THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS AND HOMEOSTASIS:

The male and female reproductive systems work together to produce offspring. In addition, the female
reproductive organs contribute to sustaining the growth of embryos and fetuses.
Sexual reproduction is the process by which organisms produce offspring by making germ cells called
gametes. After the male gamete (sperm cells) unites with the female gamete (secondary oocyte)- an
event called fertilization – the resulting cell contains one set of chromosomes from each parent. Males
and females have anatomically distinct reproductive organs that are adapted for producing gametes,
facilitating fertilization, and, in females, sustaining the growth of the embryo and fetus.
The male and female reproductive organs can be grouped by function. The gonads - testes in male and
ovaries in female produce gametes and secrete sex hormones. Various ducts then store and transport
the gametes, and accessory sex glands produce substances that protect the gametes and facilitate
their movement. Finally, supporting structures, such as the penis in males and the uterus in females,
assist the delivery of gametes, and the uterus is also the site for the growth of the embryo and fetus
during pregnancy.
Gynecology (gyneco-= woman; -logy = study of) is the specialized branch of medicine concerned with
the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the female reproductive system. The branch of medicine
that deals with male disorders, especially infertility and sexual dysfunction, is called andrology (andro-
= masculine)

Some of the common terminologies in reproductive system are:

1. Gamete is the reproductive cell with haploid number of chromosomes. The male gamete is known
as sperm and female gamete is known as ovum.
2. Gonad is the primary organ of sex which has dual function to carryout namely secretion of sex
hormone/s and production of gametes. The different types of cells present in gonad take part in
each of this function.
3. Fertilization is the fusion of sperm and ovum which results in the development of embryo and
finally the fetus.
4. Accessory organs of sex will aid in the transfer of gametes from one individual to another during
the course of sexual reproduction. In female they also help fertilization to occur and house the
developing fetus during pregnancy.
5. Secondary sexual characteristics are the apparent features that help to distinguish male from
female. They develop at the onset of puberty and persist throughout the rest of the life.
6. Puberty is the onset of reproductive ability which normally occurs around the age of 10 to 13 years
in males and 8 to 13 years in females.
7. Menarche is the first menstrual bleeding that occurs in a female at the onset of puberty.

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8. Menopause the last menstrual bleeding in a female and beyond which she loses the reproductive
ability permanently. Menopause occurs around the age of 45 years.
9. Amenorrhea is the absence of menstrual bleeding after the onset of puberty. The common
physiological condition where amenorrhea occurs is during pregnancy.
10. Thelarche is the development of breast
11. Pubarche is the onset of growth of pubic hairs
12. Menarche is the onset of first menstrual cycle

Primary Reproductive Organs (gonads): responsible for

 producing the egg (ovum) and sperm cells (gametes),

 producing hormones that function in the maturation of the reproductive system (puberty)
 the development of sexual characteristics (puberty)
 regulating the normal physiology of the reproductive system (adult reproductive life)
 In males it is testis and in females it is ovaries

Accessory Reproductive Organs:

All other organs in the reproductive system are considered secondary (or accessory) reproductive
organs. These are the ducts, and glands that transport and sustain the gametes and nurture the
developing offspring.

Male reproductive system

Primary reproductive organ is the testis which produces the gametes (sperm) and sex hormones

Accessory reproductive organs: helps to store, transport and mature the gametes (sperms).
This includes a system of ducts (epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory ducts, and urethra) and
accessory sex glands (seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands). The duct system
transports and stores sperm, assists in their maturation, and conveys them to the exterior. Semen
contains sperm plus the secretions provided by the accessory sex glands. The supporting structures
have various functions. The penis delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract and the scrotum
supports the testes.

Puberty: Immediately after birth, the gonads remain quiescent for some time
The period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become capable of reproduction is
called puberty

The onset of reproductive life is called puberty. It is the time when gonads develop both endocrine and
gametogenic functions. The onset of puberty usually occurs between 10 and 13 years and it occurs is
slightly earlier in girls than in boys.

