Land Pollution

Definition: Land pollution is basically the contamination of land surface of earth due to dumping of
urban waste matter indiscriminately, dumping of industrial waste, mineral exploitation and misuse of
soil by harmful agricultural practice. Fertility of soil reduces and also characteristic of soil changes
due to land pollution.

Some major sources of land pollution: 1. Inappropriate disposal of human and animal excretes. 2.
Application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides to agricultural land. 3. Inappropriate disposal of
domestic refuses and industrial waste. 4. Dumping of waste from mineral and coal mines. 5.
Discharge of radioactive waste from hospital, industry and research centre. 6. Deforestation is another
major source of land pollution as it creates soil erosion. 7. Unplanned irrigation and defective
agricultural practice. 8. Fly ash from thermal power plant. 9. Rupture of underground storage tank. 10.
Percolation of contaminated water into the soil.

Solid waste: Solid wastes are useless or unwanted solid materials generated due to anthropogenic
activities. Due to increase in population, rapid urbanization and industrialization the amount of solid
wastes generation have been increased day by day. The wastes are generated from sources, like
domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural, biomedical, municipal etc. In addition people litter in
open streets due to lack of awareness enhancing the cost and hazards of solid waste management.

The type of litter we generate and the approximate time it takes to degenerate

Type of litter Approximate time it takes to degenerate the

litter
Organic waste such as vegetable and fruit peels, a week or two.
leftover foodstuff, etc.
Paper 10–30 days
Cotton cloth 2–5 months
Wood 10–15 years
Woollen items 1 year
Tin, aluminium, and other metal items such as 100–500 years
cans
Plastic bags one million years?
Glass bottles undetermined
Domestic and commercial solid wastes are broadly classified as garbage and rubbish.

Garbage: Mainly generated from preparation and storage of vegetables, fruits, meats at home,
restaurant and market places. These wastes contain about 70% of moisture and heating value is about
6 x 106 J/kg.

Rubbish: Mainly generated from domestic and commercial places, contains both combustible solid
waste like paper, wood, plastic etc. And non-combustible like glass, ceramic, metals etc. The moisture
content is about 25% and heating value is about 15 x 106 J/kg.

Classification of Solid Wastes:

Municipal solid waste: Municipal solid waste (MSW) mainly consists of non-hazardous solid waste
from a city, town or village that requires regular collection and transport to a processing or disposal
site. The sources of MSW include residential areas, commercial establishments, institutions and
industrial facilities. However, MSW does not include waste from industrial processes, construction
and demolition debris, sewage sludge, mining waste and agricultural waste. With rising urbanization
and change in lifestyle and food habits, the amount of municipal solid waste has been increasing
rapidly and its composition changing. In 1947 cities and towns in India generated an estimated 6
million tonnes of solid waste; in 1997 it was about 48 million tonnes. More than 25% of the municipal
solid waste is not collected at all; 70% of the Indian cities lack adequate capacity to transport it and

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there are no sanitary landfills to dispose of the waste. The existing landfills are neither well equipped
nor well managed and are not lined properly to protect against contamination of soil and ground
water. Over the last few years, the consumer market has grown rapidly leading to products being
packed in cans, aluminium foils, plastics, and other such non-biodegradable items that cause
incalculable harm to the environment. In India, some municipal areas have banned the use of plastics
and they seem to have achieved success. For example, today one will not see a single piece of plastic
in the entire district of Ladakh where the local authorities imposed a ban on plastics in 1998. Other
states should follow the example of this region and ban the use of items that cause harm to the
environment. One positive note is that in many large cities, shops have begun packing items in
reusable or biodegradable bags. Certain biodegradable items can also be composted and reused. In
fact proper handling of the biodegradable waste will considerably reduce the burden of solid waste
management.

Domestic solid waste: Generated from household usage and sweeping e.g.; old paper, used cloth,
plastic materials, crockery, food scrap, fruit and vegetable waste etc.

Commercial solid waste: Generated from commercial places like shops, godowns, market places and
departmental stores e.g.; rejected goods, packing materials, papers, glass, ceramics, plastics, fish and
meat remnants etc.

