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Js Jjii U R N) Iic Iiiiu Hoahoc: Umiii
Js Jjii U R N) Iic Iiiiu Hoahoc: Umiii
Js Jjii U R N) Iic Iiiiu Hoahoc: Umiii
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HO A HOC
N H A X U A T B A N G I A O T H O N G V A N TAI
T I E N G A P iH C f f l J Y E N N G A N H
KS. C H A U V A N TR U N G
CHUYEN NGANH
&
N H A X U A T B A N G IA O T H O N G V A N T A I
LUYEN KY NANG DOC HIEU
& DICH
■
THUAT
■
TIENG ANH CHUYEN NGANH
HOA HOC
Chau Van Trung
In 700 cuon, kho 16 x 24cm tai Nha in Thanh Nien, 62 Tran Huy
Lieu - Q.PN-TP. HCM - DT : 8440038 - 8445308. Giay phep xuit
ban so 230/XB-QLXB do Cue Xuat ban cap ngay 3/03/2005. Giay
trich ngang so 70/XB ngay 05/9/2005. In xong v& nop luu chieu qui
IV n&m 2005.
LCJl n o i d a u
TrUdc nhufng p h it trien khoa hpc d iin ra h in g ng^y vdi mpt toe dp chdng
m3t tren the gidi, nhu cau n im b it, tim hieu tiep can nhufng thcinh ti/u n iy
la nhu cau cap thiet nhat. Tuy nhien gidi sinh vien hoc sinh cung nhu nhQng
ngifdi lim cong t ic khoa hpc doi luc v ln con bj rao c in ngon ngO che c h in
nhat l i Tieng Anh khoa hpc.
De d ip ufng nhu cau dpc hieu tieng anh khoa hoc cd b in , chung toi bien
soan quyen "Tieng Anh chuyen nganh Hoa hpc" n^y.
Sich gom 20 chu diem trinh bay nhOng k h ii nipm, dinh nghTa djnh
luat c3n b in ve Hoa hoc. Md dau mdi chu diem co phan gidi thipu muc dfch
yeu c iu , phan bo cuc b in g tieng Anh va hudng d in doc hieu b ln g tieng Vipt,
ke tiep la c ic noi dung c3n b in co chufa trong chu diem. De ren ky nSng doc
hieu tieng Anh Hoa hpc, sau m6i npi dung trong diem chung toi co phan chu
g iii tC/ vi/ng va bai dich m lu - cuoi chu diem la phan bai tap thi/c hanh. Cuoi
sich cd phan phu luc danh muc tCf vi/ng tieng Anh Hoa hoc n h im giup ban
dpc hp thong hoa cac thuat ngO chuyen nganh can thiet.
Bi/dc dau, du het sufc cd g in g nhi/ng sich khong kh6i trin h dupe nhufng
sai sdt ngoai y muon; rat mong nhan di/pc nhufng gop y chan tinh cua ban doc.
T a c g ia . v a n h o m CQng ta c
BA5IC CONCEPTS
cAc khAi miCm co bAm
1 .6 To d is tin g g u is h am ong la w s ,
hypothess, and thearies
1.1 Phdn loqi vat chat thanh tiCng loqi de tqo ra thong tin vat lieu phong phu,
1 .2 D ung tinh chat de giup xdc dinh vdt chdt, 1.3 Phdn biet giUa vdt chdt vd ndng
luqng cung nhu vat chdt, khdi luqng vd trong luqng, 1.4 Viet ky hieu cho nguyen to
quan trong vd ten cua nhitng nguyen to tit cdc ky hieu, 1 .5 Loqi cdc nguyen to trong
m 6 t he thong phdn loqi de xdc dinh chu ky, phdn nhom vd chia nho bang phdn loqi
bai ten vd so, 1 .6 Phdn biet giQa cdc quy ludt, gid thuyet vd ly thuyet.
1.1 Phdn loqi vdt lieu, 1.2 Tinh chat, 1.3 Vat chat vd ndng luqng, 1.4 K y hieu
hoa hoc, 1 .5 Bang he thong tudn hoan cdc nguyen to, 1 .6 Cdc quy ludt, gid thuyet vd
cdc ly thuyet.
7
Topic I: /insic concepts
Introduction to chemistry
C hem istry is the study of m atter and energy M atter includes all the m aterial things
in the universe In S ection 1 1 . you will learn to classify m atter into various ty p e s —
elem ents com pounds, and m ixtures based on com position P ro p e rtie s-th e characteris
tics by w hich sam ples of m atter may be identified are discu ssed in Section 1 2
E nergy m ay be defined as the ability to do work. W e often ca rry out chem ical
reactions for the sole purpose of changing energy from one form to a n o th e r for ex
ample, we pay large sum s of m oney for fuels to burn in our hom es or cars The re la
tionship betw een energy and m atter, an im portant one for ch em ists, is explore d in S e c
tion 1 3
S ym b ols in tro d u ce d in S e ction 1.4, are used to re p re s e n t the e le m e n ts The
perio d ic table, in tro d u ce d in S e ction 1 5, groups e le m e n ts w ith s im ila r p ro p e r ties
C he m ica l sym b o ls and the p erio d ic table are both d e s ig n e d to d e c re a s e the e ffo rt
required to learn a great deal of ch em istry S ection 1 6 p re se n ts s c ie n tific law s h y
potheses. and th e o rie s that g en eralize and explain natural p he n o m e n a
For convenience, ch em istry is often divided into the follow ing five su b -d is c ip lin e s
organic chem istry, inorganic chem istry, analytical chem istry, p hysi-ca l c h e m is try and
b iochem istry O rganic chem istry deals with m ost com pounds of carbon T hese c o m
pounds are introduced syste m a tically in C hapter 19. Inorganic chem istry deals with
all the elem ents and with com pounds that are not defined as o rganic A n alytical c h e m
istry involves finding w hich elem ents or com pounds are p re sen t in a sam ple or how
m uch of each is pre sen t Physical chem istry deals with the p ro pe rtie s e sp e cia lly q u a n
titative (m easurable) pro pe rtie s of substances Biochem istry deals w ith the ch e m istry
of living things
These su bd ivision s of ch em istry are som ew hat arbitrary A ch em ist s p e cia lizin g in
any one of the first four subdivisions uses all of the first four and often b io ch e m istry as
well A b iochem ist uses all five specializations For exam -ple, the m odern o rganic c h e m
ist often uses inorganic com pounds to convert starting m aterials to d e sire d p ro du cts
and then analyzes the products and m ea-sures their p roperties In addition m any o r
ganic chem ists now are investigating com pounds of biological interest
The im portance of science in general and of ch em istry in p articula r in our e v e ry
day lives can hardly be overstated For exam ple, color television, c o m p ute rs and the
modern copy m achines all stem from chem ical advances of the past few d eca de s (Color
TV requires co m p ou nd s that glow intensely in red blue or green w hen b om b a rd e d
with electron beam s The m odern com puter w orks with ch ip s m ade from sp e c ia lly
treated m etalloids. Copy m achines require m aterials that "re m e m b e r’ how m uch light
has fallen on them .) However, today s and tom orrow s chem ists are still faced w ith m o n u
m ental tasks cleaning up the e nviro n m e nt and p roviding su ffic ie n t food for an e v e r
growing w orld population to m ention just two.
Pure substances
Kl oments
C o mp o un d s Mixtures
Het erogeneous mixtures
Ho mo ge n e o u s mixtures ' soluti ons)
8
Topic 1: Basic concepts
Ndng luqng cd the ditqc xdc dinh bdi Itlid ndng thtfc luen cong. Chung ta thildng
thtfc hieu phdn ling hoa hoc dp (hay doi ndng htqng lit dang nay sang dang khac, vi du.
chung ta trd mot so lien Ian mua nltien lieu de dot trong sinh lioqt gia dinh vd trong xe
hoi. Mdi quan lie giita ndng htqng vd vat chat rat quan trong trong lioa hoc ditqc gidi
thich trong muc 1.3.
