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Superconductivity
Superconductivity
Superconductivity
Chapter 5: Superconductivity
History
Introduction of Superconductivity
Properties of superconductor
Impurity effect
Persistent Current
Meissner effect
Application of superconductors
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Superconductivity
History
Superconductivity was discovered in 1911 by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, the Dutch
physicist known for his research in to phenomena at extremely low temperature.
In 1908, Onnes had become the first person to liquefy helium.
He was investigating the electrical properties of various substances at liquid helium
temperature (4.2o K), when he noticed that the resistivity of the mercury dropped down
abruptly at 4.2 K to a value below the resolution of his instruments.
In 1933, W. Meissner and R. Oschenfeld discover that a metal cooled into the
superconducting state in a weak magnetic field expels the magnetic field from its interior.
Introduction to Superconductivity
Superconductivity is a phenomena observed in certain metals, alloys and ceramics in
which electrical current flows without any resistance for a long time. It is observed when
material is cooled below certain temperature known as “Critical Temperature”.
Superconductors
Superconductors are the materials which has almost zero resistance for the electrical
current, when it is cooled below certain temperature known as critical temperature.
Eg: Mercury (Hg), Zinc (Zn), Vanadium (V), Niobium (Nb), Aluminum (Al), Cadmium
(Cd), Lithium (Li), FeSe Cupates superconductors, etc…
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Superconductivity
Residual
Resistivity
The above graph shows that the resistivity of the normal metal decreases gradually/ slowly
with respect to temperature.
Whereas, the resistivity of the superconductor drops down suddenly as it reaches the critical
temperature (TC).
At TC or below TC superconductors remains in its superconducting state (almost zero
resistance).
Properties of Superconductors
1) Electrical Resistance / Resistivity
The equation of the resistivity is given below:
m
ρ=
ne τ
Where m = mass of electrons
n = density of the electrons (free electrons)
e = Charge of electrons
τ = relaxation time (time between two collisions)
From above equation, when temperature increases, τ decreases, hence ρ increases. In other
words, we can say that when temperature increases, vibrations of electrons increases which
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Superconductivity
results in the less relaxation time between two collisions, due to which electrical resistivity of
the superconductor increases.
T ↑→ τ↓→ ρ ↑
T
H = H ( ) 1−
T
where HC(0) is critical field at 0K.
3) Effect of Impurity.
When impurities were added to the superconductor, its superconductivity does not lost,
but the value of TC lower down.
4) Isotope effect.
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Superconductivity
The value of critical temperature TC of superconductor varies with isotopic mass. The
variation of TC with its isotopic mass is known as isotopic effect. The relation between
isotopic mass and critical temperature TC can be given by:
1
∝
√
{*Isotopes: Isotopes are the chemical element which has same number of protons but
different number of neutrons/ nucleon. OR Isotopes are the chemical element having
similar atomic number but different atomic mass number.}
5) Effect of Pressure and Stress.
Some of the materials are found to exhibits superconductivity when pressure is increased
on them. On increasing the pressure, lattice vibrations are reduced and due to those,
electrons can move freely, hence resistance decreases.
Cesium (Cs) is found to exhibit superconductivity at TC = 1.5K under pressure of 110K
Bar.
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Superconductivity
2
=
7) Persistent Current
When current flow passes through superconducting ring, at a temperature equal to or less
than the TC value, it is observed that the current flowing through the material without any
significant loss in it.
“This steady current flow of current in a superconductor ring without any potential
driving force is called persistent current.”
8) Meissner Effect.
Meissner effect was discovered by W. Meissner and R. Ochsenfeld in Germany in
1933. It basically explains the effect of applied magnetic field on a superconductor
material. When superconducting material is placed in a magnetic field above critical
magnetic field (H> HC) at room temperature, magnetic field lines penetrate through the
sample as shown in figure (a).
