Volume 11, Number 3 June 2006 – October 2006

Olympiad Corner Summation by Parts

The following were the problems of Kin Y. Li
the IMO 2006.

Day 1 (July 12, 2006) In calculus, we have a formula called Proof. Applying summation by parts
Problem 1. Let ABC be a triangle with integration by parts and Cauchy-Schwarz’ inequality, we
incenter I. A point P in the interior of the
t have
triangle satisfies ∫ f ( x) g ( x)dx = F (t ) g (t ) − F (s) g (s) n
⎛ n ⎞ n −1
⎛ k ⎞
∠ PBA + ∠ PCA = ∠ PBC + ∠ PCB .
s
t ∑a
i =1
2
i = ⎜ ∑ ai ⎟an + ∑ ⎜ ∑ ai ⎟(ak − ak +1 )
⎝ i =1 ⎠ k =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠
− ∫ F ( x ) g ' ( x ) dx ,
Show that AP ≥ AI, and that equality s
holds if and only if P = I. ⎛ n ⎞ n −1
⎛ k ⎞
where F(x) is an anti-derivative of f (x). ≤ ⎜ ∑ bi ⎟an + ∑ ⎜ ∑ bi ⎟(ak − ak +1 )
Problem 2. Let P be a regular There is a discrete version of this ⎝ i =1 ⎠ k =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠
2006-gon. A diagonal of P is called formula for series. It is called n

good if its endpoints divide the summation by parts, which asserts = ∑ab
i =1
i i

boundary of P into two parts, each n n −1

composed of an odd number of sides of ∑a b

k =1
k k =An bn − ∑ Ak (bk +1 − bk ),
k =1
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ n
1/ 2
⎞
≤ ⎜ ∑ ai2 ⎟ ⎜ ∑ bi2 ⎟ .
1/ 2

P. The sides of P are also called good. ⎝ i =1 ⎠ ⎝ i =1 ⎠

Suppose P has been dissected into
triangles by 2003 diagonals, no two of
which have a common point in the
interior of P. Find the maximum
where Ak = a1+a2+⋯+ak. This formula
follows easily by observing that a1 = A1
Squaring and simplifying, we get
and for k > 1, ak = Ak − Ak−1 so that n n
n

∑a b k k =A1b1 + ( A2 − A1 )b2 + L+ ( An − An−1 )bn ∑a

i =1
2
i ≤ ∑ bi2 .
i =1
k =1
number of isosceles triangles having two
= Anbn − A1 (b2 − b1 ) − L − An −1 (bn − bn −1 )
good sides that could appear in such a Below we will do some more examples
configuration. n −1
= Anbn − ∑ Ak (bk +1 − bk ). to illustrate the usefulness of the
k =1
Problem 3. Determine the least real summation by parts formula.
number M such that the inequality From this identity, we can easily obtain
some famous inequalities. Example 1. (1978 IMO) Let n be a
| ab(a 2 − b 2 ) + bc(b 2 − c 2 ) + ca(c 2 − a 2 ) |
Abel’s Inequality. Let m ≤ ∑ a ≤ M
k
positive integer and a1, a2, ⋯, an be a
≤ M (a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ) 2 i
i =1 sequence of distinct positive integers.
holds for all real numbers a, b and c.
Prove that
for k = 1,2,…,n and b1 ≥ b2 ≥ ⋯ ≥ bn > 0. n n
ak 1
∑ ∑
(continued on page 4)
Then 2
≥ .
Editors: ஻ Ի ஶ (CHEUNG Pak-Hong), Munsang College, HK n k =1 k k =1 k
ଽ υ ࣻ (KO Tsz-Mei) b1 m ≤ ∑a b
k =1
k k ≤ b1 M .
Solution. Since the ai’s are distinct
గ ႀ ᄸ (LEUNG Tat-Wing)
‫ ؃‬୊ ፱ (LI Kin-Yin), Dept. of Math., HKUST Proof. Let Ak= a1+a2+⋯+ak. Applying positive integers, Ak = a1 + a2 + ⋯ + ak
֔ ᜢ ‫( ݰ‬NG Keng-Po Roger), ITC, HKPU
summation by parts, we have is at least 1 + 2 + ⋯ + k = k(k + 1)/2.
Artist: ྆ ‫( ़ ؾ‬YEUNG Sau-Ying Camille), MFA, CU n n −1

