context as well as physical properties help geologists men-
tally build a structural model to guide stratigraphic interpretations.
Prior to their inclusion in the stratigraphic model-building
process, the water well dataset needed to be interpreted stratigraph-
Figure 10. A schematic representation of the development of data-driven stratigraphic model with geological control. The stratigraphic
training framework interpolated from subsurface training data coupled with DEM-controlled geology polygons provide stratigraphic con-
text to help interpret water well material intervals.
SPECIAL PUBLICATION 44
ically and coded with the same standard coding system used for
training data. Due to the number of records, however, an automated
approach was taken. In an attempt to mirror the process involved in
manually interpreting training borehole stratigraphy, a systematic
approach that consistently applied a set of geological rules within a
stratigraphic training framework was employed for interpreting
water well data (Figure 10). Using Microsoft® Access© and Visual
BASIC for Applications©, an expert system was developed to
assign stratigraphic codes to water well records (Logan et al., 2002).
The stratigraphic coding expert system relied on multiple
inputs: a training framework interpolated from high-quality, subsur-
face training data (Figure 10); thematic GIS training data; and stan-
dardized material coding applied to water well records. Expert geo-
logical knowledge controlled the model through these inputs and
also by rules programmed into the expert system. The principal set
of expert rules established the sediment descriptions allowable for
each stratigraphic unit (Table 1). The remainder handled specific
situations and refined coding parameters or program logic accord-
ingly. Coding parameters include allowable sediment descriptions,
allowable stratigraphic assignment, maximum elevation, maximum
unit and interbed thickness. Table 2 lists some examples of specific
expert rules.
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GIS FOR THE EARTH SCIENCES

Training Framework Creation
The perimeter of each stratigraphic unit at ground surface (Figure 1)
was defined in a GIS using a polyline-to-point function to convert
geology map polygon contacts into a set of points at 50 m spacing.
The DEM elevation was then extracted and appended to each of
these points. The map polygon points were combined with strati-
graphic contacts from high-quality boreholes to assemble strati-
graphic training datasets for each of the 5 stratigraphic units. A pre-
liminary training surface was then produced for each unit using
Table 1. Allowable sediment descriptions for expert system strati-
graphic coding
Allowable
Stratigraphic Code / Order Sediment Description
Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) interpolation (Figure 10). The
preliminary training surfaces were then used to identify stratigraph-
ic intervals in boreholes that partially penetrate younger units and
that are also deep enough to warrant deflecting the older surface
downward. Once these 'push-down' points are identified, they are
added to the appropriate stratigraphic datasets and surfaces are re-
interpolated using the Natural Neighbour method. Following this,
surfaces were forced to conform to each other, the surface geology
and the topographic DEM via a series of GIS overlay operations.
For exposed stratigraphic units, geology map polygons were used to
'cookie-cut' regions of the topographic DEM to overlay on appropri-
ate surfaces. Having included the map polygon perimeter points in
the surface interpolations, a seamless transition from subsurface
data to surface geology is attained. Overlaying and propagating
minimum grid cell elevations from the uppermost surface down-
ward then resolved any residual surface overlaps.

7 - Surficial miscellaneous
6 - Glacilacustrine (GL)
5 - Halton Till (HT)
(any non-bedrock material) A distance buffer grid, representing the minimum distance to a
training surface data node, was generated around the data subsets
clay used to interpolate each surface. These raster surfaces were queried
silt at each water well location and extracted values were appended to
sand a database table. Using geospatial queries, additional information
was appended to this table such as: geology map polygon strati-
clay graphic code, maximum surface elevation and unit thickness rules.
silt This table formed the primary training data input for the expert sys-
clay-silt diamicton tem. It was used in conjunction with water well material intervals
sand-silt diamicton and programmatic expert knowledge-based rules (Tables 1 and 2) to
silt-sand diamicton interpret the stratigraphy of each well record.

