Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 1394–1404

www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Application of solar collectors to control the visible plume

from wet cooling towers of a commercial building
in Hong Kong: A case study
S.W. Wang a, S.K. Tyagi a,*
, Atul Sharma b, S.C. Kaushik c

a
Department of Building Services Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kun Shan University, Yung-Kung City, P.O. Box 40-91, Tainan 710, Taiwan
c
Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India

Received 14 July 2006; accepted 7 October 2006

Available online 12 December 2006

Abstract

This communication presents a case study on the application and utility of solar collectors heating system to control the visible plume
from wet cooling towers of a huge commercial building. The visibility of plume from cooling towers depends on the weather conditions,
specially, the temperature and relative humidity of the ambient air. Although the ambient temperature is the main parameter for the
visibility of plume yet the relative humidity also plays a vital role in some cases such as Hong Kong, Europe, Canada and other similar
regions in the world. The present study is on the control of plume from wet cooling towers of a huge commercial building, particularly, in
Hong Kong and can be used as a base for other places in general. The analysis is done based on the hourly weather data available from
the metrological department for a particular year. In this case study the calculations are done using the water cooled and the air cooled
solar collectors and the comparison is also given among the different possible options.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cooling tower; Plume control; Solar collector; Commercial building; Ambient air temperature; Relative humidity

1. Introduction
Cooling towers are the enclosed boxes for the evaporat-
ing cooling of water by direct contact with the air, which is
achieved partly by an exchange of latent heat from the
water evaporation and partly by a transfer of sensible heat.
They are used for heat rejection purposes and are among
the important component of any power plant, HVAC
and industrial applications, especially, where the availabil-
ity of cooling water is not sufficient. Physically they are
often the single largest item of plant at the site and their
visual impact is greatly increased if they emit a visible
plume of superheated air into the atmosphere. The devel-
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sudhirtyagi@yahoo.com (S.K. Tyagi).
opment of the cooling tower analysis began in the 19th cen-
tury with the first work carried out by Lewis [1]. Lewis’s
work for the first time used by Robinson [2] who estab-
lished the general principle applicable to cooling tower
design and derived equations for the designers. He also sta-
ted a series of fundamental concepts about the mechanism
involved in the transfer of heat between liquid, gasses, and
on the vaporization of liquid. Merkel [3] used the enthalpy
potential as a deriving force for air water exchange and
assumed a similarity between heat and mass convective
transfer by means of Lewis number equals to unity which
has been used to date.
Several authors have studied the convection phenomena
occurring in cooling towers. Baker and Shrylock [4] devel-
oped a detailed explanation of the concept of cooling towers
performance clarifying the assumptions and approxima-
tions used by Merkel. Sutherland [5] showed that Merkel’s

1359-4311/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2006.10.032
 S.W. Wang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 1394–1404 1395

Nomenclature

A area of intersection (m2) Subscripts

COP coefficient of performance Comp compressor
od outer diameter HP heat pump
P power (kW) H heating
Q heating/cooling load (kW) L cooling
RH relative humidity (%) DW dry bulb
Temp. temperature
W humidity ratio (g of water vapor per kg of dry
air)
1, 2 initial, final
dS elementary surface area (m2)