Acknowledgment: Thanks to Elina Chiu, Math. Dept., ∑a b

k =1
k k = Anbn + ∑ Ak (bk − bk +1 ).
k =1 Applying summation by parts, we have
HKUST for general assistance.
The right side is at least
On-line: n
ak An n −1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
http://www.math.ust.hk/mathematical_excalibur/ n −1
mbn + ∑ m(bk − bk +1 ) = mb1
∑k
k =1
2
= + ∑ Ak ⎜ − ⎟
n 2 k =1 ⎜⎝ k 2 ( k + 1) 2 ⎟⎠
The editors welcome contributions from all teachers and
k =1
n(n + 1) / 2 n −1 k (k + 1) (2k + 1)
+∑
students. With your submission, please include your name,
address, school, email, telephone and fax numbers (if and at most ≥
n −1
n2 k =1 2 k 2 (k + 1) 2
available). Electronic submissions, especially in MS Word,
are encouraged. The deadline for receiving material for the Mbn + ∑ M (bk − bk +1 ) = Mb1. 1 ⎛ 1 n−1 2k + 1 ⎞
= ⎜⎜1 + + ∑ ⎟
2 ⎝ n k =1 k (k + 1) ⎟⎠
next issue is November 25, 2006. k =1
For individual subscription for the next five issues for the
05-06 academic year, send us five stamped self-addressed K. L. Chung’s Inequality. Suppose 1 ⎛ 1 n−1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎞
= ⎜⎜1 + + ∑ ⎜ + ⎟⎟
2 ⎝ n k =1 ⎝ k k + 1 ⎠ ⎟⎠
envelopes. Send all correspondence to: k k

Dr. Kin-Yin LI
a1 ≥ a2 ≥ ⋯ ≥ an > 0 and ∑a ≤ ∑b i i
1 ⎛ n 1 n−1 1 ⎞
= ⎜∑ + ∑
Department of Mathematics i =1 i =1
⎟
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology for k = 1,2,…,n. Then 2 ⎝ k =1 k k =0 k + 1 ⎠
Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong n n

∑ a ≤ ∑b .
n
1
=∑ .
2 2
Fax: (852) 2358 1643 i i
Email: makyli@ust.hk i =1 i =1 k =1 k
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 11, No. 3, Jun. 06 – Oct. 06 Page 2

Example 2. (1982 USAMO) If x is a (a1 − a 2 )(1 − z ) + (a 2 − a3 )(1 − z 2 ) + L always holds.

positive real number and n is a positive
+ an (1 − z ) = 0. Solution. Let Si = x1 + x2 + ⋯ + xi. Let
n
integer, then prove that
Then
[ x] [ 2 x] [3x] [nx] p = ∑ xi , q = − ∑ xi .
[nx] ≥ + + +L+ , (a1 − a 2 ) + (a 2 − a3 ) + L + a n = xi > 0 xi <0
1 2 3 n
where [t] denotes the greatest integer (a1 − a 2 ) z + (a 2 − a3 ) z 2 + L + a n z n . Then p − q = 0 and p + q = 1. So p =
less than or equal to t. However, since |z| = 1 and z ≠ 1, by the 1
q = . Thus, − 1 ≤ S k ≤ 1 for k =
Solution. Let ak = [kx]/k. Then triangle inequality, 2 2 2
k
[ix] | (a1 − a2 ) z + (a2 − a3 ) z 2 + L + a n z n | 1,2,⋯, n.
Ak = ∑ .
i =1 i
< (a1 − a2 ) z + | (a2 − a3 ) z | +L+ | an z | 2 n