Cdc ky hieu ditqc gidi thieu trong muc 1.4 ditqc stf dung de mo ta cdc nguyen to
hoa hoc. Bang phdn loqi ditqc gidi thieu trong muc 1.5. nhom nguyen to vdl cdc tinh
chat titang ling. Cd hat ky liieu lioa hoc vd bang phdn loai ditqc thiet lap de gidm no
hie dtfqc yen can de nghien ciiu mot so htqng Ion hoa chat. Muc 1.6 gidi thieu cdc quy
ludt, gid thiet, ly thuyet khoa hoc de long qudt lioa rd giai tliicli hien htqng til nhien.
De cho tliiidn hen. hoa hoc ditqc cltia thanh ndm nhom: hoa ln?u co. lioa cd ca, lioa
phdn licit, hoa ly i d hoa sinh. Iloa hitu co lien quan den hdu hel cdc hop chat cua car
bon. nhilng hop chat nay se ditqc gidi thieu trong chitong 19. Hoa vd, co hen quan den
phdn Ion cdc nguyen to id cdc hop chat ina Ithong phai Id chat hitu co. Hoa phdn tich Id
tiin cdc nguyen to hay cdc hop chat cd trong mau hoac dinh litqng chung. Hoa ly lien
quan den so tinh chat (do litdng) tinh chat cua cdc chat. Hoa sinh lien quan den hoa hoc
cua sinh vat.
Stf phdn cltia mon hoc nay cd sit ngau nhien. Mot chuyen gia hoa hoc chuyen ve
mot trong bon nganh dau tien cd the dp dung ditqc bon nganh dau tien va cd nganh hoa
sinh. Mot chuyen gia hoa sinh sii dung ndm nganh hoa tren. Vi du, mot nha hoa hu'u co
luen dqi tlutong sit dung cdc hop chat co ca de chuyen hoa cat chat thanh san pham
niong muon vd sau do phdn tich san pham va xdc dinh tinh chat cua chung. Trong sit
cdng them do, bay gio nhieu nha lioa lit?u co lai nghien ciiu cdc hop clidt cua cdc sinh
cat ditqc quan tdm.
Sit quan trong cua khoa hoc noi chung cd ciia hoa hoc noi n en g trong cuoc song
hang ngay kho cd the noi het ditqc. Vi du, ti vi mau. M ay vi tinh vd may sao cliep luen
dqi, tat cd deu xuat phdt tit stf phat tnen cua hoa hoc trong vai thap ky qua. (Ti vi mdu
doi lioi hop chat cd ctfdng do mdu do, xanlt Id hay mdu xanh da trdi khi bdn phd chum
tut electron. May tinh luen dqi lain d ec edi "chip" ditqc lam lit cdc cat hen dqc biet 1a a
kim. May sao chep. dot hoi cat lieu cd the "nha” ditqc bao nhieu anh sang rcri tren chung.
Tuy nhien. cdc nha hoa hoc horn nay vd titang lai can dang dot mat edi nluem vu Ian
do Id lam sach moi trtfdng cd cung cap du tlutc pham cho sit gia tang dan so the gidi '
a
Topic 1: Basic concepts
M atter is defined as anything that has m ass and occupies space All the m ate rials
in the world are com posed of a few more than a hundred elem ents. E lem ents are the
sim p lest form of m atter and cannot be broken dow n ch e m ic a lly into s im p le r stable
substances. They can be thought of as building blocks for everythin g in the universe
The sam e elem ents that m ake up the Earth also m ake up the M oon, as show n by
actual analysis of Moon sam ples. M oreover, indirect evidence obtained from analysis
of light from stars shows that the rest of the universe is com posed of the sam e e le
m ents.
C learly the num ber of d ifferent com binations of elem ents m ust be huge to get all
the varieties of m atter in the universe. But elem ents can com bine in only tw o fu nd a
m entally differen t ways: by physical changes to form m ixtures or by ch em ica l changes
to produce com pounds. C hem ical changes, also called chem ical reactions, change
the com position (or structure) of a substance. Physical changes do not alter the co m
position. The breaking of glass into sm all pieces is an exam ple of a physical change.
The glass still has the sam e com position and the sam e p’roperties as before, but its
external form is changed. The burn-ing of charcoal (m ostly carbon) in air (or in pure
oxygen) to get carbon dioxide, a colorless gas, is an exam ple of a ch em ica l reaction.
Not only the form of the m aterial but also its com position has changed. The gas has
both carbon and oxygen in it, but the charcoal had no oxygen.
If a sam ple of m atter cannot be broken down into sim pler su bsta nce s by ordinary
chem ical m eans, the sam ple is an elem ent. [O rdinary ch em ica l m eans in clu de s any
m ethods except nuclear reactions (C hapter 20).] An elem ent has a definite set of p ro p
erties. A com pound is a c h e m ica l co m b in a tion of e le m e n ts th at has its own set of
properties and a d efin ite com position. For exam ple, pure w ater o btained from any
natural source contains 88.8% oxygen and 11.2% hydrogen by m ass C om pounds can
be separated into their constitu en t elem ents only by chem ical reaction
• Chung ta phdn loqi vat chat de cd the nghien ciiu cac tinh chat chung cua tung
loqi nham cung cap cho chung ta cau tra lai nhUng cau lioi ve cdc mau rieng biet
• Tat cd cdc chat cd thanh phdn xac dinh
A. Cd phdi liqp chat hydrogen peroxide cd mot thanh phan xdc dinh khong f
10
Topic 1: Basic concepts
Ro rang so Itfong cua stf kit hap khac nhau cua cdc nguyen to la rat Idn de tqo nen
stf khac nhau cua vat chat trong vu tru. Nhtfng cdc nguyen to cd the ket hap tlieo hai
cach ca ban sau: bang cdch thay doi vat ly de tqo thanh hon hap hodc thay dot hda hoc
de tqo thdnli hap chat. Stf thay doi hoa hoc dtfqc goi la phdn ting hda hoc, lam thay doi
thanh phdn cau true cua vat chat. Stf thay doi vat ly khdng lam thay doi thanh phdn
hda hoc. Stf va gitang tqo thanh nhtfng mieng nho la mot vl du cua stf thay doi vat ly.
Guang (kinh) van cd tlianh phdn vd tinh chat nhtf tritdc do nhUng hinh dang ben ngoai
bi thay doi. Sit dot chdy than (lidu het la carbon) trong khdng khi (hoac trong oxy tinh
khiet) de tqo nen cacbon dioxit, mot khi khong mdu 1a mot vi du cua mot phdn tfng hda
hoc. No khdng chi lam thay doi vdt chat md con lam thay doi cd thanh phdn. Khi sinh
ra cd cd carbon vd oxy. con than tlii khdng cd oxy.
Neu mot mdu vat chat khdng the vd ra tlianh cdc chat dan gian hon bai cdc phtfang
phdp hda hoc thong thtfdng, mdu la mot nguyen to [phtfang phdp hda hoc thong thtfdng
gom bat ctf phtfang phdp nao ngoqi trit phdn tfng hat nhan (chi/cfng 2 0 )/ Mot nguyen to
cd mot so tinh chat xdc dinh. Mot hop chat la mot stf kit hap hda hoc cua cdc nguyen to
cd cdc tinh chat vd thanh phan xdc dinli. Vi du, ntfdc tinh khiet trong thiin nhien chtfa
88 ,8% oxy va 11,2Vc ve khdi luqng. Hap chat cd the ditqc tach ra thanh cdc nguyen to chi
bdng phtfang phdp hda hoc.
Every su bsta nce has a definite set of properties. Properties are the characteris-tics
by w hich we can ide ntify som ething. For exam ple, we know that pure w ater is a co lo r
less, odorless, ta ste le ss substance that is a liquid under the conditions usually found
in an o rdinary room W ater puts out fires, and it dissolves sugar and salt. Liquid w ater
can be changed into a gas (called w ater vapor or steam ) by heating it, or into a solid
(ice) by cooling it. Salt has a d ifferent set of properties than w ater does; sugar has yet
another set
C h em ical p ro perties are the ch a ra cte ristic w ays a su bsta nce can react to p ro
duce o the r su b sta n ce s Physical properties are the ways a su bstance can be id e n ti
fied w ithout ch a n g in g its ch aracte ristic com position. For exam ple, w ater can react with
very active m eta ls to produce hydrogen and a nother com pound. T hat rea ctivity is a
ch em ica l p ro pe rty of w ater. W ater can also freeze to ice at 0°C (equal to 32°F) or it
can e vaporate to w ater vapor, n either of w hich changes it from H20 . T hese are p h y s i
cal pro pe rtie s of w ater.