theory leads to an underestimation of tower size by 5–15%. tion among the society. Considering all the possible
Braun [6] developed a confined method to model the per- aspects, reliability, potential, and limitations of each and
formance of both cooling tower and dehumidifying coils. every method, explained so far. We have applied the heat-
Effectiveness relationships have been developed, taking into ing strategy of using solar collectors [26–28] to control the
account a saturated air specific heat used for sensible heat plume from wet cooling towers particularly for this huge
exchanger. The results of this method were compared with commercial building which is also applicable for other
numerical solutions of the detailed heat and mass transfer buildings in general for Hong Kong and other places where
models and experimental results. Shelton and Weber [7] the weather conditions are similar [24,25].
used a mathematical model based on manufacturer’s per-
formance data in order to investigate the effect of (low) 2. The formation of visible plume
water and air flow rates. Lebrun [8] presented the funda-
mentals of a new simulations toolkit oriented upward sim- The ambient air passing through the cooling tower
ple solutions for primary HVAC equipment. This toolkit comes into contact with the hot water, takes heat and mois-
used as much as possible, the literature models. Each model ture and exits the tower (Fig. 1) in saturated or superheated
is described by reference to conceptual scheme, in which state as can be seen clearly in Fig. 2(a). This exhaust leav-
very classical engineering components are interconnected. ing the cooling tower remixes with the cooler ambient air
Lebrun and Silva [9] presented an analysis of basic heat and as it cools down the excess moisture condenses in small
and mass transfer processes occurring around a droplet in fog droplets, causing the visible plume (white smoke). Dur-
transient cooling tower. Bernier [10] presented a unidimen- ing winter season, cold, humid ambient air at condition 1
sional analysis of the spray type counter flow tower was (Fig. 2(a)) is warmed up to condition 2 in the tower (after
presented showing the influence of fill height, water reten- absorbing the heat released by the hot water) and then
tion time, and water flow rate on the tower performance.
Some study on heat and mass transfer analysis on cooling
tower were also made by Naphon [11], Klopper and Kröger
[12–14] , Lees [15], Smith [16] and others [17–23] using dif-
ferent methods.
Under the most unfavorable combination of the ambi-
ent conditions, thermal load and topography, such a plume
can extend few hundred meters and sometime causes visi-
bility and darkness [17–23]. The latest literature review
about cooling towers shows different options for reducing
the visible plume using hybrid cooling towers, wet–dry
cooling towers, dry cooling towers and so on, depending
on the need and demand. As mentioned by number of
researchers wet cooling towers are economically and tech-
nically cheap easy to build and need less power to operate
as compared to other types of towers. But they do not have
any control over the visible plume [17–25].
In recent years, the visible impact of releases to the
ambient has become a matter of greater concern due to
the awareness of environmental degradation and protec- Fig. 1. The working principle of a counter flow cooling tower.
1396 S.W. Wang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 1394–1404
Fig. 2(a). The formation of plume (fog) in a cooling tower.
remixes with the ambient air along the line 2–1. Most of
this mixing occurs in the superheated region. Where there
is more moisture (such as in Hong Kong, Europe, Canada,
etc.) in the air than can be held at equilibrium, the conden-
sation occurs and a dense and persistent plume formed. On
the other hand, during hot and dry weather conditions, the
ambient air in the cooling tower may be heated and remixes
along the line 4–3, which is wholly in the sub-saturated
region and no plume is formed.
As mentioned in above section, the exhaust of the tower
is generally saturated and during odd whether conditions
can not be absorbed fully by the surrounding air, as a
result, the access appears as visible fog. As shown in
Fig. 2(a), the larger is the temperature difference between
Inlet and outlet air of the tower (i.e. the greater the area
of the intersection to the left of the saturation curve,
Fig. 2(b), the more intense will be the plume. As the
exhaust of the tower is almost saturated, the main param-
eter causing plume is the temperature difference between
the inlet and outlet air of the tower. From Fig. 2(b) it
can be seen that the intensity of plume is more for lower
Fig. 2(b). The potential of plume (fog) in a cooling tower.
ambient temperature and less for higher ambient tempera-
ture. Thus by joining these two points by a straight line on
the Psychrometric chart, we can predict the possibility and
potential of plume. So the potential of fog can be predicted
by calculating the area of intersection as shown in
Fig. 2(b).
The area of intersection can be calculated following
Wang and Tyagi [24] and Tyagi et al. [25]. This area gives
the magnitude for the possible potential of the plume,
based on the inlet and outlet temperatures of the cooling
tower and the relative humidity of the ambient air at a par-
ticular time.
3. Odd weather conditions
It is observed that the conditions for the visible plume
are the lower ambient temperature and higher relative
humidity as can be seen from Fig. 3(a). Based on the hourly
weather data for a typical year [25], a detailed analysis has
been done for different properties of the ambient air. The
relative humidity versus the ambient air temperature is
plotted as shown in Fig. 3(b) and based on these figures
using the Psychrometric chart, it is found that the potential
of plume is much effective in the winter season. The odd
weather conditions are marked on these figures for the pos-
sible potential of visible plume and the most critical condi-
tion for the possible potential of the visible plume are
shown in Table 1.
Thus using the literature as base, we have chosen the
winter conditions as the most possible case for the major
potential of plume. Although the weather conditions may
vary from year to year, but the overall changes may not
be much affected for a complete year. Hence, the calcula-
tions and modeling for a particular year can work for long
time with a little or no modification. This can also be
 S.W. Wang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 1394–1404 1397