Applying summation by parts, we get

In terms of Ak, we are to prove [nx]≥An. = (a1 − a 2 ) + (a 2 − a3 ) + L + a n ,
The case n = 1 is easy. Suppose the n n −1
cases 1 to n − 1 are true. Applying which is a contradiction to the last ∑a x i i = S n an − ∑ S k (ak +1 − ak )
summation by parts, we have i =1 k =1
displayed equation. So Pn ≠ 0 = P0.
n n n −1 n −1
∑[kx] = ∑ a k = A n − ∑ A .
k =1 k =1
k n
k =1
k
Example 4. Show that the series ≤ ∑ S k (ak − ak +1 )
k =1

Using this and the inductive ∞

sin k converges.
hypothesis, ∑
k =1 k
n −1
1
≤ ∑ (ak − ak +1 )
n n −1 k =1 2

An n = ∑ [kx] + ∑ Ak Solution. Let ak = sin k and bk = 1/k.

k =1 k =1 1
Using the identity = (a1 − an ).
n n −1
2
≤ ∑ [kx] + ∑ [kx] 1 cos(m − 12) − cos(m + 12)
k =1 k =1 sin m sin = , When x1 = 1/2, xn= −1/2 and all other
n −1
2 2
= [nx] + ∑ ([kx] + [(n − k ) x]) xi = 0, we have equality. So the least
k =1 we get
n −1
such m is 1/2.
≤ [nx] + ∑ [kx + (n − k ) x] cos 12 − cos(k + 12)
Ak = sin1 + L + sin k = .
k =1
2 sin 12 Example 6. Prove that for all real
= n[nx], numbers a1, a2, …, an, there is an
Then |Ak| ≤ 1/(sin ½) and hence integer m among 1,2,…, n such that if
which yields case n.
lim An bn = 0 . π
n→ ∞
0 ≤ θ n ≤ θ n−1 ≤ L ≤ θ1 ≤ ,
Example 3. Consider a polygonal line Applying summation by parts, we get 2

P0P1P2…Pn such that ∠ P0P1P2 = n m

∞

∑
sin k n
= lim ∑ ak bk
then
∑ a sin θ i i ≤ ∑a . i
∠ P1P2P3 = ⋯ = ∠ Pn−2Pn−1Pn, all k =1 k n →∞
k =1
i =1 i =1

measure in counterclockwise direction. n−1

Solution. Let Ai = a1+a2+⋯+ai and bi
= lim( Anbn − ∑ Ak (bk +1 − bk ))
If P0P1 > P1P2 > ⋯ > Pn−1Pn, show that
n→∞
k =1 = sin θi, then 1 ≥ b1 ≥ b2 ≥ L ≥ bn ≥ 0.
∞
⎛1 1 ⎞ Next let |Am| be the maximum among
P0 and Pn cannot coincide. = ∑ Ak ⎜ − ⎟.
k =1 ⎝ k k + 1⎠ |A1|, |A2|, …, |An|. With an+1 = bn+1 = 0,
we apply summation by parts to get
Since
Solution. Let ak be the length of Pk−1Pk.
∞ ∞
Consider the complex plane. Each Pk ⎛1 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛1 1 ⎞ 1
∑ A ⎜⎝ k − k + 1⎟⎠ ≤ sin ∑⎜⎝ k − k + 1⎟⎠ = sin , n n +1

∑ a sin θ ∑a b
k
corresponds to a complex number. We k =1
1
2 k =1
1
2
i i = i i
i =1 i =1
may set P0 = 0 and P1 = a1. Let θ = ∞
sin k converges.
∠ P0P1P2 and z = - cos θ + i sin θ , then
so ∑ n
k =1 k = ∑ A (b i i +1 − bi )
Pn = a1 + a2 z + L + an z n−1 . Applying i =1

summation by parts, we get Example 5. Let a1 ≥ a2 ≥ L ≥ an with n

≤ ∑ Am (bi − bi +1 )
Pn = (a1 − a 2 ) + (a 2 − a3 )(1 + z ) + L n n i =1
a1 ≠ an, ∑x i = 0 and ∑ x i = 1. Find
= Am b1
+ an (1 + z + L + z n−1 ) . i =1 i =1