4 - Oak Ridges Moraine (ORM) clay Stratigraphic Interpretation of Water Well

3 - Newmarket Till (NT)
2 - Lower sediment (LS)
1 - Bedrock (B/R)
silt Material Code
sand
gravel
The expert system first examined water well material descriptions
and assigned a preliminary stratigraphic code based on allowable
sand-silt diamicton
sediment types as defined by expert rules. For each water well, the
silt-sand diamicton
stratigraphic unit mapped at ground surface was used as a bench-
mark to define the youngest possible stratigraphic assignment.
(any non-bedrock material)
Accordingly, the first material interval in the well record is assigned
the stratigraphic code of the map polygon in which it is located. In
(any bedrock)
unlithified/undeformed Quaternary sediment, as is the case in this

Table 2. Examples of expert rules used for water well stratigraphic coding. See Table 1 for stratigraphic unit abbreviation

Rule Condition Effect Purpose

Previous strat. code = GL AND Combine current depth interval with To disregard thin coarse-grained intervals
current material = sand/gravel AND next interval and use next material below thin GL units that may otherwise be
interval thickness < 3 m code for new combined interval. coded thin ORM.

Interval thickness <1.5 m AND Flag the next interval as a "map To ensure that no overly thin, near-surface
interval is a "map unit" (i.e., it exists unit" also. intervals are treated as "map unit" and receive
at a depth of 1 m) the strat. code from the geological map.

ORM strat. code is applied to any Increase allowable NT interbed To lessen the possibility of interpreting the
interval of the water well thickness from 5 to 8 m. presence of LS from NT at a high elevation
beneath the ORM.

Maximum LS elevation < well LS code is not permitted regardless of To eliminate unrealistically high LS elevation.
bottom elevation the effect of any other rule/constraint.