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GONADOTROPIN SECRETION (FSH & LH) OVER THE LIFETIME

In both males and females, gonadal (testis and ovary) function is driven by the hypothalamic-pituitary
axis, whose activity varies over the lifespan

Secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), the hypothalamic hormone, begins at

gestational week 4, but its levels remain low until puberty. Secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), the anterior pituitary hormones, begins between gestational
weeks 10 and 12. Like GnRH, the levels of FSH and LH remain low until puberty

At puberty and throughout the reproductive years, the secretory pattern changes: Secretion of GnRH,
FSH, and LH increases and becomes pulsatile at puberty. In females, there is a 28-day cycle of
gonadotropin secretion called the menstrual cycle.

PULSATILE SECRETION OF GnRH, FSH, AND LH

The primary event at puberty is the initiation of pulsatile secretion of GnRH. This new pattern of GnRH
secretion drives a parallel pulsatile secretion of FSH and LH by the anterior lobe of the pituitary and this
is responsible for secretion of gonadal steroid hormones, testosterone and estradiol. Increased
circulating levels of the sex steroid (testosterone and estrogen) hormones are then responsible for the
appearance of the secondary sex characteristics at puberty.

The mechanisms underlying the onset of pulsatile GnRH secretion, however, remain a mystery. There
may be gradual maturation of the hypothalamic neurons that synthesize and secrete GnRH. Pulsatility
of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis is required for normal reproductive function. The cessation of
pulsatile secretion of GnRH marks the onset of menopause in females.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBERTY (increases in size of primary and accessory reproductive

organs)

In boys, puberty is associated with activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, Leydig cell
proliferation in the testes, and increased synthesis and secretion of testosterone by the Leydig cells.
There is growth of the testes, largely because of an increased number of seminiferous tubules. There is
growth of the sex accessory organs such as the prostate. There is a pronounced linear growth spurt,
and the epiphyses close when adult height is attained. As plasma levels of testosterone increase,
pubic and axillary hair appears, and there is growth of the penis, lowering of the voice, and initiation
of spermatogenesis

In girls, puberty also is associated with the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, which drives
the synthesis of estradiol by the ovaries. The first observable sign of puberty in girls is budding of the
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 breasts, which is followed in approximately 2 years by menarche, the onset of menstrual cycles. The
growth spurt and closure of the epiphyses typically begin and end earlier in girls than in boys. The
appearance of pubic and axillary hair precedes menarche and is dependent on increased secretion of
adrenal androgens, called adrenarche.

Character Boys (testosterone) Girl (estrogen)

Hairs appearance Beard, mustache, axilla, pubic region Axilla and pubic region only

Skeletal muscle and More muscular with less fat. Broad Less muscular, more fatty. There will be
body development shoulder and narrow hips. redistribution of fats in buttocks and
breasts. Broad hips and narrow shoulder.

Voice Breaking of voice due to hypertrophy of No breaking of voice. It remains shrill and
laryngeal muscles and increase in the high pitched.
length and thickness of vocal cords.

Emotional changes More aggressive Less aggressive

Acne development Seen Seen

Sex drive (libido) Yes Yes

Changes see at the onset of puberty

 Sex hormones are secreted from testis and ovary and due to this; there is increased growth and
development of both primary and accessory organs of sex.
 There will be appearance of secondary sexual characters.
 There will be commencement of production sperms or ovum (gametogenic function
commences).
 In female the menstrual cycle commences.

Male Reproductive system

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Scrotum (bag): the supporting structure for the testis

Testis or testicles; are oval glands in the scrotum. The testes develops near the kidneys along
the posterior abdominal wall, they usually begin to descend around 3rd month intrauterine life and
reaches scrotum before birth by creating a passage through the anterior abdominal wall know as
inguinal canal. As the testicles descent it drags the blood vessels (testicular artery and vein) and layers
of anterior abdominal wall to scrotum. These blood vessels and the layers of the abdominal wall that
extends between the abdomen and scrotum is known as spermatic cord.
The connective septa divide the testis into number of lobules which contains the tightly coiled
seminiferous tubules (semin- = seed; fer-= to carry), where sperm are produced. The process by
which the seminiferous tubules of the testes produce sperm is called spermatogenesis.
The wall of seminiferous tubules contains two types of cells:
i. Spermatogenic cells: the sperm forming cells
ii. Sertoli cells: support spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis; Is the process by which haploid spermatozoa develop from germ cells in the
seminiferous tubules of the testis. Only matured spermatozoa is released into the lumen seminiferous
tubules.
In the spaces between adjacent seminiferous tubules are clusters of cells called Leydig (interstitial)
cells which secretes more prevalent androgen (promotes development of masculine characteristics)
testosterone.