If θ = 0, then z = 1 and Pn > 0. If θ ≠ 0, the least number m such that ≤ Am .

then assume Pn = 0. We get Pn (1−z) = n

∑a x i i ≤ m(a1 − an )
0, which implies i =1
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 11, No. 3, Jun. 06 – Oct. 06
Problem Corner
We welcome readers to submit their
solutions to the problems posed below
for publication consideration. The
solutions should be preceded by the
solver’s name, home (or email) address
and school affiliation. Please send
submissions to Dr. Kin Y. Li,
Department of Mathematics, The Hong
Kong University of Science &
Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon,
Hong Kong. The deadline for
submitting solutions is November 25,
2006.
Problem 256. Show that there is a
rational number q such that
sin1o sin 2o Lsin 89o sin 90o = q 10.
Problem 257. Let n > 1 be an integer.
Prove that there is a unique positive
integer A < n2 such that [n2/A] + 1 is
divisible by n, where [x] denotes the
greatest integer less than or equal to x.
(Source: 1993 Jiangsu Math Contest)
Problem 258. (Due to Mihaiela
Vizental and Alfred Eckstein, Arad,
Romaina) Show that if A, B, C are in
the interval (0, π/2), then
f (A,B,C) + f (B,C,A) + f (C,A,B) ≥ 3,
where f ( x, y, z ) = 4 sin x + 3 sin y + 2 sin z .
2 sin x + 3 sin y + 4 sin z
Problem 259. Let AD, BE, CF be the
altitudes of acute triangle ABC.
Through D, draw a line parallel to line
EF intersecting line AB at R and line
AC at Q. Let P be the intersection of
lines EF and CB. Prove that the
circumcircle of ⊿PQR passes through
the midpoint M of side BC.
(Source: 1994 Hubei Math Contest)
Problem 260. In a class of 30 students,
number the students 1, 2, …, 30 from
best to worst ability (no two with the
same ability). Every student has the
same number of friends in the class,
where friendships are mutual. Call a
student good if his ability is better than
more than half of his friends.
Determine the maximum possible
number of good students in this class.
(Source: 1998 Hubei Math Contest)
*****************
Solutions
****************
Problem 251. Determine with proof the
largest number x such that a cubical gift of
side x can be wrapped completely by
folding a unit square of wrapping paper
(without cutting).
Solution. CHAN Tsz Lung (Math, HKU)
and Jeff CHEN (Virginia, USA).
Let A and B be two points inside or on the
unit square such that the line segment AB
has length d. After folding, the distance
between A and B along the surface of the
cube will be at most d because the line
segment AB on the unit square after
folding will provide one path between the
two points along the surface of the cube,
which may or may not be the shortest
possible.
In the case A is the center of the unit
square and B is the point opposite to A on
the surface of the cube with respect to the
center of the cube, then the distance along
the surface of the cube between them is at
least 2x. Hence, 2x ≤ d ≤ 2 / 2.
Therefore, x ≤ 2 / 4.
The maximum x = 2 / 4 is attainable can
be seen by considering the following
picture of the unit square.
x = C1I and AB1 = B1I. Hence, ∆AC1B1 ≅
Commended solvers: Alex O Kin-Chit
(STFA Cheng Yu Tung Secondary School)
and Anna Ying PUN (STFA Leung Kau
Kui College, Form 7).
Problem 252. Find all polynomials f(x)
with integer coefficients such that for
every positive integer n, 2n − 1 is divisible
by f(n).
Solution. Jeff CHEN (Virginia, USA) and
G.R.A. 20 Math Problem Group (Roma,
Italy).
We will prove that the only such
polynomials f(x) are the constant
polynomials 1 and −1.
Assume f(x) is such a polynomial and
|f(n)| ≠ 1 for some n > 1. Let p be a prime
which divides f(n), then p also divides
f(n+ kp) for every integer k. Therefore, p
divides 2n+kp−1 for all integers k ≥ 0.
Page 3
When k = 0, p divides 2n − 1, which
implies 2n ≡ 1 (mod p). By Fermat’s
little theorem, 2p ≡ 2 (mod p). Finally,
when k = 1, we get
1 ≡ 2n+p = 2n 2p ≡ 1·2 = 2 (mod p)
implying p divides 2 − 1 = 1, which is a
contradiction.
Problem 253. Suppose the bisector of
∠ BAC intersect the arc opposite the
angle on the circumcircle of ∆ABC at
A1. Let B1 and C1 be defined similarly.
Prove that the area of ∆A1B1C1 is at
least the area of ∆ABC.
Solution. CHAN Tsz Lung (Math,
HKU), Jeff CHEN (Virginia, USA)
and Anna Ying PUN (STFA Leung
Kau Kui College, Form 7).
A
C1
B1
I
B
C
A1
By a well-known property of the
incenter I (see page 1 of Mathematical
Excalibur, vol. 11, no. 2), we have AC1
∆IC1B1. Similarly, ∆BA1C1 ≅ ∆IA1C1
and ∆CB1A1 ≅ ∆IB1A1. Letting [⋯]
denote area, we have
[AB1CA1BC1] = 2[A1B1C1].
If ∆ABC is not acute, say ∠ BAC is
not acute, then
[ABC ] ≤ 1 [ABA1C ]
2
1
≤ [AB1CA1BC1 ] = [A1B1C1 ] .
2
Otherwise, ∆ABC is acute and we can
apply the fact that
[ABC ] ≤ 1 [AB1CA1BC1 ] = [A1B1C1 ]
2
(see example 6 on page 2 of
Mathematical Excalibur, vol. 11, no.
2).
Commended solvers: Samuel Liló
Abdalla (Brazil) and Koyrtis G.
CHRYSSOSTOMOS (Larissa,
Greece, teacher).
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 11, No. 3, Jun. 06 – Oct. 06 Page 4