530

study, it can be assumed that older sediment will never overlie
younger sediment. The expert system was, therefore, designed to
interpret either the same code as the previous interval or an older
stratigraphic code for deeper intervals in the well record based on
material descriptions (Table 1). For example, all material intervals
for the entire depth of a well located within a polygon mapped as
Lower sediment can only be interpreted by the system as either
Lower sediment or the next oldest, and last modelled unit –
bedrock. Initially, the transition from the current stratigraphy to the
next older one is primarily determined by the allowable sediment
descriptors (Table 1).
Training Surface Correction
Due to stratigraphic unit heterogeneity and potential reporting
inconsistencies, the presence or absence of allowable sediment
types alone is not a definitive basis for stratigraphic assignment. A
spatial stratigraphic context is essential for making reliable water
well interpretations. In this system, spatial context is verified by
comparing the preliminary stratigraphic assignment to training sur-
face elevations (Figure 10). A linear decay function based on dis-
tance to nearest training point determined the extent to which train-
ing surfaces governed the stratigraphic code assignment. Because
training surfaces only affected wells within a distance of 1-2 km
from a training surface data node, global expert knowledge rules
were relied on to constrain stratigraphic coding beyond the influ-
ence of training data. The range of influence of the Halton Till and
ORM training surface nodes were set at 1 km, while a 2 km range
was used for the others. By extracting information from the input
Figure 11. An example of stratigraphic surfaces converted to an array of regular, 3-D cells (i.e., voxet model) in gOcad©. Only Newmarket
Till and ORM voxet regions are shown.
SPECIAL PUBLICATION 44
table and using rules based on geological knowledge, the expert
system was able to interpret the well record's material intervals and
assign a plausible stratigraphy within a well-constrained strati-
graphic training framework.
Model Generation
The process of building a 3-D basin model is greatly simplified by
building a stratigraphically rigorous database. New data is easily
integrated for subsequent modelling iterations because stratigraph-
ic interpretations or "picks" are stored and readily available. Basic
queries were used to extract a stratigraphic dataset from the data-
base for each of the 5 main units that were modelled. Using a sim-
ilar series of steps as described for the production of the training
surfaces, a final set of surfaces were generated from X, Y, Z point
sets assembled from high-quality boreholes, low-quality water
wells and thematic map polygon points (Logan et al., 2002). In a 3-
D GIS or quantitative modelling application, these surfaces can be
rendered and used to build 3-D volume models (e.g., voxets or
SGrids in gOcad©; Figure 11) or individual stratigraphic unit
isopach grids in support of hydrogeological modelling and flow
analysis.
Iterative Model Refinement
A model is a representation of reality whose accuracy is dependent
on the quality of observed data and the validity of assumptions that
are used to interpret it. For a conceptual model to be considered
geologically defendable, re-evaluation based on new data or insight
531
GIS FOR THE EARTH SCIENCES
must be undertaken until the model can account for all observed
phenomena. For this reason, it was recognized that the ORM 3-D
model would evolve as versions were reviewed and new data
became available. The stratigraphic database approach was chosen
to streamline the production of multiple model iterations because of
its ability to integrate new data without the need to revisit existing
interpreted data. Each version of the model also provides an oppor-
tunity for checking borehole interpretation and code assignment. By
reviewing model cross-sections, rendered 3-D visualizations and
sediment thickness maps, anomalies and unexpected trends served
as targets for closer scrutiny. In some cases, this prompted data re-
interpretation or acquisition of new data. An iterative system of data
interpretation, modelling and data improvement was devised and a
version number for released models was established (Logan et al.,
2002).
Version 1 of the model (Logan et al., 2002) is the culmination
of numerous preliminary iterations. Subsequent improvements have
been incorporated in a version 2 based on the acquisition of new
data, and feedback from project geologists and collaborators in the
area (Logan et al., 2005).
New Data
A deficiency of the version 1 stratigraphic model is the lack of sub-
surface data coverage in areas of thick sediment east of Rice Lake
and at depth beneath the ORM unit. This reflects a scarcity of
archival borehole records due to a lack of development or the exis-