Fig. 3(a). Hourly variation of relative humidity and ambient air temperature.

Fig. 3(b). Variation of relative humidity versus ambient air temperature.

Table 1 4. The potential of the visible plume

Selected critical weather data for Hong Kong in winter and spring
Winter case Spring case From the critical regions selected in Fig. 3(a) and
Temperature Relative humidity Temperature Relative humidity marked in Fig. 3(b), it is found that the winter conditions
(C) (%) (C) (%) have more potential and frequency of plume than those
13–18 95 21–27 95 of the spring conditions. Also for these conditions men-
tioned in Table 1 and marked in Fig. 3(b). Using standard
readjusted using some manual techniques and/or sensors simulation technique at these particular weather data con-
based online program depending upon the weather condi- ditions it is found that only three chillers are required to
tions. Again for such huge buildings some sensor based fulfill the cooling requirement of this building. Based on
online system can be used to detect and control the plume the range of winter condition given in Table 1, we have
by readjusting the set points temperature and the heating chosen the ambient temperature of 15 C and the relative
requirements. humidity of 95%.
1398 S.W. Wang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 1394–1404

Table 2
Operating parameters of cooling towers for critical winter case (Building cooling load is 17,236 kW)
Towers in use Outlet temperature (C) Consumption of power Heat transfer rate in the chiller COP of chillers
High speed Low speed High speed Low speed Chiller, kW Fans, kW Condenser, kW Evaporator, kW
2 3 26.32 27.42 944.7 270 6625 5680 6.01
5 – 23.70 – 883.8 450 6564 5680 6.43
– 10 – 23.67 877.9 300 6558 5680 6.47
5 5 20.30 21.04 820.9 600 6501 5680 6.92
10 – 19.50 – 801.4 900 6482 5680 7.09

Table 3
Heating required and operating parameters for chiller plants
Towers in use Heating required, kW Power consumption COP of chiller
High speed Low speed Fans, kW Chillers, kW Total, kW
2 3 1988.8 270 2834.1 3486.5 6.01
5 – 1311.0 450 2651.4 3353.3 6.43
– 10 1311.0 300 2633.7 3185.6 6.47
5 5 655.5 600 2462.7 3188.7 6.92
10 – 655.5 900 2404.2 3430.1 7.09

Also the optimum operating parameters such as the
building load, cooling load, heating load, dry and wet bulb
temperatures, inlet air temperature, relative humidity,
water flow rate, air flow rate are calculated and some of
them are given in Table 2. As can be seen from Table 2,
the outlet temperature of high and low speed towers for
various combinations are different from one another. Thus
the heating requirements and the operating parameters for
chillers, at the critical regions marked in Fig. 3(a) and (b) as
mentioned above, are different for different combination
and are given in Table 3.
Again, the outlet temperature of the high and low speed
tower is different for different operating conditions. Basi-
cally this depends on the number and speed of the cooling
towers. It also can be seen that there is big difference
between the outlet and inlet temperatures of the cooling
towers, especially for low speed cooling towers. In most
of the combinations, the potential of visible plume is found
to be different for high and low speed towers and in gen-
eral, for low speed towers, it is found to be more than those
of the high speed towers. This is because of the fact that the
exhaust temperature of a low speed tower is higher than
that of a high speed tower and vice-versa. Using these oper-
ating conditions, based on the inlet and outlet temperatures
of the cooling towers, the potential of the visible plume are
drawn on the Psychrometric charts as given in Figs. 4–7.

