Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Kinetic energy harvesting technologies for applications in land

transportation: A comprehensive review
Hongye Pan a, Lingfei Qi a, Zutao Zhang a, *, Jinyue Yan b, *
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, PR China
b
School of Business, Society and Energy, Mälardalen University, Västerås, SE 72123, Sweden

H I G H L I G H T S

• Energy flow in energy harvesting systems applied in land transportation is presented.

• Different applications for road, track and vehicle are introduced and compared.
• The research gaps and technical difficulties that remain unresolved are discussed.
• The work on renewable land transportation is helpful for future research.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The development of land transportation has effectively contributed to countries’ economic and social develop­
Kinetic energy harvesting ment. Roads, rails and vehicles have come into widespread use in transporting things from one location to
Land transportation another on land. However, much energy is dissipated in traditional land transportation, and this energy is worthy
Road-side harvesters
of being recovered. Many researchers in recent decades have presented different types of energy harvesting
Rail-side harvesters
systems to harness this dissipated energy. Regenerative energy harvesting systems can convert dissipated energy
Vehicle-side harvesters
into electricity for different applications. This paper is a comprehensive review of energy harvesting technologies
for different applications in the land transportation. First, the commonly used energy harvesting technologies in
land transportation are summarized. Second, different energy harvesting systems are presented in terms of de­
signs, simulations, and experiments. Third, a common analysis of energy harvesting technologies is conducted to
calculate and simulate the performance of these systems. Also, a comparison of the presented energy harvesting
systems is conducted in various ways. Then different applications and energy utilizations of the energy har­
vesting systems are summarized. Moreover, research gaps and technical difficulties that remain unresolved are
discussed, and some recommendations are made, which aim to be helpful for further research.

1. Introduction
Whether on land or at sea, transportation is important to social
development and national economic development [1]. Advanced tech­
nologies enable people to go further, explore more areas, reduce travel
time, and expand their influence in ever larger areas. Land transport has
been used to transport all kinds of things from one location to another on
land. Traditionally, there are two main types of land transportation, i.e.
road transportation and rail transportation.
Globally, transportation accounts for 30% of the world’s total
delivered energy, making it the second largest energy consumption
sector after industry [2]. The International Energy Agency forecasts that
global transport energy use and carbon dioxide emissions will increase
by about 50% by 2030 and more than 80% by 2050 [3]. China’s
transportation energy consumption increased by about 763%, with an
average annual growth of 8.6% [4]. Statistics show a 3.75 times increase
of transportation energy consumption from 2000 to 2014 [5]. Road
transport accounts for about three-quarters of all carbon dioxide emis­
sions in the transport sector [6]. The carbon intensity of railway trans­
port is less than that of other means of transportation [7], depending on
the proportion of fossil fuels in the power sources [8].
Fossil fuels are one of the major energy sources used in land trans­
port; consequently, there are significant emissions of carbon dioxide [9]
and pollution to damage the natural environment [10]. Transportation

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: zzt@swjtu.edu.cn (Z. Zhang), jinyue.yan@mdh.se (J. Yan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.116518
Received 5 September 2020; Received in revised form 30 December 2020; Accepted 16 January 2021
Available online 30 January 2021
0306-2619/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Pan et al. Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518

is critical to achieving deep decarbonization [11]. Therefore, regener­

ation technologies applied in land transportation to harvest ambient
energy are necessary for improving fuel economy, reducing emissions,
and supplying power to other systems.
Facing the world energy crisis and the greenhouse effect, countries
all over the world attach great importance to developing the new energy
industry. As a promising technology, energy harvesting can generate
renewable clean energy from the ambient environment by capturing
unused and wasted energy. Nowadays, more and more energy regen­
erative technologies are proposed to harvest ambient energy, such as
kinetic energy, solar energy [12,13], wind energy [14,15], sound energy
[16], and wave energy [17]. Kinetic energy, transferred from vehicles to
the road surface or tracks, has a huge potential to be recovered. Different
strategies of kinetic energy regenerative technologies have been put
forward to harness the otherwise dissipated energy in land
transportation.
This paper presents a comprehensive review of kinetic energy har­
vesting technologies for different applications in the land transportation.
This review classifies regenerative based energy harvesting systems into
three categories, depending on application scenario: road-side energy
harvesters, track-side energy harvesters, and vehicle-side energy har­
vesters. On the road, speed bumps and pavement are always exposed to
the impacts of cars and pedestrians, and can be designed to harvest the
energy of these impacts. It is necessary to harvest the track vibration
energy between wheels and rails, as it has huge potential, and moreover
affects the surrounding buildings and people. In driving vehicles, har­
vesting the vibration energy from suspension and the braking energy
from wheels can help improve vehicle economy and reduce pollution.
Although divided into different categories, the common kinetic energy
harvesting systems usually are composed of four parts: (1) energy input
module, (2) transmission mechanism module, (3) electricity generation
module, and (4) power storage units.
The rest of this review is constructed as follows. First, the commonly
used energy harvesting technologies in land transportation are sum­
marized. Second, the different energy harvesting systems are presented
in terms of designs, simulations, and experiments. Section 4 conducted a
common analysis of the energy harvesting technologies, to calculate and
simulate the performance of these systems, and compared the presented
energy harvesting technologies in various ways. Then different appli­
cations and energy utilizations of the energy harvesting systems are
summarized in section 5. Moreover, research gaps and technical chal­
lenges that remain unresolved are discussed, and some recommenda­
tions are made, aiming to be helpful for further research.
Fig. 1. Energy flow in vehicles [21].
gases, cooling, and mechanical losses because of friction in engine and
transmission. Finally, the energy used to drive a car was only about
21.5% of the fuel energy. In a report conducted by the International
Energy Agency [22], the power supplied to wheels only accounts for 5%
to 21%, as shown in Fig. 2(a). There is 4% to 6% energy loss in the
drivetrain. And the engine losses reach 67% to 72%.
In order to replace the significant amount of fossil fuel used in the
transportation, plug-in hybrid and all-electric vehicles have the oppor­
tunity to be well developed in recent years and in the future [23].
However, it is not the case that plug-in hybrid and electric cars do not
suffer energy losses similar to those described above. The U.S. Envi­
ronmental Protection Agency [24] has conducted a test on the energy
flow distribution of electric vehicles, and the result is shown in Fig. 2(b).
The test conditions are comprehensive road conditions, consisting of
55% urban road driving and 45% expressway driving. The losses in
battery charging and the electric driving system constitute 16% and 67
to 72% of the energy respectively. The other losses come from parasitic
losses (2.5%) and auxiliary electrical losses (0–4%). Unlike fuel cars,
electric vehicles can regenerate braking energy (17%). Finally, the en­
ergy used for driving is 77–82%, which is higher than that of fuel cars,
obviously.
As for rail transit, González-Gil et al. came up with the traction en­
ergy flow, as shown in Fig. 3 [25]. The braking processes consume the
most traction energy, accounting for half of the net traction energy.
Since the motors work as generators while braking, 33% of braking
energy is recovered and reused. However, about a third of the braking
energy is still lost because of using friction brakes.
To further increase the proportion of energy used in driving a car or a

2. General aspects of the power dissipation in land

transportation

There are many kinds of energy wasted in land transportation, such

as solar energy, wind energy, thermal energy, and kinetic energy.
Among them, kinetic energy harvesting technologies have the advan­
tages of being clean, stable, small, etc. [18]. Among the different forms
of ambient energy, kinetic energy is almost ubiquitous, and easily
accessible, because it always exists in the form of vibration, regular or
random displacements, and driving forces [19]. Vibrations are also
widespread in structures such as roads, bridges, and moving structures
such as cars and trains [20].

2.1. How much energy is dissipated in land transportation?

First, the account of energy dissipated in the land transportation

needs to be figured out. “Land transportation” typically includes road­
ways, railways, and vehicles. The following reports previous work about
energy flow in different ways.
As shown in Fig. 1, Kenneth Holmberg et al. [21] pointed out that a
significant portion of the fuel power generated to cars is lost. Total en­ Fig. 2. Energy flow diagram of two kinds of vehicles under comprehensive road
ergy losses accounted for about 78.5% of the fuel energy, due to exhaust conditions [22,24].

