Combinatorial Identities Through Algebra

Taco12

1 Introduction
This handout assumes knowledge of basic combinatorics, as well as quite a bit of algebra. The core of this
handout is in the fact that  
n n!
= .
m m!(n − m)!

2 Basics
We start with a classic example.

Example 2.1
Show that    
n n
= .
r n−r

Solution: We have    
n n! n! n
= = = .
r r!(n − r)! (n − r)!(n − (n − r))! n−r

Next, we state a theorem (without proof) that helps bridge the categories of algebra and combina-
torics.

Theorem 2.2 (Binomial Theorem)

For all real or complex a, b, and non-negative n, we have
n  
X n
(a + b)n = an−k bk .
k
k=0

Now we can solve some more problems.

Example 2.3 (Hockey Stick Identity)

For n, r ∈ N, n > r, Show that
n    
X i n+1
= .
i=r
r r+1

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Taco12 2 Basics

Solution: We can apply the finite geometric series formula on (1 + x), giving us

(1 + x)n+1 − 1
1 + (1 + x) + (1 + x)2 + ... + (1 + x)n = .
(1 + x) − 1

With the Binomial Theorem, we have

              
2 n n n n−1 n n n+1 n+1 n+1 n
1+(1+x)+(1+2x+x )+...+ + x + ... + x + x = + x+...+ x .
0 1 n−1 n 1 2 n+1

Equating coefficients gives

         
0 1 2 n n+1
+ + + ... + = ,
m m m m m+1

which simplifies to the needed result.

Example 2.4 (Pascal’s Identity)

Show that for integers n, k,      
n n−1 n−1
= + .
k k−1 k

Solution: This identity (like many other identities) can be proved by just algebraic manipulations:
   
n−1 n−1 (n − 1)! (n − 1)!
+ = +
k−1 k (k − 1)!(n − k)! k!(n − k − 1)!
 
k n−k
= (n − 1)! +
k!(n − k)! k!(n − k)!
n
= (n − 1)! ·
k!(n − k)!
n!
=
k!(n − k)!
 
n
= .
k

We now present an example which we can then solve an AIME problem with.

Example 2.5
Show that  n
  
2 n+1
=3
2 4
for all n.

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Taco12 3 Vandermonde’s and Beyond

Solution: The solution is just algebra:

 n
  n2 −n 
2 = 2
2 2
(n − n)(n2 − n − 2)
2
=
8
n4 − 2n3 − n2 + 2n
=
8
(n + 1)n(n − 1)(n − 2)
=
  8
n+1
=3 .
4

Example 2.6 (2022 AIME II)

Find the remainder when  3
  4
 40


2 + 2 + ··· + 2
2 2 2
is divided by 1000.

Solution: We can use our identity that we proved in the previous problem. We must compute
     
4 5 41
3 + + ··· +
4 4 4
42


which can be reduced as 3 5 by the Hockey Stick Identity. Now we just check that this is congruent to 4
modulo 1000.

3 Vandermonde’s and Beyond

Theorem 3.1 (Vandermonde’s Identity)
Show that
r     
X m n m+n
= .
r k−r r
k=0

Solution (Brilliant Wiki): We consider the binomial expansion of (1 + x)m+n :

m+n
X 
m+n m+n k
(1 + x) = x .
k
k=0

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Taco12 4 Challenging Problems

We also have (1 + x)m+n = (1 + x)m (1 + x)n , so:

(1 + x)m+n = (1 + x)m (1 + x)n

m  
! n   
X m i X n j 
= x x
i=0
i j=0
j
             
m m m 2 n n n 2
= + x+ x + ... · + x+ x + ...
0 1 2 0 1 2
        
m n m n m n
= x0 + + x + ...
0 0 0 1 1 0

Thus, we have that the coefficient of xk in the expansion is

         X k   
m n m n m n m n
+ + ··· + = .
0 k 1 k−1 k 0 r=0
r k−r

Comparing coefficients of xk gives the needed result.

Example 3.2
Find a closed form for
m   
X m n
.
k r+k
k=0

Solution: We have
m    Xm    m+r
X  m  n  m + n
X m n m n
= = =
k r+k m−k r+k m−k r+k m+r
k=0 k=0 k=0

by Vandermonde’s Identity.

Example 3.3 (AoPS Forums)

Simplify            
n n+1 n n+1 n n+1
· + · + ... + · .
0 1 1 2 n n+1

Solution:We clearly have

n    n     
X n n+1 X n n+1 2n + 1
= =
i=0
i i+1 i=0
i n−i n

by Vandermonde’s Identity.

4 Challenging Problems
In a random order, we present some problems to solve. Enjoy! (Beware, some of the problems are very
challenging. Attempt at your own risk!)

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Taco12 4 Challenging Problems

Problem 4.1 (KoMaL). Prove that

n X n   
X n n+1
= 22n .
i=0 j=i
i j + 1

Problem 4.2 (2020 AIME I). A club consisting of 11 men and 12 women needs to choose a committee from
among its members so that the number of women on the committee is one more than the number of men on
the committee. The committee could have as few as 1 member or as many as 23 members. Let N be the
number of such committees that can be formed. Find the sum of the prime numbers that divide N .
Problem 4.3. Show that
k  2  
X k 2k
= .
i=0
i k

Problem 4.4. Prove that    

2n n
=2 + n2
2 2
for n ≥ 2.

Problem 4.5 (AoPS Forums). Compute

       
n n n n
− 22 + 32 − · · · + (−1)n+1 n2 .
1 2 3 n

Problem 4.6 (Spain 2021). We have 2n lights in two rows, numbered from 1 to n in each row. Some (or
none) of the lights are on and the others are off, we call that a ”state”. Two states are distinct if there is a
light which is on in one of them and off in the other. We say that a state is good if there is the same number
of lights turned on in the first row and in the second row.
Prove that the total number of good states divided by the total number of states is:

3 · 5 · 7 · · · (2n − 1)
2n n!
Problem 4.7 (2022 AIME I). For any finite set X, let |X| denote the number of elements in X. Define
X
Sn = |A ∩ B|,

where the sum is taken over all ordered pairs (A, B) such that A and B are subsets of {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} with
|A| = |B|. For example, S2 = 4 because the sum is taken over the pairs of subsets

(A, B) ∈ {(∅, ∅), ({1}, {1}), ({1}, {2}), ({2}, {1}), ({2}, {2}), ({1, 2}, {1, 2})},

giving S2 = 0 + 1 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 2 = 4. Let SS2022

2021
= pq , where p and q are relatively prime positive integers.
Find the remainder when p + q is divided by 1000.
Problem 4.8 (2020 CMIMC Team). Simplify
           
2020 1010 2019 1011 1011 2019 1010 2020
+ + ··· + + .
1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010