Fig. 4(a). The potential of plume for a low speed tower, case-1, combination-1.
 S.W. Wang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 1394–1404 1399

Fig. 4(b). The potential of plume for a high speed tower case-1, combination-1.

Fig. 5. The potential of plume for a low speed tower, case-1, combination-2 which is also similar to case-2, combination-1.

5. Methods to control the visible plume
Methods of reducing (preventing and/or removing) the
visible plume have taken many forms, such as, heating
the exhaust with natural gas burner, steam coils, installing
precipitators, and spraying chemicals on the tower exhaust.
However, such types of solutions in general are expensive
and are not always effective [17,20]. A little can be done
in a wet cooling tower to reduce/remove plume persistence.
Theoretically, an access of air has the effect of shortening
the length of the line 2–1 (Fig. 2(a)), thus reducing length
and frequency and hence, the potential of visible plume.
But in practice, the gains are small and the cost is high.
Since the COP of heat pump is much higher than unity,
unlike the electric heater. Keeping this aspect in mind,
Wang and Tyagi [24] and Tyagi et al. [25] made a detailed
study on the control of visible plume by heating the
exhaust of wet cooling tower (from a huge commercial
building in Hong Kong) using heat pump.
As solar energy is clean, free of cost and abundantly
available on this planet and can he harness efficiently, pro-
vided some advance techniques are used. So we have
applied the heating option for the visible plume of wet
cooling towers [24,25] using to different types of solar col-
lectors viz. the water cooled solar collectors and the air
cooled solar collectors [27]. Thus the present work is a
1400 S.W. Wang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 1394–1404

Fig. 6(a). The potential of plume for a low speed tower case-2, combination-2.

Fig. 6(b). The potential of plume for a high speed tower case-2, combination-2.

further step to utilize the non-conventional energy sources
in real life problems. The dimensions, temperature differ-
ence, number of collectors, the mass flow rate of the fluid,
type of fluids (water/air) are among the important param-
eters of the solar collector specifications. Based on the
requirements of heating (Table 3) to control the plume
some of the parameters are calculated (Table 4) and given
in Tables 5A and B, respectively, for water and air cooled
solar collectors.
6. Solar collector
Solar collectors are the devices used to convert the solar
radiant energy into heat (thermal energy) in the temperature
range usually from ambient temperature (say 30 C) to high
temperature (say 1500 C), depending upon the design
and type of solar collector. The heat can be used for generat-
ing electric power and/or heating/cooling applications.
Amongst many available systems, few types of collector sys-
tems, viz. flat plate collector, evacuated tube collector, para-
bolic trough collector, central receiver system and parabolic
dish are used depending upon the temperature requirement
and the availability of material required [26–28].
The most common collector for solar water heating sys-
tem is the flat plate collector. It is a rectangular box with a
transparent cover, installed on a building’s roof. Flat plate
solar collector operates on the principle that when a black
sheet of metal is placed in the sun, the sheet absorbs sunlight
 S.W. Wang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 1394–1404 1401

Fig. 7. The potential of plume for a high speed tower case-2, combination-3.

