The Learner-Centered Psychological

Principles
Excerpt from Assessing the Role of Educational Technology in the Teaching and Learning Process: A Learner-Centered
Perspective by Barbara L. McCombs, University of Denver Research Institute, in Secretary's Conference on Educational
Technology 2000 [http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/techconf00/mccombs_paper.html]

Beginning in 1990, the American Psychological Association (APA) appointed

a special Task Force on Psychology in Education, one of whose purposes was
to integrate research and theory from psychology and education in order to
surface general principles that have stood the test of time and can provide a
framework for school redesign and reform. The result was a document that
originally specified twelve fundamental principles about learners and learning
that, taken together, provide an integrated perspective on factors influencing
learning for all learners (APA, 1993). This document was revised in 1997
(APA, 1997) and now includes 14 principles that are essentially the same as
the original 12 principles with the exception that attention is now given to
principles dealing with diversity and standards. [Note to readers: For those
interested in research support for the Principles, several sources are
relevant. The specific research and theory that was reviewed in developing
the Principles is described in McCombs and Whisler (1997). Further research
support is also provided in Alexander and Murphy (1998) and Lambert and
McCombs (1998)].

The 14 learner-centered principles are categorized into four domains as

shown in Table 1. These categories group the principles into research-
validated domains important to learning: metacognitive and cognitive
factors, affective and motivational factors, developmental and social factors,
and individual difference factors. An understanding of these domains and the
principles within them establishes a framework for designing learner-
centered practices at all levels of schooling. It also helps define what
"learner-centered" means from a research-validated perspective.

Defining "Learner-Centered"

From an integrated and holistic look at the Principles, the following definition
emerges:

"Learner centered" is the perspective that couples a focus on individual

learners - their heredity, experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents,
interests, capacities, and needs - with a focus on leaning - the best available
knowledge about learning and how it occurs and about teaching practices
that are most effective in promoting the highest levels of motivation,
learning, and achievement for all learners. This dual focus then informs and
drives educational decision making. Learner-centered is a reflection in
practice of the Learner-Centered Psychological Principles - in the programs,
practices, policies, and people that support learning for all.

This definition of learner-centered is thus based on an understanding of the

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles as a representation of the current
knowledge base on learners and learning. The Principles apply to all
learners, in and outside of school, young and old. Learner-centered is also
related to the beliefs, characteristics, dispositions, and practices of teachers
- practices primarily created by the teacher. When teachers and their
practices function from an understanding of the knowledge base delineated
in the Principles, they (a) include learners in decisions about how and what
they learn and how that learning is assessed; (b) value each learner's
unique perspectives; (c) respect and accommodate individual differences in
learners' backgrounds, interests, abilities, and experiences; and (d) treat
learners as co-creators and partners in the teaching and learning process.

Table 1: The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by

FACTORS
Principle 1: Nature of the learning
process.
The learning of complex subject
matter is most effective when it is
an intentional process of
constructing meaning from
information and experience.
Principle 2: Goals of the learning
process.
The successful learner, over time
and with support and instructional
guidance, can create meaningful,
coherent representations of
knowledge.
Principle 3: Construction of
knowledge.
The successful learner can link new
information with existing knowledge
in meaningful ways.
tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal
interests, and providing for personal
choice and control.
Principle 9: Effects of motivation on
effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge
and skills requires extended learner
effort and guided practice. Without
learners' motivation to learn, the
willingness to exert this effort is
unlikely without coercion.
DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL
FACTORS
Principle 10: Developmental
influence on learning
As individuals develop, they
encounter different opportunities
and experience different constraints
for learning. Learning is most
effective when differential
Principle 4: Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create
and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve
complex learning goals.
Principle 5: Thinking about thinking
Higher order strategies for selecting
and monitoring mental operations
facilitate creative and critical
thinking.
Principle 6: Context of learning
Learning is influenced by
environmental factors, including
culture, technology, and
instructional practices.
MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE
FACTORS
Principle 7: Motivational and
emotional influences on learning
What and how much is learned is
influenced by the learner's
motivation. Motivation to learn, in
turn, is influenced by the individual's Principle 14: Standards and
emotional states, beliefs, interests
and goals, and habits of thinking.
Principle 8: Intrinsic motivation to
learn
The learner's creativity, higher order outcome assessment-are integral
thinking, and natural curiosity all
contribute to motivation to learn.
development within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and
social domains is taken into account.
Principle 11: Social influences on
learning
Learning is influenced by social
interactions, interpersonal relations,
and communication with others.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
FACTORS
Principle 12: Individual differences
in learning
Learners have different strategies,
approaches, and capabilities for
learning that are a function of prior
experience and heredity.
Principle 13: Learning and diversity
Learning is most effective when
differences in learners' linguistic,
cultural, and social backgrounds are
taken into account.
assessment
Setting appropriately high and
challenging standards and assessing
the learner and learning progress-
including diagnostic, process, and
parts of the learning process.