Institutional solid waste: Schools, colleges, universities, research and development organizations,
religious places and community halls produce waste like paper, rejected stationary, polythene,
rejected pen, pencil etc.

Industrial solid waste: The industrial solid waste may be biodegradable and non-biodegradable. The
domestic and commercial waste generated from office, staff quarter, canteen of the small and cottage
industries are biodegradable as well as non hazardous and fall into MSW. While discharge from
chemical industries, oil refineries, textile industries, drug and fertilizer industries are non-
biodegradable as well as sometime hazardous also.

Agricultural solid waste: Agricultural residues like roots and stems of crop, straw, hay, animal dung,
fertilizers and their decomposed products, remains of pesticides, herbicides and weedicides are
collectively contribute to agricultural solid waste. The main elements require for plants are N, P and
K. When the source of nitrogen is (NH4)2SO4, NH4+ is taken by plants and SO42—remains in soil
making acidic soil, again when NO3- is taken from added KNO3 then K+ remains in the soil making
alkaline soil, in both the cases soil get unfertile. Pesticides like DDT, BHC, malathion, lead acetate,
fungicides like organomercury compounds, herbicides like paraquat, MCPA used in agricultural lands
remain absorbed for a long time in soil, interfere in plant growth and may also get incorporated in
food chain causing several mutagenic diseases.

Electronic waste: In the last decade a huge amount of waste is also generated from different sources
like domestic, commercial, institutional and industrial areas, these are discarded mobile phones,
mobile chargers, remotes, CDs, DVDs, pen and hard drives, head phones, batteries, computers, TVs,
printers etc., which are all together contribute to electronic or e-waste.

Hazardous waste: Those wastes which affect human, animal or plant life in adverse way. United
States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), defines it as a ‘waste or combination of wastes,
which because of the quantity, concentration or physical, chemical or infectious characteristics may
cause or significantly contribute to increase in mortality or is a potential hazard human health or the
environment when improperly treated, stored, transported or disposed off or otherwise managed’.
Hazardous wastes must have at least one of the following characteristics:

Toxicity: Highly poisonous substances when absorbed even in small amount e.g.; Cd, Pb, Hg, Cr
(from batteries); benzene, rat poison, insect killer etc. Certain toxic wastes are known to be
carcinogenic (causing cancer) and other may be mutagenic, causing biological changes in the children
or exposed person or animal.

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Reactivity: Highly reactive substances, explode in contact with air, water and shock or heat e.g.;
nitroglycerine, gun powder, metallic Na, K etc.

Ignitability: Catches fire rapidly even below 60C e.g.; ether, acetone, methanol, petrol etc.

Corrosively: Destroys materials and living tissues by reacting chemically e.g.; liquids with pH <2
and >12.5 i.e.; strong acids like HNO3, H2SO4 and strong alkalis like NaOH, KOH etc.

Classification of hazardous waste: Hazardous waste may be broadly classified into three categories.

1. Radioactive waste: Radioactive elements decay alpha, beta and gamma radiation which are
harmful to living organism. The main sources of radioactive wastes are: mining and processing units
generating radio isotopes, refinery and full fabrication units, discharge from nuclear reactor, radio
isotopes in industry, agriculture, medicine and research work. Most of the radio isotopes are rapidly
disintegrating except few like Sr-90 and I-137.

2. Biomedical or pathological: The wastes generated from hospital, nourishing home, pathological
clinic, research, testing laboratories, pharmaceutical and drug industry are treated as biomedical
waste. Biomedical waste includes: human or animal anatomical waste and body fluids (tissues, body
organ, waste body parts, blood etc.), microbiological waste (culture stock, specimens of micro-
organism), waste sharps (needle, blade, syringes or laboratory glass), used surgical dressings, expired
drugs etc, they fall into hazardous category due to presence of infectious activity

3. Chemical waste: Toxic chemicals like inorganic heavy metals, Pb, Cd, Hg and As or organic
chemicals like dioxin, pesticides, insecticides, volatile organic compounds (alcohol, ether, acetone
etc.).

