LAB 1: SIMPLE AND PHYSICAL PENDULUM

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
Please complete the following questions before coming to the lab, and bring your answers with
you to the lab:

1. When measuring the period of a pendulum T, would it be better to use 10 swings or 2

swings? Why?

2. If the value of 𝑇 is 5.2 ± 0.2 seconds, what is the uncertainty in T2? Please show
your calculations in your answer.

3. In the theory for a simple pendulum, what is the mass of the string?

4. In this lab, you will be taking measurements with a stopwatch. How does human
reaction time affect the measurement? What is human reaction time using a stopwatch
(quote and cite a value)?

5. Describe three differences between a simple pendulum and a physical pendulum.

6. For a physical pendulum:

a. When the pendulum is pivoting about one end, do you expect that the period is
longer or shorter than if it is pivoting about a point slightly offset from that end,
towards the centre of mass?
b. When the pendulum is pivoting about the center of mass, what will the period be?

7. Describe the difference between random and systematic uncertainty and use two
examples for each.
Set yourself the following objectives for this lab:
• Understand the theory behind a simple and physical pendulum.
• Determine uncertainties in the lab and propagate uncertainties for multivariable equations.
• Expose oneself to Microsoft Excel and spreadsheet software.
• Experimentally determine the period of a simple pendulum with a variable length and angle.
• Justify the experimental results of the simple pendulum with theoretical predictions through the
analysis of the gravitational constant g.
• Experimentally examine the behavior of a physical pendulum with Capstone software.

The following shows the value of all the questions in this lab:
Laboratory 1, Question Grading Scheme Totals
Part 1: A Question 1 Question 2 Question 3
Points /1 /1 /1 /3
Part 1: B Question 4 Question 5
Points /1 /2 /3
Part 1: C Question 6 Question 7 Question 8
Points /1 /2 /2 /5
Part 2 Question 9
Points /1 /1
Total number of points in this lab /12

The following shows the value of all the tables and graphs in this lab:
Laboratory 1, Results Grading Scheme Totals
Part 1: A Table Graph
Points /1 /1
Part 1: B Table Graph
Points /1 /1 /2
Part 1: C Table Graph
Points /2 /1 /3
Part 2 Table Graph
Points /1 /1 /2
Total number of points in this lab /8
 INTRODUCTION
Everything measured in the world has an inherent uncertainty associated with it. Without
that uncertainty, the measurement is meaningless. This is because the uncertainty tells us how the
measurement was made, what was involved in making this measurement, and how confident we
are that the measurement is accurate. As you will see in this lab, uncertainties are primarily
attributed to either Systematic Errors in the methods of measurement, or Random Errors in the
nature of the measurement.

Random (Statistical) Errors are based on the precision of the measurement device and are
associated with the experimenter’s inability to make the exact same measurement twice. This
inability is due to the limitations of the measurement device. We encapsulate this idea by saying
that the measurement uncertainty is ± half the smallest increment of the measurement device. This
is because the true value of the measurement could either be larger or smaller by approximately
half of this smallest increment based on this measurement device. Systematic Errors, on the other
hand, are inherently based on the procedure or the nature of the equipment and are usually more
difficult to determine. An example of a systematic error would be the error that occurs due to
reading a measurement from a meter stick that is not at eye level – your perception of the value
changes based on the angle of your eyes to the target.

To learn how we can incorporate uncertainty into our measurements, we are going to study
pendulums and the physics behind them within the lab. This experiment will consist of two
pendulums, one is what we call a ‘simple pendulum,’ which has a ball bearing attached to a string
and is swung about the top of a support. The other pendulum is what we call a ‘physical pendulum,’
which is a uniform bar that can rotate about several pivot points. The goals of this lab are to
understand uncertainties and to understand how uncertainties are used to justify experimental
results against theoretical predictions.

D 1.3
 PURPOSE
In the first part of this experiment, you will measure the strength of the Earth’s gravitational
field by observing the period of a simple pendulum. The measurements themselves are
straightforward in order to give you time to explore the use of graphs, to interpret experimental
results, and to further carry out analysis of experimental uncertainties.