Factors affecting spermatogenesis:

Hormones: FSH and LH secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and also testosterone secreted by testis
are required for normal spermatogenesis.
Temperature: the optimum temperature for spermatogenesis is around 35 degree Celsius.

Applied (clinical) physiology:

Cryptorchidism (crypt- = hidden; orchid = testis); condition in which testis fail to descend into scrotum
from the abdomen. Untreated bilateral cryptorchidism results in sterility because expose of testicles to
the body core temperature in the abdomen causes degeneration of the seminiferous tubules.
However, leydig cells are not affected and produce testosterone during puberty and hence the
individual develops secondary sexual characteristics.

Reproductive system ducts in males

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Ducts of the testes

Pressure generated by the fluid secreted by sertoli ells pushes sperm and fluid along the lumen of
seminiferous tubules. These tubules gradually join to form epididymis.

Epididymis (epi- = above or over; -didymis = testis) consists of tightly coiled ducts. The lumen of
epididymis is lined by ciliated epithelial cells and surrounded by smooth muscle cells. Functionally,
the epididymis is the site for sperm maturation, the process by which sperm acquire motility and the
ability to fertilize an ovum.

Ductus deferens: 18 inch long, begins from the tail of the epididymis and ascends in the
spermatic cord to enter the pelvic cavity through the inguinal canal. It courses along the inferolateral
surface of the urinary bladder to reach its posterior surface or base. During its course along the
inferiolateral surface, the ureters cross it to enter the bladder. The ductus deferens after reaching the
base of the bladder it joins with the duct of the seminal vesicles to form the ejaculatory ducts. Like
epididymis, the vasdeferens lumen is lined by epithelial cells and surrounded by smooth muscles.
Functionally, the ductus deferens conveys sperm during sexual arousal from the epididymis toward
urethra by peristaltic contractions of its muscular coat which helps in the transport of the sperms.

Spermatic cord (refer under testis)

Ejaculatory ducts: At the fundus or base of the bladder the ductus deferens joins with the duct of
the seminal vesicles to form ejaculatory ducts. These ducts pierces the prostate gland to enter the
prostatic urethra where they eject sperm and seminal vesicle secretions just before the release of
semen from the urethra to the exterior.
Urethra (refer to excretory system)

Accessory sex glands

The ducts of the male reproductive system store and transport sperm cells, but the accessory glands
secrete most of the liquid portion of semen. The accessory glands include the seminal vesicles, the
prostate, and the bulbourethral glands.
Seminal vesicles or seminal glands: These are paired structures located posterior to the base of the
urinary bladder and anterior to the rectum. Secretions of these glands are alkaline and contain
nutrients required for survival of sperm. The duct of seminal vesicle on either side join with ductus
deferens to form ejaculatory ducts (enters the prostatic urethra). Secretions of the seminal vesicles
constitute about 60% of the volume of semen.
Prostate gland: located at the neck of the urinary bladder surrounding the prostatic urethra. Its
secretions make up about 30% of the volume of the semen.