Summarized from the APA Work Group of the Board of Educational Affairs
(1997, November). Learner-centered psychological principles: Guidelines
for school reform and redesign. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
There are researches in psychology particular to education that has been a great help during
this past years or decades. The understanding in thinking, memory, intellectual and motivation
processes contribute directly to the improvements in education such as in teaching, learning
where different ways of learning information, which ways of learning are more effective, and
how teachers and the environment contribute to learning. With the improvements, there are also
problems and issues in schools and teachers which can be solve by learner-centered model
schooling examples are growing problems of dropout, low levels of academic achievement and
other pointer of school failure. A learner-centered model in the teaching/learning environment
shifts the focus of activity from the teacher to the learner.  This method includes active learning
where students from the beginning take full responsibility of their learning which is they bring
their own knowledge, past experiences, education, and ideas, cooperative learning where
students come to class with more willingness to collaborate in pair or group work example
teacher should herself as a sports coach she’s offering advice and encouragement where
necessary, rather than a lecturer delivering a monologue to learners, and advance teaching and
learning where students are confronted with challenges rather than teacher ready-made
explanations example As such, teacher can pose real problems the company is facing and ask
your learners to identify creative and innovative solutions.. The learner-centered model has
repeatedly been proven to be more effective to the traditional teacher-centered approach to
instruction as it is more fun learning environment to the students. Such model can attend the
diversity among the students to enrich learning and produce results.

One of whose purposes was to integrate research and theory from psychology and education in
order to bring out general principles that have stood the test of time and can provide a
framework for school redesign and reform. The result was a document that originally specified
twelve fundamental principles about learners and learning that, taken together, provide a
combine point of view on factors influencing learning for all learners. It was revised in 1997
includes 14 principles addition to deal with diversity and standards.

their heredity means the physical or mental characteristics that are pass genetically by their
parents, siblings, relatives or generation to generation example for physical heredity are the
color of their hair and eyes, shape of their nose and ears, as well as the body type and size.in
mental heredity include autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), bipolar disorder,
major depression, experiences in life, perspectives, backgrounds like family background, talents
if someone is good in dancing, singing, or arts, interests, capacities, and needs. The idea mainly
focus on the learners on what teaching practices are the most effective in teaching them.
This serves as a representation of the current knowledge base on learners and learning. It can
be apply to all learners, in and outside of school, young and old.
Psychological Factors like learning, attitudes, beliefs, family, culture, etc. physiological factors
include how people feel, their physical health, and their levels of fatigue at the time of
learning, the quality of the food and drink they have consumed, their age, etc.
1.There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation in motor learning;
Habit formation is the process by which a behavior, through regular repetition, becomes
automatic or habitual. While According to Schmidt & Wrisberg in 2007 Motor learning involves
learning a skilled task and then practising with a goal in mind until the skill is executed
automatically For example, learning to play a song on the piano initially takes a lot of thought
and practise but because of the regular repetition on such action it becomes habitual where the
task will be automatic and executed skillfully. Other example of learning processes is learning
that involves the generation of knowledge, or cognitive skills and learning strategies. Learning in
schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can use to construct
meaning from information, experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs.
Successful learners are active, goal-oriented, self-regulating, and assume personal
responsibility for contributing to their own learning.
Teachers can do constructivism where learners construct knowledge rather than just
passively take in information. Example classroom activity is the problem-based learning, the
teacher will come up with real-world problems to the students that require them to work together
to formulate a solution. As the group works through the challenging real-world problem, learners
acquire communication and collaboration skills in addition to knowledge.

2.The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. To construct useful
representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies necessary for
continued learning success across the life span, students must generate and pursue personally
relevant goals. Initially, students' short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but
over time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and
deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.
Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent with both
personal and educational aspirations and interests.