In the second part of the experiment, you will then determine how the period of a physical
pendulum depends on the distance of the pivot point to the centre of mass. You will be expected to
complete a report that includes thoughtful discussion of your results using the attached template by
answering the questions with complete explanations.

THEORY
Simple Pendulum

Figure 1: Example of a simple pendulum.

According to the theory of a simple pendulum, the period 𝑇 (the time for one complete swing)
is given by
(
𝑇 = 2𝜋') (1)

where 𝑙 is the length of the pendulum and 𝑔 is the gravitational acceleration. Please refer to Figure
1 for an example of a simple pendulum. In deriving this result, certain assumptions are made: 1) the
pendulum consists of a point mass suspended by a massless string of length 𝑙 from a fixed support,
and 2) the amplitude of the swing is small, i.e., sinθ ~θ (measured as the angle between the vertical
and the string at the maximum of its swing).

Squaring Eq. (1) yields the following relation, which will be used for analysis of your data.

(
𝑇 , = 4𝜋 , ) (2)
 Physical Pendulum

This part of the theory can be skipped without any loss of insight for the experiment.

This experiment explores the dependence of the period of a physical pendulum (a uniform
bar) on the distance between the pivot point and the center of mass of the physical pendulum. The
experimental setup is illustrated in Figure 2.
Think about the two extremes:
1. When the pendulum is pivoting about the end, do you expect that the period is longer or
shorter than if it is pivoting about the first hole down?
2. When the pendulum is pivoting about the center of the rod, what will the period be?
In considering these two questions, as the pivot is moved toward the centre, the period
starts to decrease. It then reaches a minimum before starting to increase and becomes infinitely
long at the centre. That means that there should be a place between one of the end points and the
centre where the period is at a minimum. We can apply simple calculus to find the minimum
period of the physical pendulum. In this lab, we will determine the minimum period
experimentally.
The period of a physical pendulum for a small
amplitude is given by

𝑇 = 2𝜋.𝐼 ⁄𝑚𝑔𝑥 . (3)

‘Small amplitude’ for our purposes means any angle 15o or Pivot Point
less. The error when using equation (3) is less than 1% at 15°.
I is the moment of inertia of the pendulum about the pivot x
point, m is the total mass of the pendulum, and x is the
distance from the pivot to the center of mass. A uniform Center of Mass
rectangular bar has a moment of inertia (𝐼56 ) about its center
of mass given by
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𝐼56 = 78 𝑚(𝐿, + 𝑤 , ) (4)

where m is the mass, L is the length and w is the width of the

bar. For the 28-cm Pendulum Bar (w/L)2 < 0.003 and we can
simplify this expression to
7
𝐼56 = 78 𝑚𝐿, (5)
Figure 2: Experimental setup for the
which gives a moment of inertia that is only off by about physical pendulum.
0.3%.

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 The parallel axis theorem enables us to write the moment of inertia of the bar about a pivot
point a distance x from the center of mass as

𝐼 = 𝐼56 + 𝑚𝑥 , (6)
and Equation (3) becomes
7 8
6(>8 /@,)A6B 8 > AB 8
𝑇 = 2𝜋' = 2𝜋 C78 (7)
6)B )B

(Optional: Use calculus to find the derivative of the period, T, with respect to x, and set it equal to
0 to find the value of x that will produce the minimum period.)
 PART 1:
SIMPLE PENDULUM

SETUP
First, we will examine a simple pendulum. A small ball is attached to a string and hung
from a pivot. You will release the ball from various angles and lengths of the string to measure the
period of the swing, as described in each part below.

PART A: PRELIMINARY STUDY

The first part of the lab will help us get more acquainted with the types of uncertainties we
are measuring in this lab and to determine the best way to measure the period of the simple
pendulum with a stopwatch.

