MODULE 4

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE; TEMPERATURE PROFILE;

FORMATION AND OZONE DEPLETION; WEATHER AND CLIMATE;
GREENHOUSE EFFECT & GASSES; EL NINO; HOW
ATMOSPHERE SURROUNDS THE EARTH
 Earth’s Atmosphere
 Act as the blanket of gas on
the surface of a planet which
keeps the average
temperature of the Earth
nearly constant.

 Layers of gases that

surrounds the planet and
forms its planetary
atmosphere which protects
the Earth from the radiations
and cosmic rays coming from
the outer space.
 Atmosphere of the Earth Layers of the Earth's Atmosphere
Importance The atmosphere is divided into five different layers,
- Protects life on Earth based on temperature.
- Absorbs ultraviolet solar
radiation
- Warms the Surface of the Earth 5 Major Layers:
- Diurnal Temperature Variation Troposphere
Stratosphere
Earth’s atmosphere is composed of Mesosphere
about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent Thermosphere
oxygen, 0.9 percent argon, and 0.1 Exosphere
percent other gases. Trace amounts of
carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, Secondary Layers:
and neon are some of the other gases Karman Line
that make up the remaining 0.1 percent. Ozone Layer
Ionosphere
 TROPOSPHERE
 Closest to Earth’s surface reaching from about
seven and 15 kilometers (five to 10 miles) from the
surface.
 The troposphere is the densest atmospheric layer,
compressed by the weight of the rest of the
atmosphere above it.
 Temperatures typically go down the higher you go,
since most of the heat found in the troposphere is
generated by the transfer of energy from Earth’s
surface.
 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon,
0.04% carbon dioxide, trace gases, and variable
amounts of water vapor.

STRATOSPHERE
 Located between approximately 12 and 50 kilometers
(7.5 and 31 miles) above Earth’s surface
 Exceptionally energetic convection processes may carry
convection into the stratosphere on a very local and
temporary basis
 A high concentration of ozone, a molecule composed of
three atoms of oxygen, makes up the ozone layer.
 OZONE LAYER

 Mainly found in the lower portion of the

stratosphere, from approximately 15 to 35
kilometers (9 to 22 mi) above Earth,
 Absorbs some of the incoming solar radiation,
shielding life on Earth from potentially harmful
ultraviolet (UV) light, and is responsible for the
temperature increase in altitude.

MESOSPHERE

 Located between about 50 and 80 kilometers

(31 and 50 miles) above Earth’s surface
 The top of this layer is the coldest place found
within the Earth system.
 A very scarce water vapor present at the top of
the mesosphere forms noctilucent clouds
 THERMOSPHERE
 Located between about 80 and 700
kilometers (50 and 440 miles) above
Earth’s surface

• THERMOPAUSE
 Its temperature could range from nearly
absolute zero to 987.548 °C (1,810 °F)

IONOSPHERE
 The ionized part of Earth‘s upper
atmosphere, from about 48 km (30 mi) to
965 km (600 mi) altitude
 It influences radio propagation to distant
places on the Earth
 Constantly changing.
 Disturbances there can disrupt signals.
 Uniquely reactive to the changing
magnetic and electric conditions in space
 KARMAN LINE
 Located 100 kilometers (62 miles)
above Earth’s surface
 A boundary between Earth's
atmosphere and outer space

EXOSPHERE
 Located between about 700 and 10,000 kilometers
(440 and 6,200 miles) above Earth’s surface
 Gas atoms and molecules in the exosphere move
along "ballistic trajectories”.
 Where Geocorona has been detected at heights of
100,000 km (62,000 miles) by satellites.
 MAGNETOSPHERE
 An outer region surrounding the Earth, where
charged particles spiral along the magnetic
field lines
 Capable of mitigating or blocking the effects of
solar radiation or cosmic radiation, that also
protects all living organisms from potentially
detrimental and dangerous consequences.

TEMPERATURE PROFILE

- how temperature of something changes

as a function of distance.
 Why does warm air rise?
 Gas molecules are able to move freely and if they are uncontained, they can take up more or
less space.

CONVECTION
 the transfer of heat by circulating it through air or liquids

DIURNAL TEMPERATURE VARIATION

- the variation between a high air temperature and a low temperature that occurs during the same
day.

Temperature varies with altitude.