1. APA
2. Strategic thinking
3. Thinking about thinking
4. Goals of the learning proccess
5. Developmental level
6. Individual differences
7. Individual differences in learning.
8. Effects of motivation on effort.
9. Context of learning.
10. Social influences on learning.
Issues on Human Development
 INTRODUCTION
Each of us has his/her own way of looking at our own and other people’s development.
These paradigms(model) of human development while obviously lacking in scholastic vigor (strength),
provide us with a
conceptual framework for understanding ourselves and others. Scholars have come up with their
own models of human development. Back up by solid research, they take stand on issues on human
development.
 THREE ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT
 Nature versus Nurture
 Continuity versus Discontinuity
 Stability versus Change
 Nature versus Nurture
The degree to which human behavior is determined by genetics/biology (nature) [Genetics is the
scientific study of genes and heredity—of how certain qualities or traits are passed from
parents to offspring as a result of changes in DNA sequence.] or learned through
interacting with the environment (nurture)
 Nature

 Nature refers largely to our genetics. It includes the genes we are born with and other hereditary
factors that can impact how our personality is formed and influence the way that we develop from
childhood through adulthood.

 Behavior is caused by innate [inborn] characteristics :The physiological [ Physiological

characteristics derives from the structural information of the human body. Fingerprint, Face, Ear, Iris,
Retina, Palmprint, Veins, DNA etc falls under the physiolosical traits. ] /biological characteristics [A few
biologically determined characteristics include genetic diseases, eye color, hair color, and skin color.] we
are born with.

Some philosophers, such as Plato and Descartes, suggested that certain factors are inborn or
occur naturally regardless of environmental influences.

Advocates of this point of view believe that all of our characteristics and behaviors are the result
of evolution. They contend that genetic traits are handed down from parents to their children and
influence the individual differences that make each person unique.

 All possible behaviors are said to be present from conception. (nutrition, medical care, drugs,
and physical accidents)
 Genes provide the blueprint for all behaviors; some present from birth, others pre-
programmed to emerge with age.
 Is a developmental approach:
E.g. Piaget: children’s thought processes change at predetermined age-related stages changes in age
are related to changes in behavior.
 Nurture
 An individuals behavior is determined by the environment- the things people teach them,
the things they observe, and because of the different situations they are in.
 Also a determinist view- proposes all human behavior is the result of interactions with the
environment.
Nurture
Behaviorist theories are nurture theories:
- Behavior is shaped by interactions with the environment. (family, peers, schools, community,
media, and culture)
 Born an empty vessel- waiting to be filled up by experiences gained from environmental
interaction.
 No limit to what they can achieve:
-Depends on quality of external influences and NOT genes.
 The quality of the environment is KEY
-You can become anything provided the environment is right.
Nature Nurture Interaction
 Behavior is often a result of the interaction between nature AND nurture .
 An individuals characteristics may elicit particular responses in other people e.g.
Temprament: how active, responsive or emotional an infant is influences in part determines
their caregivers responses. Gender: people tend to react differently to boys and girls due to
expectations of masculine and feminine characteristics.
 Aggression: Displaying aggressive behavior create particular responses from other people.
 SUPPORTING APPROACHES & PERSPECTIVE
Supporting Nature Supporting Nurture
-Physiological - Social (e.g. Helping Behavior)
- Individual Differences - Behavioral
- Developmental
Nature and Nurture Defined
To better understand the nature vs. nurture argument, it helps to know what each of these terms
means.
  Nurture encompasses the environmental factors that impact who we are. This includes our early
childhood experiences, the way we were raised, our social relationships, and the surrounding
culture.

Other characteristics are tied to environmental influences, such as how a person behaves, which
can be influenced by parenting styles and learned experiences.

For example, one child might learn through observation and reinforcement to say please and
thank you. Another child might learn to behave aggressively by observing older children engage
in violent behavior on the playground.

The Debate of Nature vs. Nurture

The nature vs. nurture debate centers on the contributions of genetics and environmental factors
to human development.

Other well-known thinkers, such as John Locke, believed in what is known as tabula rasa which
suggests that the mind begins as a blank slate. According to this notion, everything that we are is
determined by our experiences.
Behaviorism is a good example of a theory rooted in this belief as behaviorists feel that all
actions and behaviors are the results of conditioning. Theorists such as John B. Watson believed
that people could be trained to do and become anything, regardless of their genetic background.
People with extreme views are called nativists and empiricists. Nativists take the position that all
or most behaviors and characteristics are the result of inheritance. Empiricists take the position
that all or most behaviors and characteristics result from learning.

Examples of Nature vs. Nurture

One example of when the argument of nature vs. nurture arises is when a person achieves a high
level of academic success. Did they do so because they are genetically predisposed to elevated
levels of intelligence, or is their success a result of an enriched environment?

The argument of nature vs. nurture can also be made when it comes to why a person behaves in a
certain way. If a man abuses his wife and kids, for instance, is it because he was born with
violent tendencies, or is violence something he learned by observing others in his life when
growing up?