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Bulbourethral or Cowper’s Glands: These are paired structures about the size of peas and are located
inferior to the prostate on either side of the membranous urethra. The ductus of these glands open
into the spongy urethra

Semen (=seed)

 liquid that consists of the secretions of the seminiferous tubules, seminal vesicles, prostate, and
bulbourethral glands
 Volume of semen in a typical ejaculation is 2.5- 5 mL, with 50 to 150 million sperm per Ml
 Male is likely to be infertile when number falls below 20 million/mL

EJACULATION (to throw out)

The powerful release of semen from the urethra to the exterior, is a sympathetic reflex

Clinical Physiology

The principal method for sterilization of males is a vasectomy (vas-EK-to; -ectomy = cut out), in which a
portion of each ductus deferens is removed. An incision is made of either side of the scrotum, the
ductus are located and cut, each is tied (ligated) in two places with stitches, and the portion between
the ties is removed. Although sperm production continues in the testis, sperm can no longer reach the
exterior. The sperm degenerate and are destroyed by phagocytosis. Because the blood vessels
(testicular veins) are not cut, testosterone is continuously transported from the leydig cells in the
testis. So vasectomy has no effect on sexual desire, performance, and ejaculation. If done correctly, it is
close to 100% effective. This procedure can be reversed.

ENDOCRINE FUNCTION OF THE TESTIS

ACTIONS AND REGULATION OF SECRETION OF TESTOSTERONE

At puberty hypothalamus matures and begins to release GnRH which stimulates the anterior pituitary
to release gonadotropins (FSH & LH). LH begins its action on the interstitial cells of leydig cells to
produce the male sex hormone Testosterone
Chemistry of Testosterone: It is a steroid
Mode of action: Since it is lipophilic it acts at the nuclear level (DNA)

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Target organ: Fetal hypothalamus, primary and accessory reproductive organs, hair follicles, bone,
skeletal muscle, sebaceous glands, and finally the anterior pituitary and hypothalamus (exerts negative
feedback inhibition)
Actions
During fetal life:
 Responsible for the descent of testis into the scrotal sac.
 Development of male external and internal genitalia.
 Development of male brain (hypothalamus), so males are more aggressive than females
At the onset of puberty
 Initiates spermatogenesis.(Gametogenesis)
 Development and maintenance of accessory organs of sex like prostate gland, seminiferous
tubules (accessory organs of sex) etc.
 Anabolic and growth promoting effects
 Brings about the development of secondary sexual characteristics as enumerated in the table
earlier.
 Increases the protein anabolism and hence more muscle development and chondrogenesis and
collagen synthesis
 Increases liner growth of the bones by stimulating the epiphyseal plate and promotes its fusion.
 Acts on the bone marrow to increase the erythropoiesis
 Exerts negative feedback control over the anterior pituitary gland on the secretion of
gonadotropic hormones particularly LH.
During rest of life
 Maintenance of spermatogenesis.
 Maintenance of accessory organs of sex.
 Maintenance of negative feedback over the anterior pituitary gland over luteinizing hormone
secretion.

Regulation of secretion: (refer ppt for picture)

 Is by negative feedback mechanism.
 Hormones involved are testosterone and inhibin.
 Testosterone exerts negative feedback control over hypothalamus and anterior pituitary.
 Inhibin exerts negative feedback over anterior pituitary only.

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Female reproductive system

The organs of the female reproductive system include the ovaries (female gonads); the uterine
(fallopian) tubes, or oviducts; the uterus; the vagina; and external organs, which are collectively called
the vulva, or pudendum. The mammary gland are considered part of both the integumentary system
and the female reproductive system.
Location: all organs are located in the lesser or true pelvis

Ovaries (primary reproductive organ)

 Paired structures located closed to ends of the uterine tubes and is supported by number of
ligaments.

Functions of ovary:

Gametogenic function: produces female gametes, oocytes

Endocrine functions: secretes the female sex hormones, estrogen (puberty), and progesterone
(reproductive life). In addition it secretes relaxin and inhibin
Histology of the ovary
Each ovary consists of following parts

 The germinal epithelium (germen = sprout or bud) is a layer of simple epithelium that covers the
surface of the ovary. (Remember these cells does not give raise to ova).
 Ovarian cortex (has epithelial cells)
 Ovarian medulla (has blood and lymphatic vessels)
 Ovarian follicles and corpus luteum (explained shortly)

Uterus and Uterine tubes

There are two uterine tubes or oviducts extends laterally from the uterus (fertiliztion of ovum occurs in
the uterine tubes). The uterine tube has four parts as follows, infundibulum (has fimbria), Ampulla
(widest part where fertiliztion occurs), isthmus, and intrauterine part.