Treatment of hazardous waste: Proper handling is very essential as far as hazardous waste is
concerned. Special packaging is a must for hazardous waste, after then it is to be labelled properly
mentioning chemical composition, date of generation and safety data sheet. Again for the reactive
hazardous waste segregation is require and after segregation the wastes are stored in an isolated area
where it is generated, then the wastes are transported to the disposal site in special type of vehicles
marked with the details of the waste. Waste before disposal must be treated to reduce the toxicity to
the maximum possible extent. There are basically three processes:

1. Physical process: Solid wastes are separated from liquid wastes through sedimentation tank
followed by filtration for solids which does not settle and float. Liquid wastes that do not settle or
float can be separated through adsorption in granular activated carbon having surface area as large as
1000m2/g. Removal of some specific components can be achieved by reverse osmosis, ion exchange
process, dialysis, electro dialysis and simple distillation process.

2. Chemical process:

Neutralization: When pH of solution containing waste approaches 7, it becomes less hazardous.

Acidic waste water (pH<2) is neutralised by lime slurries, Ca(OH) 2 and alkaline waste water
(pH>12.5) by adding either acid directly or by passing CO2 through the solution.

Redox reaction: Using suitable redox reagent the oxidation state of toxic elements is converted to
non toxic or less toxic forms.

For example, cyanide containing wastes are oxidised to cyanate and finally to nitrogen and carbon
dioxide for complete reduction of toxicity.

NaCN + Cl2 +2NaOH  NaCNO +2NaCl + H2O

2NaCNO + 3Cl2 + 4NaOH  N2 + 2CO2 + 6NaCl + 2H2O

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Waste containing Cr6+ is highly toxic compare to Cr3+ thus hexavalent chromium is reduced to
trivalent by passing sulphur dioxide through the medium.

SO2 + H2O  H2SO3

2CrO3 + 3H2SO3  Cr2(SO4)3 + 3H2O

Waste containing benzene, toluene, phenols, arsenic are toxic and detoxified through oxidation while
waste containing Cr(IV), Pb(IV), Ag(I), Hg(II) can be detoxified through reduction.

Chemical precipitation: Toxic heavy metals Pb, Hg can also be precipitated out of the solution as
hydroxide by reacting with Ca(OH)2.

Hg2+ + Ca(OH)2  Hg(OH)2 + Ca2+

Ion exchange: In this process hazardous liquid waste containing toxic metal ions is passed through
cation exchange column of solid resin beads of zeolite or other synthetic resin when toxic metal ion
get exchanged with sodium ion of resin.

M2+ + Na2R  MR + 2Na+

UV radiation oxidation: In this technique a potent oxidant OH* is generated in presence of UV

radiation which subsequently oxidises dissolved organic compound to carbon dioxide and water.

3. Biological process: Although the living organisms are generally susceptible to toxic substances in
hazardous wastes, for some microorganisms under specific temperature, pH of soil and concentration
of toxic chemical is an ideal condition for survival. Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi) consume heavy
metals as well as decompose the organic compounds like oils, phenols and refinery wastes to carbon
dioxide and water.

Disposal of hazardous waste:

Incineration: Sludge containing hazardous wastes are burnt either in liquid injection incinerator or
rotary kiln incinerator. The pathogenic wastes are well disposed through this process but the problem
of air pollution due to organic destruction is not completely eliminated so it is not a very effective
process.

Land disposal: There are several land disposal techniques for hazardous wastes.

Secure landfill: Secure landfill is that dedicated solely for the containment of hazardous waste over a
long period of time. The hazardous waste may or may not be encapsulated before placement in the
landfill. Extra precautions are taken to prevent the formation of leachate from rainfall migration, and
to isolate and contain the wastes. This is done by the incorporation of at least a double liner and
capping system. At least one of these liners is a thick synthetic material, such as high density
polyethylene (HDPE), which must be compatible with the retained waste. Monitor drains underneath
and around the landfill are installed so as to illustrate the integrity of containment over time.

Underground Injection Wells: An underground injection well is a device that places fluid deep
underground into porous rock formations, such as sandstone or limestone, or into or below the
shallow soil layer. These fluids may be water, wastewater, brine (salt water), or water mixed with
toxic chemicals. Typical injection depths are 700m below surface though there is chance of
contamination of underground water.