Som e p ro p e rtie s of a sam ple of a substance depend on the q uantity of the sam ple
These p ro p e rtie s are called extensive properties. For exam ple, the w eight of a solid
sam ple d ep en ds on how m uch of the substance is present. O ther p roperties, such as
II
Topic 1: Basic concepts
color and taste, do not depend on how m uch is present These properties are know n
as intensive properties. Intensive properties are m uch m ore u sefu l for ide ntifyin g sub
stances
Som e of the m ost im portant intensive p roperties that ch e m ists use to ide ntify s u b
stances are ones that they m easure: they are called q u a ntita tive p ro p e rtie s T w o such
p ro pe rtie s are the free zing point and the norm al boiling p o in t of a s u b s ta n c e w hich
are the te m p era ture s at w hich a liquid freezes to form a solid and boils to form a gas
under norm al a tm o sph e ric co nditions, respectively. W e w ill d is cu ss q u a n tita tive p ro p e r
ties in m ore detail in C ha pter 2.
W e can d istin gu ish co m p ou nd s from m ixtures because of c o m p o u n d s 's c h a ra c te r
istic properties. M ixtures have p roperties like those of their co n s titu e n ts The m ore of
a given co m p on en t p re sen t in a m ixture, the more the m ixtu re 's p ro p e rtie s w ill resem ble
those of that co m ponent. For exam ple, the m ore sugar we put into a gla ss of w ater,
the sw ee te r is the solution that is produced
An e xp e rim e n t w ill illustrate how properties are used to d is tin g u is h b etw e en a c o m
pound and a m ixture. W e place sm all sam ples of iron filings and p o w de red su lfur on
separate w atch g la sses to in ve stiga te th e ir properties. W e note th a t both are solids
We place the sa m p le s in separate te st tubes and then hold a m ag ne t b eside the first
tube. W e find that the iron is attracted to the m agnet. W hen we hold the m agnet next
to the tube w ith the sulfur, nothing happens; the su lfur is not attracte d by the m agnet
W hen we pour carbon disulfide, a colorless, flam m able liquid, on the sul fur sam ple
the solid sulfur disappears, and the liquid turns yellow. The sulfur has dissolved, form ing
a solution w ith the carbon disu lfide W hen we pour carbon d isu lfide on the iron n o th
ing happens; the iron stays solid, and the liquid stays co lo rle ss If we had large pieces
of each elem ent, we could pound them with a ham m er and find that the su lfu r is brittle
and easily pow dered but that the iron does not easily break into sm all p ieces Iron is
m alleable that is, it can be pounded into various shapes. T able 1.2 lists the p ro pe rtie s
discussed so far of the two elem ents.
N ext we pour som e iron filings and som e pow dered su lfur into a large test tube
and stir them together. The sam ple appears to be a dirty yellow , but if we look closely,
we can see ye llo w sp ecks and black specks. If we hold a m ag ne t next to the test tube,
the black p article s (with som e yellow par-ticles clinging to them ) are a ttracte d by the
m agnet W hen we pour som e carbon d isulfide on the sam ple, the liquid tu rn s yellow
We pour off that liq uid and pour on m ore carbon d is u lfid e u ntil no ye llo w so lid re
m ains in the sam ple W hen we evaporate the carbon disu lfide in a fum e hood we get
a yellow solid again If we place a m agnet next to the black m aterial left in the large
test tube, we find that it is attracted to the m agnet It seem s that m ixing the tw o sa m p le s
12
Topic 1: Basic concepts
of elem ents has not changed their properties. The sulfur is still yellow and still soluble
in carbon d isu lfide ; the iron is still black and still m agnetic. The two ele m e n ts have
retained th eir p ro pe rtie s and their identities; they are still elem ents. This com bination
of the two is a m ixture. A m ixture does not have a d efin ite co m p ositio n, and it has
properties related to the properties of its com ponents.
Now we place two new, carefully m easured sam ples of iron filings and pow dered
sulfur in another large test tube and heat the m ixture strongly with a Bunsen burner.
After a tim e, a red glow appears in the bottom of the tube and gradually spreads th ro ug h
out the sample. This is evidence of a chem ical reaction. Some sulfur escapes into the
gas phase because of the heat and then deposits on the test tube wall. A black solid
results from the chem ical reac tion. W hen we rem ove the solid from the test tube (we
may have to break the tube to get it out), we can pulverize the solid with a ham m er that
is. it is brittle. If we try to dissolve the m aterial in carbon disulfide, it does not dissolve. If
we bring the m agnet close to it, it is not attracted. This m aterial has its own set of prop
erties: a dull black color, brittleness, insolubility in carbon disulfide, lack of attraction to a
magnet. It is a com pound a chem ical com bination of iron and sulfur.
• ('dc tinh chat bao quat phu thudc vdo so Itfong mdu (long cd; con cac tinh chat
tang ctfdng thi khong.
• Cac tinh chat tang ctfdng hi'tu dung trong viec nhdn biet cdc clidt.
• Moi chat cd tap hop cdc dqc tinh cua rieng no.
A. Khdo sat rnenh de "Co 1 lit (I) soda khdng mdu trong thung chtfa". Tinh chat
nao trong hai tinh chat Id tinh chat tang ctfdng vd tinh chat nao la tinh chat
bao quat?
B. M ot chat quen thuoc dong dqc tai 0°C. Tinh chat nay cd giup nhdn biet chat do
hay khdng?
13
Topic !: Basic concepts
Tinh chat
Moi chat cd moi so tinh chat xdc dinh. Tinh chat la cac dqc tinh ma chung ta cd the
nhdn ra dtfqc. Vi du, chung ta biet ntfdc tinh khiet khdng co mdu, khdng rnui, khdng vi
va d dang long trong dieu kien thtfdng (phdng). Ntfdc dap tdt Ida, no hda tan dtfdng va
muoi. Ntfdc cd the chuyen doi thanh hoi (dtfqc goi la hoi ntfdc) khi cung cap nhiet, hay d
dang rdn (da) khi lam lanh. Muoi cd tinh chat khac ntfdc, dtfdng cung cd tinh chat neng.
Tinh chat hda hoc Id dac tinh ma mot chat cd the phdn ilng de tqo thanh san pham
la mot chat khac. Tinh chat vat ly la cach ma mot chat cd the dtfqc nhdn ra ma khdng
lam thay doi thanh phan dac trtfng cua no. Vi du, ntfdc cd the phan tfng vdi rat nhieu
kim. loai hoqt dong de tqo thanh hydro vd hqp chat khac. Hoat tinh do la mot tinh chat
lioa hoc cua ntfdc. Ntfdc cd the llidrih dd d 0 "C (bang 32"F) hay no cd the bay hot thanh
hoi ntfdc ma khdng lam thay doi thanh phan ntfdc. Day Id tinh chat vdt ly cua ntfdc.
Mot so tinh chat cua mot mau cua mot chat phu thuoc vdo so Itfqrig mdu. Tinh chat
nay dtfqc goi la tinh chat tong quat (chung). Vi du, trong Itfong cua mot mdu chat rdn
phu thuoc vdo so Itfong chat hien dien. Tinh chat khac nhtf mdu, vi khdng phu thuoc vdo
so Itfong chat hien dien. Nhilng tinh chat nay dtfqc xem nhtf 1a tinh clidt rieng Tinh
chat rieng nay thi hQu ich cho viec nhan dang cdc chat.
Mot so tinh chat tang ctfdng quan trong nhat md nhilng nha hda hoc stf dung de
nhan biet cdc chat dd Id dac diem md ho do dtfqc; nhilng dqc diem nay dtfqc goi la cdc
tinh chat dinh Itfong. Hai tinh chat nhtf the la diem dong dqc vd diem soi chuan cua
mot chat, tile la nliiet do tai dd chat long dong dac de tqo thqnh mot chat rdn vd hda hoi
de tqo nen mot chat khi trong cdc dieu kien dp suat binh thtfdng ttfong ling. Chung ta
se thdo luan cdc tinh chat dinh Itfong chi tiet hon trong chtfong 2 .