Histology of Uterine tubes: composed of three layers

Mucosa: innermost layer of ciliated epithelial cells and connective tissue, the earlier functions as
ciliated conveyer belt to help move a fertilized ovum from the uterine tube towards the uterus

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Muscularis: middle layer composed of inner circular and outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscles.
Peristaltic contractions of the muscularis and the ciliary action of the mucosa help move the oocyte or
fertilized ovum towards the uterus.
Serosa: The outer layer of the uterine tubes and it is connective tissue

Uterus (womb)

Function: serves as part of the pathway for sperm de-posited in the vagina to reach the uterine tubes.
It is also the site of implantation of a fertilized ovum, development of the fetus during pregnancy, and
labor. During reproductive cycles when implantation does not occur, the uterus is the source of men-
strual flow.

Anatomy of the Uterus (located in the lesser pelvis)

Situated between the urinary bladder and the rectum, the uterus is the size and shape of an inverted
pear. In females who have never been pregnant, it is about 7.5 cm (3 in.) long, 5 cm (2 in.) wide, and
2.5 cm (1 in.) thick. The uterus is larger in females who have recently been pregnant, and smaller
(atrophied) when sex hormone levels are low, as occurs after menopause.

ANATOMICAL SUBDIVISIONS OF THE UTERUS INCLUDE:

(1) a dome-shaped portion superior to the uterine tubes called the fundus, (2) a tapering central
portion called the body, and (3) an inferior narrow portion called the cervix that opens into the vagina.
Between the body of the uterus and the cervix is the isthmus, a constricted region about 1 cm (0.5 in.)
long. The interior of the body of the uterus is called the uterine cavity, and the interior of the cervix is
called the cervical canal. The cervical canal opens into the uterine cavity at the internal os [ os= mouth
like opening) and into the vagina at the external os.
Position of the uterus: anteflexed that is normally the body of the uterus projects anteriorly over the
urinary bladder. The cervix projects inferiorly and posteriorly and enters the anterior wall of the
vagina at nearly a right angle.
Supporting structures: there are many ligaments supports the uterus in the lesser pelvis. One of the
biggest is the broad ligament of the uterus. This structure is simply the visceral peritoneum covering
the fundus and body of the uterus, it extends laterally as the broad ligament to cover the ovaries and
uterine tubes, and attaches to lateral wall of the lesser pelvis.
Function of broad ligament: in addition to supporting the uterus, the blood vessels, lymphatic vessels
and nerves supplying the uterus, uterine tubes and ovaries courses through this ligament

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Histology of the Uterus

Histologically, the uterus consists of three layers of tissue: perimetrum, myometrium and
endometrium
The outer layer- the Perimetrium (peri-around; - metrium = uterus) or serosa is part of the visceral
peritoneum. Laterally, it becomes broad ligament. Anteriorly, it reflects from the body of the uterus to
cover the urinary bladder and forms a shallow pouch. Posteriorly, reflects to cover the rectum and
forms a deep pouch between the uterus and urinary bladder.
The middle layer; myometrium (myo- muscle), consists of three layers of single unit smooth muscles
and these muscles fibers have oxytocin receptors. During labor and child birth (parturition),
coordinated contraction of the myometrium in response to oxytocin from the posterior pituitary help
excel the fetus from the uterus.
The inner layer of the uterus, the endometrium (endo- = thin). is highly vascularized and has three
components: (1) An innermost layer composed of simple columnar epithelium (ciliated and secretory
cells) lines the lumen. (2) An underlying endometrial stroma is a very thick region of lamina propria
(areo-connective tissue). (3) Endometrial (uterine) glands develop invaginations of the luminal
epithelium and extend almost to myometrium. The endometrium is divided into two layers stratum
functionalis (functional layer) lines the uterine cavity and sloughs off during menstruation. The deeper
layer, e stratum basalis (basal layer), is permanent and gives rise to new stratum functionalis after each
menstruation.
Hysterectomy: (hyster- = uterus) is the surgical removal of uterus and it is the most common
gynecological operation

Vagina (= sheath) is a tubular, 10-cm (4-in.) long fibro-scular canal lined with mucous membrane that
extends from exterior of the body to the uterine cervix
Serves as a canal for menstrual fluid.
 Forms the inferior part of the pelvic (birth) canal.
 Receives the penis and ejaculate during sexual intercourse.
 Continues superiorly with the cervical canal, and inferiorly with the vestibule.