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H. Pan et al.
Fig. 3. Energy flow in rail systems [25].
train, researches have proposed many ways to harvest wasted energy.
These harvesting methods are divided into different types: 1) Braking
energy recovery, 2) suspension vibration energy recovery, 3) tire
deformation energy recovery (only for cars), and 4) railway vibration
energy recovery (only for trains).
2.2. Energy flow in land transportation
Many studies focus on kinetic energy harvesting in land trans­
portation. This review classifies regenerative energy harvesting systems
into three categories, depending on application scenarios: road-side
Fig. 4. Scheme of the land transportation energy havesting system layout.
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Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518
energy harvesters, track-side energy harvesters, and vehicle-side en­
ergy harvesters.
Although divided into different categories, kinetic energy harvesting
systems, as shown in Fig. 4, commonly have four main parts: (1) energy
input module, (2) transmission mechanism module, (3) electricity gen­
eration module, and (4) power storage module. First, the kinetic energy
flows into the energy input module, causing the energy input module to
move vertically up and down. A conversion mechanism is required to
convert kinetic energy into electrical energy [26]. Most of the vibration
energy harvesting technologies presented here use mechanical ampli­
fiers to couple source vibrations to transducers [27]. The transmission
mechanism module is usually used to convert bidirectional linear mo­
tion or rotation into the one-directional rotation of generators, which
avoids damage to the generator otherwise caused by frequently chang­
ing the direction of rotation, and which improves the power generation
efficiency of the system. A relatively simple and common method is to
use two one-way clutches. Reciprocating motion inputs pass to two
bearings, each with a mounted one-way clutch but in different di­
rections. In a reciprocating process, two one-way clutches alternately
engage to make the unidirectional rotation of the generator. Then,
electrical power can be generated by the rotary generators in the elec­
tricity module. Finally, the power storage module stores the electricity,
which is usually used to power the monitors, sensors, maintenance, and
so on. Depending on the types of generators in the electricity generation
module, the transmission mechanism module may not be necessary.
Applying kinetic energy harvesting technologies in land transportation
will contribute to the development of intelligent transportation systems
[28].
H. Pan et al.
3. Regenerative energy conversion systems applied in land
transportation
As mentioned above, regenerative energy harvesting systems are
classified into three categories, based on their application scenarios:
road-side energy harvesters, track-side energy harvesters, and vehicle-
side energy harvesters. Different kinetic energy harvesting applica­
tions in land transportation are shown in Fig. 5.
3.1. Road-side kinetic energy harvesting systems
A portion of the power supplied by the engines of traveling vehicles
on the road will be transformed into the deformation and vibration of
roads [29]. The following prospect is an attractive one: develop new
energy technologies to harvest this portion of energy without producing
pollution [30]. There are two kinds of energy harvesting applications on
the road, i.e. speed bumps and pavements. Road-side kinetic energy
harvesting systems are an effective way to harvest wasted automobile
energy on the road.
3.1.1. Energy regenerative speed bumps
Speed bumps are usually used in urban zones or other speed limit
areas to reduce the speed of motor vehicles and non-motor vehicles [31].
When a car goes over a speed bump, its horizontal motion becomes up-
and-down motion, and the higher the speed, the greater the vertical
acceleration. However, the energy used to slow down a vehicle when it
passes a speed bump is wasted [32]. To convert this kinetic energy into
electrical energy, speed bumps fall off as a vehicle goes over them, and
every drop generates electricity.
Pirisi et al. [33,34] presented a tubular permanent-magnet linear
generator to harvest energy from traffic. Replacing hydraulic pumps and
mechanical flywheels with tubular generators and dynamic power
control improves system efficiency. The measured minimum output
voltage of the system is 24.3 V. Zhang et al. [35] presented a kinetic
energy harvesting system Fig. 6, which converted wasted energy into
electricity from vehicles passing over. The proposed harvesting system
consists of a speed bump module, suspension module, generator module,
and power storage. The experiment results showed the peak output
voltage of the system was 194 V and the average output voltage was
55.2 V when the vehicle travels at 40 km/h. Ting et al. [36] developed a
mechanical roadway system, which applied hydraulic drive technique.
When a vehicle goes over, piston plates and hydraulic cylinders are
pressed downwards, and then a crank transmission converts linear
Fig. 5. Different kinetic energy harvesting applications in land transportation.
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Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518
motion to circular motion. A total working efficiency of 41.03% was
found in experiments. Jaleel et al. [37] developed an electromagnetic
hydraulic harvester to harvest the wasted kinetic energy of moving ve­
hicles. Simulation results showed that the output power harvested from
a passing vehicle with average weight of 1000 kg and speed of 30–50
km/h was 4000 W. Khalfan and Imrek [38] designed a hydraulic speed
bump system to recover the wasted energy from passing vehicles. Under
the assigned operating conditions, an energy harvesting efficiency of
about 45% was obtained by the speed bump system. Zhang et al. [39]
proposed a hydraulic energy harvesting system, which harvests energy
from vehicle flows in road tunnels. The system was designed to be placed
at downhill path or the opening of road tunnels. The simulation results
showed that an efficiency of 67.6% was achieved. Santosh Sarma et al.
[40] designed a roller setup-based power generation unit to generate
electricity from passing vehicles. The field-testing results showed an
output power of 1.67 W. Ramadan et al. [41] presented different types of
speed bump regenerative systems. The experiments conducted on the
rack-pinion system showed that an electrical power of 45 W was ach­
ieved when load mass was 80 kg.
Zhang et al. [42] developed an energy harvesting system with a
sliding deceleration mechanism to collect the vibration created by
passing vehicles. A mechanical motion rectifier (MMR), including racks,
pinions, and clutches, converted the vibration into the rotation of a
generator. A mechanical efficiency of 63% was found in the simulation
results. Zhang et al. [43] proposed an energy harvesting system, which
collects the kinetic energy induced by passing vehicles (Fig. 7). A
chessboard sliding plate module is used as a power input unit for the
system. In this system, there is also a transmission mechanism, which
converts the bidirectional linear motion of the sliding plate into the one-
directional rotation of the generator. A system efficiency of 57% was
found in the experimental results.
To harvest energy from passing vehicles, Zuo et al. [44] developed an
energy harvester in the form of a speed bump. Similar to voltage recti­
fiers, an MMR is designed to convert irregular pulses directly into the
one-way rotation of the generator to maintain high speed rotation by
disconnecting the low speed driver. It can be found that the MMR
harvester can harvest 3–4 times more energy than non-MMR harvesters.
Gholikhani et al. [45] presented an electromagnetic-based speed bump
energy harvester (Fig. 8). The top plate and rack move upwards and
downwards. Two installed one-way clutches inside the pinions keep the
motor rotating in one direction. Experiment results showed an average
output power of 3 mW per channel.
In addition, piezoelectric regenerative speed bumps have also
H. Pan et al. Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518

Fig. 6. Kinetic energy harvesting system for a renewable road tunnel. [Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Ref. [35].

Fig. 7. Road energy harvester based on a chessboard sliding plate. [Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Ref. [43]]

Fig. 8. The electromagnetic speed bump. [Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Ref. [45]]

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H. Pan et al.
attracted the attention of some researchers. Sung et al. [46] proposed a
speed bump based on piezoelectric energy harvesting technology. 40
piezo-generators were fixed and installed inside the speed bump. From
experiment results, a maximum output voltage of 144 V and a maximum
output power of 4 W were found at the condition of 30 km/h speed and 2
kΩ load resistance. Papagiannakis et al. [47] developed a piezoelectric-
based energy harvesting pavement system. According to analysis this
proposed system produced about 2100 Wh for one year.
In general, the height of energy regenerative speed bumps above the
road is limited, which also limits the displacement used to transfer
power. And large structures need to be excavated from the road to place
part of the structure under the road.
3.1.2. Energy harvesting pavement
Pavement is a potentially important component for energy recovery
in the land transportation [48]. The pavement surface is constantly
exposed to energy in the form of vehicle vibrations, traffic loading
strains, and so on [49]. In addition, trampling pressure from pedestrians
walking on the road is also a source of energy. Generating electricity by
harvesting potential energy such as kinetic energy on pavement has
attracted more attention recently [50]. Past research usually focuses on
two categories: piezoelectric and electromagnetic.
Road energy harvesters buried in the pavement structure with
piezoelectric materials use inertial energy harvesting, converting the
kinetic energy of the pavement into electricity via the piezoelectric ef­
fect; this method is usually used as the energy source of self-powered and
low-power electronic devices [51]. An applicability evaluation of the
piezoelectric road energy harvester studied by Wang et al. [52] shows
that the output performance of the piezoelectric energy harvester de­
pends on the buried depth, upper layer materials, and loads.
To power the wireless sensors in smart highways, Sung et al. [53]
designed an impact-based piezoelectric harvester. In this design, both
ends of each piezoelectric-panel are fixed, and the stress is applied to the
middle of the plate. A universal testing machine was used to simulate
road conditions and to measure the output power of the harvester, to
study its feasibility. The testing results show that a maximum output
power of 483 mW is generated by this road energy harvester. Later, Sung
et al. [54] developed a piezoelectric pavement energy harvester to
power an internet of things system on roads, which was installed on an
actual walkway. The maximum output power of this harvester (with a
resistance of 10 kΩ) was measured as 148.3 mW, as a person weighing
100 kg passes over. More recently, they proposed a landfilled piezo­
electric harvester, which also harvests energy from passing vehicles, and
powers the emergency lighting systems on roads [55]. A piezoelectric
harvester includes 80 piezoelectric-panels connected in parallel and the
rigid bars thereon. The pressure of a passing vehicle causes the rigid bars
to move vertically, and deforms the piezoelectric-panels to generate
electricity. In this study, a road test was conducted with the harvester
installed on the road pavement. The generated power increases with the
increase of vehicle speed, and the maximum power generated in the field
test was 1.1 W. Instead of the single-layer both-ends-fixed piezoelectric
energy harvester, Wang et al. [56] designed a piezoelectric energy
conversion structure based on multi-layer cantilever. The multi-layer
cantilever structure can make piezoelectric-panels co-vibrate with
road driving, and can improve the output performance of the harvester,
which makes the monolithic harvester generate 3.14 mW at the vibra­
tion frequency of 5 Hz. Guo et al. [57] proposed a piezoelectric energy
harvesting system in the form of pavement with different thicknesses
and element designs, including piezo balls, piezo cylinders, and piezo
curved roofs. The laboratory-based experimental results show maximum
output voltages up to 85 V and 50 V produced by the piezo balls and the
piezo cylinders, respectively.
Normally, piezoelectric materials generate alternating current,
which needs to be converted to direct current by a bridge rectifier cir­
cuit. Compared with piezoelectric harvesters, electromagnetic har­
vesters have more complex structure, but also more power generation.
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Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518
Usually an electromagnetic harvester has a mechanism to transfer the
vertical motion of the pavement into the rotation of the motor to
generate electricity. Because of the more stringent restrictions on the
protrusion height of the road surface, less displacement can be used to
transfer power than can be used in speed bumps.
Liu et al. [58] designed an energy harvesting paver to harvest energy
from human walking. In this design, rack-pinion, gears, and one-way-
clutch are used to convert the up-and-down motion of the top panel to
the one-directional rotational motion of the generator. 50% of the
theoretically available potential energy is converted into electricity.
The energy harvesting technologies applied to roads convert the ki­
netic energy from roads into electricity, and are used as the power
sources of electronic equipment on the roads, such as wireless sensors,
which make the development of smart roads possible.
3.2. Track-side kinetic energy harvesting systems
As the global traffic problem becomes increasingly prominent, many
countries have adopted priority development strategies of public
transportation, especially rail transit [59]. Rail transit has been vigor­
ously developed because of its large traffic volume and small pollution
potential [60,61]. There are many sensors and other monitoring devices
alongside railways to ensure safe operation. To solve the problem of
power supply, ambient energy (especially kinetic energy) harvesting
technologies have attracted more and more attention.
It cannot be ignored that a huge amount of vibration energy is pro­
duced by a train during operation, and this obviously causes disturbance
to people and damage to the surrounding buildings [62–64]. For de­
cades, railway development has been aimed at faster speed and greater
comfort. In order to reduce the vibration and noise caused by trains,
there are many kinds of vibration-attenuating slab tracks brought for
railways [65], but vibration is still unavoidable. The continuous high-
frequency vibration produced by trains during operation is related to
the vehicle itself, the contact surface between wheels and rail [66], track
smoothness, foundation strength, etc. Railway vibration energy has
large energy density and wide regional distribution, so it has great po­
tential to be converted into electrical energy. Meanwhile, harvesting the
vibration energy of railway tracks is helpful to reducing the impact of
vibration on human and railway safety, and the generated electrical
energy can also be used to supply power to equipment along the line to
further improve operation safety. Therefore, more and more researchers
are paying attention to the harvesting of orbital vibration energy.
Gatti et al [67] did research to determine how much energy could be
harvested from a railway when trains pass. The maximum energy har­
vested from the railway was found to be about 0.25 J/kg in field tests, at
an excitation of 17 Hz. In order to exploit resonance and improve track
vibration regeneration, it is advantageous to know the spectral content
of the rail vibration. Gatti et al. [68] studied the factors affecting the
spectral content. For energy harvesting, the wheel spacing within a
bogie is important, because it provides maximum impact to track
vibration.
Zhang et al. [69] developed a portable electromagnetic based energy
harvesting system, which generates electricity for rail-side safety facil­
ities (Fig. 9). The bidirectional vertical motion of the track is converted
into the unidirectional rotatory motion of the generator, by using rack,
gears and two one-way clutches. The prototype experiments showed
that a peak EMF generated by the system is 6.45 V at the frequency of 2
Hz, and the efficiency is 55.5%. Later, they presented an energy har­
vesting system based on a mechanical vibration rectifier with one-way
bearings [70], as shown in Fig. 10. In this system, the mechanical vi­
bration rectifier converts bidirectional vibration into one-directional
rotation, which improves the efficiency of mechanical transmission.
Experimental results showed the peak output voltage was 58 V at an
excitation of 1 Hz and 2.5 mm. Both systems place the racks at the
bottom of the track, while the gears, generators, etc., are placed on the
ground.
H. Pan et al. Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518