Surface Impoundment: Surface impoundments are very similar to landfills in that both units are
either a natural topographic depression, manmade excavation, or dike area formed primarily of
earthen materials, such as soil (although the unit may be lined with manmade materials). The units
are, however, very different in their use. Surface impoundments are generally used for temporary

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storage or treatment, whereas a landfill is an area designated for final waste disposal. Therefore, while
the design and operating standards are very similar, the closure and post-closure standards differ.
Most of the design, operating, and inspection requirements are very similar for surface
impoundments, waste piles, and landfills. Generally the storage is made temporarily but may also be
used for permanent storage like landfill. The main advantage of this technique is that the waste
remains accessible for treatment during storage.

Waste piles: These are ground level mounds of hazardous wastes. Piles are generally open and lined
underneath with impermeable materials to prevent from contamination of surface and ground water.
Specifically, the waste pile must be located inside or under a structure and not receive free liquid,
protected from surface water run-on, designed and operated to control dispersal of waste, and
managed to prevent the generation of leachate. Waste piles are temporary storage of hazardous wastes
and it cannot be used to store toxic chemicals that emit fumes.

Solid waste management

Solid waste is the unwanted or useless solid materials generated from combined residential, industrial
and commercial activities in a given area. It may be categorized according to its origin (domestic,
industrial, commercial, construction or institutional); according to its contents (organic material, glass,
metal, plastic paper etc); or according to hazard potential (toxic, non-toxin, flammable, radioactive,
infectious etc). Management of solid waste reduces or eliminates adverse impacts on the environment
and human health and supports economic development and improved quality of life. A number of
processes are involved in effectively managing waste for a municipality. These include monitoring,
collection, transport, processing recycling and disposal.
Definition: Solid waste management is the monitoring, collection, transport, processing recycling and
disposal method of solid waste material and is carried out to reduce their effect on the environment as
well as recover resources from them.
Waste Collection
Waste from our homes is generally collected by our local authorities through regular waste collection,
or by special collections for recycling. Within hot climates the waste should be collected at least twice
a week to control fly breeding, and the harboring of other pests in the community. Other factors to
consider when deciding on frequency of collection are the odors caused by decomposition and the
accumulated quantities.
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
Methods of waste reduction, waste reuse and recycling are the preferred options when managing
waste. There are many environmental benefits that can be derived from the use of these methods.
They reduce or prevent green house gas emissions, reduce the release of pollutants, conserve
resources, save energy and reduce the demand for waste treatment technology and landfill space.
Therefore it is advisable that these methods be adopted and incorporated as part of the waste
management plan.
Waste reduction and reuse
Waste reduction and reuse of products are both methods of waste prevention. They eliminate the
production of waste at the source of usual generation and reduce the demands for large scale treatment
and disposal facilities. Methods of waste reduction include manufacturing products with less
packaging, encouraging customers to bring their own reusable bags for packaging, encouraging the
public to choose reusable products such as cloth napkins, reusable plastic, glass containers, backyard
composting and sharing and donating any unwanted items rather than discarding them. All of the
methods of waste prevention mentioned require public participation. In order to get the public
onboard, training and educational programmes need to be undertaken to educate the public about their
role in the process. Also the government may need to regulate the types and amount of packaging
used by manufacturers and make the reuse of shopping bags mandatory.
Recycling
Recycling refers to the removal of items from the waste stream to be used as raw materials in
the manufacture of new products. Thus recycling occurs in three phases: first the waste is sorted and
recyclables collected, the recyclables are used to create raw materials. These raw materials are then