Troposphere, temperature decreases as altitude increases.
Stratosphere, temperature generally increases as altitude
increases due to the increasing absorption of ultraviolet
radiation by the ozone layer.
Mesosphere, temperature decreases as altitude increases,
to as low as −93°C.
Thermosphere, temperature increases at altitude increases,
to as high as 1,727°C
 OZONE LAYER
 A thin part of the Earth's atmosphere that
absorbs almost all of the sun's harmful
ultraviolet light.
 Acts as a shield for life on Earth
 Traps a type of radiation called ultraviolet
radiation
Ultraviolet Radiation
- Invisible rays that are part of the energy that
comes from the sun. Ultraviolet radiation that
reaches the Earth's surface is made up of two
types of rays, called UVA and UVB.
UVA
 Ultraviolet radiation A, or called as black light;
has longer wavelength of rays
UVB
 Ultraviolet radiation B; has shorter wavelength
of rays
UVC
- Ultraviolet radiation B; has shorter wavelength of
rays that have the highest energy portion of UV
Radiation spectrum
 OZONE DEPLETION
 gradual thinning of Earth’s ozone layer in the upper atmosphere caused by the release of
chemical compounds containing gaseous chlorine or bromine from industry and other human
activities.

OZONE HOLE
- severe depletion that can be seen in images of Antarctic ozone, made using satellite observations.

What are the causes?

 man-made chemicals
 substances emitted by human activities
 Natural events/phenomena

What are the effects?

 damaging to human health
 increases in certain types of skin cancers
 affects terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, altering
growth, food chains and biochemical cycles.
 affect plant growth, reducing agricultural productivity.
 WEATHER AND CLIMATE

WEATHER
 the combination of the current meteorological components

CLIMATE
 describing the long term (min 30 years) and average weather conditions for a
specific region.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL WARMING
GLOBAL WARMING
 a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's atmosphere generally attributed to the
greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and other pollutants.

Greenhouse Effect
 the trapping of the sun's warmth in a planet's lower atmosphere, due to the greater transparency of the
atmosphere to visible radiation from the sun than to infrared radiation emitted from the planet's surface.

CLIMATE CHANGE
- refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns
Greenhouse Effect
• A greenhouse is a building of
glass walls and a glass roof.

• The clear glass allows sunlight

to shine into the greenhouse,
while also trapping the Sun’s
heat inside.
  Earth is surrounded by a
jacket of gases called
Atmosphere.

 In the daytime, the sun shines

through the atmosphere
warming Earth’s surface.

 But after the sun goes down,

Earth’s surface cools. This
releases heat back into the air.
 Greenhouse Gases
A gas that contributes to the greenhouse effect by absorbing
infrared radiation.
 But some human activities are
changing Earth’s natural greenhouse
effect.

For example:
Burning fossil fuels like coal and oil

 Extra greenhouse gases like

these can cause the atmosphere
to trap more and more heat,
leading to a warmer Earth.
 El Niño
El Niño is a climate pattern that describes the unusual warming of surface waters
in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. El Nino is the “warm phase” of a larger
phenomenon called the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).

 How does it happen?

 During normal
conditions, trade winds
which blows from east to
west, push warm water
towards Asia. Piling it up in
the western Pacific.
  The warm surface water moves
eastward and reduces upwelling of
cold water off the coast of South
America.

 Every few years the El Nino phenomenon kicks into life in the Pacific
Ocean around the equator which can affect weather around the world. It is
also changing the odds of floods, drought, heatwaves and cold seasons
for different regions.
The Atmosphere
 The atmosphere is a mixture of
gases that surrounds the planet.

Stratospheric ozone
 Plays a vital role by protecting
the living organisms from harmful
effects of ultraviolet radiations.
  The Montreal Protocol,
finalized in 1987, is a global
agreement to protect the
stratospheric ozone layer by
phasing out the production and
consumption of ozone-
depleting substances (ODS).

 The ozone layer filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation, which is

associated with an increased prevalence of skin cancer and cataracts,
reduced agricultural productivity, and disruption of marine
ecosystems.
 Why study air pollution ?

Early 1900s The City of 1954 An early public

Chicago, Illinois passes an 1948 Air pollution kills in protest against air
ordinance to reduce the Donora, Pennsylvania. pollution takes place in
“smoke” emitted by local East Greenville,
factories. Pennsylvania.

1950 A chemist at the

1940s Los Angeles, California California Institute of
becomes one of the first Technology proposes a theory
cities in the U.S. to of smog (or ozone) formation
experience severe air in which auto exhaust and
pollution problems then sunlight play major roles.
called “gas attacks.”
 Why study air pollution ?
1966 In New York City, a
three-day temperature
inversion over
Thanksgiving weekend is
blamed for the deaths of
168 people.
1969 A vivid color
photographs of Earth from
space, widely distributed.
The Earth no longer seems
vast but is recognized as a
small, fragile ball of life in
the immense infinitude of
cold, black space.
1972 Representatives of
113 nations, gather on 5th
June at a United Nations
Conference on the Human
Environment in Stockholm
to develop plans for
international action to
protect the world
environment.