tence of serviceable shallow aquifers. Shallow aquifer wells locat-
ed on the moraine provide very little information regarding the
geometry of deeper units (Figure 5). Efforts were made throughout
the model development, however, to locate and integrate any new
or previously unavailable borehole records. Subsequent to version 1
of the model, close to 5000 new water well records were added and
the high-quality training dataset was augmented with 178 new geot-
echnical borehole logs. Unfortunately, very little new archival data
were found for the data poor areas outlined above, however approx-
imately 180 new water wells drilled to bedrock were obtained in
areas of thick ORM sediment.
Expert System Improvements
Over time, the expert system has been revised with new or modified
knowledge-based rules. Based on model inspections and testing,
various parameters were adjusted depending on local stratigraphic
configurations such as maximum elevations, maximum thickness
and allowable interbed thickness. Many rules were refined based on
the iterative generation of model results and testing with field
observations or areas of abundant training data. The repeatable
nature of the methodol used in the ORM study made it possible to
establish an efficient, iterative cycle of rule assessment and revi-
sion. This expert feedback and program improvement is an impor-
tant component of an expert system allowing it to gain 'knowledge'.
Subsurface Hydrological Conditioning
MOE water well records contain construction information that can
be used to further verify material descriptions and consequently
stratigraphic assignments. For example, in contrast to estimates of
the depth of material unit contacts, the depth of the well screen is
532
directly measurable (e.g., Kassenar et al., 2003). Furthermore,
screen depths are presumably reported accurately due to the cost
accountability involved in casing and screening a well. Since 84%
of reported screen intervals correspond to sand or gravel descrip-
tions (Russell et al., 1998a), we can assume that screens are set only
in aquifer material. Under this assumption, screens can be used as a
secondary check to refine the upper and lower contacts of the
Newmarket Till aquitard. This additional protocol was implement-
ed in version 2. It affected the position of contacts in ~7% of water
wells with units that overlap the version 1 Newmarket Till unit
(Logan et al., 2005).
Tunnel Channels
Tunnel channels are hydrogeologically significant features that have
complex geometries, undulating longitudinal profiles and variable
sediment fills (Sharpe et al., 2003). Channels generally have a
north–south trend and are best defined north of the ORM where they
are not totally obscured by sediment in-filling (Figure 1). Because
they can act as areas of aquifer leakance, the potential impact of tun-
nel channels on regional hydrogeological flow systems can be sub-
stantial (Desbarats et al., 2001). To make the digital model conform
more closely to the conceptual geological understanding, mapped
areas of tunnel channel features were used to further constrain
Newmarket Till distribution and thickness (Russell et al., 2003b).
Tunnel channel features were assigned to one of four classes accord-
ing to similarities in geometry, orientation, and the interpreted extent
of underlying Newmarket Till (Russell et al., 2003b). For the version
2 model, tunnel channel polygons were added as a new component
of thematic GIS training data and this restricted the thickness of
Newmarket Till allowed in tunnel channel areas.
MODELLING RESULTS
Stratigraphic modelling in the ORM area has resulted in a digital 3-
D model of the approximately 11,000 km2 study area (Logan et al.,
2002). In addition to the release of the digital surfaces, each of the
four major stratigraphic units above bedrock (Figure 2) have been
documented with a structural surface and isopach map: Halton Till
(Russell et al., 2005a), ORM (Russell et al., 2005b), Newmarket
Till (Sharpe et al., 2005a) and Lower Sediment (Sharpe et al.,
2005b). An assessment of the version 1 Newmarket Till isopach is
highlighted below.
Newmarket Till Isopach Map
The interpolation of Newmarket Till indicates that it covers ~80%
of the area and ranges in thickness up to 100 m (Figure 12; Sharpe
et al., 2005b). Many patterns visible on this map may be explained
geologically (Sharpe et al., 2002b); however, others appear to be
related to variable data quality and coverage or to interpolation
problems. The following is a selection of observations and their
possible implications:
i) Of the modelled Newmarket Till thickness, ~3 % is >50 m
(Figure 12). Such thicknesses are not present in training data
or water well records and have not been observed in the field.
Analysis of Newmarket Till and Lower sediment structural
surfaces indicates that the anomalous thickness is due to poor
data support (e.g., east of Rice Lake).
 SPECIAL PUBLICATION 44