Nature vs. Nurture in Psychology

Throughout the history of psychology, the debate of nature vs. nurture has continued to stir up
controversy. Eugenics, for example, was a movement heavily influenced by the nativist
approach.

Psychologist Francis Galton coined the terms 'nature versus nurture' and 'eugenics' and believed
that intelligence resulted from genetics. Galton also felt that intelligent individuals should be
encouraged to marry and have many children, while less intelligent individuals should be
discouraged from reproducing.
The value placed on nature vs. nurture can even vary between the different branches of
psychology, with some branches taking a more one-sided approach. In biopsychology, for
example, researchers conduct studies exploring how neurotransmitters influence behavior,
emphasizing the role of nature.
In social psychology, on the other hand, researchers might conduct studies looking at how
external factors such as peer pressure and social media influence behaviors, stressing the
importance of nurture. Behaviorism is another branch that focuses on the impact of the
environment on behavior.
Nature vs. Nurture in Child Development
Some psychological theories of child development place more emphasis on nature and others
focus more on nurture. An example of a nativist theory involving child development is
Chomsky's concept of a language acquisition device (LAD).1 According to this theory, all
children are born with an instinctive mental capacity that allows them to both learn and produce
language.
An example of an empiricist child development theory is Albert Bandura's social learning theory.
This theory says that people learn by observing the behavior of others. In his famous Bobo doll
experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children could learn aggressive behaviors simply by
observing another person acting aggressively.
Nature vs. Nurture in Personality Development
There is also some argument as to whether nature or nurture plays a bigger role in the
development of one's personality. The answer to this question varies depending on
which personality development theory you use.

According to behavioral theories, our personality is a result of the interactions we have with our
environment, while biological theories suggest that personality is largely inherited. Then there
are psychodynamic theories of personality that emphasize the impact of both.

Nature vs. Nurture in Mental Illness Development

One could argue that either nature or nurture contributes to mental health development.
Some causes of mental illness fall on the nature side of the debate, including changes to or
imbalances with chemicals in the brain. Genetics can also contribute to mental illness
development, increasing one's risk of a certain disorder or disease.
Mental disorders with some type of genetic component include autism, attention-deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), bipolar disorder, major depression, and schizophrenia.2

Other explanations for mental illness are environmental. This includes being exposed to
environmental toxins, such as drugs or alcohol, while still in utero. Certain life experiences can
also influence mental illness development, such as witnessing a traumatic event, leading to the
development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Nature vs. Nurture in Mental Health Therapy

Different types of mental health treatment can also rely more heavily on either nature or nurture
in their treatment approach. One of the goals of many types of therapy is to uncover any life
experiences that may have contributed to mental illness development (nurture).
However, genetics (nature) can play a role in treatment as well. For instance, research indicates
that a person's genetic makeup can impact how their body responds to antidepressants.3 Taking
this into consideration is important for getting that person the help they need.

Interaction Between Nature and Nurture

Which is stronger: nature or nurture? Many researchers consider the interaction between heredity
and environment—nature with nurture as opposed to nature versus nurture—to be the most
important influencing factor of all.
For example, perfect pitch is the ability to detect the pitch of a musical tone without any
reference. Researchers have found that this ability tends to run in families and might be tied to a
single gene. However, they've also discovered that possessing the gene is not enough as musical
training during early childhood is needed for this inherited ability to manifest itself.4

Height is another example of a trait influenced by an interaction between nature and nurture. A
child might inherit the genes for height. However, if they grow up in a deprived environment
where proper nourishment isn't received, they might never attain the height they could have had
if they'd grown up in a healthier environment.

A newer field of study that aims to learn more about the interaction between genes and
environment is epigenetics. Epigenetics seeks to explain how environment can impact the way in
which genes are expressed.
Some characteristics are biologically determined, such as eye color, hair color, and skin color.
Other things, like life expectancy and height, have a strong biological component but are also
influenced by environmental factors and lifestyle.

Contemporary Views of Nature vs. Nurture

Most experts recognize that neither nature nor nurture is stronger than the other. Instead, both
factors play a critical role in who we are and who we become.5 Not only that but nature and
nurture interact with each other in important ways all throughout our lifespan.
As a result, many in this field are interested in seeing how genes modulate environmental
influences and vice versa. At the same time, this debate of nature vs. nurture still rages on in
some areas, such as in the origins of homosexuality and influences on intelligence.

While a few people take the extreme nativist or radical empiricist approach, the reality is that
there is not a simple way to disentangle the multitude of forces that exist in personality and
human development. Instead, these influences include genetic factors, environmental factors, and
how each intermingles with the other.