When the temperature is lowered below TC, and magnetic field H <HC, superconducting
material found to oppose all the magnetic field lines penetrating through it as shown in
figure (b). “The total expulsion of all the magnetic field lines by a superconducting
material is called Meissner effect”
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Superconductivity
= −1
= −1
Thus, superconductors are perfectly diamagnetic materials.
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Superconductivity
In the below graph, the material is in a superconducting state within the surface, and in
normal state outside the surface. So it’s called “Critical Surface”.
Types of Superconductors
Type I superconductors are those superconductors which loose their superconductivity very easily
or abruptly when placed in the external magnetic field. As you can see from the graph of intensity
of magnetization (M) versus applied magnetic field (H), when the Type I superconductor is
placed in the magnetic field, it suddenly or easily looses its superconductivity at critical magnetic
field (Hc) (point A).
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Superconductivity
(H), when the Type II superconductor is placed in the magnetic field, it gradually looses
its superconductivity. Type II superconductors start to loose their superconductivity at
lower critical magnetic field (HC1) and completely loose their superconductivity at upper
critical magnetic field (HC2).
The state between the lower critical magnetic field (HC1) and upper critical magnetic field
(HC2) is known as vortex state or intermediate state.
After HC2, the Type II superconductor will become normal conductor.
Due to the high critical magnetic field, type-II superconductors have wider technical
applications.
Type II superconductors are also known as hard superconductors because of this reason
that is they loose their superconductivity gradually but not easily.
Type II superconductors obey Meissner effect but not completely.
These are usually made up of alloys. Example of Type II superconductors: NbTi, Nb3Sn
Application of Type II superconductors: Type II superconductors are used for strong field
superconducting magnets.
Mechanism of Superconductivity – BCS Theory
[(1) Fermions: Atoms are made of fermions, but themselves may be fermions and
bosons. Fermion is a name given to a particle with a odd half integer spin. Electrons,
protons, neutrons are fermions. (2) Bosons: Bosons are those particles which have an
integer spin.]
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Superconductivity
In 1957, Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) proposed a theory that explained the
microscopic origins of superconductivity, and could quantitatively predict the properties
of superconductors.
Mathematically, BCS theory is complex, but relies on an earlier 'discovery' by Cooper
(1956), who showed that the ground state of a material is unstable with respect to pairs of
'bound' electrons.
These pairs are known as Cooper pairs and are formed by electron-phonon interactions -
an electron in the cation lattice will distort the lattice around it, creating an area of greater
positive charge density around itself.
Another electron at some distance in the lattice is then attracted to this charge distortion
(phonon) - the electron-phonon interaction.
The electrons are thus indirectly attracted to each other and form a Cooper pair - an
attraction between two electrons mediated by the lattice which creates a 'bound' state of
the two electrons.
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Superconductivity
The BCS theory also explains the isotope effect, in which the temperature at which
superconductivity appears is reduced if a heavier atom of the elements is replaced by the
parent atom.
The electrons of a cooper pair have a lower energy than two unpaired electrons. The
theory predicts the existence of an energy gap between the ground state and first excited
state.
The energy gap represents the energy required to break up a cooper pair.
Hence, larger energy gaps correspond to more stable superconductors.
According to BCS theory, the energy gap at 0 K is:
Eg(0) = 2Δ ~ 3.52kTc
E E
Δ
Δ
Advantages:
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Superconductivity
Magnetic field when applied to the superconductor material, the applied field does not
suddenly drop to zero at the surface. The field decays exponentially according to formula.
H(x) = H(0)e
Where H(0) is the field applied at the surface at x = 0 and x is the distance from the surface.
The length λ is called “London Penetration Depth”.
London Penetration Depth is the effective depth to which a magnetic field penetrates a
superconductor.
It is independent of frequency of magnetic field but it depends on temperature strongly.
The temperature dependence of λ is given by the relation
(0)
( )=
1−
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Superconductivity
Two superconductors separated by a thick insulating layer, say 10 nm thickness, are two
independent superconductors without any joint properties.