RELATIONS OF VAGINA

Anteriorly: fundus of the urinary bladder and urethra, laterally: levator ani and posteriorly: anal canal,
rectum, and rectouterine pouch
Hysterectomy
http://www.austincc.edu/apreview/PhysText/Reproductive.html
THE FEMALEREPRODUCTIVE CYCLE

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The reproductive organs in males and females remain quiescent until puberty. During puberty for
unknown reasons hypothalamus matures to release GnRH which stimulates anterior pituitary to
release gonadotropins (FSH & LH). These two hormones acts on the gonads to increase its growth and
initiates cyclical changes in the ovaries and uterus (beginning of adult reproductive life). Each cycle
takes about a month and involves both oogenesis and preparation of the uterus to receive a fertilized
ovum. The ovarian cycle is a series of events in the ovaries that occur during and after the maturation
of an oocyte. Uterine (menstrual) cycle is a concurrent series of changes the endometrium of the
uterus to prepare it for the arrival of a fertilized ovum that will develop there until birth. If fertilization
does not occur, ovarian hormones wane, which causes the stra-in functionalis of the endometrium to
slough off. The general term female reproductive cycle encompasses the ovarian and uterine cycles,
the hormonal changes that regulate them, and the related cyclical changes in the breasts and cervix.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE OR MENSTRUAL CYCLE
The female reproductive cycle is a monthly cycle that begins with mensturation (shedding of the
endometrium, or uterine lining) and ending with either pregnancy or the beginning or another
menstruation.

Menstrual cycle

The normal duration of menstrual cycle is about 28 days. However the duration may not remain the
same in each cycle. It can be anywhere between 20 and 45 days.
During each cycle changes will be taking place in the following organs:
a. Ovary b. Uterus c. Cervix d. Vagina
Normally menstrual cycle has duration of 28 days, but it may vary from 20 days to 45 days. Counting of
the days in a cycle begins on the first day the menstrual bleeding starts.
• The menstrual discharge contains blood, damaged endometrial cells, damaged endometrial
glands and endothelial cells of damaged blood vessels.
During any menstrual cycle the changes will be taking place simultaneously in the
a. Ovary termed as ovarian cycle
b. Uterus termed as uterine or endometrial cycle
c. Changes are also seen in cervix and vagina and are termed as vaginal cycle.

Changes in ovary:

OVARIA Ovarian cycle and oogenesis

The bodily changes during female reproductive cycles is completely linked to the ovarian cycle

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The different stages of ovarian cycle are
• Follicular phase
• Luteal phase
The formation of gametes in the ovaries is termed oogenesis. In contrast to spermatogenesis, which
begins in males at puberty, oogenesis begins in females before they are born. During early fetal
development, primordial germ cells migrate from the yolk sac to the ovaries. There, germ cells
differentiate within the ovaries into oogonia. Oogonia are diploid (2n) stem cells that divide
mitotically to produce millions of germ cells. Even before birth, most of these germ cells degenerate a
process known as atresia. A few, however develop into larger cells called primary oocytes that enter
prophase of meiosis I during fetal development but do not complete that phase until after puberty.
During this arrested state of development, each primary oocyte is surrounded by a single layer of flat
follicular cells, and the entire structure called a primordial follicle. The ovarian cortex surrounding the
primordial follicles consists of collage fibers and fibroblast like stromal cells. At birth, approximately
200,000 to 2000,000 primordial follicles remain in each ovary. Of these, about 40,000 are still present
at puberty, and around 400 will mature and ovulate during a woman’s reproductive lifetime. The
reminder of the follicles undergo atresia.
Early follicular phase: (FSH)
Each month after puberty until menopause, the pulsatile release of GnRH from hypothalamus
stimulates the release of gonadotropins (FSH and LH) from anterior pituitary. FSH acts on the several
primordial follicles, although only one will typically reach the maturity needed for ovulation. The
follicular cells surrounding the primordial follicles differentiate into many layers of granulosa cells and
now it is named as primary follicle. In addition, stromal (connective tissue) cells surrounding the
basement membrane of granulosa cells begin to form an organized layer called the thecal folliculi. With
continuing maturation, a primary follicle develops into a secondary follicle. In a secondary follicle, the
theca differentiates into two layers: (1) the theca interna cells that secrete androgens (under the
influence of LH) and (2) the theca externa, an outer layer of stromal cells and collagen gibers. During
this stage the granulosa cells begin to secrete follicular fluid (contains estrogen), which builds up in a
cavity called the antrum in the center of secondary follicle. Under the influence of FSH, the
androgens produced by theca interna cells are taken up the granulosa cells and then it converts into
estrogen. Furthermore, the granulosa cells also release a protein hormone inhibin which inhibits
secretion of FSH and, to a lesser extent, LH
Important note: it take a minimum of 13 years (puberty) and maximum of 50 years (menopause) to
advance from primordial to primary follicle
Late follicular phase