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used in the production of new products. The sorting of recyclables may be done at the source (i.e.
within the household or office) for selective collection by the municipality or to be dropped off by the
waste producer at a recycling centre. The pre-sorting at the source requires public participation which
may not be forthcoming if there are no benefits to be derived. Also a system of selective collection by
the government can be costly. It would require more frequent circulation of trucks within a
neighborhood or the importation of more vehicles to facilitate the collection. Another option is to mix
the recyclables with the general waste stream for collection and then sorting and recovery of the
recyclable materials can be performed by the municipality at a suitable site. The sorting by the
municipality has the advantage of eliminating the dependence on the public and ensuring that the
recycling does occur. The disadvantage however, is that the value of the recyclable materials is
reduced since being mixed in and compacted with other garbage can have adverse effects on the
quality of the recyclable material.Some recovery products are as follow:
1. Waste generated in cane sugar industry can be utilized for generating paper pulp. 2. Fly ash
generated as solid waste in thermal power plant is use to make ash bricks. 3. Waste paper generated in
paper mills has high calorific value. They can be used for the manufacture of paper, paper bags, paper
board etc. 4. Biogas can be generated from cow dung, vegetable and fruit remnants, food scrap etc. 5.
Organic waste can be converted to humus by the process of composting. 6. Metallic waste generated
from metallurgical industries can be treated chemically and from them metals like Cd, Pb, Au, Ag can
be regenerated. 7. Plastic waste can be recycled to generate adhesives and grease. 8. Synthetic rubber
can be prepared from rubber waste like waste tire, tubes etc. 9. Paper, hard board can also be
generated from jute waste. 10. Plastic waste after incineration and gasification water gas be produced
and heat generated can be used for power generation.
Advantages of recycling process
1. Recycling saves landfill space. 2. It can reduce the cost of waste disposal. 3. Recycling can save
energy. Less energy is required to make a product from recycled materials than it does to make it from
new materials. 4. Recycling saves natural resources. Natural resources are mainly land, plant, mineral
and water. By using materials more than once we can conserve natural resources e.g.; in case of paper,
recycling saves trees and water. 5. It can reduce air and water pollution. It is observed that pollution
may be reducing up to 95% if we recycle the waste materials.
Treatment & Disposal
Waste treatment techniques seek to transform the waste into a form that is more manageable, reduce
the volume or reduce the toxicity of the waste thus making the waste easier to dispose of. Treatment
methods are selected based on the composition, quantity, and form of the waste material. Some waste
treatment methods being used today include subjecting the waste to extremely high temperatures,
dumping on land or land filling and use of biological processes like composting to treat the waste. It
should be noted that treatment and disposal options are chosen as a last option of waste management
strategies reduce, reuse and recycling of waste.

Figure 1 solid waste management hierarchies.

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Thermal treatment
This refers to processes that involve the use of heat to treat waste.
Incineration
Incineration is the most common thermal treatment process. This is the combustion of waste in the
presence of oxygen at about 900-1200ºC in a specially designed furnace called incinerator. After
incineration, the organic wastes are converted to carbon dioxide, water vapour, however it is not
capable of destroying inorganic wastes but can concentrate them into ash making transportation and
disposal more efficient.
Advantages:
1. It is a hygienic method as it kills all the pathogens and insects inside the waste.
2. This method may be used as a means of recovering energy to be used in heating or the supply of
electricity.
3. Incineration technologies have the advantage of reducing the volume of the waste, rendering it
harmless and reducing transportation costs.
4. Reducing the production of the green house gas methane
Disadvantages:
1. Initial set up cost is comparatively high.
2. Incomplete combustion produces Dioxins within the incinerator which may have serious
environmental consequences in the area immediately around the incinerator.
Pyrolysis and Gasification
Pyrolysis and gasification are similar processes they both decompose organic waste by exposing it to
high temperatures and low amounts of oxygen. Gasification uses a low oxygen environment while
pyrolysis allows no oxygen. These techniques use heat and an oxygen starved environment to convert
biomass into other forms. A mixture of combustible and non-combustible gases as well as
pyroligenous liquid is produced by these processes. All of these products have a high heat value and
can be utilized. Gasification is advantageous since it allows for the incineration of waste with energy
recovery and without the air pollution that is characteristic of other incineration methods.
Open burning
Open burning is the burning of unwanted materials in a manner that causes smoke and other
emissions to be released directly into the air without passing through a chimney or stack. This
includes the burning of outdoor piles, burning in a burn barrel and the use of unscientific incinerators
which have no pollution control. Open burning has been practiced by a number of urban centers
because it reduces the volume of refuse received at the dump and therefore extends the life of their
dumpsite. Garbage may be burnt because of the ease and convenience of the method or because of the
cheapness of the method. In countries where house holders are required to pay for garbage disposal,
burning of waste in the backyard allows the householder to avoid paying the costs associated with
collecting, hauling and dumping the waste. Open burning releases dioxins, particulate matter,
polycyclic aromatic compounds, volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, hexachlorobenzene
and ash. All of these chemicals pose serious risks to human health. The Dioxins have adverse effects
on reproduction, development, disrupt the hormonal systems or even cause cancer. The polycyclic
aromatic compounds and the hexachlorobenzene are considered to be carcinogenic. The particulate
matter can be harmful to persons with respiratory problems such as asthma or bronchitis and carbon
monoxide can cause neurological symptoms. The harmful effects of open burning are also felt by the
environment. This process releases acidic gases such as the halo-hydrides; it also may release the
oxides of nitrogen and carbon. Nitrogen oxides contribute to acid rain, ozone depletion, smog and
global warming. In addition to being a green house gas carbon monoxide reacts with sunlight to
produce ozone which can be harmful. The particulate matter creates smoke and haze which contribute
to air pollution.
Landfills
Sanitary landfill
Sanitary Landfill is a properly designed and well managed method of burying solid waste, which is
relatively hygienic and commonly developed in most of the countries. They are usually placed in
areas where land features act as natural buffers between the landfill and the environment. For example
the area may be comprised of clay soil which is fairly impermeable due to its tightly packed particles,
or the area may be characterized by a low water table and an absence of surface water bodies thus