PROCEDURE
1. Set the length of the simple pendulum to be 10cm and position the ball bearing
to have a small amplitude (small angle, < 15°) from the center. Make sure that the
amplitude (point at which you release the ball bearing at) is relatively close to the
center, i.e. your release angle should be less than 15o.
a. Note: the release point does not need to be exactly the same for each
measurement in this part, so long as it starts relatively close to the center.
2. Use the stopwatch to determine the period of the simple pendulum by
measuring the time for various numbers of swings. One partner will release the
pendulum while the other partner will time the period with the stopwatch and record
the data. Then, switch. Note: This is the only part of the lab where both partners
must take the same measurements.
a. Think carefully about what the uncertainty in time should be for a
human interacting with the stopwatch.
3. Each lab partner will take the following measurements: In the first set, measure
the time for 1 swing. In the second set, repeat steps 1-2 and measure the time for 5
swings. In the last set, repeat steps 1-2 and measure the time for 10 swings. Record
the time for the various number of swings in the Results section for each lab
partner.
4. While conducting this experiment, consider what would make the most sense as
the uncertainty in time. Should we be using the smallest increment on the
stopwatch, or do we need to consider the observer’s reaction time? Discuss with
your partner, and decide on your uncertainty value for your stopwatch
measurements. (Please refer to the “Laboratory general guide lines” to determine a
total uncertainty.) Record the uncertainty value of your measurements after the
plus/minus sign at the top of the Part A: Results table in your report.

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 a. IMPORTANT!!! This will be the uncertainty that we use for the
remainder of the simple pendulum experiment.

CHECKPOINT:
(Ask the TA to check your uncertainty in time.)

5. Calculate the period of one swing using the measurements in each set and
record them in your table in the Results section. Also record the uncertainty for
each period.

Answer the following questions in the ‘Discussion’ section of your report:

Question 1. How does having more swings affect the measurement of the time? Does it affect
your calculated periods and associated uncertainties? Explain.

Question 2. Can you eliminate your reaction time between the moment you see the pendulum and
the moment you press the stopwatch? Does it help if two different people do the timing?

Question 3. Does the non-rigidity of the pendulum support affect the measurement? Explain why
or why not.

PART B: VARIATION WITH AMPLITUDE

In this part we check the variation of period with the amplitude of swing. The goal of this
part is to show at which amplitudes Equation (2) holds. (Note: we will not concern ourselves with
the uncertainty in amplitude.)
PROCEDURE

1. Select a convenient pendulum length for which you will measure 10 swings.
2. Measure the period for a small (~5°) and large amplitude first, and then
measure the period for a few angles in between. The largest angle that can be
used is about 60°.
3. Record your data in the table in the Results section as well as in the Excel
worksheet titled ‘PART C’ as you take each measurement, so that you can see the
plot change as you take data. The excel worksheet will build a plot of period (𝑇)
versus amplitude as you fill in the data.
a. The horizontal scale on which you plot the amplitude should run from 0 on
the left to 60° on the right, with a scale that covers the entire domain of
values for amplitude.
b. As you fill in the data, the vertical scale on the Excel graph should change
 such that you will see the uncertainty ranges and the variation of the period
clearly.
4. Before copying your plot into the Results section of your report, make sure that
your x and y-axes are scaled such that your data fits well in the plot area.
a. To change the scale of your axes, right click on the axis in question, click
‘Format Axis,’ and a pop-up window will allow you to change the axis
minimum and maximum.
b. Note: For the first lab, we will provide you with appropriate axis labels and
plot titles. In future labs, it is up to you to ensure that all of your graphs are
properly titled, and have accurate axis labels.

Answer the following questions:

Question 4. Is period independent of amplitude for the simple pendulum? Refer to your Excel
plot from worksheet Part B in your answer. If you had timed only a single swing for each amplitude,
would it have affected your answer to this question? Explain why or why not.

Question 5. Recall that to derive Equation (1), we assumed a small amplitude. Based on your plot
generated in Excel for PART B, how large can your amplitude be before this small-amplitude
approximation begins to breakdown? Explain, using your graph to justify your answer. You can see
that if your measurements were more precise (smaller error bars) the maximum amplitude value
would be both smaller and more clearly defined.