1962 Silent Spring is
published. Rachel Carson’s
powerful book draws the
attention of the American
public to the potential
consequences of the
increasing ability of human
activities to significantly and
even permanently alters the
natural world.
1969 Sulfur dioxide pollution 1970 The first Earth Day
emitted by industries near becomes part of American
Gary, Indiana and East history. Millions of
Chicago becomes potent acid students and citizens
rain that burns lawns, eats attend rallies to learn
away tree leaves, and causes about environmental
birds to lose their feathers. concerns and speak for
environmental protection.
Why study air pollution ?
1981 Air pollution enters
international politics when
the Quebec Ministry of the
Environment notifies the
U.S. that 60 percent of the
acid rain damaging air and
waters in Quebec.
1985 The U.S. EPA
estimates 50,000 streams
in the U.S. and Canada are
dead or dying because of
acid rain pollution.
1992 Two treaties are signed
by all except the U.S. One, on
global warming recommending
curbing emissions of
greenhouse gases. The
second, on making inventories
of plants and wildlife and
strategies to protect
endangered species.

1978 Rainfall in Wheeling,
West Virginia is measured
at a pH of 2, the most
acidic yet recorded and
5000 times more acidic
than normal rainfall.
1982 The National Center for
Health Statistics releases a
study indicating that four
percent of all U.S.
schoolchildren, including
about 12 percent of all African-
American preschoolers, have
high levels of lead in their
blood.
1986 The National Academy of
Sciences reports that the burning
of coal, gasoline, and other fossil
fuels is definitely linked to acid
rain and the death of trees, fish,
and lake ecosystems in both the
U.S. and Canada.
 Air Pollution Episodes
Period of poor air qulaity, upto several days, often extending over
large geograpical area.

Winter: cold, stable weather conditions trap pollutants close

to sources and prevent dispersion. Elavated concentrations
of range of pollutants build up over several days

Summer: hot and sunny weather. Pollutants emitted within

the U.K. or Europe transported long distances, reacting with
each other in sunlight to produce high levels of ozone, &
other photochemical pollutants.
 Meuse Valley-Belgium, 1930
•63 died (mostly elderly)
•Sore throats, shortness of breath, cough, phlegm, nausea,
vomiting
•SO2, sulfur dioxide
•H2O
•SO4 sulfuric acid mist
•Cattle, birds and rats died
•Got little news coverage

Donora, Pennsylvania—Oct. 1948

•Respiratory distress in Monongahela River Valley
•Industrial town—steel mill, sulfuric acid plant, freight yard,
etc.
•Population—14,000
•Steep hills surrounding the valley
•Oct 26—temperature inversion (warm air trapping cold air
near the ground)
•Stable air, fog, lasted 4.5 days
 Poza Rico, Mexico 1950
•Single source– high sulfur crude oil
•Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
•Worst case of general population exposure
to hydrogen sulfideInversion in valley
•22 sudden deaths, 320 hospitalized All ages
•Killed 50 % of the exposed animals

December 1952 Great London Smog

•Cold front, Londoners burned soft coal

•Factories, power plants
•Temperature inversion
•5 days of worst smog city had ever seen Public
transportation stopped
•Indoor concerts had to be cancelled because no one could
see the stage, etc.
 Seveso, Italy --Dioxin
•July 10, 1976, north of Milan
•A valve broke at the Industrie Chimiche
Meda Societa Azionaria chemical plant
•Cloud of 2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzo-para-
dioxin (TCDD) traveled southwest through
Seveso toward Milan
•Contaminant of herbicide

Bhopal, India Dec. 3, 1984

•Union Carbide pesticide plant leak kills up to
2,000 with up to 350,000 injured and 100,000
with permanent disabilities
•Methyl isocyanate (MIC)—used as an intermediary
in manufacture of Sevin (Carbaryl)
•CO + Cl = phosgene
•Phosgene + methylamine = MIC
•MIC—irritant to the lungs---edema, fluid (cause of
death, bronchospasms, corneal opacity
•Hydrogen cyanide?
•Sabotage or industrial accident?
 World-wide Air Pollution Episode

•November 27-December 10, 1962

•Thousands of excess deaths in many cities

including NYC, London, Boston, Paris

•New Orleans Oct-Nov 1958 asthma deaths.