Table 4 Table 5A
Specifications of a typical flat plate solar collector Water cooled collectors: temperature difference, number of collectors,
water flow rate, etc. for different heating requirements
Dimensions 1860 mm (length) · 1240 mm (width)
Weight 48 kg (approx) Temperature Number of Mass flow rate of water (kg/s)
Collector box Powder coated extruded aluminium channel 1.6 mm difference (C) collectors QH = 1988.8 QH = 1311 QH = 655.5
thick
kW kW kW
Absorber Black continuously plated tig welded solchrome solar
panel selectively coated fins and tubes: 10 nos. Fin size: 10 20 2.37 1.56 0.78
122 mm (width) · 1700 mm (length); tube size: 12.7 mm 15 3.16 2.08 1.04
(od) · 0.56 mm (thick) · 1715 mm (length) 10 4.74 3.12 1.56
Header Copper tubes 25.4 mm (od) · 0.71 mm 5 9.47 6.24 3.12
(thick) · 1320 mm (length) 8 20 2.96 1.95 0.98
Glazing Toughened/tempered glass 15 3.95 2.60 1.30
Thermal Resin bonded rock wool 10 5.92 3.90 1.95
insulation 5 11.84 7.80 3.90
Efficiency 40–70%
6 20 3.59 2.60 1.30
15 5.26 3.47 1.73
10 7.89 5.20 2.60
5 15.89 10.40 5.60
which appears as heat. The plate will gradually heat up until
its temperature is high enough above the ambient such that 4 20 5.92 3.90 1.95
15 7.89 5.20 2.60
the rate of heat loss from the plate to ambient air just bal- 10 11.84 7.80 3.90
ances the rate of heat gain from absorption of solar rays. 5 23.68 15.61 7.80
However, it is a matter of common experience that if
there is a wind blowing, the heat transfer from the plate
to the air will be so effective that the plate will not be more
than few degrees warmer than ambient. Nevertheless, if the sheet (say 1/16 in. or 0.16 cm thick) has a heat capacity
collector can be thermally insulated from the ambient air, of about 1.57 W/m2. Thus, if the absorbed heat is not car-
the solar heat gain can produce a substantial temperature ried off, the plate will rise at the rate of about 333 C/h in
rise. The simplest mechanism for doing this is to cover the bright sunlight [27,28]. In actual, the plate will begin to
the black plate with transparent cover separated by an lose heat to its surroundings at a faster rate as it becomes
air gap. This will allow most of the incident solar rays to hotter and will eventually reach an equilibrium tempera-
reach the plate but will severely cut down the rate of heat ture where the rate of heat loss exactly balances the rate
loss to the ambient. of heat gain from solar absorption. In practice, a hot metal
In bright sun light near ‘Solar Noon’ solar intensity of sheet is not of any value by itself. A solar collector involves
945 W/m2 is the highest commonly available. A metal movement of a fluid, either as air blown over the plate and/
1402 S.W. Wang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 1394–1404

Table 5B 7. Discussion of results

Air cooled solar collector: temperature difference, number of collectors, air
flow rate, etc. for different heating requirements
Using the data shown in Tables 2 and 3, the potential of
Temperature Number of Mass flow rate of air (kg/s) plume for different cases and combinations are shown on
difference (C) collectors
QH = 1988.8 QH = 1311 QH = 655.5 the Psychrometric chart as given in Figs. 4–7 while the
kW kW kW requirements of heating are shown in Table 3. Based on
10 20 9.88 6.52 3.26 the requirements of heating, the specifications about the
15 13.18 8.59 4.34 solar collectors such as the temperature difference, number
10 19.77 13.03 6.52
5 39.54 26.06 13.03
of collectors, mass flow rate of the fluid, etc. are given in
Tables 5A and B and the discussion of results is given.
8 20 12.36 8.14 4.07
It can be seen from Table 2 that for a given ambient
15 16.47 10.86 5.43
10 24.71 16.29 8.14 temperature the exhaust temperature depends on the num-
5 49.42 32.58 16.29 ber of tower in use and the mode of operation i.e. the speed
of tower. Using the Intel and outlet temperatures of the
6 20 16.47 1086 5.43
15 21.97 14.48 7.24 tower, the potential of plume is plotted on the Psychromet-
10 32.95 21.72 10.86 ric chart in Figs. 4–7 for their respective cases shown in
5 65.90 43.44 21.72 Table 2. It is clear from these graphs that higher is the
4 20 24.71 16.29 8.14 exhaust air temperature (or lower is the ambient tempera-
15 32.95 21.72 10.86 ture), higher will be the potential of the visible plume. Also
10 49.42 32.58 16.29 higher is the potential of the plume, more will be the
5 98.85 65.16 32.58 requirements of the heat to control it.
The requirements for heating the exhaust of cooling
or the water flowing through tubes attached to the plate, to towers to control the plume are given in Table 3 for all
carry off heat that is collected. Small tubes run through the the possible combinations. These results are based on the
box and carry fluid-either water or other fluid, such as an calculations done for the critical weather conditions
antifreeze solution. marked in Fig. 2 and mentioned above (Table 1). It is seen
The tubes attach to a black absorber plate. As heat from Figs. 4–7 that the potential of plume is higher when
builds up in the collector, it heats the fluid passing through the number of towers are less and vice-versa. In the present
the tubes. The hot water or liquid goes to a storage tank. If case, the potential of plume is the highest when the number
the fluid is not hot water, water is heated by passing it of (high speed) tower is the least as can be seen from
through a tube inside the storage tank full of hot fluid. Fig. 4(a), while it is reverse in the case of highest (high
Fig. 8 shows a typical water/air cooled flat plate solar col- speed) number of cooling towers as shown in Fig. 7. At
lector with the possible option of heating the exhaust of the the same time, the COP of the chiller and the requirements
cooling towers. for heating are found to be the lowest and highest for these