Figure 12. An isopach map and thickness histogram of Newmarket Till from version 1 stratigraphic model (Logan et al., 2002). The colour
ramp represents a range of thickness from high (red) to low (blue). White areas indicate no Newmarket Till. The histogram shows frequen-
cy of interpolated thickness. Section lines at AA', BB' and CC' are shown in Figure 13.

ii) Little or no Newmarket Till occurs in the southwestern part of
the region (Figures 12 and 13). This area slopes up to the base
of the Niagara Escarpment and has a thin sediment cover atop
an elevated bedrock platform. Training data indicates that
Newmarket Till is sparse and truncated in the area. This is con-
sistent with the meltwater erosion model for formation of the
regional late Wisconsinan unconformity (Russell et al., 2005b).
iii) Newmarket Till does not occur in areas along the south side of
the ORM between Rice Lake and Lake Scugog (Figure 12).
Comparison with the surficial geology map indicates that this
is consistent with the mapped distribution of Lower sediment
in this area. Hence Newmarket Till was either not deposited or
it had been eroded.
iv) Mottled patterns consisting of till thickness > 10 m surround-
ed by thinner areas of till (Figure 12) are probably related to
both geological factors and interpolative artifacts. In areas of
mapped Newmarket Till these mottled patterns likely represent
geological features (e.g., drumlins) as opposed to data artifacts
(Sharpe et al., 2002b). Elsewhere, in areas buried by ORM
sediment, the pattern appears to be related to erosional win-
dows and the interpolative transition from areas of zero
Newmarket Till thickness.
v) Large valleys north of the moraine (i.e., Holland Marsh) com-
monly contain thin interpolative till wedges (Figures 12 and
14a). Here Newmarket Till was interpolated across parts of the
valley as a result of honouring sparse borehole data (Figure
14a). Alternatively, clay reported in some water well records
might have been erroneously coded as Newmarket Till. It is
not possible to assign the term 'clay' to a unique stratigraphic
unit since it can potentially occur in all modelled units.
Moreover, this overused description could actually indicate a
range of materials from till to fine-grained sediment (Russell et
al., 2001). Expert knowledge and/or additional high-quality
data are needed to resolve this ambiguity or data 'noise' (Figure
7).
vi) In a 20 km wide belt along the Lake Ontario shoreline, narrow
linear patterns trend toward the lake (Figure 12). These com-
monly correlate with modern river valleys formed by
Holocene alluvial incision that dissected the Newmarket Till.
Field evidence indicates that these valleys are commonly
floored by Lower sediment that also occurs locally in valley
sides.
vii) Landscape elements <1 km are not clearly resolved where the
interpolation is reliant on water well data (Figure 14). High-