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preventing the threat of water contamination. In addition to the strategic placement of the landfill
other protective measures are incorporated into its design. The bottom and sides of landfills are lined
with layers of clay or plastic material to prevent the percolation of the liquid waste, known as
leachate, into the soil. Using a leachate collection system it is collected and pumped to the surface for
treatment. Boreholes or monitoring wells are dug in the vicinity of the landfill to monitor groundwater
quality. A landfill is divided into a series of individual cells and only a few cells of the site are filled
with trash at any one time. This minimizes exposure to wind and rain. The daily waste is spread and
compacted to reduce the volume, a cover is then applied to reduce odours and to prevent attracting
vermin. When the landfill has reached its capacity it is capped with an impermeable seal which is
typically composed of clay soil.

Figure 2 Main features of a modern landfill.

Some sanitary landfills are used to recover energy. The natural anaerobic decomposition of
the waste in the landfill produces landfill gases which include Carbon Dioxide, methane and traces of
other gases. Methane can be used as an energy source to produce heat or electricity. Thus some
landfills are fitted with landfill gas collection (LFG) systems to capitalize on the methane being
produced. The process of generating gas is very slow, for the energy recovery system to be successful
there needs to be large volumes of wastes.
Advantages:
1. These landfills present the least environmental and health risk. 2. Rodents and insects cannot breed
in the sanitary landfill so their born diseases can be avoided. 3. Sanitary landfill does not create air
pollution to a large extent. 4. Power can be generated by gas extraction system from sanitary landfills.
Disadvantages:
1. The cost of establishing these sanitary landfills are high when compared to the other land disposal
methods. 2. The only risk is ground water can be polluted if the landfill is not properly designed.
Bioreactor Landfills
Recent technological advances have lead to the introduction of the Bioreactor Landfill. The
Bioreactor landfills use enhanced microbiological processes to accelerate the decomposition of waste.
The main controlling factor is the constant addition of liquid to maintain optimum moisture for
microbial digestion. This liquid is usually added by re- circulating the landfill leachate. In cases where
leachate in not enough, water or other liquid waste such as sewage sludge can be used. The landfill
may use either anaerobic or aerobic microbial digestion or it may be designed to combine the two.
These enhanced microbial processes have the advantage of rapidly reducing the volume of the waste
creating more space for additional waste, they also maximise the production and capture of methane
for energy recovery systems and they reduce the costs associated with leachate management. For