PART C: VARIATION WITH LENGTH

In the final part of the simple pendulum experiment, we will experimentally determine the
gravitational constant 𝑔 = 9.81m/s2. We will do this with two methods. First, we will measure the
period for a simple pendulum at a fixed amplitude with various lengths, and then calculate the value
of 𝑔 from Equation (2). Then, we will find the line of best fit from a plot of period square (𝑇 , )
versus length (𝑙), and use the slope of the line to determine a value for 𝑔. Before we go to the
procedure, consider the following question.

Question 6. To what point on the mass do you measure 𝑙? (The theory assumes a point mass, but
does it make any difference which point is used?)

PROCEDURE

1. Select an easily measured amplitude for which you have shown the simple
pendulum theory to be valid (i.e. an angle for which the small-angle approximation
holds). Position the ball at a constant angle from the centre, and record your
chosen angle at the top of your chart in the Results section of Part C.
a. Note: keep your angle constant throughout the remainder of this part.
2. Using this amplitude throughout, determine the periods for 5 different lengths
with 10 swings, spaced uniformly over a large range and record them in your
table in the Results section. We suggest that you start with 10cm and don’t go past
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 80cm in length.
3. Divide your time measurements by 10 to determine the period and record it in
your table in the Results section of Part C (don’t forget to include the uncertainty
in period at the top). As a check of your results, if 𝑙 is increased by a factor of 4, T
should double (as in Equation 2)
4. From your measurements, calculate the values of 𝑻𝟐 , 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒈 for the first set of
measurements using the equation in the table. Also, determine the correct
formula for the error in 𝑻𝟐 K𝜹(𝑻𝟐 )M, for the error in 𝒈 (𝜹𝒈) by solving for 𝒈 in
Equation (2), and propagating the error accordingly. You can do this by hand on
a separate piece of paper. To determine errors from a set of measured values, refer to
the Reference Manual. Once you have formulas for 𝛿(𝑇 , ) and 𝛿𝑔, calculate
𝛿(𝑇 , ) and 𝛿𝑔 for your first set of measurements.
a. Note: both the period and length have an uncertainty, which needs to be
considered with the error propagation.
5. Next, put your first set of values into the Excel sheet provided for this lab, which
has a worksheet titled ‘PART C.’ This worksheet will calculate the values of 𝑔 and
the uncertainty in 𝑔 (𝛿𝑔) given values from columns A to C, as well as the uncertainty
values in period and length at the top of the spreadsheet.
6. Check that what you calculated by hand for the FIRST set of measurements
matches what is in the spreadsheet. Before moving on, show the TA your formula
for 𝛿(𝑇 , ), and 𝛿𝑔. Ensure that your calculation for the FIRST set of values matches
what is in the spreadsheet.

CHECKPOINT:
(Ask the TA to check your sample calculation for 𝑻𝟐 , 𝜹(𝑻𝟐 ), 𝒈, and 𝜹𝒈 for the
first set of values only)

7. Fill in the rest of your data from the Results section into the Excel worksheet
titled ‘Part C’. As you fill in your data for length 𝑙, error in length 𝛿𝑙, time for 10
swings, error in time 𝛿𝑡, period 𝑇, and error in period squared 𝛿(𝑇 , ), the worksheet
will automatically calculate; period squared 𝑇 , , the gravitational constant 𝑔, and the
error in gravitational constant 𝛿𝑔, for each of the given values.
a. Once you have filled in your Excel worksheet, it will; provide a graph of
T2 as a function of 𝑙, calculate the average value of 𝑔 from all the entries in
your “Gravitational constant” column, and the average error in 𝑔 from your
“Error in gravitational constant”. According to the theory, the graph of 𝑇 , as
a function of 𝑙 should give a straight line through the origin with a slope of
4π2/𝑔.
 8. Determine the trendline for this data on the T2 versus 𝒍 plot and report the
equation of best fit on the graph.
a. To add a trendline equation to your graph in Excel, right click on any data
point in your graph (this will highlight them all), and then select "Format
Trendline" from the drop-down menu.
b. In the pop-up window, under "Options" select "Display Equation on Chart".
Use the slope of this equation to determine a value for 𝒈. Note: displaying
the equation creates a text box with the equation, the contents of which don't
change if you update the data. If you update your data, you will need to re-
add the trendline equation to your chart.