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GIS FOR THE EARTH SCIENCES

Figure 13. Cross-sections (AA', BB' and CC') drawn across the ORM version 1 structural model. East of Holland Marsh tunnel channel, the
AA' section illustrates that the DEM-controlled elevation of tunnel channel bases is low enough to have breached the Newmarket Till sheet.
In the southwest, section BB' shows thin sediment on sloping bedrock. Section CC' transects a Newmarket Till upland. The location of sec-
tion lines is shown in Figure 12.

quality, high-resolution data such as seismic profiles are
required to confirm the presence of landscape architecture
such as drumlins and small tunnel channels (Figures 15c and
d; Pugin et al., 1999).
Geological Interpretation of Newmarket Till
Patterns in the Newmarket Till isopach and structural surface have
a range of shapes, thickness, dimensions, and orientations that can
be interpreted geologically. The Newmarket Till structural surface
defines the late Wisconsinan unconformity (Figure 2). This
unconformity consists of a number of architectural elements that
can be recognized in the isopach map (Figures 12 and 14).
Ordered by decreasing scale, they are: i) inter-channel uplands, ii)
tunnel channels, iii) portions of Holocene river valleys and iv)
drumlins.
The regional event-stratigraphic model interprets the uncon-
formity as the product of a regional subglacial meltwater discharge
(Shaw and Gilbert, 1990). This event produced different types of
erosional landforms as the flow evolved and waned. Initial region-
al flow occurred as a broad, shallow, high-energy sheet interpreted
to have formed drumlins (Shaw and Sharpe, 1987). Drumlins pro-
duced during this phase of flow represent streamlined, erosional
bedforms. Differential erosion and flow evolution lead to shallow
tunnel channels that are intertwined amongst the drumlins. This
landscape is identified on the isopach map as a mottled pattern rep-
resenting drumlinized uplands (Figures 12 and 14). Continued wan-
ing of the flow concentrated meltwater into deeper tunnel channels
that commonly eroded through Newmarket Till (Pugin et al., 1999;
Russell et al., 2003a). These large tunnel channels are up to several
km wide and 10s of km long and define the extent of inter-channel
uplands up to 5-10 km across and 10-20 km long. Field evidence
indicates that deep tunnel channels contain no Newmarket Till,
however as mentioned, sparse and/or 'noisy' data may cause inter-
polative artifacts that result in outliers of Newmarket Till within the
tunnel channel margins. On the isopach map, the tunnel channels
are recognized by linear trends of thin (i.e., <10 m) and absent
Newmarket Till. Most inter-channel uplands are characterized by
thick till (i.e., 10-50 m) that is higher in elevation than the interven-
ing channels. South of the moraine, tunnel channel forms are wider
and shallower or have thicker till substrate (>10 m). Modern
streams draining to Lake Ontario have deeply incised narrow val-
leys through the Newmarket Till (Sharpe et al., 1997).