AIR POLLUTION

• Introduction of chemicals, particulates,

biological materials or any other harmful
materials into the Earth’s atmosphere.
(ASU, Faculty of Medicine)
ILLUSTRATION OF AIR POLLUTION
BEIJING, CHINA (BEFORE & AFTER)
GREAT SMOG OF LONDON (1952)
 TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION
■ Personal Air Exposure
- It refers to exposure to dust, fumes and gases to which an individual exposes himself when
he indulge himself in smoking.
■ Occupational Air Exposure
- It represents the type of exposure of individuals to potentially harmful concentration of
aerosols, vapors, and gases in their working environment.
■ Community Air Exposure
-This is most serious, complex, consists of varieties of assortment of pollution sources,
meteorological factors, and wide variety of adverse social, economical, and health effects.
 SOURCE OF AIR POLLUTION

■ Natural Resources – exists or happen without any actions of humankind

■ Anthropogenic Sources
knowns as “man-made sources”
- Stationary Sources
Point Sources (Industrial processing, power plants, fuels combustion etc.)
Area Sources (Residential heating coal gas oil, on site incineration, open burning etc.)
■ Mobile Sources – known as “moving source” it is not limited on a certain point of area.
 ASSESSMENT OF AIR POLLUTION
■ Absorption plates
-Which trap pollutants such as sulphur dioxide on a reactive plate for a measure of air
contaminants.

■ Air Sampler
- is used to measure pollution levels in the atmosphere by collecting solids on a filter paper.
 ■ Laser
- Measure pollution by the amount of light
reflected.

■ Gas Chromatography
- This device passes air through a packed
column to measure types of gaseous
contaminants.
 AIR POLLUTANTS

■ Any substance occurring in the atmosphere that may have adverse effects on
humans, animals, plant life, and/or inanimate materials.

■ Known or suspected harmful effects on human health and environment.

 Two Types of Air Pollutants

Primary Air Pollutants

– Materials that when released
pose health risks in their
unmodified forms or those emitted
directly from the identifiable
sources.

Secondary Air Pollutants

- Primary pollutants interact
with one another, sunlight, or
natural gases to produce new,
harmful compounds.
Primary Air Pollutants

■ Carbon monoxide
■ Sulfur dioxide
■ Nitrogen oxides
■ Hydrocarbons
■ Particulate matter
Carbon Monoxide
• Produced by burning of organic materials (coal, gas, wood, trash etc.)
• Automobile biggest source (80%)
• Cigarette smoke another major source.

Sulfur Dioxide
• One of the major components of acid rain
• When inhaled, can be very corrosive to lung tissue
• Produced by burning sulfur containing fossil fuels (coal, oil)
Nitrogen Oxides

■ Produced from burning of fossil fuels

■ Contributes to acid rain, smog
■ Automobile engine main source

Hydrocarbons
• It is the organic compounds with hydrogen and carbon
• Major source is automobiles, but some from industry
• Contribute to smog
Particulates

■ It is the small pieces of solid materials and liquid droplets (2.5 mm and , 10 mm)
■ Examples: ash from fires, asbestos from brakes and insulation, dust
■ Can accumulate in lungs and interfere with the ability of lungs to exchange gases
■ Some particulates are known carcinogens
Secondary Air Pollutants

■ Ozone
■ PAN (Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate)
■ Photochemical smog
■ Aerosols and mists (H2S04)
Ozone

■ Ozone (O3) is a highly reactive gas composed of three oxygen atoms

■ It a both a natural and a man made product that occurs in the Earth’s upper atmosphere
(the stratosphere) and lower atmosphere (the troposphere)
■ Tropospheric ozone – what we breathe – is formed primarily from photochemical
reactions between two major classes of air pollutants, volatile organic compounds (VOC)
and nitrogen oxides (NOX)
PAN (Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate)
■ Smog is caused by the interaction of some hydrocarbons and oxidants under the
influence of sunlight giving rise to dangerous peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN)

Photochemical Smog
■ It is the mixture of pollutants which includes particulates, nitrogen oxides, ozone,
aldehydes, peroxyethanoyl nitrate (PAN), unreacted hydrocarbons, etc. The smog often
has a brown haze due to the presence of nitrogen oxide. It causes painful eyes.
Aerosols and Mists (H2SO4)

■ Aerosols and mists are very fine liquid droplets that cannot be effectively removed
using traditional packed scrubbers. These droplets can be formed from gas phase
hydrolysis of halogenated acids (HCI, HF, HBr), metal halides, organohalides,
sulfur trioxide (SO3), and phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5).