CHECKPOINT:
(Ask the T.A. to check your plots)

***How to calculate 𝒈 from the slope of the line of best fit.*** From Equation (2), we can write
QR8
the period squared as a function 𝑙 by 𝑇 , = K )
M 𝑙. When we observe the graph of 𝑇 , versus 𝑙, we
can see that the line of best fit is linear for the data. What that means is that we can relate the slope
of our line of best fit, to Equation (2), and calculate a value for 𝑔 from that line of best fit i.e.
4𝜋 ,
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑡 =
𝑔

Question 7. Compare the average value of 𝑔 you obtained in the table for Part C, to the accepted
value of 𝑔 (9.81m/s2). Calculate the person difference between experiment and theoretical value as
explained in the “Laboratory general guide lines”. Does the average error in 𝑔 that you calculated
account for this difference? Why do you think the difference between your value of 𝑔 and the
accepted value of 𝑔 might be outside of the margin of error that you calculated?

Question 8. Record the 𝑔 value that you calculated from the graph in Part C. Is your result for 𝑔
in agreement with the accepted value within uncertainty? Use the average value of uncertainty from
your table in Part C as your uncertainty for 𝑔. Provide details, and if necessary, give plausible reasons
for any disagreement.

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 PART 2
PHYSICAL PENDULUM

Figure 3: Experimental setup for the physical pendulum and Universal Interface 850.

SETUP
1. Using a meter stick, measure the length of the Pendulum Bar (ignore the small tabs
on the ends) and the distance between holes.
2. Put the Rotary Motion Sensor on the rod stand and plug it into the Universal
Interface 850. See Figure 3.
3. Use the mounting screw to attach the Pendulum Bar to the Rotary Motion Sensor
using the hole that is the end of the rod.
 PROCEDURE
1. Open PASCO Capstone on the desktop. Start a graph of angle versus time by
clicking on the y-axis label and then selecting “Angle (rad)”. The x-axis should
be labeled “Time (s)” already.
2. Displace the pendulum less than 15o (0.35 rad) from equilibrium and release it.
Click on the red Record button to the bottom left of your Capstone graph.
3. Click STOP after about 15 oscillations. Perform analysis described below before
deleting this run.
4. Move the mounting screw to the next hole down from the end. Press ‘Delete
Last Run’ in the bottom of Capstone. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until hole 7 is reached.

ANALYSIS
1. Find the period of oscillation for each position of the pivot.
a. Select Run #1 on the graph.
b. Double click at the point on the first peak of Angular Position. Click
on the left button “Add coordinates.” With the left-right arrows on the
keyboard, move to the nearest points to find the maximum. You may have
to click on the position again for the left-right arrows to work. Read the
value of time.
c. Count 10 periods to the right and repeat the previous procedure.
Determine the time for one period by measuring the time for 10
periods and divide by 10. Record your values for time and period in
the table in the Results section, and in the Excel sheet. Do not forget to
include uncertainty (see Question 8).
d. Go to step 4 of procedure.

2. The Physical Pendulum excel sheet will plot a ‘Period’ vs. ‘Distance from Center of
Mass’ graph. Determine which distance gives the minimum period of oscillation
of the pendulum bar. Copy your table into the Results, Part 2 section of your
report.

Question 9. It can be shown using calculus that the minimum period for this pendulum occurs
> > >
when 𝑥 = ,√] or 𝑥 = ^_` , where 𝐿abc = , is the center of mass for the physical pendulum. Does
√]
your data and graph agree with the analytic value for the location of the minimum period for this
pendulum? Record and compare these two values. Provide some sources of error as to why they
might not agree.

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