Cd the phdn biet cdc hop chat vdi cac hon hqp do bdi cdc tinh chat dac trtfng cua
hqp chat. Cdc hon hqp thi cd cdc tinh chat y het nhtf cdc tinh chat cua thtfc the tao nen
chung. Thanh phdn dd dtfqc cho hien dien trong mot hon liqp cang nhieu thi tinh chat
cua hon hqp dong nhat vdi thanh phdn dd cang nhieu. Vi du, cang cd nhieu dtfang trong
mot ly ntfdc thi do ngot dtfqc tqo ra trong dung dich cang Idn.
Mot thi nghiem minh hoa cdch md cdc tinh chat dtfqc dung de phdn biet giUa hop
dial vd lion hop. Chung la dat cdc mdu bot sal nho vd sulfur bot Iren hai ly tdch roi nhau
de ddnh gia dac tinh cua chung. Ltfu y rang cd liai deu d trang that rdn. Dat cdc mau trong
cdc dug nghiem neng biet vd giU mot nam chain ben cqnh ong nghiem ihtf nliat Ta thay
rang sal bi hut ve phia nam chain. Luc giQ nam chain cqnh ong nghiem cd clitfa sulfur thi
khong cd dieu gi xay ra; nhtf vay sulfur khdng bi nam chain hut.
Luc dd disulfide carbon, mot chat long de bat hia vd khong cd mau, vao mot mau
sulfur thi sulfur dqc bien mat, vd chat long chuyen sang mdu vdng. Sulfur dd bi hoa
tan tqo nen mot dung dich vdi disulfide carbon. Luc chung ta do disulfide carbon vao
trong sal thi khdng cd dieu gi xay ra; sat van gal trang thai rdn vd chat long van giii
trang thai khdng mdu. Neu ta cd cdc mieng Idn cua moi nguyen to thi ta cd the gia
chung vdi mot biia ren vd thay rang sulfur cd tinh don vd de bieii thanh bot nhtfng sal
thi khdng de dang bi ngdl thanh nhilng mieng nho. Sat cd tinh deo - cd nghia rang no
cd the dtfqc gia de chuyen thanh cdc hinh dang khac nhau Hang 1.2 het ke cac dac tinh
dtfqc de cap chuyen sdu hon ddnh cho hai nguyen to nay.
Ke tiep chung ta do moi it bot sat vd mot it bot sulfur vdo mot ong nghiem Ion hon
vd khudy deu cluing. Mdu xuat luen cd mdu vdng nhat, nhtfng neu quan sal k\ ta tha\
rang cd cdc quang vdng vd quang den. Neu giu mot nam chain ke ben mot ong nghiem.
thi cdc hat den Ivoi moi so hat cang .rung quanh chung bi hut bdi nam chdm. Luc ta do
14
Topic 1: Basic coticepls
disulfide carbon tren mau thi chat long chuyen sang mau vdng. Ia do ra ngoai chat
long do va dtfa vao them disulfide carbon cho den khi khdng con chat ran mau vang
nao gid lai trong mdu nda. Luc lam hda hai disulfide carbon trong mot ong nung, ta lai
nhan duoc mot chat ran mau vdng. Neu dat mot nam chain ke ben vat lieu mdu den d
ong nghiem Idn hon, ta thay rang no bi hut ve phia nam chain. Dieu do cd nghla rang
hon hqp cua hai man nguyen to khong thay doi tinh chat. Sulfur van gilt mau vdng ra
vat co the duac hda tan trong disulfide carbon; sat van gida mdu den va van mang tit
tinh. Ilai nguyen to nay van gid dac tinh va nhdng dac trUng chuyen biet cua chung;
chung van Id cdc nguyen to. To hop cua liai nguyen to nay la mot hon hop. Mot hon hop
thi khdng cd mot hqp chat xdc dinh, no cd cdc dac tinh co lien quan den cdc dac tinh cua
moi mot thanh phan.
Bay gid chung ta dat hai mdu mdi duac do can than bot sat vd bot sulfur vdo mot
ong nghiem Idn hon, nung ndng hon hqp vdi mot den Bunsen. Sau mot khoang thai
gian, cd mot chat quang dd xuat hien d day cua ong nghiem vd dan dan Ian rong khap
mdu. Day la chdng cd cua phdn ling hoa hoc. Mot so sulfur dd chuyen sang trang thai
khi do bdi sdc ndng roi long dong tren tlianh cua ong nghiem Chat rdn mdu den hinh
tlianh tit ket qua cua phan ling hda hoc. Luc chung ta loai bo chat rdn klioi ong nghiem
(chung la pluii lain be ong nghiem de do no ra ngoai). Ta cd the go chat rdn ra bang
cdch dung moi cai bua cd nglila rang tqo do gtdn cho no. Neu chung ta thd phdn gidi
vdt chat trong moi disulfide carbon, thi no khong phdn giai duqc. Neu chung ta dua mot
nam chain den, no van khdng bi hut. Vat lieu nay cd mot tap hqp cdc dac trUng chuyen
biet cua no, mdu den dam, gion, khdng the hda tan trong disulfide carbon, khdng bi hut
bdi moi nam chdm. Day la mot hon hqp - tdc la mot to' hqp hda hoc cua sat vd sulfua.
M atter is a nyth ing that has m ass and occupies space All the m aterial things in
the u niverse are com posed of matter, including anything you can touch as w ell as the
planets in the solar system and all the stars in the sky.
The mass of an object m easures how much m atter is in the object. M ass is directly
proportional to w eight at any given place in the universe. If you leave the surface of the
Earth, your m ass rem ains the same, but your weight changes An astronaut positioned
between two celestial bodies such that their gravitational attractions pull equally in o p
posite directions is w eightless, but the astronaut's mass rem ains the sam e as it was on
Earth B ecause chem ists ordinarily do their work on the Earth s surface and because
m ass and w eight are directly proportional here, many chem ists use the term s mass and
weight interchangeably, but you should rem em ber that they differ.
Energy is the capacity to do work. You cannot hold a sound or a beam of light in
your hand; they are not form s of m atter but form s of energy. The m any form s of e n
ergy are outlined E nergy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be converted from
one form to a nother This statem ent is known as the law of conservation of energy.
Snapshot Review
M atter has m ass and occupies space.
*- M ass is a m easure of the quantity of m atter in a sam ple (but e nergy also has
a m ass equivalent).
A W hich has a greater m ass a large wooden desk or a sew ing needle?
15
Topic / ; Hasic concepts
• Vat chat co khoi Itfong va chiem gn7 khoang trong trong khong gian
• Khoi Itfong La mot so do ve dqi Itfong vat chat trong mot mdu Inhtfng nang Itfong
cung co mot stf Itfong dtfong vdi khoi Itfong).
A. Phdn nao co khoi Itfong Idn hon mot bdri go Idn hay mot cay kim m ay!
Ile a l
C hcm ical N uclear M echanical
K in e tic (energy o f m otion)
P o te ntia l (energy o f p ositio n )
K le ctrica l
Sound
K le ctro m a g n e tic ( lig h t)
V is ib le lig h t
U ltra v io le t
X -ra ys
G am m a rays
In fra re d
Radio waves
M icrowaves
S o la r”
Khoi Itfong cua mot vat do do Idn cua vdt chat. Khoi Itfong ty le thudn cat trong
ItfOng o' tai bat cd noi nao trong vu tru. Neu ban dl chuyen be mat cun trdi dot. thi klioi
Itfong cua no rdn gi/T khong doi. nhtfng trong htqng cua no thay doi Mot nha du lianli
vu tru dung glda hai thien the sao cho sdc hut trong trtfong cua chung bang nhau to
theo chieu doi ngliich tin ngtfdi nay a trang thai khong trong Itfong. tu\ nhien khoi hionii
ciiu nha du hanh vu tru do rdn gu 7 khong dol y het nhtf tren mat dot Hoi t i cac nha
hoa hoc thtfc hien cdng viec cua lio mot cdcli binh thtfdng tren be mat trdi dat ca b<ji i i
khoi luqng vd trong Itfong ty le thudn vdi nhau cho nen nhieu nha hoa hoc stf dun h
tliudt ngd khoi Itfong vd trong Itfong mot cach xen ke. nhtfng ban can phdi nha rang
chung khac nhau day
16
Topic 1: Basic concepts
Ndng Itfong Id kha nang thtfc hien cong Han khdng the gid dm thanh mot chum
tin nang trong toy dtfqc; cluing khdng phai la mot dang rat chat nhtfng Id mot dang cua
ndng Itfong. Nhieu dang nang Itfong dtfqc trinh bay trong bang 1.3. Nang Itfong khong
the dtfoc tqo ra liodc khong the bi mat di nhtfng no cd the bien doi tit dang nay sang
dang khac. Phat bieu nay dtfqc goi Id dinh ludt bdo toan nang Itfong.