Problem 254. Prove that if a, b, c > 0, Problem 255. Twelve drama groups are 3 × 4 = 12 slots for performances.
then to do a series of performances (with some However, each of groups 4 to 12 has to
groups possibly making repeated perform at least twice, yielding at least
abc ( a + b + c ) + ( a + b + c ) 2 performances) in seven days. Each group 9 × 2 = 18 ( > 12 ) performances,
is to see every other group’s performance contradiction.
≥ 4 3 abc ( a + b + c ) . at least once in one of its day-offs.
Find with proof the minimum total Case 2: More than 3 groups perform
Solution 1. José Luis Díaz-Barrero number of performances by these groups.
(Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, exactly once, say k groups with k > 3.
Barcelona, Spain) and G.R.A. 20 Math By argument similar to case 1(a), we see
Solution. CHAN Tsz Lung (Math, HKU).
Problem Group (Roma, Italy). at most 3 groups can perform on each of
Here are three important observations: the remaining 7 − k days (meaning at
most 3(7 − k) performance slots). Again,
Dividing both sides by (1) Each group perform at least once. the remaining 12 − k groups have to
abc ( a + b + c) , the inequality is (2) If more than one groups perform on the perform at least twice, yielding 2(12 − k)
same day, then each of these groups will ≤ 3(7 − k), which implies k ≤ −3,
equivalent to contradiction.
have to perform on another day so the other
a + b + c ( a + b + c )3 groups can see its performance in their
+ ≥ 4 3. Commended solvers: Anna Ying PUN
a+b+c abc day-offs.
(STFA Leung Kau Kui College, Form 7)
By the AM-GM inequality, (3) If a group performs exactly once, on the and Raúl A. SIMON (Santiago,
day it performs, it is the only group Chile).
a + b + c ≥ 3( abc )1 / 3 .
performing.
Therefore, it suffices to show Comments: This was a problem in the
We will show the minimum number of 1994 Chinese IMO team training tests.
3( abc)1/ 3 ( a + b + c )3 3 3 performances is 22. The following In the Chinese literature, there is a
+ = + t ≥ 4 3,
a+b+c abc t performance schedule shows the case 22 is solution using the famous Sperner’s
possible. theorem which asserts that for a set
where again by the AM-GM inequality, with n elements, the number of subsets
Day 1: Group 1 so that no two with one contains the
a+b+c a+b+c Day 2: Group 2
t= = ≥ 3.
(abc)1 / 3 other is at most ⎛⎜ n ⎞⎟ . We hope to
1/ 3
( abc ) Day 3: Groups 3, 4, 5, 6
⎜ [n / 2]⎟
Day 4: Groups 7, 8, 9, 3 ⎝ ⎠
By the AM-GM inequality a third time,
Day 5: Groups 10, 11, 4, 7 present this solution in a future article.
3 3 3 t 3 t 3 t 3 4t 2 Day 6: Groups 12, 5, 8, 10
+t = + + + ≥ ≥ 4 3. Day 7: Groups 6, 9, 11, 12.
t t 3 3 3 3