Fig. 9. Electromagnetic energy harvesting system [Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Ref. [69].

Fig. 10. Energy harvesting system for railroads [Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Ref. [70].

7
H. Pan et al.
Unlike the previous installation, Zuo et al. [71,72] proposed an
anchorless mounted railroad energy harvester, in which the rack is
installed on the ground, while the gears and generator are installed on
the sleepers. The proposed system converts vibration energy into elec­
tricity, and is used as an alternative power source alongside the railway.
Field tests showed that a maximum power of 56 W was generated by this
system. An electromagnetic energy harvester [73] for railroads was
designed based on an MMR mechanism, which converts bidirectional
vibration into the one-directional rotation of the generator via
embedded one-way clutches in the bevel gears. Field testing results
showed that this system generated an average power of 2.24 W at 30
km/h transit speed.
Many electromagnetic track energy harvesting systems use gears and
racks to transmit the motion of the track to the generator; Dotti and Sosa
[74] did this in the form of a pendulum harvester. The harvester consists
of a pendulum, including a bob and a rod, gear-belt coupling, a gener­
ator, and a servomotor. The pendulum and gear are mounted on the axis
of the generator. The pendulum requires an initial startup condition, and
this is achieved by the servomotor. An average power of 5–6 W gener­
ated by each harvester could be found in the numerical simulations. The
output energy generated is able to power rail-side equipment.
There are also studies focusing on electromagnetic energy harvesting
systems to harvest rail vibration. Lu et al. [75,76] developed a smart
monitoring system for underground railways by harvesting local energy
(Fig. 11). The proposed system included an electromagnetic based en­
ergy generator and a wireless sensor node. Field testing results showed
that a maximum power generation of 550 mW was obtained by the
proposed system.
Guo et al [77] proposed an electromagnetic vibration energy
harvester, which converted track sleepers’ vibration energy into elec­
tricity, and which supplied power for sensors or data transfer units in
monitoring systems. The system consists of coils, mass block, spring, and
permanent magnets. The magnetic flux of the coils changes accordingly
to generate electricity when the system is excited by vehicle-induced
vibration. Experiment results showed the peak power harvested by the
system can reach 35.3 W. In order to efficiently harvest vibration energy
at various frequencies, Guo et al [78] proposed a new electromagnetic
vibration energy harvester with four submodules, of which the main
components were the same as in the previous design mentioned in [77].
Each submodule is independent of each other, and has different natural
frequencies, which makes it feasible to harvest multi-frequency vibra­
tion energy. A maximum energy output of 1.41 W was found in the
calculation results.
At present, track-side energy harvesting systems are mainly installed
in positions where the track receives more vibration, such as the bottom
of the rails, the top or bottom of the sleepers, and adjacent to the track
slab. The harvested energy is mainly used to power equipment along the
railway, such as wireless sensors, to ensure the safety of railway oper­
ation. Railway vibration energy has great potential, and a large amount
Fig. 11. Smart monitoring system for underground railway. [Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Ref. [75].
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Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518
of energy can be harvested by track-side energy harvesting systems.
3.3. Vehicle-side kinetic energy harvesting systems
Whether it is a conventional vehicle, an electric vehicle, or a train,
only part of its energy is used to induce movement, while the rest is
dissipated in various forms, as mentioned in part 2. A vehicle needs to
accelerate and decelerate frequently while driving, which will cause
acceleration in the horizontal direction, and which will also create ac­
celeration in the vertical direction when the vehicle encounters uneven
roads or rails. Some of the energy is used to increase or decrease these
movement tendencies. Therefore, there are two types of dissipated en­
ergy that are easy to recover, namely braking energy used to slow down
a vehicle, and suspension vibration energy used to keep the vehicle
stationary. A lot of research has been done in recent decades on these
two kinds of energy harvesting.
3.3.1. Braking energy recovery
Whether for passenger cars or train carriages, braking energy re­
covery is the most important technology. In conventional braking sys­
tems, when decelerating in urban driving situations, it is found that
about 1/3 to 1/2 of the energy from the engine dissipates in the form of
heat [79]. Applying regenerative braking systems in vehicles would
effectively improve fuel economy by harvesting braking energy [80,81],
especially for vehicles in heavy stop-and-go traffic [82]. The energy
consumed in the railway sector is huge; this energy is split into 70% for
traction and 30% for station consumers [83]. As one of the greatest
sources of energy recovery, regenerative braking is usually used in
modern railways [84]. Regenerative braking applications in urban
railway systems reduce net energy consumption by 10% to 45% [85].
For a conventional fuel vehicle, an additional braking recovery system is
required to harvest the energy wasted during braking. Due to the the
particularity of the power systems of electric locomotives and electric
vehicles, the motor can be used as a generator to convert kinetic energy
into electric energy during braking. And regenerative braking is
important for the development of these two kinds of vehicles, because
regenerative braking increases vehicle economy by 15% [86]. There are
three representative types of braking energy harvesting systems for ve­
hicles: electromagnetic systems, flywheel systems, and hydraulic
systems.
The first type is electromagnetic braking energy recovery systems.
An electromagnetic braking energy recovery system usually includes a
transmission mechanism, a clutch or a switch, and a generator. During
braking, the clutch engages and the power is transferred from the wheel
to the generator through the transmission mechanism. The electrical
energy generated by the generator can extend the range of electrical
vehicles, or can be used as the power supply for equipment on vehicles.
Zhang et al. [87] designed a braking energy harvesting system, using
coil springs to harvest the braking energy of vehicles (Fig. 12). The
H. Pan et al.
Fig. 12. Electro-mechanical braking energy recovery system. [Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Ref. [87].
proposed system could recover braking energy, provide ancillary start-
up torque for vehicles, and generate electricity to charge batteries.
The simulation results showed that regenerative braking had an energy
efficiency of 56% and 62% under urgent braking and deceleration
braking, respectively. During bench tests, the torque generated by the
system was 12.7 Nm, the output voltage was 3.5 V, and the system ef­
ficiency was as high as 53%, when three coil springs were completely
deformed.
Wang et al. [88] designed a disc-shaped triboelectric nanogenerator,
based on a combination of triboelectrification and electrostatic-
induction processes. This design harvested energy via a rotating disc
structure. Therefore, it could harvest energy whether braking or not.
Experimental results showed the maximum output voltage is 540 V in
the contact mode.
The hydraulic servo-actuation on a conventional truck is fed by the
internal combustion engine. Even when the truck is not propelling itself,
the engine can’t be turned off. In order to reduce fuel consumption and
pollution, Pugi et al. [89] designed a servo-actuation system for indus­
trial trucks. The designed hydraulic servo-actuation system is fed by a
braking energy recovery system. The braking energy is regenerated and
stored in batteries during braking, and then used to feed the hydraulic
system, at which time the internal combustion engine is switched off.
The second type of braking energy harvesting system is flywheel
braking energy recovery systems. The idea of flywheel energy storage
was proposed as early as 100 years ago, but due to the constraints of the
technical conditions of that era, there was no breakthrough for a long
time. In recent decades, breakthroughs in materials have created greater
development space for flywheel energy storage technology. First, high
strength carbon fiber composites greatly increase the kinetic energy
reserve per unit mass. Second, the development of magnetic levitation
technology reduces the friction loss of flywheel rotors to the minimum.
In addition, the flywheel rotor is generally rotated in a vacuum chamber
to reduce aerodynamic losses. Due to the technology’s characteristics of
high storage density, negligible capacity degradation, and extremely fast
response to instantaneous high power demand [90], flywheel energy
storage is suitable for application in braking energy recovery systems.
Secanell et al. [91] developed a mathematical model to analyze the
energy consumption of a light rail transit run at a specific driving cycle,
on which high-speed composite flywheels are installed. The results
showed energy savings ranging from 31.21% to 9.83% were recovered
by installing the high-speed flywheel energy storage system.
The third type of braking energy harvesting system is hydraulic
braking energy recovery systems. Hydraulic systems—boasting the
characteristics of high-power ratio, high reliability, and convenient
stepless speed regulation—are widely used in various transmission
systems to improve system performance [92]. Hydraulic transmission
systems transmit energy through pressure fluid. Braking energy regen­
eration is one of the applications of energy regeneration and conversion
9
Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518
technologies based on hydraulic transmission systems [93].
Oliveira et al. [94] designed a parallel hydraulic-pneumatic braking
energy recovery system. The system is installed on a heavy-duty hybrid
vehicle, and stores braking energy as the vehicle travels through cities
and highways, and is used for propulsion and auxiliary systems. Simu­
lation results show the system recovers 69% and 14% of available en­