Because the e lem ents are the building blocks of all m aterials in the universe, we
need an easy w ay to identify and refer to them For this purpose, each chem ical e le
m ent is identified by an internationally used sym bol consisting of one or tw o letters
The first letter of an ele m e n t's sym bol is alw ays capitalized If the sym bol has a s e c
ond letter, it is a low ercase (small) letter. The sym bol is an abbreviation of the elem ent s
nam e, but som e sym bo ls represent nam es in languages other than E nglish The 10
elem ents w hose sym -b ols and nam es have different first letters are listed in Table 1 4
A list of the nam es and sym bols of the first 109 elem ents, along with som e other in
form ation, is p re sen te d in a table inside the back cover of this book. In that table, the
elem ents are a lp ha be tize d according to their nam es, but d upli-cate entries appear u n
der the initial letter of the sym bols for the elem ents in Table 1.4.
The m ost im p o rta n t sym bols for beginning students to learn are given in Figure
1.5. The nam es of the elem ents indicated and their sym bols m ust be m em orized D on't
bother to m em orize the num bers shown in the boxes with the e lem ents
C he m ists w rite sym bols together in form ulas to identify co m p ou nd s For exam ple
the letters CO re p re se n t a co m pound of carbon and oxygen Be careful to d istin gu ish
the form ula CO from the elm en t cobalt The c a p ita li
't opic 1: liasic concepts
zation of letters is very im portant! Form ulas are som e-tim es w ritten w ith s u b s c rip ts to
tell the relative proportions of the elem ents present. For e xam ple. F^O re p re se n ts w a
ter, w hich has two atom s of hydrogen for every atom of oxygen p re sen t M ore about
form ulas will be presented in Section 5.1.
• Mdu ttf dau tien trong ky lueu dung cho mot nguyen to ludn ludn phai dtfoc n et
hoa; con mau ttf tliit hai neu co thi viet bang chit thtfdng.
• Vao cuoi ludn dau tien cua khoa hoc, ban nen biet ten va ky hieu cua car nguyen
to trong hinh 1.5.
A. Co bao nliieu nguyen to dtfoc trinh bay trong cong thtfc Co /C O I f
N am e S ym bol
A n tim o n y Sb
Gold Au
Iron Fe
Lead I’ b
M ercury Mg
Potassium K
S ilv e r Ag
Sodium Na
T in Sn
T ungsten W
theo ngon ngd khac vdi tieng Anh. 10 nguyen to co ky hieu vd ten cua no co cd mau ttf
ddu tiin khac nhau dtfac liet ke trong bang 1.4. M ot danh sdch ten vd ky hieu cua 109
nguyen to ddu tien cung vdi mot vdi thong tin khac dtfac trinh bdy trong bang ndm d
cuoi sdch ndy. Trong bang do, cdc nguyen to dtfoc sdp xep theo thii ttf a, b, c bang chit
cat tin cua chung, nhtfng cdc hang muc gap doi thi xuat hien ben dtfdi mdu ttf ban dau
cua ky hieu ddnh cho nguyen to do trong bang 4.
K y hieu quan trong nhat ddnh cho sinh vien mdi bdt ddu se dtfac trinh bdy trong
h in h 1.5 ten cua cdc nguyen to dtfac chi dinh vd ky hieu cua chung cung phai dtfac ghi
nhd. DiCng bdn tdm de nhd tat cd nhilng con so dtfac trinh bdy trong cdc 6 cung vdi cdc
nguyen to.
Cdc nhd hoa hoc viet cdc ky hieu cung vdi cong thilc de nhan biet cdc hap chat. Vi
du cdc mdu ttf CO bieu thi mot hap chat carbon vd oxy. Phai can than de phdn biet
cong thilc CO vdi ky hieu Co, von bieu thi nguyen to cobalt. ChU viet hoa cua cdc mdu
ttf cung rat quan trong. Cdc cong thilc doi khi dtfac viet cung vdi cdc chi so tren de bao
cho biet ty le ttfang doi cua cdc nguyen to dang co. Vi du, H f i bieu thi ntfdc, co hai
nguyen tit hydro ilng vdi moi mot nguyen til oxy. Co nhieu cong thilc dtfac trinh bdy
trong phdn 5.1.
In S ection 1.2, you learned a few of the properties of su lfu r and of iron. Do you
have to learn the p ro pe rtie s of all 100 or so elem ents individually, or are there som e
w ays to ease that burden? For over 150 years, chem ists have arranged the e lem ents
in groups w ith sim ila r chem ical characteristics, w hich m akes it easier to learn th e ir p ro p
erties. This gro up ing of the elem ents has been refined to a high degree, and the m od
ern periodic tab le is the result. A full periodic table is show n inside the fron t co ve r of
this book. The e le m e n ts num bered 104 and up in that table have only rece ntly been
produced and in such infinitely sm all quantities that their chem ical p roperties are un
m easured. T he refo re , we w ill alm ost totally ignore them in the rem ain de r of this book.
W e w ill e xp lo re se ve ra l uses for the p eriodic table in this section, as w ell as a
n um ber of te rm s used w ith it. This table w ill be used e xten sively th ro u g h -o u t the rest
of this course, and in su bse qu en t chem istry courses.
All the e le m e n ts in any horizontal row of the periodic table are said to be in the
sam e period. T he re are seven periods, the first consisting of ju s t two e le -m e nts. The
second and third p erio d s contain 8 elem ents each, and the next tw o contain 18 e le
m ents each. T he sixth period has 32 elem ents (including 14 inner tran sition e lem ents
n um bered 57 th ro u g h 71, located at the bottom of the table), and the last period is
not yet co m plete. The periods are conve ntio na lly num -bered w ith the A rabic num erals
1 through 7.
The e le m e n ts in any ve rtica l colum n in the periodic table are in the sam e group,
or fam ily. T he y have sim ila r chem ical properties, which change g ra du ally from each
one to the one b e lo w it; in som e groups, the elem ents are v e ry s im ila r. T he g ro up s
have been given tw o sets of group num bers. The classical group n um be rs are R om an
num erals follo w ed by a letter A or B. These are more useful for b eg in nin g stu de nts in
learning abo ut a tom ic structure and bonding. The elem ents in tw o g roups having the
sam e n um be r have som e chem ical sim ilarities, especially in the fo rm u la s of som e of
th eir co m p ou nd s. A ch em ica l form ula (Section 5.1) show s the ratio of atom s of each
of its e le m e n ts to e ve ry other elem ent. For exam ple, w ater, H ,0 . has tw o h ydro-gen
19
Topic 1: liasic concepts
atom s for each of its oxygen atom s, and sulfur dioxide. SO . has one su l-fu r atom for
every two atom s of o xygen E xam ples of the p eriodic sim ila ritie s of c o m p o u n d s are
BaS and CdS. w ith barium in group HA and cadm ium in group I IB . as w ell as K M nO ,
and K C 1 0 ,, with m anganese in group VIIB and chlo rin e in g ro up VIIA The m odern
group num bers are given as Arabic num er als The cla ssica l g ro up n u m b e rs w ill be
used throughout this book, with the modern group num bers s o m e tim e s added in p a
rentheses afterw ard.