When the insulator layer is thin say 1 nm, they become a system of coupled conductors.
The cooper pairs tunnel through barrier as a single unit.
Consider a Josephson junction consisting of two superconducting metal films separated by
thin oxide barrier of 10-20 Angstrom. Let it be connected in a circuit as shown in figure.
The cooper pair in a superconductor can be represented by a wave function, which is same
for all cooper pairs.
The cooper pairs tunnel from one side of the junction to the other side easily.
The effect of the insulating layer is that it introduces a phase difference between the wave
function of cooper pairs on other side.
Because of this phase difference, a supper current appears across the junction even though
the applied voltage is zero.
This is known as dc Josephson Effect.
The super current through the junction is given by :
Is = IC sin Φ0
Where Φ0 is the phase difference between the wave function and Ic is the critical current at
zero voltage condition.
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Superconductivity
S1 S2
Because of the dc voltage V applied across the barrier, the energies of cooper pair on both
sides differ in energy by 2eV.
Using the quantum mechanical calculations, it can be shown that
2eV
Δ∅ = 2πt
h
2eV
= I sin ∅ + 2πt
h
The current given in above equation represents the alternating current with frequency
2eV
υ=
h
Above equation shows that a photon of frequency υ is emitted or absorbed when cooper pair
cross the junction.
Thus, when a dc voltage is applied across the Josephson junction, an ac current is produced
by the junction. This is known as ac Josephson Effect.
SQUID: Josephson junctions are used in sensitive magnetometer called SQUID – Super
Conducting Quantum Interference Device.
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Superconductivity
When the current passed into this arrangement, it splits flowing across the two opposite arm.
The current through the circuit will have a periodicity which is very sensitive to the magnetic
flux passing normally through the closed circuit.
As a result very small magnetic flux can be detected with this device.
It can be used to measure voltages as small as 10−15 V and magnetic field as small as 10−21T.
It is used in measuring rock magnetism and continental drift.
The human brain generates magnetic fields of about 10−14wb/m2, to detect them SQUID are
used in brain imaging.
Applications of Superconductors
1. Superconducting Magnet:
When current flows through a coil it generates magnetic fields.
If the coil is replaced by a superconductor, it generates large magnetic fields.
In the conventional high field electromagnets, the effect of joule heating is major problem,
while in superconductors, current flow without resistive loss and joule heating.
2. Diagnostic equipments:
High magnetic fields are required in many areas of research. Superconducting solenoids
produce strong magnetic fields, which are small in size.
It does not need either high power supplies or the means of removal of joule heating.
The development of superconductor has improved the field of MRI, as a superconducting
magnet can be smaller and more efficient than an equivalent conventional magnet.
3. Magnetic Levitation:
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Superconductivity
“It is the process by which an object is suspended above another object with no other
support, but magnetic fields”.
In this method magnetic levitation occurs when superconductor is placed in an external
magnetic field.
Due to Meissner effect, the magnetic field lines are opposed or repelled by superconducting
materials, which produces levitation.
Maglev train is the example of this concept in which the train float on the guide way without
contact.
Two types of maglev trains are available. Electromagnetic suspension uses the attractive
force between the magnets present on the train sides, underside and on the guide way to
levitate the train.
4. Cryotrons
The application of a magnetic field greater than its critical magnetic field changes the
superconducting state to normal state and removal of magnetic field brings back to
superconducting state.
This fact is used in developing the cryotron switches.
5. Power Transmission – Low Loss Line
The most obvious application of superconductors is in power transmission.
If the national electric grid is made of superconducting wires rather than aluminum, there
would be no need to transform the electricity to a higher voltage and than back down again.
6. Low Loss transformers and Electrical Machines
Superconducting coils in transformers and electrical machines generate much more stronger
magnetic fields than magnetic circuits employing ferromagnetic materials.
The normal eddy current losses and hysteresis losses will not be present in the
superconducting device and hence the size of the motors and generators will change
drastically.
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