ergy from braking to full stop and on long downward slopes,
respectively.
Chicurel [95] developed a combined regenerative-dissipative
braking system for a bus, including a hydraulic pump with fixed
displacement and a hydropneumatics accumulator. According to cal­
culations, about 45% of the total energy absorbed during braking pro­
cess is regenerated by the proposed system.
Walker et al. [96] conducted a parametric design of a parallel hy­
draulic hybrid vehicle. Hydraulic hybrid technologies recover braking
energy from the vehicle driving system and reuse it for driving, to
improve fuel economy. The hydraulic drive system is mounted on the
drive shaft of a conventional engine-driven vehicle, and is separated
from the drive system by a clutch. The system consists of a hydraulic
pump/motor, a valve, a high-pressure accumulator, and a low-pressure
accumulator. Simulation results showed that more than 70% of the
braking energy was recovered into the high-pressure accumulator.
The braking performance of a vehicle is an important guarantee for
the safety of drivers and passengers. Because regenerative braking
cannot meet the whole braking demand, a key problem is how to co­
ordinate friction braking and regenerative braking. The researches aim
to solve the problem by mainly focusing on the control strategy of
braking energy recovery [79], that is, by giving priority to regenerative
braking and rationally distributing the braking power of different
wheels to ensure braking stability and the best energy recovery. In order
to improve energy recovery and utilization efficiency, Wang et al. [97]
proposed an efficient distribution strategy for power allocation in an
electro-hydraulic battery-supercapacitor composite regenerative
braking system. Pei et al. [98] introduced a coordinated electro-
hydraulic braking control strategy for distributed electric vehicles. In
this strategy, the driver’s braking intention is incorporated into the
braking distribution, and a genetic algorithm is used to obtain the
optimal solution. As for trains, Urbaniak and Kardas-Cinal [99] studied
the possibility of a method that recovers the braking energy from one
train, and uses it immediately for another train in the same power
section.
3.3.2. Suspension vibration energy recovery
The force and torque between the automobile body and wheels are
transmitted through the automobile suspension. As an important
component supporting the automobile body and wheels, the automobile
suspension can relieve the impact caused by uneven road surfaces dur­
ing driving, so as to ensure the ride comfort of the automobile body
H. Pan et al.
[100]. The vibration energy is usually absorbed by the tires and the
vehicle suspension, of which only a small portion is absorbed by the
tires, because of their small damping effect; the rest of the vibration
energy is absorbed and dissipated in the suspension via heat [101].
Shock absorbers in suspensions play the role of inhibiting spring jump
and reducing the road impact. The internal hydraulic oil of traditional
shock absorbers will suffer resistance when it flows, and the damping it
provides can achieve the effect of vibration reduction. The mechanical
energy of suspension vibration will be converted into the heat energy of
shock absorber hydraulic oil in the process of vibration reduction, and
will be transferred to the atmosphere via heat exchange. In fact, the
energy of automobile suspension vibration can be recovered by some
methods. According to the estimation of researchers, the energy recov­
ery potential of automobile suspension vibration is very considerable.
The suspension energy recovery potential of ordinary passenger vehicles
ranges from 100 W to 400 W, and the energy recovery power is corre­
lated with the vibration intensity: the higher the vibration intensity, the
higher the energy recovery potential.
Although the number of new-energy vehicles in the world shows a
trend of accelerating growth, the lack of driving capacity is the main
bottleneck for development. In this case, as a solution, energy-feeding
shock absorbers can recycle the kinetic energy of automobile suspen­
sion vibration in the form of electric energy, and then supply it to new-
energy vehicles. The electric energy collected by energy-feeding shock
absorbers can supply power to the electric equipment on the vehicle,
which can supplement the vehicle’s battery, so as to improve the electric
energy efficiency used by the battery, and thus increase the range of
new-energy vehicles.
Normally, the energy source of shock absorbers is the vertical vi­
bration of the automobile suspension, and the energy is converted into
electric energy through the electric motor generation. Depending on the
mechanical transmission modes and motor drive modes, current energy
shock absorbers can be divided into three categories: linear motor type
shock absorbers, hydraulic type shock absorbers, and mechanical type
shock absorbers.
Linear motors can directly convert the kinetic energy of linear
motion into electric energy based on the principle of electromagnetic
induction. Therefore, linear motor type regenerative shock absorbers
have no motion transmission mechanism, which reduces the efficiency
loss in the transmission process.
Karnopp [102], from the University of California, first proposed and
theoretically verified the idea of using a linear permanent magnet motor
with changeable external resistance to provide variable damping in
automobile suspension.
Okada [103] proposed an energy regenerative vibration damper for
active control suspension systems. The proposed system reduces energy
consumption without loss of damping efficiency, because the actuator
only harvests energy at high speed motion. Normally a regenerative
damper has no ability to regenerate energy at low speed motion, because
of the nonlinear characteristics with dead zone. To solve this problem,
Okada [104,105] introduced a new technique of putting a boosting
chopper between the charging circuit and the actuator using PWM sig­
nals, which can change the damping coefficient of the shock absorber,
and improve its energy recovery efficiency.
Suda [106,107] proposed an active control method applied to the
suspension of a truck. The proposed system is composed of two linear
motors. A condenser stores the regenerated energy via a damper. And
the stored energy powers the actuator in the suspension for active
control. Experiments demonstrate that vibration isolation performance
has been improved in this system. In 2003, Suda [108] simplified the
previous design and presented a self-powered active powered system
with a single actuator to achieve energy regeneration and active control
without external energy.
Goldner et al. [109] designed regenerative electromagnetic shock
absorbers for electromagnetic linear motors. The otherwise dissipated
energy can be reused to charge batteries or other energy storage devices.
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Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518
According to simulations, about 20% to 70% of regenerative energy is
achieved for a 2500 lb vehicle with four proposed regenerative shock
absorbers running at 45 mph on a typical US highway.
Paulides and Gysen et al. [110–112] proposed an electromagnetic-
based direct-drive active suspension system, which improved stability
and safety through active control during turning and braking. The pro­
posed system includes an actuator, a passive spring, and damper. This
system can deliver active forces and convert motion to electrical energy.
Zuo et al. [113] designed a regenerative shock absorber to efficiently
regenerate vibration energy in compact space. The four-phase linear
generator, based on permanent magnets and magnetic loops, can in­
crease efficiency and reduce weight. This absorber has the ability to
generate 16–64 W power at 0.25–0.5 m/s RMS suspension velocity.
Later, in [114], Zuo et al. proposed a tubular linear electromagnetic
transducer for the application of vibration energy regeneration from
vehicle suspension, buildings, and bridges. In this system, the parame­
ters of magnets and coils are optimized to obtain high damping density
and power density. It is found that this system increased the power
density to 3.8 times that of the initial design.
Liao et al. [115] proposed a self-sensing regenerative magneto­
rheological (MR) damper, which integrated energy harvesting, sensing,
and magnetorheological damping technologies, and was applicable to
various dynamic systems. Experiments showed the DC current reached
1.2 A as the damping force increased from 200 N to 700 N.
Sapinski and Krupa [116] presented a linear MR damper with a vi­
bration energy generator, which included permanent magnets and a
coil. The electrical energy generated from the damper is used to vary the
damping coefficient of the linear damper.
Asadi et al. [117] designed an adaptive hybrid electromagnetic
damper, which included a linear motor and a conventional hydraulic
damper, to solve the problem of adaptive damping of suspension systems
(Fig. 13). The system damping coefficient is in the range of 1302–1540
Ns/m.
Xie et al. [118] proposed an electromagnetic regenerative damper,
based on multiple transducers with independent controls, to conve­
niently adjust the damping by harvesting energy dissipated in the sus­
pension system. The ball-screw mechanism can convert the linear
motion of the rings into the rotation of the magnets coupled with the
screw. An output power of 135 W was achieved in tests, at the excitation
of 1.6 Hz.
Linear motor shock absorbers have high controllability, but require
accurate system design, which causes high costs. The constant change of
the motion direction of the motor will cause losses in inertial power, and
will lower the energy conversion efficiency.
The second type of shock absorber is hydraulic type shock ab­
sorbers. Hydraulic shock absorbers are widely used in vehicle suspen­
sions to dissipate vibration energy. The reciprocating motion of pistons
in the cylinders is converted by hydraulic shock absorbers into the
rotation of the hydraulic motors and generators.
Xu and Guo [119] proposed a hydraulic electromagnetic regenera­
tive active suspension system based on a mechanical-electromagnetic-
hydraulic structure, which can recycle vehicle shock energy. Due to its
hybrid design, this system has both the advantage of hydraulic systems
(i.e. flexibility) and the advantage of electromagnetic regenerative sys­
tems (i.e. high efficiency).
Lin et al. [120–122] proposed a regenerative suspension system with