Five g ro up s have fa m ily nam es The alkali m etals in clu d e all the e le m e n ts of
group IA (1) e xcept hydrogen. The alkaline earth m etals are the e le m e n ts of perio d ic
group IIA (2), and the coinage m etals are those of group IB (11) The halog en s form
group V11A (17), and the noble gases con-stitute group 0 (18)
Be careful Som e periodic tables have hydrogen located above flu orin e as w ell as
above lithium . H ydrogen is neither an alkali m etal nor a halogen
Another m ajor classifica tion of the elem ents in term s of the perio d ic table is show n
Three areas are d efin ed and nam ed the main group e lem e n ts , the tra n s itio n e le
m ents, and the in n er tran s itio n elem ents. The m ain group e le m e n ts are the s im
plest to learn about, and they w ill be studied first The transition ele m e n ts inclu de som e
of the m ost im p o rta n t e le m e n ts in our everyday lives, such as iron, c h ro m iu m and
copper The tran sition ele m e n ts are often divided into four row s of e le m e n ts called
the first, second, third, and fourth transition series. The elem ents of the fourth tra n s i
tion series e xcept for a ctinium (Ac), and those of the m ain group e le m e n ts 113-119,
are artificial; they are not found in nature. The tw o inner tran sition se ries fit into the
p e rio d ic ta b le in p e rio d s 6 and 7. rig h t a fte r la n th a n u m (La ) and a c tin iu m (A c),
respec tively The inner transition elem ents include a few im portant e le m e n ts inclu d-ing
uranium and plutonium The first series of inner transition e lem ents is ca lle d the la n
thanide series, after lanthanum , the elem ent that precedes them ; the second se rie s is
called the actinide series, after actinium , the elem ent that pre ced es them T he se e le
m ents are co n ve n tio n a lly placed below the others so as not to m ake the p e rio d ic table
too w ide N one of the a ctin id e e le m e n ts to the right of u ra n iu m has b ee n fo un d in
nature; all of th ese e le m e n ts are a rtificial All of the e le m e n ts in the a c tin id e se ries
are radioactive.
We can also divide the elem ents into metals and nonm etals because each of these
classes has some distinctive properties comm on to all their m em bers For exam ple m etals
generally have a m etallic luster (a glossy or shiny appearance) and are generally m a l
leable (can be pounded into thin sheets) and d u c -tile (can be draw n into a wire), non-
metals are generally brittle. M etals conduct electricity, m ost nonm etals do not
In the perio d ic table, the m etals are to the left of a s te pp ed line s ta rtin g to the
left of boron (B) and contin uing dow nw ard and to the right, ending to the left of a s ta
tine (At) E xce pt for hydrogen all the nonm etals are to the right of this line As you
can see, the m etallic e lem ents greatly outnum ber the non m e ta llic e le m e n ts The prop
erties of the ele m e n ts vary g radually across the periodic table S everal of the e le m e n ts
near the stepped line have som e pro p-ertie s of m etals and som e p ro p e rtie s of non-
m etals, they are so m e tim e s called m etalloids.
H ydrogen is unique in its properties It is placed on the side of the stepped line
with the m etals because it has m any chem ical p roperties sim ilar to those of m etals In
som e p e rio d ic tables, it is also placed in another p osition , above the h a lo g e n s b e
cause of its non m e ta llic chem ical and physical p roperties It a ctua lly does not fit c o m
fortably in either position because it is neither an alkali m etal nor a halogen To re fiect
its unique p ro pe rtie s it is placed in the center of still other perio d ic tables
20
Topic 1: Basic concepts
• Cdc nguyen 16 di/qc phdn loqi trong bung phdn loai ludn hodn sao cho phu hop
vdi vdt chat duqc mo ta trong phan 11.
• Cdc nguyen to trong nhom cd chu ky giong nhau thi cd cdc tinh chat hoa hoc
giong nhau.
• Ban phai hoc vdi tinh chat dqc biet cua bang. Vi due, luc ngi/di hi/dng dan phat
bieu rang “cdc nguyen to trong nhom chinh thi cd the de dang hieu chung". Ban
phai biet loqi nguyen to nao ndm trong nhom chinh.
A. So nguyen tu ciia chuoi chuyen tiep thii hai cua cdc nguyen to Id gi?
B. Nguyen Id nao cd trong tit nhien cd so nguyen til Idn nhat?
21
Topic 1: Basic concepts
Cluing la se khdm phci moi vdi cong dung cua bang phan loot luiin hoan trong
muc nay . rung nhu cac so cdc hang muc duac dung vai no. Hang nay duac dung phu hien
trong phdn con lai cua sdch nay va trong cac gido trinh hoa hoc co lien quan.
Tat cd cdc nguyen to ndm trong bat ky hang nao cua bang phdn loai tuan hoan
deu dugc goi 1a nguyen to cung chu ky. Co tat cd 7 chu ky, chu ky ddu tien gom co hai
nguyen to, Chu ky thii hai vd thii ba co chtia tain nguyen to va hai chu ky ke tiep moi
chu ky co chtia 18 nguyen to. Chu ky tliii sau co 32 nguyen to (bao gom 1 4 nguyen to
chuyen tiep trong di/oc ddnh so til .57 cho den 71, ndm 6 cuoi bang phdn loqi ludn hoan),
chu ky cuoi cung chi/a hodn chinh. Cdc chu ky di/ac ddnli so bang cdc con so A Rap It/ 1
cho den 7.
Nguyen to ndm trong bat cii cot thing di/ng ndo trong bang phdn loai ludn hoan thuoc
ciing mot nhom lioac cung mot lio. Chung co cdc ddc tinh hda hoc tuong tu nhau. cac dtSc
tilth nay thay doi mot cdch Item hen tit nguyen to ndy sang nguyen to khac ndm duoi no; d
mot vdi nhom, cdc nguyen to rat giong nhau. Cdc nliom cd phdi cd liai tap hop cac so
nhom dugc cho. Nhilng so nhom cd dien 1a cdc so La Md va theo sau hi mot mdu IU A
lioac B. Nliilng so nay hitu dung hon doi vdi cdc smlt vien moi bat ddu hoc ve cau lao
nguyen tit vd lien ket nguyen tit Nhilng nguyen to ndm trong hat nhom co so giong
nhau thi co mot vdi dac tinh hda hoc giong nhau dac biet ve cong thilc cua mot so hop
dial. Mot cong tluic hoa hoc (M uc 5.1) bieu thi ty so giUa nguyen hit cua moi nguyen to
ciiu no vdi moi nguyen to khac. Vi du, nUdc H O thi cd liai nguyen hi hydro ling i at moi
nguyen hi oxy vd dioxide sulfur, SO., cd mot nguyen hi sulfur ling vdt hat nguy en tu oxy.
Cdc vi du ve tinh chat giong nhau cua cdc hop clidt trong bong phdn loai tuan hoan la
BaS vd CdS, vdi barium ndm 6 nhom HA vd cadmium ndm d nhom IIB, cung nhu
KMnO vd KCIOj vdi manganese ndm d nhom V11B va chlorine ndm d nhom VHA. Nhilng
con so nhom luen dqi dugc cho theo nhom A Rap. Cdc so nhom co dien se duoc dung
trong suot sdch ndy, con cdc so nhom hien dqi doi khi dugc duo vdo trong cdc ddu moc
don ndm dang sau.
Ndm nhom co cac ten giong nhau. Do la cdc kim loqi alkali bao gom tai ca nguyen
to cua nhom IA (1) ngoai IrU hydrogen. Cdc kim loqi dot alkaline Id cdc nguyen to cua
nhom tuan hoan HA (2) vd cdc kim loai coinage Id ciia nhom \li(ll). Nhom co dang
halogen V1IA (17) vd kill hiem cau tqo nen nhom 0 (18).