Fig. 8. Schematic of solar collector for heating the exhaust of cooling tower.
 S.W. Wang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 1394–1404
two cases, respectively, and can be seen in Table 3. Apart
from these two extreme cases, the potential of plume, the
COP of the chillers and the heating requirements are found
to be moderate and change as the number of (high and low
speed) towers are changed.
The results obtained for all the heating options given in
Table 3 indicate that the total power consumption first
decreases and then increases while the power consumption
in the chillers decrease, whereas, the COP of the chillers
increases, as the number of cooling towers increases.
On the other hand, the power consumption in the fan
which solely depends on the mode of operation of cooling
towers (i.e. high or low speed) increases continuously,
except for one combination. In other words, the power
consumption in the fans increases (except for one combina-
tion) as the number of towers increases and is found to be
the highest when all the 10 towers operate at high speed
while it is reverse in the case of two high speed towers as
can be seen from Figs. 4(a) and 7.
Again in the case of all 10 towers at low speed, the con-
sumption of power in fans is found to be the second lowest
while the consumption of total power is found to be the
lowest one. But the COP is found to be moderate (Table
3) while the potential of plume is found to be significant
as can be seen from Fig. 5. On the other hand, in the case
of all 10 towers at high speed, the fans power consumption
and the COP are found to be the highest and the total
power consumption is the second highest (Table 3) while
the potential of plume is found to be the lowest (Fig. 7).
Except these two main combinations mentioned above,
either the potential of the plume or the total power con-
sumption is higher and/or the COP of the chillers is lower,
especially when the total number of towers in operation is
five.
As we can see from Tables 5A and B it is clear that the
for large temperature difference either the number of collec-
tors and/or the mass flow rate of the fluid is higher and it is
reverse in the case of smaller temperature difference. Also
for the same specifications, the mass flow rate of water is
much less than that of the mass flow rate of the air, which
is basically due to the large difference in the specific heats
and other physical and chemical properties the two fluids
[27,28]. Again for the water cooled collector there is a need
of pump, while it needs an air compressor and/or fan/
blower in the case of air cooled collector and costs more
energy input. Thus the water cooled collectors can give a
better output provided optimum configuration is used
27,28]. Thus proper and optimized operation (number
and speed) of cooling towers is an effective means to con-
trol and/or at least to reduce the potential of plume gener-
ated by cooling towers at Hong Kong and other similar
climates.
8. Conclusions
Based on the calculations and discussions of results
among different combinations, mentioned above, the results
1403
are plotted in Figs. 4–7 and given in Tables 5A and B. Also
some useful conclusions are found for these options and are
summarized herewith along with few recommendations for
the future work in this direction, as below:
• Proper and optimized operation (number and speed) of
cooling towers is an effective means to control and/or at
least to reduce the potential and frequency of plume
generated by cooling towers at Hong Kong and other
similar climates.
• Since the solar energy is free of cost and can be utilized
provided advance technology is used but at the same
time it is intermittent in nature, and sometime there
may be no more sun light due to raining and/or clouding
weather. In such a case, this cannot be the ideal solution,
so there should be some alternative to assist this plan.