a mechanical-electromagnetic-hydraulic structure, which boasted high
flexibility and high energy harvesting efficiency. By controlling the
electromagnetic load, the damping force is adjustable in real time.
Compared with passive suspension, regenerative suspension has better
comprehensive performance.
Li and Tse [123] proposed a regenerative hydraulic damper to collect
energy from damping vibration. Under vibratory excitation, flowing
hydraulic oil drives the hydraulic motor, whose shaft is connected to the
generator and is rotating together. Experiment results indicate the
maximum harvested power is 435.1 W/(m/s), under the predefined
H. Pan et al.
Fig. 13. Adaptive hybrid electromagnetic damper. [Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Ref. [117].
excitation (0.02sin 1.6πt).
To avoid the large impact force caused by frequent bidirectional
oscillations of the generator, Li et al. [124] designed a regenerative
shock absorber with hydraulic rectifier to absorb vibration and harvest
energy. The experiments show an average maximum power of 248.8 W,
and a maximum energy efficiency of 38.81%.
Zhang et al. [125] designed a regenerative hydraulic pumping sus­
pension, which integrated a hydraulic actuator with an energy recovery
unit. This system can harvest energy, reduce damping oil temperature,
and obtain variable damping force by changing the electrical load. The
optimal regenerative power is 33.4 W under the input condition of 50
mm amplitude and 1.67 Hz frequency.
Fang et al. [126] presented a hydraulic electromagnetic based shock
absorber, which can isolate vibration and recycle vibration energy from
vehicles. Experiment results show the energy harvested by the system is
about 200 W, given 10 Hz and 3 mm excitation, and the harvesting ef­
ficiency is about 16.6%.
Demetgul and Guney [127] designed a hydraulic-electromagnetic
hybrid shock absorber system to generate electricity. The power
output from the generator is calculated as 0.56 W with 0.005 m/s and
15 mm amplitude excitation.
Xu et al. [128] proposed a hydraulic interconnected energy har­
vesting suspension system. The proposed system consists of four inter­
connected hydraulic shock absorbers, check valves, two accumulators,
and a hydraulic motor. When the vehicle travels on rough roads, the
shock absorber vibrates and the high-pressure flux from the shock
absorber is stored in the accumulators, which then drives the hydraulic
motor to generate electricity. A maximum power of 397 W is obtained at
the external resistance of 15 Ω and the motor displacement of 20 cc/Rev,
when the vehicle runs on C-class roads at a speed of 20 m/s.
Hydraulic energy-regenerative suspension systems have a regenera­
tive device to recycle some of the shock energy. Because of the charac­
teristics of hydraulic dampers, much energy is still dissipated by heat,
which causes low energy regenerative efficiency [119].
The third type of shock absorber is mechanical shock absorbers,
which use various mechanical mechanisms to amplify input excitation
and then transform the linear motion of dampers into the rotation of
generators. The common mechanical transmission mechanisms include
ball screw mechanism, rack, and pinion mechanism, connecting rod
mechanism and so on.
Suda and Shiiba [129] proposed a regenerative damper system that
combined energy regeneration and active control in vehicle suspension
to convert vibration energy into electricity. The proposed regenerative
damper includes rack gear and DC motor. Active control is adopted at
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Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518
low frequency vibration, and passive control (energy regenerating) is
adopted at high frequency vibration. Later, Suda et.al [130–132]
designed an electro-mechanical based suspension system for vehicles,
which consisted of a spring component, DC motor, and ball screw. Ac­
cording to shaker testing on quarter-car with the prototype, the
maximum regenerated power is measured as 44 W, and the power
consumed by active control is 33 W.
Weeks and Beno [133–136] developed an electromagnetic actuator
suitable for high mobility multi-wheeled vehicles, which consisted of
gearbox, servomotor, and rack tube. Fabricated and tested on vehicles at
speeds above 10 mph, the prototype charged the DC bus filter capacitors
of 305 V, and the cross-country speed increased. However, they paid
more attention to driving comfort rather than energy generation.
Gupta et al. [137] developed two kinds of energy-harvesting elec­
tromagnetic shock absorber, which are based on different types of mo­
tion (linear motion and rotary motion) to recover the energy wasted in
shock absorbers. Both regenerative shock absorbers are tested on elec­
trodynamic shaker and test vehicle (a small all-terrain vehicle). When
the rotary absorber replaced the linear one, the maximum generated
power increased from 7.4 to 88.8 W in the actual vehicle test.
Zhang et al. [138] proposed a regenerative electrical suspension
system including a motor, and a ball screw with a nut. This regenerative
suspension system recovers vibration energy while maintaining good
suspension performance. Prototype experiments showed an average
energy generated by one motor was 3.91 W.
Zuo and Tang [139] investigated an electrical circuit with step-up
DC-DC converter and optimized for harvesting vibration energy utiliz­
ing an electromagnetic transducer. Then, in [140], Zuo and Zhang
presented a comprehensive evaluation of the harvestable energy dissi­
pated in the suspension system, and the balance among ride comfort,
safety, and energy regeneration. The experimental results showed an
available potential power of 100–400 W can be harvested from the
suspension of a typical mid-size vehicle at 60 mph. Zuo et, al [141]
designed a regenerative shock absorber integrated based on a rack-
pinion mechanism. The average power generated by one prototype
was 19 W when the test car drove at 48 km/h on a campus road. To
improve the energy harvesting efficiency, and to reduce the impact
forces caused by oscillation, Zuo et al. [142–145] proposed a regener­
ative shock absorber combined with rack-pinion, bevel gears, and MMR,
which converts the bidirectional motion of the absorber into the one-
directional rotation of the generator. There are two one-way clutches
inside the motion rectifier, which can only roll in one direction but lead
to contrary directional routes through the opposite installation. Road
tests demonstrated that the electricity harvested by the system was over
H. Pan et al.
15 W while the test car was driving at 15 mph. Zuo et al [146] proposed
a new design of mechanical-motion-rectifier-based energy regenerative
shock absorber. In this design, the shock absorber consists of ball-screw
mechanism and one-way clutches. The field-testing results showed that
the average power harvested by this design is 13.3 W while the vehicle is
driving at 40 mph. Moreover, Zuo et al. [147] developed an energy
harvester based on MMR to recover the kinetic energy from railway cars
(Fig. 14). During experiments, an average power of 14.5 W was har­
vested by the prototype.
Moallem et al. [148] presented a regenerative suspension mecha­
nism, which included a screw kinematic pair, a generator, and a battery
with a charger. The algebraic screw can transform the oscillation of
vibration into the reciprocating rotation of the generator through the
planetary gearhead. The average power harvested from the suspension is
0.52 W. The mechanical efficiency is 0.59, and the total efficiency of this
system is 0.56. Then Moallem et al. [149,150] cut down the number of
linkages in the screw kinematic pair, and proposed a regenerative shock
absorber with a two-leg motion conversion mechanism (Fig. 15). Due to
the low friction of the two-leg motion conversion mechanism, the me­
chanical efficiency is measured between 0.71 and 0.84, which is higher
than the previous design.
Zhang et al. [151,152] proposed a regenerative shock absorber with
mechanical transmission module and supercapacitors, to harvest the
vibrational energy from automobile suspension, and to extend the range
of electrical vehicles (Fig. 16). Two one-way clutches and rack-pinions
are used in the mechanical transmission module to convert the bidi­
rectional motion of the damper into one-directional rotation of the
generator. The average power harvested by the prototype is 4.302 W,
while the efficiency is 54.98% at the excitation of 7.5 mm and 2.5 Hz. As
Fig. 14. Design and installation of the train suspension energy harvester. [Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Ref. [147].
12
Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518
shown in Fig. 17, they presented a new-type of design of energy
regenerative shock absorber using helical gears and one-way clutches as
a novel transmission to harvest the energy dissipated in suspension and
to supply power to low-wattage electrical installations in electric vehi­
cles [153]. The prototypes are fabricated using two helical pinion shafts
with different helix angles: 30 degree and 45 degree. Bench tests showed
the 45 degree prototype had an average harvested power of 270 W at the
excitation of 5 mm and 2.5 Hz. In order to obtain different damping
coefficients, and to improve driving comfort, they proposed a twin ball
screw transmission based regenerative shock absorber [154], as shown
in Fig. 18. The transmission module includes two ball screws with
different ball screw lead and nuts, two rods, clutches, and a generator.
Bench testing results showed an average output power of 3.071 W and a
maximum efficiency of 51.1% were obtained at the excitation of 1 Hz
and 3 mm.
In order to harvest kinetic energy wasted in suspension, and to
change the damping coefficient based on road conditions, Xie et al.
[156] proposed a damping-tunable energy harvesting damper based on
multiple controlled generators. The damping coefficient changed as the
generators switched on or off.
Chen et al. [157] presented a rocker-pushrod electromagnetic actu­
ator based on a double wishbone suspension, which consisted of a
generator, a reducer, a rocker, and a pushrod. The experiments on
quarter-vehicle test bench showed that an average output power of
50.11 W and system efficiency of 60–70% were achieved when the speed
was 1.4 m/s.
Wang et al. [155] proposed an electromagnetic energy harvester
based on inertial pendulum to power the sensor nodes on freight rails
(Fig. 19). The experimental results showed output power reached 250
H. Pan et al. Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518