Mot sU phdn loqi khac cua cdc nguyen Id hda hoc llieo cdc thanh phdn trong bang
phdn loqi tuan hodn Ba vung dugc dinh nghia va duoc dat ten Id nguyen to nhom clnnh.
cac nguyen to chuyen tiep. cdc nguyen to chuyen hep trong. Cdc nguyen to nhom chinh
la cdc nguyen to don gian nhat. de hoc vi the chung phdi dugc ngluen ciiu truo< hen
Cdc nguyen to chuyen tiep gom cd mot so cdc nguyen to quan trong nhd I trong doi song
hang ngay cua chung ta chang liqn nhu sat chromium vd dong Cdc nguy en to chuyen
hep thudng dugc phdn chia thanh bon hang nguyen to di/gc goi Id chuoi chuyen tiep thii
nhat, thu hai, tlui ba va thu til. Cac nguyen to cua chuoi chuyen tiep thu tu ngrxii tru
actinium (Ac) vd nhilng nguyen to thuoc cdc nguyen to nhom chinh 113-119. la cac nguyen
to nhdn tqo, chung khdng dugc tim thay trong tu nhien. Chuoi nguyen to chuyen tiep
trong dugc dua vao trong bang phdn loai tuan hodn trong cdc chu ky 6 va 7, nga\ sou
lanthamum (La) vd actinium (Ac) tuong ting. Cdc nguyen Id chuyen tiep trong bac gom
mot so nguyen to quan trong gom co uranium va plutonium Chuoi ddu hen cua cac
nguyen to chuyen hep trong goi la chuoi lanthanide, sau lanthanum, nguyen to hien
trUdc chung; cdc nguyen to thu liai duoc goi la cdc nguyen to actinide, sau actinium,
nguyen to bien trUdc cluing Nhilng nguyen to nay thuong duoc dal ngay ben duoi
11
topic 1: Basic concepts
nguyen to khac de khong lain cho bang plum loai tuan hoan qua rong. Khong co nguyen
to actinide nao ndm phia ben phdi cua uranium duqc tim thay trong tu nhien; tat ca
nguyen to nay deu Id nguyen to nhdn tqo. Hdu het cdc nguyen to trong chuoi actinide
deu Id cdc chat phong xq.
So m any facts are available to scientists as they do experim ents and observe n atu
ral phenom ena that the data m ust be classified so that they can be learned and un
derstood W hen a large group of scientific o bservations is gen-e ra lize d into a single
statem ent, that statem ent is called a law. For exam ple, when you drop a pen it falls
dow nw ard W hen you drop a ball, it falls downw ard These and m illions of other such
o bservations are grouped together and generalized as the law of g ravity A law is a
general statem ent about observable facts.
A fter o rganizing observed data into a law, scientists try to explain the law A sta te
m ent that attem pts to explain why a law is true is called a hypothesis. If the h ypo th
esis becom es generally accepted, it becom es a theory. Einstein explained the law of
gravity with his theory of relativity. Laws and theories are necessary because learning
or rem em bering all the data that have been observed over the ages is im possible
One of the m ost im portant laws in chem istry is the law of conservation of mass.
This law states that in any chem ical reaction or physical change the total m ass present
after the change is equal to the total m ass present before the change S ection 3 2 will
present John D alton s explanation of this law. in which he proposed that the particles
that m ake up m atter can rearrange them selves in various w ays but cannot be created
or destroyed That explanation is a theory; it explains the law If the p articles that make
up the m aterials before and after the change are the same, the total m ass m ust also
be the sam e
The way new generalities are accepted by the scientific com m unity as being true
has been loosely codified into a system known as the scientific m ethod. The steps of
this m ethod are
1 State the problem clearly
2. Do fu rth e r expe rim en ts M any scientists test the generality with experim ents,
repeating each other's work and doing other experim ents related to those
3 Interpret the results See if the generality explains all the results, new and old
4 A ccept the law If all the data support the law, it is g enerally accepted by the
scie n tific co m m un ity as true. If later, further e xp e rim e n ts are in c o n flic t with
the law it is m odified or abandoned altogether
An exam ple of how the scientific m ethod w orked is the e stab lish m en t of the law
of constant co m p ositio n of com pounds, also called the law of definite proportions. The
initial statem ent, based on the work on Antoine Lavoisier (17 43 -1 79 4 ). was that every
sam ple of a given com pound is com posed of the same percentage of each of its e le
m ents as any o the r sam ple of the sam e com pound That co n ce p t was su bjected to
m any tests, in w hich other scientists m easured and rem easured the co m p ositio ns of
m any sa m p le s of a w ide range of co m p ou nd s. C lau de Lo uis B e rth o lle t (1 7 4 8 -1 8 2 2 )
show ed that g ase ou s co m binations of carbon and oxygen had co m p o s itio n s ranging
from 27.29°o carbon to 42 88% carbon: and thus the com position was not definite He
therefore stated that the proposed law was incorrect. H ow ever. Joseph Louis Proust
(1754-1826) found that B erthollet's sam ples were mixtures of two co m p ou nd s carbon
23
Topic 1: Hasic concepts
m onoxide and carbon dioxide and that when either com pound was ana lyze d by itself,
it alw ays had the sam e com position. The law of definite p ro po rtio ns w as firm ly e s ta b
lished by his work. An explanation of the law of definite p ro po rtio ns was p ro po sed by
John Dalton in 1803 (Section 3.2). His hypothesis generated a great deal of add itio na l
work, all of w hich supported his ideas, which m ade the h ypo the sis into a theory
• Tinh chat khdi quat ve nhilng dieu quan sal duqc got la dinh ludt: phdn giai
thich dinh ludt d M e goi Id ly thuyet.
A Dinh ludt cdc thanh phdn ty le (cdc tlidnli phdn xdc dinh) (chtftfng 3) co gidi
thich lioac thu thdp nhilng dieu quan sat duqc hay kliongt
Sau khi sdp xep di? lieu thanh mot dinh ludt, cac nhd khoa hoc co gang giai thich
dinh ludt. Mot inenh de thii giai thich tai sao dinh lucit Id dung dilqc goi la mot gid
thiet. Neu gid thiet dilqc chap nhdn chung thi no trd thanh mot ly thuyet Einstein dd
giai thich dinh ludt van vat vd ly thuyet tiiang doi. Dinh ludt vd ly thuyet deu can tluet
bdi vi viec hoc lioac nhd tdt cd dil lieu dd ditqc quan sdl trong hang the ky la dieu
khong the thilc luen duqc.
Mot trong nhilng dinh luat quan trong nhat trong hda hoc do la dinh ludt bao loan
khoi h/qng. Dmh ludt ndy phat bieu rang trong bat cil phdn Ung hda hoc nao hoac sil
thay doi vdt ly nao thi khoi luqng co sau khi thay doi phai bdng tong khoi luang co
trUo'c khi thay doi. P ha n 3.2 se trinh bdy phdn giai thich cua John Dalton ve dm h luat
ndy, qua dd ong ta de nglu rang cac hai cau tqo nen vdi chat do phai duqc sdp xep lui
theo nhieu cdch thilc khac nhau nhilng kliong the duqc tqo ra hoac bi xoa bo. Phdn giai
thicli ndy duqc goi la mot ly thuyet, no giai thich dmh ludt. Neu cac hat lunli tlianh nen
veil dial Inldc vd sau khi thay doi Id giong nhau thi khoi luqng loan phdn cua chung
phdi giong nhau.
24
Topic 1: Basic concepts
Stf phat sinh ve cdch thiic dtfqc chap nhan bai tap the cdc nhd khoa hoc vd dtfqc
xem la dung roi di/a vdo he thong dtfqc goi la mot phtfang phdp khoa hoc. Cdc btfdc cua
phtfang phdp ndy la:
1. Phai bieu van de mot cdch ro rang.
2. Thtfc hien cdc thi nghiem chuyen sau hon. Nhieu nhd khoa hoc dd thii nghiem
tinh khdi quat qua nhieu thi nghiem de lap lai moi mot cong viec khac vd thtfc
hien cdc thi nghiem khac co lien quan den chu diem.
3. Dien dich liet qua xem thu! tinh khdi quat co giai thich tat cd cdc ket qua cu vd
mdi hay khong.
4. Chap nhan dinli luat. Neu tat cd dtf lieu deu ho tra cho dinh luat, thi tinh tong
quat dtfac cong dong cac nhd khoa hoc chap nhan la dung. Neu sau do cd nhtfng
thi nghiem chuyen sau lai xung khdc vdi dinh luat, thi no phai dtfac chinh sita
lioac dtfac bo qua hodn toan.