• For large temperature difference either the number of
collectors and/or the mass flow rate of the fluid are
higher which is reverse in the case of smaller tempera-
ture difference. Also for the same specifications, the
mass flow rate of water is much less than that of
the mass flow rate of the air, which is basically due to
the large difference in the specific heat and other physical
and chemical properties the two fluids. Again for the
water cooled collector there is a need of pump, while it
needs an air compressor and/or fan/blower in the case
of air cooled collector and costs more energy input.
Thus the water cooled collectors can give a better output
provided optimum configuration is used.
• The total power consumption first decreases and then
increases while the power consumption in the chillers
decrease, whereas, the COP of the chillers increases, as
the number of cooling towers increases. On the other
hand, the power consumption in the fan (which solely
depends on the mode of operation of cooling towers
i.e. high or low speed). In other words, the power con-
sumption in the fans increases (except for one combina-
tion) as the number of towers increases and is found to
be the highest when all the 10 towers operate at high
speed while it is reverse in the case of two high speed
towers.
• The potential of plume is the highest when the number
of (high speed) tower is the lowest, while it is reverse
in the case of highest (high speed) number of cooling
towers. At the same time the COP of the chillers and
the requirements for heating are found to be the lowest
and highest for these two cases, respectively. Apart from
these two extreme cases, the potential of plume, the COP
of the chillers and the heating requirements are found to
be moderate and change as the number of cooling tow-
ers changed.
• The power input is lower and the COP is moderate when
all 10 towers with low speed are in use but the potential
of visible plume is significant. So the case of all 10 tow-
ers operated at high speed, can be a better option to con-
trol the plume even if there is some fluctuation in the
temperature and relative humidity in the surrounding
1404 S.W. Wang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 1394–1404
air. On the other hand, the adjustment for the heating
will change and hence, the manual readjustment is
needed to get the optimum operating performance.
• Also the temperature of the refrigerant is much higher at
the exit of the compressor i.e. at the entering of the con-
denser. So a desuperheater can be used to heat the
exhaust of the cooling towers. It not only will save
energy but also can reduce the load of the cooling tower
and hence, the overall building load. Another way to
solve this problem is that one or two chiller can be used
as air cooled condenser and that air at high temperature
can be mixed with the exhaust of the cooling tower
before being released to the ambient.
• One more option is that one or two chillers can be the
dual, in other words, a condenser can be cooled using
both air and water as per the requirement. In winter
when the possibility and potential of plume is high, air
can be used as coolant. This air can be mixed with the
exhaust of the tower and/or to heat the exhaust of the
cooling tower to remove the plume. Since the perfor-
mance of water cooled chiller is better than an air cooled
chiller and the possibility for the major potential of
plume is for a short period. In such a situation the chiller
can be cooled by water during the normal period while
during the odd weather conditions it can be cooled by
air and that air can be mixed with the exhaust of cooling
towers to reduce the potential of visible plume. In this
way a better performance of the chiller in particular
and the buildings in general can be achieved.
Acknowledgements
Financial support through Post Doctoral Fellowship
due to The Hong Kong Polytechnic University is duly