534
 SPECIAL PUBLICATION 44

Figure 14. A comparison of identical example areas showing a) Newmarket Till thickness and b) the DEM for the Holland Marsh area. Note
the correlation of thin Newmarket Till with identified tunnel channels. Locally within the uplands, spindle-shaped features on the isopach
map (a) correspond with drumlin forms in (b).

535
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GIS FOR THE EARTH SCIENCES

Figure 15. The stratigraphic architecture of Newmarket Till has been assessed from a) outcrop, b) borehole sediment and geophysical logging, c) reflection seismic profiling
and d) stratigraphic interpretation (from Sharpe et al., 2005b).

DISCUSSION
To date, the stratigraphic model has been applied to problems at
both the regional and site scale. Additionally, the modelling exer-
cise in this area shares many similarities with other glaciated areas
and the prevailing theme of using water well records in hydrogeo-
logical studies (Berg and Thorleifson, 2001; Thorleifson and Berg,
2002). Consequently, work in this study potentially has applications
to other areas. First, four example applications of the stratigraphic
model are shown, and second, the wider application of GIS strati-
graphic methods developed in this area are discussed.
Application of the ORM Stratigraphic Model
The ORM stratigraphic model resulted in a series of five structural
stratigraphic surfaces and four derived isopach maps for the
Quaternary succession (Figure 2). These surfaces can provide a
stratigraphic or hydrostratigraphic framework for future hydrogeo-
logical analyses, such as:
i) Geostatistical water table mapping – The ORM stratigraphic
model permits the generation of piezometric surfaces for indi-
vidual hydrostratigraphic units and provides for the first time
the opportunity for a regional assessment of water levels. For
example, over 1500 water wells screened in the ORM unit
were modelled for the Uxbridge area. This data was integrated
with stream discharge training data (Hinton, 1995) and topo-
graphic data (Kenny et al., 1999). All data were interpolated
using kriging with external drift where the topographic data
was used as the external drift component (Desbarats et al.,
2002).
ii) Modelling regional aquitard thickness and leakance –
Aquitard leakance is a measure of aquitard integrity as a flow
barrier (Desbarats et al., 2001). This is significant for wellhead
protection in areas where a regional aquitard has been locally
eroded by tunnel channels forming hydraulic windows (Figure
2). A regional aquitard was modelled as a hydrostratigraphic
unit that consisted of Newmarket Till and/or adjacent underly-
ing clay units of Lower sediment. A Sequential Simulator
Simulation used ~12,000 sites to generate 50 realizations and
a probability map of aquitard thickness (Desbarats et al.,
2001). Leakance was then mapped by upscaling the thickness
and conductivity data.
iii) Aquifer assessment – An isopach map of ORM sediment
derived from the version 1, 3-D model (Logan et al., 2002)
presents the first data-derived visualization of this high-use
aquifer complex (Turner, 1977). Aquifer thickness variation is
controlled by the irregular topography of the underlying
regional unconformity and moraine elevation. The thickness
distribution is highly directional and relates to the filling of
deeply scoured ~N–S channels that were overlain with E–W
oriented depositional wedges visible on the topographic DEM.
iv) Flow system analysis – The ORM stratigraphic model, with
implicitly defined hydraulic connectivity 'windows', provides a
3-D grid and conceptual framework for subsequent numeric
flow modelling in the area (e.g., Kassenaar et al., 2003). The
ability to recognize vertical hydraulic connectivity is an impor-
SPECIAL PUBLICATION 44
tant control on modelling an aquifer complex (Fogg, 1986).
The model provides a geological framework for understanding
the probable distribution and scale of such windows. This may
lead to more realistic flow modelling than attempting to satis-
fy numerical modelling requirements by arbitrarily inserting
hydraulic connection (e.g., Bester et al., 2002). Cross-sections
along the deep tunnel channel fills and along inter-channel
uplands illustrate the radically different flow system geometry
(Figure 13).
Geological Model Assessment
The validity of a geological model depends on the quality, quantity
and distribution of data and the expertise of the geologist that inter-
prets it. The development of a conceptual model early in a study is
essentially a hypothesis (e.g., LeGrand and Rosen, 2000; Flint et al.,
2001). As such, it should be tested through data collection, experi-
mentation (e.g., numeric modelling) and peer review. In the Oak
Ridges area, the use of recent glacial process models and landform
interpretations led to a new event-stratigraphy and the interpretation
of a late Wisconsinan regional unconformity (Figure 2; Barnett et
al., 1998; Sharpe et al., 2004). Supporting this conceptual model,
elements of the unconformity (e.g., tunnel channels) were con-
firmed by field mapping (Sharpe et al., 1997), seismic profiles
(Pugin et al., 1999) and continuous core (Russell et al., 2003b).
Furthermore, because the conceptual model forms the framework
for interpreting archival subsurface data, the integrity of the ORM
stratigraphic model is inherently linked to the integrity of the ORM
conceptual model. For structural stratigraphic models, as was done
in this study, visual inspection can be used to determine if they con-
form to observable features. Alternatively, they can be tested by
comparison with independent data sources (e.g., Kassenar et al.,
2003). Quantitative modelling results can be compared with field
observations to determine if conceptual model-based assumptions
are valid (e.g., Herzog et al., 2002). Collection and use of high-qual-
ity data allows testing and revision of the conceptual model that will
lead to improvements in geological understanding (e.g., Sharpe et
al., 2002a).
Regional Map Data Coverage
At the regional scale, the scarcity of existing high-quality data and the
high cost of acquiring new subsurface data makes it necessary to fully
exploit thematic geology maps. This map data is commonly under
utilized in modelling exercises. In the hands of experienced users,
however, these datasets may yield a host of embedded information
pertaining to stratigraphic relationships and formative processes. Full
use of map data provides access to regional coverages that are com-
monly accompanied by extensive supporting point data.
In the ORM study, surficial geology maps (Sharpe et al., 1997)
provided a key control for the stratigraphic architectural model