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With increases the number of theca cells, granulosa cells and antral fluid the follicle become more
matured called graafian follicle. The follicle which express high number of FSH receptors survives and
reaches this stage and the rest of the cohorts regresses. This graffian follicle produces highest
amounts of estrogen, Inhibin and very small quantities of progesterone. This increase in estrogen
levels occurs during the midcyle and for unknown as it exerts a positive feedback stimulation of
anterior pituitary to on release highest levels of LH and moderate levels of FSH. This LH surge causes
rupture of the most maturated follicle (graffian) to release the secondary oocyte into the pelvic cavity
and the whole process is known as ovulation. Just before ovulation, the diploid primary oocyte
completes the prophase of meiosis I, producing two haploid (n) cells of unequal size each with 23
chromosomes. The larger cell is secondary oocyte and small is first polar body. The secondary oocyte
begins its second meiotic division but it is again arrested in prophase of meiosis II and it is up taken by
the uterine tubes (fimbria) from the pelvic cavity. If sperm are present in the uterine tube and one
penetrates the secondary oocyte its second meiotic division resumes. The secondary oocyte splits into
two haploid cells, again of unequal size. The large cell is the ovum and the smaller one is the second
polar body. The nuclei of the sperm cells and the ovum then unite, forming a diploid zygote which is
swept away from the uterine tube into the uterine cavity. Here it gets attached to the endometrium
(implantation).

Luteal phase (14 to 28th day)

Fate of the ruptured follicle

Under the influence of Luteinizing hormone the ruptured follicle composed primarily of granulosa cells,
but also of theca cells are converted to lipid rich cells called as lutein cells to form a structure called
corpus luteum that’s synthesizes and secretes high amount progesterone and moderate estrogen,
relaxin and inhibin. The hormones estrogen and progesterone are necessary for preparing and
maintaining the endometrium for implantation of zygote and in supplying the nutrients to it. If
fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum programmed to death by end of 24 to 26th (the second
half of the menstrual cycle) and is replaced by a scar called the corpus albicans. If fertilization does
occur, the corpus luteum will secrete steroid hormones until the placenta assumes this role, later in
pregnancy. The hormone human chorionic gonadotropin release from the embryo about 8 days after
fertilization rescues the corpus luteum from degeneration. During this phase the FSH and LH blood
levels are low because of negative feedback inhibition by inhibin and estrogen respectively.
On the event of corpus luteum regression the estrogen, progesterone, and inhibin levels decreases
significantly and as the feedback inhibition is withdrawn the FSH and LH levels in the blood slow
raises. This will initiate the next ovulatory cycle

UTERINE CYCLE OR ENDOMETRIAL) CYCLE:

It has three phase menstrual phase, proliferative phase and luteal or secretory phase

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Proliferative (follicular) phase 5 to 14th day: coincides with the follicular phase during which
the follicle releases estrogen into the blood. Under the influence of estrogen, the stratum basalis
undergo mitosis and produce new stratum functionalis. As the endometrium grows the endometrial
glands develop and the blood vessels coil and lengthen as they penetrate stratium functionalis. The
endometrium thickness doubles (4 to 10 mm) compared to menstrual phase