Fig. 15. Regenerative shock absorber using a two-leg mechanism. [Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Ref. [149].

Fig. 16. Energy regenerative shock absorber. [Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Ref. [152].

Fig. 17. Energy regenerative shock absorber using helical gears. [Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Ref. [153].

mW and system efficiency reached 65%. absorbers is more complex than that of linear motor based regenerative
The mechanical rectifier applied in mechanical regenerative shock shock absorbers or hydraulic regenerative shock absorbers.
absorbers makes the generator rotate in one direction, and reduces the In addition, some researchers are paying attention to other kinds of
inertia loss. But the structure of mechanical regenerative shock suspensions, such as seats. Du et al. [158] proposed a regenerative seat

13
H. Pan et al. Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518

Fig. 18. Regenerative shock absorber with twin ball screws transmissions [Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Ref. [154].

Fig. 19. Installation of the energy harvester. [Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Ref. [155].

suspension, which has different external resistances, and which was ⎧

built with the generator and the gear reducer installed in a scissors ⎨ V1 = Em Sin(ws t)
V2 = Em Sin(ws t − 120◦ ) (1)
structure at the center of the seat suspension. Experiments on the 6 ⎩
V3 = Em Sin(ws t + 120◦ )
degrees of freedom vibration platform showed that there is a 22.84%
acceleration reduction in the proposed system, and a 1.21 W power
where em and ωs are the amplitude and angular frequency of the induced
generated by the proposed system.
voltage, respectively.
The total instantaneous electrical power PE is calculated as follows:
4. Experiments and comparisons between different technologies
V12 V22 V32
PE = P c + P l = + + (2)
In order to know the performance of designed systems, researchers Re + Ri Re + Ri Re + Ri
need to analyze and perform experiments on them. Through analysis
and experiments, some quantified performance indicators—such as where Re is the resistance of each resistor; Ri represents the resistance of
output voltage, output power, and energy regenerative efficiency—can each phase coil in the generator; Pl represents the power lost in internal
be obtained directly or indirectly. resistance, and Pc represents the power output to the charging circuit,
which is expressed as follows:
4.1. Analysis and experiment results V12 Re V 2 Re V 2 Re
Pc = + 2 + 3 (3)
Re + Ri Re + Ri Re + Ri
Three phase brushless motors are usually chosen to be the generator
in energy harvesting systems to generate electricity. Assuming that the The Mechanical Testing and Sensing (MTS) System is usually utilized
induced electromotive forces of the respective phases of the generator for bench experiments, because it can generate sinusoidal excitation
are V1, V2, and V3 respectively. The generated voltage is expressed as with various amplitudes and frequencies. Install the energy harvester on
follows: the MTS system with three proper external resistors connected to the
commonly used three-phase generator. The voltage signals generated by
the energy harvester are recorded by digital oscilloscope.

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H. Pan et al. Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518

The instantaneous power of each resistor is calculated as follows: where ηe is the electrical efficiency of the harvester, which is calculated
V2 as follows:
Pinstant = (4)
Re Re
ηe = (9)
Re + Ri
where V is the instantaneous voltage of each resistor recorded by a
digital oscilloscope. Through the above equations, the results can be used to understand
The average output power generated by the energy harvester is the performance of the proposed system.
calculated as follows:
∫T
3 × 0 Pinstant dt 4.2. Comparisons between different energy harvesting technologies
Pout(avg) = (5)
T
Table 1, Table 2, and Table 3 compared different harvesting tech­
The average mechanical power input to the energy harvester is
nologies in terms of excitation parameters, output power (simulation,
defined as follows:
laboratory experiments, and field testing), and conversion efficiency,
ΔW respectively, based on the energy harvesting application.
Pinput(avg) = (6)
T Road-side kinetic energy harvesting systems mainly include regen­
The total efficiency of the energy harvester can be defined as follows: erative speed bumps and energy harvesting pavement. As shown in
Table 1, most of these systems have energy conversion efficiencies be­
η=
Pout(avg)
(7) tween 40% and 70%. For regenerative speed bumps, the excitations are
Pinput(avg) vehicles with different speeds and weights. For energy harvesting
For energy harvesters with mechanical structures, the mechanical pavements, the excitations are sinusoidal motion with different fre­
efficiency ηm of each one can be expressed as follows: quencies and amplitudes. Since the downward displacement of the
pavement is smaller, its power generation is also less than that of the
η speed bump.
ηm = (8)
ηe Track vibration is related to many factors. In simulations and ex­
periments, sinusoidal vibration with different frequencies and

Table 1
Comparisons of road-side kinetic energy harvesting systems.
No. Reference Energy harvesting applications Excitation Output power Maximum conversion
efficiency
Simulation Laboratory Field
testing testing

1 Pirisi et al. [33,34] Tubular permanent-magnet linear generator – 28.07 V 24.3 V (Min) – –
200 MWh/
year
2 Zhang et al. [35] High-voltage kinetic energy 20, 30, 40 km/ 194 V
harvesting system h 55.2 V
(Avg)
3 Ting et al. [36] Mechanical roadway system 738 W 41.03%
4 Jaleel et al. [37] Electromagnetic hydraulic power hump 30–50 km/h 4000 W
harvester
5 Khalfan and Imrek Hydraulic speed bump system 840 W 45%
[38]
6 Zhang et al. [39] Tunnel road energy harvesting system 67.6%
7 Sarma et al. [40] Roller setup-based power generation unit 205 Kg 1.67 W 50%
8 Ramadan et al. [41] Speed bump power generator system 41, 65, 80 Kg 560 W 45 W
9 Zhang et al. [42] Road energy harvester system 1.32 W 63%
10 Zhang et al. [43] Road energy harvester based on a chessboard 66.025 W 62.38%
sliding plate
11 Zuo et al. [44] Electromagnetic speed bump energy 1527 Kg 540 W 647 W
harvester
12 Gholikhani et al. [45] Electromagnetic speed bump 2, 3, 4 KN 3 mW (Avg)
13 Sung et al. [46] Speed bump piezoelectric energy harvester 10, 20, 30 km/ 4.086 W 13.33%
h
38, 48 53 Kg
14 Papagiannakis et al. Energy harvesting system 0.5–3.5 KN 2100 Wh/year
[47]
15 Sung et al. [53] Piezoelectric road energy harvester 5, 10,15 Hz 483 mW
1, 1.5, 2, 2.5
mm
16 Sung et al. [54] Piezoelectric energy harvester 2, 5, 10, 15 Hz 129.06 mW 148.38
40, 60, 80 kg mW
17 Sung et al. [55] Road-capable piezoelectric harvester 910, 2137 kg 1150 mW
30, 60, 90 km/
h
18 Wang et al. [56] Piezoelectric energy conversion structure 5, 10 Hz 3.14 mW
2, 3, 4 mm
19 Guo et al. [57] piezoelectric-based energy harvesting 85 V
pavement system
20 Liu et al. [58] Energy harvesting paver 80 Kg 12 W 50%
3.6 W
(Avg)

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H. Pan et al. Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518

Table 2
Comparisons of track-side kinetic energy harvesting systems.
No. Reference Energy harvesting technology Excitation Output power Maximum conversion
efficiency
Frequency Amplitude/ Simulation Laboratory Field
deflection testing testing