acknowledged. Some fruitful suggestions and recommen-
dations made by one of the Referees are also appreciated.
References
[1] W.K. Lewis, The evaporation of liquid into gas, ASME Trans. 44
(1922) 325–340.
[2] C.S. Robinson, The design of cooling towers, Mech. Eng. 15 (1923)
99–102.
[3] F. Merkel, Verdunstungskiihung, VDI Forschungsar beiten, No. 275,
Berlin, Germany, 1925.
[4] D.R. Baker, H.A. Shrylock, A comprehensive approach to the
analysis of cooling tower performance, J. Heat Transfer 83 (1961)
339–349.
[5] J.W. Sutherland, Analysis of mechanical draught counter flow air
water cooling towers, ASME Trans. 105 (1983) 576–583.
[6] J.R. Braun, Methodologies for the design and control of central
cooling plant, Ph.D. thesis, University of Wiscosin, Madison, 1988.
[7] S.V. Shelton, E.D. Weber, Modeling and optimization of a commer-
cial building chillers/cooling tower systems, ASHRAE Trans. 97
(1991) 1209–1216.
[8] J. Lebrun, A toolkit for primary HVAC energy calculations,
ASHRAE Inc., Atlanta, 1993.
[9] M.A. Bernier, Cooling tower performance – theory and experiments,
ASHRAE Trans. 100 (1994) 114–121.
[10] J. Lebrun, C.A. Silva, Cooling towers – model and experimental
validation, ASHRAE Trans. 108 (2002) 751–759.
[11] P. Naphon, Study on the heat transfer characteristics of an
evaporative cooling tower, Int. Comm. Heat Mass Transfer 32
(2005) 1066–1074.
[12] J.G. Kloppers, D.G. Kröger, A critical analysis into the heat and
mass transfer analysis of counter flow wet-cooling tower, Int. J. Heat
Mass Transfer 48 (1998) 765–777.
[13] J.G. Kloppers, D.G. Kröger, Cooling tower performance evaluation:
Merkel, Poppe and e-NTU methods of analysis, J. Eng. Gas Turbine
Power 127 (2005) 1–7.
[14] J.G. Kloppers, D.G. Kröger, The Lewis factor and its influence of the
performance prediction of wet-cooling towers, Int. J. Therm. Sci. 44
(2005) 879–884.
[15] M. Lees, The economics of wet versus dry cooling for combined cycle,
in: IMechE, Symposium on Condenser and Cooling Towers for
Combined Cycle, London, 1994.
[16] W.W. Smith, Prediction of cooling tower performance, ASHRAE
Trans. 6 (1954) 27–36.
[17] ASHRAE 1996, ASHRAE Handbook-HVAC Systems and Equip-
ments, ASHRAE Inc., 1996, Chapter-36.
[18] F. Bouton, R.J. Winter, Mechanical drought cooling towers with
visible plume abatement. Inst. IMechE, Second Seminar on CCGT,
London, 1992.
[19] M. Bennett, S. Sutton, D.R.C. Gardiner, An analysis of lider
measurements of buoyant plume rise and dispersion at five power
stations, Atmos. Environ. 26A (1992) 3249–3263.
[20] B.E.A. Fisher, Predicting cooling tower plume dispersion, Int.
IMechE, Symposium on Condenser and Cooling Towers for Com-
bined cycle, London, 1994.
[21] R.J. Winter, Control of visible plumes form cooling towers, Proc.
Inst. Mech. Eng. 211A (1997) 67–72.
[22] B.E.A. Fisher, Predicting cooling tower plume dispersion, Procs.
Instt. Mech. Engrs. 211A (1997) 291–297.
[23] A. Corti, E. Carnevale, Environmental impact from wet plume in
combined cycle power plants, Appl. Thermal Eng. 18 (1998) 1049–
1057.
[24] S.W. Wang, S.K. Tyagi, Report on the prediction, potential and
control of plume from cooling towers of International Com-
merce Center, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong,
2006.
[25] S.K. Tyagi, S.W. Wang, Z.J. Ma, The prediction, potential and
control of plume from cooling towers of commercial buildings: A case
study, Int. J. Energy Res., in press.
[26] S.C. Kaushik, M.K. Singhal, S.K. Tyagi, Solar collector technologies
for power generation and space conditioning, Internal Report, Centre
for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India,
2000.
[27] A.K. Singhal, Indoor-outdoor testing of flat plate solar collectors,
Technical Report, Solchrome Systems India Limited 61, Sector V,
Parwanoo (H.P.) India, 2003.
[28] D.W. Lee, A. Sharma, Thermal performances of the active and
passive water heating systems based on annual operation, Solar
Energy, in press.