Solution 2. Alex O Kin-Chit (STFA Assume it is possible to do at most 21 Olympiad Corner

Cheng Yu Tung Secondary School). performances. Let k groups perform
(continued from page 1)
exactly once, then k + 2(12 − k) ≤ 21 will
By the AM-GM inequality, we have imply k ≥ 3.
Day 2 (July 13, 2006)
a + b + c ≥ 3(abc)1 / 3 (1)
Case 1: Exactly 3 groups perform exactly
and a + b + c ≥ 3(abc)1 / 6 . (2) once, say group 1 on day 1, group 2 on day Problem 4. Determine all pairs (x,y)
2 and group 3 on day 3. of integers such that
Applying (2), (1), the AM-GM
1 + 2x + 22x+1 = y2.
inequality and (1) in that order below, (a) If at least 4 groups perform on one of
we have the remaining 4 days, say groups 4, 5, 6, 7 Problem 5. Let P(x) be a polynomial
on day 4, then by (2), each of them has to of degree n > 1 with integer
perform on one of the remaining 3 days. By coefficients and let k be a positive
abc ( a + b + c ) + ( a + b + c ) 2
the pigeonhole principle, two of groups 4, 5, integer. Consider the polynomial Q(x)
≥ 3( abc ) 2 / 3 + 3(abc )1 / 3 (a + b + c ) 6, 7 will perform on the same day again = P ( P ( ⋯ P ( P (x) ) ⋯ ) ), where P
later, say groups 4 and 5 perform on day 5.
≥ 4(3(abc) 2 / 3 (abc)(a + b + c) 3 ) occurs k times. Prove that there are at
1/ 4
Then they will have to perform separately most n integers t such that Q(t) = t.
(
≥ 4 3( abc ) 2 / 3 ( abc )3( abc )1/ 3 ( a + b + c) 2 )
1/ 4
on the last 2 days for the other to see. Then
groups 1, 2, 3 once each, groups 4, 5 thrice Problem 6. Assign to each side b of a
= 4 3abc (a + b + c) .
each and groups 6, 7, …, 12 twice each at convex polygon P the maximum area
least , resulting in at least of a triangle that has b as a side and is
Commended solvers: Samuel Liló contained in P. Show that the sum of
Abdalla (Brazil), CHAN Tsz Lung 3 + 2 × 3 + 7 × 2 = 23
(Math, HKU), Koyrtis G. the areas assigned to the sides of P is at
CHRYSSOSTOMOS (Larissa, performances, contradiction. least twice the area of P.
Greece, teacher) and Anna Ying PUN
(STFA Leung Kau Kui College, Form (b) If at most 3 groups perform on each of
7). the remaining 4 days, then there are at most