1 Zhang et al. Electromagnetic energy harvesting 1, 2 Hz 6 mm 6.45 V 55.5%

[69] system
2 Zhang et al. Energy harvesting system 0.5, 1 Hz 2.5 mm 58 V
[70]
3 Zuo et al. [71] Electromagnetic energy harvester 1, 2, 3, 4 Hz 5 mm (L) 96.3 W (Avg) 7 W (Avg)
5.7 mm (F) 196.6 W 56 W
4 Zuo et al. [72] Electromagnetic energy harvester 1–5 Hz 1–5 mm 28 W (Avg) 62%
5 Zuo et al. [73] Electromagnetic energy harvester 1, 2 Hz 1–3 mm 26.61 W (Avg) 1.12 W
(Avg)
2.24 W
(Avg)
6 Dotti and Sosa Pendulum harvester 56 W (Avg)
[74]
7 Lu et al. Smart monitoring of underground 10–30 Hz 547.7 mW
[75,76] railway 400–440
Hz
8 Guo et.al. [77] Electromagnetic vibration energy 5.5 Hz 35.3 W
harvesters
9 Guo et.al. [78] Electromagnetic vibration energy 5.6 Hz 80.14 W
harvesters 1.41 W
(Avg)

amplitudes is generally adopted to simplify the solution model and
reduce the workload. As shown in Table 2, the frequency range is
generally 0.5–5 Hz, and the amplitude range is generally 1–6 mm. The
energy generated by track-side energy harvesting systems is usually used
to power the low power equipment alongside railways. The output
power of most systems is watt level, which is sufficient to supply power
to low-power equipment.
Vehicle-side kinetic energy harvesting systems include braking en­
ergy harvesting systems and regenerative shock absorbers. As shown in
the Table 3, the maximum efficiency of regenerative braking system is
about 80%, but this hasn’t been tested on actual vehicles yet. And at
present, much research on regenerative braking systems focuses on
braking strategy. As for the energy regenerative shock absorbers, there
are many studies on their system structure. The output power of shock
absorbers ranges from a few tenths of a watt to a few hundred watts. As
with track-side energy harvesting systems, the inputs to regenerative
shock absorbers are also sinusoidal in their performance analysis.
Most energy harvesting systems are within the 40–70%efficiency
range. The output power differs due to different harvesting methods. As
can be seen from the table, the output power of electromagnetic and
hydraulic systems is much higher than that of piezoelectric systems. This
is because electromagnetic systems use mechanisms to amplify the
motion of the input, while hydraulic systems can store high pressure
fluid. For track-side kinetic energy harvesting systems and vehicle-side
kinetic energy harvesting systems, the experimental frequency is
generally 0–10 Hz, and the amplitude is generally 0–20 mm. Both with
vibrations of tracks and vibrations of shock absorbers, low frequency
vibration energy is mainly harvested as presented. In practice, the am­
plitudes and frequencies of cars and trains are random. Few of these
studies have tested energy harvesting systems on cars or trains.
5. Application and energy utilization
Most of the kinetic energy harvesting systems generate electricity,
which is used for different applications. For different types of energy
harvesting systems, there are similarities and differences in their ap­
plications. Fig. 20 shows the existing and possible applications of
different types of energy harvesting systems. They are monitoring sen­
sors, heating/cooling devices, actuators, range extension, low-power
devices, etc.
5.1. Monitoring sensors
With the development of intelligent transportation systems (ITS),
Internet of Things technology and wireless network technology are
applied in the field of transportation [159]. The monitoring equipment
and sensors are installed in land transportation to collect and exchange
information, which improves the traffic efficiency and operation safety
[160]. Common sensors in intelligent transportation systems include
displacement sensors, pressure sensors [161], distance measure sensors,
weather sensors [162], omnidirectional sensors and mobile sensors
[163], etc. The application of these sensors can improve the safety of
land transportation and reduce the occurrence of traffic accidents, thus
saving lives and reducing economic losses. Most of these sensors are
usually outdoors, such as roads, alongside the tracks, and in vehicles and
the traditional power supply is battery or wired power. Ensuring the
power supply of these sensors is very important, and traditional battery
and wired power supply has various serious problems, such as envi­
ronmental pollution and wiring difficulties.
Powering monitoring sensors is a major application of energy har­
vesting systems, because these sensors are usually watt or milliwatt in
power, and almost all energy harvesting devices meet their power needs.
5.2. Heating/cooling devices
Sometimes the heating/cooling devices are important to improve
traffic safety and comfort. Snow and rain on roads and tracks can cause
serious problems including increasing traffic accidents, reducing road
capacity, and increasing maintenance costs. Snow and rain brought ice
on the roads and railway switches having a significant impact on traffic
safety, which brings serious traffic accidents, and social life and property
lose every year. Adding heating devices to roads and tracks can melt
snow and dry roads to avoid accidents. The heating/cooling devices are
important for vehicles, especially in winter and summer. Because it can
adjust the internal temperature of the car, increase the comfort of riding.
However, heating/cooling devices consume a lot of energy, and
powering them in remote areas is also a problem. Some of the current
solutions utilize direct heat exchange (such as phase change materials),
solar energy (such as photovoltaic panels), and other methods. Heat
transfer is more efficient because it doesn’t require energy conversion.
The kinetic energy harvesting systems converting mechanical energy
from roads, tracks, or vehicles into electric energy then powering the

16
H. Pan et al. Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518

Table 3
Comparisons of vehicle-side kinetic energy harvesting systems.
No. Reference Energy harvesting technology Excitation Output power Maximum
conversion
Frequency Amplitude/ Simulation Laboratory Field
efficiency
deflection testing testing

1 Zhang et al. Electro-mechanical braking energy 3.5 V 53%

[87] recovery system
2 Wang et al. [88] Disc-based design 540 V
3 Pugi et al. [89] Regenerative braking system 9800 W
4600 W (Avg)
4 Secanell et al. Flywheel energy storage system 7.83–36.55 31.21%
[91] kWh
5 Oliveira et al. Regenerative braking system 69% (full stop)
[94] 14% (slop)
6 Chicurel [95] Regenerative-dissipative brake system 45%
7 Walker et al. Regenerative braking control 80.2%
[96]
8 Okada [103] Active vibration damper 4.5 mm 0.8 W
9 Suda [107] Self-powered active vibration control 15.8 mW 32.4%
10 Goldner et al. Regenerative magnetic shock absorbers 20 Hz 2 mm 1.3 V
[109]
11 Zuo et al. [113] Electromagnetic energy harvester 0–60 Hz 0.6–17 mm 2–8 W
12 Zuo et al. [114] Tubular linear electromagnetic 10 Hz 2.54 2.8 W
transducers
13 Liao et al. [115] Self-sensing magnetorheological damper 1 Hz 3–11 mm 1.2 A
14 Sapinski and Vibration power generator 4.15 V
Krupa [116]
15 Xie et al. [118] Electromagnetic energy-harvesting 0–2 Hz 20 mm 135 W 41–81%
damper
16 Lin et al. [122] Hydraulic energy-regenerative shock 50 mm 107.94 W
absorber
17 Li and Tse [123] Energy-harvesting hydraulic damper 0.1–9 Hz 20 mm 435.1 W
18 Li et al. [124] Energy-harvesting shock absorber 0.1–2 Hz 8, 10, 15 mm 248.8 W 38.81%
19 Zhang et al. Hydraulic pumping regenerative 0.5–2 Hz 50 mm 33.4 W
[125] suspension
20 Fang et al. [126] Hydraulic electromagnetic shock 0–15 Hz 12.5–50 mm 200 W
absorber
21 Demetgul et al. Hybrid regenerative shock absorber 15 mm 0.56 W
[127]
22 Xu et al. [128] hydraulic energy regenerative shock 1–5 Hz 5–25 mm 397 W 49.87%
absorber
23 Suda et al. Electro-mechanical suspension system 0–20 Hz 2–25 mm 44 W
[132]
24 Gupta et al. Electromagnetic shock absorbers 88.8 W 21%
[137]
25 Zhang et al. Automotive electrical suspension system 0.02–15 5 mm 3.91 W (Avg)
[138] Hz
26 Zuo et al. [140] Regenerative vehicle suspensions 30–70 100–400
mph W
27 Zuo et al. [141] Electromagnetic energy-harvesting shock 0.5–2.5 Hz 22 W 68 W 56%
absorber
28 Zuo et al. Electromagnetic energy-harvesting shock 1–4 Hz 5 mm 40.4 W 15.4 W 60%
[142–145] absorber
29 Zuo et al. [146] Mechanical-motion-rectifier-based 1–10 Hz ±0.5-±5 mm 13.3 W 51.9%
energy harvester using (Avg)
30 Zuo et al. [147] Electromagnetic energy harvester for 2–4 Hz 2–4 mm 14.5 W / 9.2 W 1.3 W 68% (M)
railway cars (Avg) (Avg)
31 Moallem et al. Energy regenerative suspension 5.6 Hz 3.05 mm 0.52 W (Avg) 56%
[148]
32 Moallem et al. Regenerative shock absorber 1–3 Hz 5–10 mm 0.54 W (Avg) 71–84% (M)
[149,150]
33 Zhang et al. Energy regenerative shock absorber 1–2.5 Hz 2.5–7.5 mm 4.302 W (Avg) 54.98%
[151,152]
34 Zhang et al. Energy regenerative shock absorber using 1–2.5 Hz 1–5 mm 270 W (Avg) 52%
[153] helical gears
35 Zhang et al. Regenerative shock absorber considering 0.5–1 Hz 2–6 mm 3.701 W (Avg) 51.1%
[154] twin ball screws transmissions
36 Xie et al. [156] Damping-tunable energy-harvesting 0.6–1.2 Hz 15–25 mm
vehicle damper
37 Chen et al. Electromagnetic active vehicle 50.11 W (Avg) 60–70%
[157] suspension
38 Wang et al. Self-powered sensor nodes for freight rail 2.3–3.8 Hz 263 mW (Avg) 40–65%
[155] transport
39 Du et al. [158] Energy regenerative seat suspension 1–2 Hz 10–20 mm 1.21 W