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Bioreactor landfills to be successful the waste should be comprised predominantly of organic matter
and should be produced in large volumes.
Dumping
Open dumping
Open dumping of solid waste is very cheap and it requires no planning and set up. That is why it is the
main method of waste disposal in most of the undeveloped countries. This method of waste disposal is
totally unscientific and main disadvantages are:
1. Solid waste produces foul smell by decaying which pollute the air. 2. Large land area is requiring
for waste disposal and that land area is wasted. 3. Dumped area is the breeding place of rodents and
insects which produce different diseases like malaria, cholera, dysentery etc.
Controlled dumps
Controlled dumps are disposal sites which are almost similar as sanitary landfill but usually have one
deficiency. They may have a planned capacity but no cell planning, there may be partial leachate
management, partial or no gas management, regular cover, compaction in some cases, basic record
keeping and they are fenced or enclosed. These dumps have a reduced risk of environmental
contamination, the initial costs are low and the operational costs are moderate. While there is
controlled access and use, they are still accessible by scavengers.
Biological waste treatment
Composting
Composting is the controlled aerobic decomposition of organic matter by the action of
microorganisms and small invertebrates. There are a number of composting techniques being used
today. These include: in vessel composting, windrow composting, vermicomposting and static pile
composting. The process is controlled by making the environmental conditions optimum for the waste
decomposers to thrive. The rate of compost formation is controlled by the composition and
constituents of the materials i.e. their Carbon/Nitrogen (C/N) ratio, the temperature, the moisture
content and the amount of air. The C/N ratio is very important for the process to be efficient. The
micro organisms require carbon as an energy source and nitrogen for the synthesis of some proteins. If
the correct C/N ration is not achieved, then application of the compost with either a high or low C/N
ratio can have adverse effects on both the soil and the plants. A high C/N ratio can be corrected by
dehydrated mud and a low ratio corrected by adding cellulose. Moisture content greatly influences the
composting process. The microbes need the moisture to perform their metabolic functions. If the
waste becomes too dry the composting is not favoured. If however there is too much moisture then it
is possible that it may displace the air in the compost heap depriving the organisms of oxygen and
drowning them. A high temperature is desirable for the elimination of pathogenic organisms.
However, if temperatures are too high, above 75ºC then the organisms necessary to complete the
composting process are destroyed. Optimum temperatures for the process are in the range of 50-60ºC
with the ideal being 60ºC Aeration is a very important and the quantity of air needs to be properly
controlled when composting. If there is insufficient oxygen the aerobes will begin to die and will be
replaced by anaerobes. The anaerobes are undesirable since they will slow the process, produce
odours and also produce the highly flammable methane gas. Air can be incorporated by churning the
compost.
1. Foul smell is eliminated. 2. Flies and insects cannot breed so their born diseases can be avoided.
3. Emission of gasses like H2S, CH4 etc. can be reduced. 4. Maximum nutrient N, P, K is obtained in a
usable form. 5. Excessive use of chemical fertilizer can be reduced by the use of humus.
Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion like composting uses biological processes to decompose organic waste. However,
where composting can use a variety of microbes and must have air, anaerobic digestion uses bacteria
and an oxygen free environment to decompose the waste. Aerobic respiration, typical of composting,
results in the formation of Carbon dioxide and water. While the anaerobic respiration results in the
formation of Carbon Dioxide and methane. In addition to generating the humus which is used as a soil
enhancer, Anaerobic Digestion is also used as a method of producing biogas which can be used to
generate electricity. Optimal conditions for the process require nutrients such as nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium, it requires that the pH be maintained around 7 and the alkalinity be
appropriate to buffer pH changes, temperature should also be controlled.

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Vermicompost is the use of earthworms for composting organic residues. Earthworms can consume
practically all kinds of organic matter. Earthworms have the capacity to eat as much matter as their
own weight and produce the same amount of manure per day in the form of castings.
It has become imperative to adopt earthworm farming for sustainable agricultural production and for
the economic prosperity of the farmers.
Vermicompost offers the following advantages:

 Can convert 1000 tones of moist organic matter into 400 tons of high value compost
 Castings or excreta of earthworms are rich in nutrients and bacterial and actinomacetes
population

The potential benefits include:

 Reduction of noxious qualities of a wide variety of organic waste, elimination of smell,

reduction of harmful microorganisms
 Production of marketable organic fertilizer
 Production of aqua life, birds and animal food or even human food by drying earthworms
 Additional benefit to the farmers
 Increases soil fertility and bacterial activity in the soil
 Increases micro grains in the soil and enhances water absorption capacity
 Helps the plant root get air easily
 Increases plant resistance to pests, fungus and other deceases

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