Secretory phase (15 to 28th day): coincides with luteal phase of ovarian cycle

Under the influence of progesterone and estrogen produced by corpus luteum the endometrium
further increases in thickness (12-18 mm) mainly by increase the growth of glands and blood vessels
(more coiling) and importantly the glands become to secrete glycogen. These preparatory changes
peak about one week after ovulation, at the time a fertilized ovum might arrive in the uterus. The
hormone relaxin produced by the corpus luteum inhibits the contractions of myometrium (favors
implantation). So progesterone (mainly) prepares the endometrium for implantation of zygote.

Menstrual phase (0 to 5 days)

Menses (month); coincides with early follicular phase

If fertilization ovum does not occur, the corpus luteum regress resulting is sharp decline of
progesterone and estrogen. This decrease in hormonal levels stimulates the release of prostaglandins
which causes the endometrial blood vessels to vasoconstrict. As a result the endometrium suffers from
ischemia and the stratum functionale, blood vessels, and glands undergoes necrosis. This necrotized
tissue and blood is flowed out through the cervix and vagina as menstrual flow leaving behind a thin
layer of stratum basalis. The prostaglandins causes contraction of myometrium and thus helps in
menstrual flow.
ACTIONS OF ESTROGEN
 Sensitizes a single graffian follicle to mature into an ovum. Once sensitized by estrogen, ovulation
occurs.
 Growth of accessory organs of reproduction :
a. Increase in the size of uterus at the onset of puberty and also during the pregnancy.
b. Contraction of uterine/fallopian tube and cilia is markedly increased due to the action of
estrogen. This facilitates the movement of ovum towards the uterine cavity.
c. Increases the size of the mammary gland by increasing the growth and branching of the
lacteriferous ducts and also deposition of fats.
d. It is responsible for development of accessory organs of sex.

 Is responsible for development of all secondary sexual characters at the onset of puberty .
1. Enlargement of breasts and erection of nipples.

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 2. Growth of body hair, most prominently underarm and pubic hair
3. Greater development of thigh muscles behind the femur, rather than in front of it
4. Widening of hips
5. Rounder face
6. Changed distribution in weight and fat; more subcutaneous fat and fat deposits mainly around
the buttocks, thighs and hips
7. Docile behavior
 Responsible for all changes in the uterus and vagina during the follicular phase of menstrual
cycle. Changes in the endometrium are:
a. Increasing the thickness of endometrium.
b. Increasing the blood flow by increasing the blood vessels
c. Responsible for growth of uterine glands.
d. The cervical mucus secretion becomes thin, watery.
 On serum cholesterol level: It tends to reduce the cholesterol level and hence susceptibility of the
female to heart attack is less when compared to men.
 Its influence on other endocrine glands :
a. Normal activity of the ovary is dependent on the gonadotropic hormones secreted from
anterior pituitary gland. The secretion of gonadotropic hormones is regulated by estrogen
level in circulation.

ACTIONS OF PROGESTERONE
 On uterus: Brings about changes in both endometrium and myometrium.
a. Endometrium grows further and hence the thickness of endometrium is increased.
b. Uterine glands grow further, become coiled and start secreting. It is because of this, changes
occur in the uterus during secretory phase of menstrual cycle. These changes can be brought
about only after estrogen has acted on the uterus. This effect is known as priming effect of
estrogen.
c. It decreases the sensitivity of myometrium for the action of oxytocin. This facilitates
implantation of zygote in case there is fertilization.
 On cervix: The cervical secretions become thick, and acidic. This decreases the motility of sperms
and also the viability of sperms.
 On mammary gland: Stimulates further growth of breasts by increasing the lobules and alveoli.
 Maintenance of pregnancy: It is required for
a. Embedding the fertilized ovum.

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 b. Inhibition of uterine contractions.
 On LH release: The increase in the progesterone levels in circulation exerts a negative feedback
influence on pituitary and decreases the secretion of LH.
Regulation of secretion of hormones (refer ppt)

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