17
H. Pan et al. Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518

Table 4 the form of heat energy. Due to its passive mode, ride comfort is mainly
Research gaps, technical challenges and future works. dependent on the suspension tuning, especially on the spring and shock
Research gaps and technical Suggestions and future works absorber parameters. Active suspension can actively reduce the vibra­
challenges tion and improve the vehicle comfort by applying the controlled force
1 Part of the design does not consider Design compact systems based on generated by the actuator to the wheels and vehicle body [165]. How­
mounting dimensions. limited space. ever, high energy consumption limits the widely use of active suspension
2 The energy conversion efficiencies of Use higher efficient mechanical [166]. For electric vehicles, active suspension systems will significantly
some systems are unsatisfactory for transmissions, rectifiers, and reduce their range, and increase drivers’ range anxiety. Harvesting
practical utilization. generation circuits and appropriate
generators for these systems.
wasted energy from vehicles can reduce the energy consumption of the
3 Ride comfort is one of the important Balance regeneration performance active suspension and even reduce the whole energy demand of the
points that should be considered. and driving comfort. vehicles [167], resulting in the increase of range of electric vehicles.
4 Some previous experiments only Road tests on real conditions should
perform bench tests under be conducted to analyze the real
5.4. Rang extension
predesigned simplified conditions. performance of energy regeneration.
5 Most studies have only focused on the Consider the structure strength and
performance of a prototype for a short material strength of the energy Because of its low fuel consumption and low pollution, electric ve­
time. harvesting system for long-term hicles have been widely concerned all over the world [168]. However,
operation and safety. the range of electric vehicles is still short than that of internal com­
6 The current research mainly focuses More attention should be paid to the
on the process from the ambient research on how to actually convert
bustion engine vehicles, depending on the energy density of current
energy to electrical energy, and rarely the initial electrical energy with batteries. In addition, the range of electric vehicles is significantly
considers the process of electricity to different characteristics into regular reduced in cold and hot climates due to the working of the air-
the load terminal. currents that can be used by the load. conditioning system [169] and the characteristics of the batteries [170].
Especially the stability and continuity
Therefore, the range extension of electric vehicles has become a
of electricity need to be studied in
depth. research hotspot, including increasing the energy density of batteries
7 The current research lacks of energy It is important to predict power and charging while driving. Increasing the energy density of the battery
prediction and monitoring. generation potential from the is more inclined to change the material properties of the battery. For
perspective of time and space. charging while driving, it has been proposed to lay wireless transmission
8 The economic performance is a key Techno-economic performance of the
factor that determines whether the harvester needs to be further
coils on the road. As another way, some research has focused on con­
energy system can be used in practice. investigated in the future. verting wasted energy into electricity and extending the range of electric
vehicles. Range extension of electric vehicles will become an important
way to utilize the energy generated by the vehicle-side energy harvest­
heating/cooling devices is still a viable solution that can reduce energy ing system.
consumption and facilitate power supply.
5.5. Low-power devices
5.3. Actuators
There are many low-power devices applied to land transportation,
Electro-mechanical actuator can realize the transformation between such as lights, wireless network nodes, ventilation, and cameras. There
electrical energy and mechanical energy. And it is an ideal candidate for are two kinds of lights in traffic, one for transmitting signals and the
active suspension system to generate force due to its fast response speed other for illumination. Both lights are essential on roads and railways for
and high execution precision [164]. traffic safety. The ventilation devices are usually installed in the tunnels
The traditional suspension of a vehicle under road excitation dissi­ to maintain good ventilation. Such low-power devices often need to
pates the vibration passively by means of springs and shock absorbers in work regularly, but when they are in remote areas, power can be a tricky

Fig. 20. Different applications of energy harvesting systems.

18
H. Pan et al.
problem. And the long working hours also consumes more energy. With
the development of intelligent transportation, more and more wireless
network nodes are installed on roads, railways and vehicles to transmit
information. Batteries are usually the main source of energy for these
wireless network nodes, but need to be recharged or replaced regularly,
resulting in the increase of maintenance costs.
Using energy harvesting systems as the sources of electricity for these
low-power devices can reduce energy consumption and power supply
costs. And the power supply will be much easy, because the energy
harvesting system can be installed close to these low-power devices.
6. Research gaps, technical challenges, and future works
This section presents the research gaps, technical challenges, and
future works, as shown in Table 4.
The compactness of vehicle-side and track-side energy harvesting
systems should be considered because of the limited space in these cases.
A regenerative shock absorber should approach the size of conventional
shock absorbers to achieve replacement. Energy harvesting systems
implemented alongside railways should be out of the operation space of
passing trains. The height of road-side energy harvesting systems above
the road surface should also obey local laws and regulations. At the same
time, the motion displacement of regenerative pavement should be
small, so as not to disturb the walking of pedestrians.
The energy conversion efficiencies of some regenerative harvesting
systems are unsatisfactory for practical utilization. It is necessary to use
higher efficient mechanical transmissions, rectifiers, and generation
circuits and appropriate generators for these systems.
Ride comfort is one of the important points that should be considered
in passenger transport, so much research focuses on active suspensions.
The damping coefficient of regenerative shock absorbers needs to be
optimized to improve comfort. Energy harvesting systems applied to
vehicles should be optimized in order to balance regeneration perfor­
mance and driving comfort. The distribution of regenerative braking
force and mechanical braking force should be considered, as should the
intervention time of regenerative braking. Regenerative braking on
different wheels produces different results.
Some previous experiments only perform bench tests under prede­
signed simplified conditions, such as sinusoidal excitation and limit
parameters. Actual operation situations will be more complex and se­
vere, which will challenge the reliability of energy harvesting systems.
Road tests on real conditions should be conducted to analyze the real
performance of energy regeneration.
Most studies have only focused on illustrating and characterizing the
performance of a prototype for a short time. Energy harvesting systems
applied in roads, tracks and vehicles should consider the structure
strength and material strength for long-term operation and safety.
The current research on kinetic energy harvesting implemented on
land transportation mainly focuses on the process from the ambient
energy to electrical energy, and rarely considers the process of elec­
tricity to the load terminal. Electricity converted from different energy
sources has different characteristics. For example, vibration energy has a
trigonometric function-like waveform, and impact energy has a pulse
waveform. Although in some previous studies, it has been mentioned
that the scavenged electric energy can be used to power some low-power
devices, it is just an idea that has not been actually implemented. In the
future, more attention should be paid to the research on how to actually
convert the initial electrical energy with different characteristics into
regular currents that can be used by the load. Especially the stability and
continuity of electricity need to be studied in depth.
Besides, energy prediction and monitoring are currently the key
research points in the renewable energy fields, such as solar power and
wind power. As for the kinetic energy in the transportation area, it is also
important to predict its power generation potential from the perspective
of time and space. The power generation forecast from the perspective of
time can help us evaluate the macro benefits of the energy harvester.
19
Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518
The power generation forecast from a spatial perspective can help us
know where the energy harvesters are deployed will bring better
benefits.
In addition to the energy output, the economic performance of a
kinetic energy harvester is a key factor that determines whether it can be
used in practice. Therefore, techno-economic performance of the
harvester needs to be further investigated in the future. Some indicators
like net profit, return on investment (ROI), and life cycle cost (LCC) of
the harvester should be considered.
7. Conclusions
The transportation sector has become the second largest energy
consumption sector in the world. However, much energy is wasted in the
form of vibration and heat. Kinetic energy harvesting technologies in the
land transportation provide promising ways to generate clean and
regenerative energy for different applications. According to different
energy resources and application focuses, various energy harvesting
technologies are presented. This paper presents a review on three cat­
egories of energy harvesting systems in land transportation based on
their application scenarios, which are 1) road-side energy harvesting
systems, 2) track-side harvesting systems, and 3) vehicle-side energy
harvesting systems.
The road-side kinetic energy harvesting systems mainly include en­
ergy harvesting speed bumps and energy harvesting pavement. The
energy input is the kinetic energy of cars and pedestrians, as speed
bumps and pavements are always exposed to the impacts of cars and
pedestrians.
The track-side kinetic energy harvesting systems mainly focus on
railway vibration energy harvesting. When trains pass over, the vibra­
tion energy between the wheels and the rails has great potential, and is
harmful to the surrounding structures and people. Harvesting this vi­
bration energy can help reduce the impact on structures and people, and
the harvested energy can be used as the power source for the equipment
alongside the railway.
The vehicle-side kinetic energy harvesting systems are applied in
cars or trains. The vibration energy and braking energy are usually
dissipated as vehicles drive. Harvesting these two kinds of energy helps
to increase the range of vehicles, to reduce fuel consumption and
pollution, and to power equipment.
Some challenges remain to be solved in future work, such as the
consideration of ride comfort, the improvement of energy conversion
efficiency, and experimentation under actual conditions.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Natural Foundation of
China under Grants Nos. 51675451 and 51975490; and by the Science
and Technology Projects of Sichuan under Grants Nos. 2020YFSY0070
and 2020JDRC0050; and by the Sichuan Science and Technology Pro­
gram under Grant No. 2020JDTD0027. Zutao Zhang and Jinyue Yan are
the authors to whom all correspondence should be addressed.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.116518.
H. Pan et al. Applied Energy 286 (2021) 116518

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