(Figure 2). Additionally, following terrain analysis, a derivative tun-
nel channel map (Russell et al., 2003a) was subsequently used as a
thematic dataset for version 2 of the stratigraphic model. These the-
matic map data were input to the model as elevation-controlled,
stratigraphically coded point data. As an alternate approach, length
and width scales can be extracted from map data and used as a con-
ditional dataset in geostatistical operations (e.g., Weissmann et al.,
1999).
537
GIS FOR THE EARTH SCIENCES
Integration of map data greatly increased the spatial control for
the training surfaces beyond the initial borehole data density of <1
site per km2. The geological architecture of glacial deposits is rela-
tively flat lying compared to many folded and faulted bedrock
regions, however, rapid facies changes, abrupt transitions between
adjacent depositional settings, and incised erosional features neces-
sitate relatively abundant data. For example, to resolve tunnel chan-
nels of <1 km width, a data coverage of ~2 to 3 deep, boreholes per
km2 is required (e.g., Weber and van Geuns, 1990). Such a data den-
sity can only be approached in regional studies with the integration
of archival data with map data. To produce the most credible geo-
logical model possible, regional scale models need to exploit and
integrate a range of disparate data that includes primary geological
and hydrogeological data, thematic map data and archival data
within a hierarchal data structure.
Potential for Future Advancements
Each surface of the ORM model was rendered individually and con-
strained by using a variety of GIS map-layer queries to insure con-
formity. For interpolation, both TIN and Natural Neighbour meth-
ods were used; however, any exact interpolator could be used to
achieve similar results (e.g., kriging, conditional simulation).
Kriging is a powerful geostatistical estimation technique, however
it is computationally intensive and it assumes data stationarity.
Kriging may be more appropriately applied to smaller, more geo-
logically homogeneous zones (e.g., tunnel channel and inter-chan-
nel areas) in the ORM study area. Various types of conditional sim-
ulation modelling could be employed to produce multiple realiza-
tions of each unit as was completed for the Newmarket Till aquitard
(e.g., Desbarats et al., 2001). In addition, such an approach would
allow a quantitative assessment of uncertainty for the respective
surface geometries (e.g., Desbarats et al., 2001).
A digital stratigraphic model should ultimately capture addi-
tional resolution from sedimentary deposits, in particular, the inter-
nal characterization of mapped units or architectural elements. The
heterogeneity of these stratigraphic elements has been recorded as
sediment facies in the ORM (e.g., Russell et al., 2005b) but they
have not yet been used explicitly in the modelling. Sediment facies
and their respective depositional environments are recognized to
play an important role in characterizing the distribution of hydraulic
conductivity (Fogg, 1986). For most of the aquifers, the most abun-
dant data available are the sediment facies derived directly from
detailed core logging or interpreted from geophysical data. The dis-
tribution of facies within units can be modelled using a variety of
techniques, including: transitional probability geostatistics (e.g.,
Weissmann and Fogg, 1999), indicator kriging or simulation meth-
ods (e.g., Ritzi et al., 1994). Applied to sedimentary aquifers these
techniques provide a powerful means of estimating aquifer hetero-
geneity even if generic 'book' values are used for hydraulic conduc-
tivity of sediment facies.
CONCLUSIONS
A basin analysis approach and a modelling method that organizes
and integrates variable data at regional scales has proven to be a
practical means of understanding and mapping glaciated terrain in a
regional hydrogeology study. This paper has documented the devel-
opment of a digital geological model using a stratigraphic database
538
and a GIS. The construction of a geospatial database to support
accurate stratigraphic modelling depends, however, on the avail-
ability of a complete and reliable data coverage. Due to the scale of
regional studies, adequate data coverage is often difficult to obtain.
Extensive use of surface geological mapping and conceptual model
development offsets this problem by constraining the stratigraphic
framework for GIS modelling.
A well-structured stratigraphic database was an effective tool
to support stratigraphic modelling. A series of data vetting and for-
matting steps, database queries and GIS operations were developed
to integrate variable quality data and use it with thematic GIS lay-
ers to produce the ORM 3-D structural model. Although the use of
abundant, low-quality water well records was essential to build the
ORM stratigraphic model, great care was exercised to identify and
filter out data errors. To integrate water well data, an expert system
was used to emulate the process used by geologists for interpreting
subsurface data. In this system, high-quality data and expert knowl-
edge-based rules were used to train low-quality water well records.
In this way, more data support was added to the interpolated sur-
faces while limiting the potential introduction of gross accuracy
problems. The expert system approach has the additional advan-
tages of being fully consistent in all well interpretations and it also
allows controlled experiments to be run and re-run to evaluate the
effects of new or updated data, rules and geological conceptualiza-
tion.
Reliable data interpretation cannot be ensured in the absence of
an accurate conceptual geological model. However, any model
should be recognized as being only one possible interpretation of
many. As such, a model needs to be treated with skepticism and
reviewed by objective testing against high-quality field data. A num-
ber of rigorous interpolative techniques may be used to produce a
stratigraphic model (e.g., TIN, kriging, conditional simulation).
However in any modelling exercise, a clear description of the con-
ceptual geological model, related GIS modelling assumptions and
subsequent model limitations should be considered and documented.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Andy Bajc, Donald Keefer, and
Ross Knight for highly constructive comments and insight that
greatly improved this paper. Additionally, an informal review from
Steve Holysh was very much appreciated. This work was funded
under the Groundwater program of the Geological Survey of
Canada, Contribution #2003096.
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