Mot vi du ve cdch hoqt dong cua phtfang phdp khoa hoc do Id xdc lap dinh ludt ve
hap chat khong doi cua cdc thanh phdn dtfac goila dinh luat cdc ty le xdc dinli. Phat
bieu ban ddu dtfa tren cong trinh cua Antoine Lavoisier 11743 1794), do la moi mdu
cua mot hqp chat dd cho deu bao gom ty Ip phdn tram giong nhau cua cdc nguyen to
ciia no y het nhtf bat ctf mdu nao khdc cua cung hqp chat. Khdi mem ndy dd dtfac kiem
cluing qua nhieu thi nghiem trong do cdc nha khoa hoc khdc dd do Itfdng vd do lai cdc
hon hqp cua nhieu mdu cua cdc hqp chat khdc nhau. Claude-Louis Bertholler (1748-
1822) dd cluing minh rang hon hqp khi carbon vd oxy co hqp chat bien thien ttf 27,29c/c
carbon cho den 4 2 ,8 8 % carbon, nhtf the hop chat ndy khong xdc dinh. Do do, ong ta
phat bieu rang dinh ludt dd dtfqc dtfa ra la sai. Tuy nhien, Joseph Louis Proust (1754-
1826) da thay rang cdc mdu ciia Berthollet dd lida trqn hai hqp chat do la carbon m on
oxide vd carbon dioxide vd luc moi mot hqp chat dtfqc phdn tich thi no ludn ludn co cung
mot tlidnli phdn nhtf nhau. Dinh luat ty le xdc dinh da dtfqc khdng dinh bdi cong trinh
ciia ong. Phdn gidi thich ve dinh luat vd ty le xdc dinh do John Dalton dtfa ra vdo ndm
1803 (muc 2.3). Ly thuyet cua ong dd khdi quat hoa mot y ttfdng tuyet vdi ve cong trinh
bd sung, tdt cd deu ho trq cho muc dich y ttfdng vd bien gia thiet thanh ly thuyet.
1.1 A ch e m ist in w hich branch of chem istry m ost often deals with the ch em istry of
co m p ou nd s of the noble gases?
1.5 All b ra n d s of pure a spirin are the sam e com pound. If you need a sp irin how
should you choose a brand to buy?
16 N am e as m any properties of steel as you can think of Indicate w hich ones are
ch e m ica l properties.
25
Topic 1: Basic concepts
1 7 Explain the differen ce betw een the results of hitting a piece of ste e l on a hard
surface with a ham m er and sim i-larly hitting a pane of glass Use the w ord brittle
in your explanation
1.9 W rite the sym bols from the nam es for the follow ing
(a) The first 18 ele m e n ts in the periodic table
(b) The second 18 e lem ents in the periodic table
(c) The rest of the elem ents show n in Figure 1.5
110 W rite the nam es from the sym bols for the follow ing
(a) The first 18 e lem ents in the periodic table
(b) The second 18 elem ents in the periodic table
(c) The rest of the elem ents show n in Figure 1.5
1.11 How m any e lem ents are present in each of the follow ing?
(a) No and NO
(b) HF and Hf
(c) PoC I? and POCI3
(d) Si and SI,
(e) N iC 0 3
(f) N i(C O )4
1.12 Does each m ain group have m ore or fe w er e le m e n ts than a ty p ic a l tran sition
group?
1 14 Cm is the ch e m ica l sym bo l for cu rium , nam ed a fte r the fa m o u s s c ie n tis t M arie
C urie W hy w a sn 't the sym bo l C. Cu. or C r used instead?
1.15 W hich cla ssica l tra n sitio n group has the m ost e le m e n ts?
1.16 Are the n on m e ta ls m ain group e lem ents, tra n sitio n e le -m e n ts . or inn er tra n s itio n
e le m e n ts?
1.17 W hich cla ssica l perio d ic group num ber is used for each of the fo llo w in g fa m ilie s 9
26
Topic I: Kasic concepts
(e) M any scie n tists ch eck the law and find it co rrect
PROBLEMS
1 21 W hat kind of ch a n g e — ch em ica l or p hysical— a ccom panies each of the follow ing?
(b) The co m b in a tio n of an elem ent and a com pound into a no the r com pound
(c) The co n ve rsio n of a com pound to an e le m ent and a nother com pound
1.22 In a ce rta in e xp e rim e n t, two separate sam ples of m atter are m ixed, and a great
deal of heat is g en erated . Is this m ore likely to be a c h e m ic a l or a p h ysica l
change?
1.23 (a) W hen pure w ater is cooled below 32°F (0°C), it fre e ze s (so lid ifie s). W hen
the solid is w arm ed above that tem perature, it m elts again. Its com p ositio n
does not ch an ge during the entire process. Are these ch e m ica l or p hysical
changes?
(b) W hen g ase o u s e thylene is treated with a tiny q ua n tity of a certa in other
substance, it solidifies It is dif ficult to cause the solid to reform a gas Is
the so lid ifica tion a chem ical or a physical change?
(a) A m ate ria l that co n sists of blue particles and red p article s
(e) A m ate ria l conta ining only hydrogen and oxygen that is a gas under o rdinary
room co nd itio ns.
(a) S alt w a te r
(b) C a rb o n a te d w ater
77
Topic 1: Kasic concepts
1.28 W hich of the fo llo w in g p ro p e rtie s are e x te n s iv e and w h ich are in te n sive ?
(a) C olor (c) Total cost (e) M ass (g) S peed
(b) Length (d) Price per unit (f) V olum e (h) F re e zin g point
1.29 E le ctricity is passed th rough 7.20 gram s (g) of a pure su bsta nce , and 2 83 gram s
of one m aterial and 4.37 gram s of another m aterial are pro du ced . Is the o rig i
nal su bsta nce an ele m e n t or a com pound?
1 31 In the iro n s u lfu r e xp e rim e n t d escrib e d in S e ction 1.2, heat w as used to sta rt a
ch e m ica l rea ction , w hich gave off m ore heat. C an you th ink of a n o th e r e xam ple
of a rea ction that is started by heating and then gives off m ore h e a t9
1.32 W hen d in itro g e n te tro xid e , a co lo rle ss liquid, is w arm ed , a brow n gas is fo rm e d
Is this ch a n g e a ch e m ica l change or a p h ysica l chan ge ?
28
Topic 1: Basic concepts
1 39 If 6 dozen don uts costs $21 00 and 10 dozen donuts costs $35.00. is the price
of don uts in te n sive or e xtensive?
141 List as m any kinds of energy as you can think of w ithout consulting the text.
1 45 W hat is the m ass of a 90-kilo gram (kg) astronaut on the su rfa ce of the M oon,
w here g ra vity is 17% that on E a rth 9
29
Topic I: Kasic concepts
1 49 C alcu la te the p ercen ta ge of all e lem ents in the T able of the E le m e n ts (in sid e
back cover) w hose nam es sta rt with the letter T.
(i) Hg (j) Sb
1.55 W ithout consu ltin g any tables, w rite the sym bols for the fo llo w in g ele m e n ts
(a) S odium and sulfur
(b) C obalt and copper
(c) M agnesium and m anganese
(d) P otassium and phosphorus
(e) C arbon, cadm ium and calcium
(f) Boron, barium , and bism uth
(g) Iron and iodine
1 56 W rite sym bols for each of the follow ing elem ents:
(a) H ydrogen (b) Helium (c) Lithium
(d) C arbon (e) N itrogen (f) O xygen
(g) F luorine (h) N eon (i) S odium m
1.58 W hich of the follow ing neighbors of fluorine in the p eriodic table has p ro p e ^ ie s
m ost like those of fluorine oxygen, neon, or c h lo rin e 9
30
Topic 1: Basic concepts
1 65 W hich two e lem ents are m ost like calcium in chem ical p ro p e rtie s7
1 66 How m any ele m e n ts are in the first period of the p eriodic ta b le 7 the second?
the th ird 7 the fo u rth 7
1.6 Laws, H ypotheses, and Theories - Bjnh luat, gia thiet va ly thuyet
1 69 W ould an a ccep ted gen eralizatio n that explains why a c-tive m etals react with
acids be referred to as a law, hypothesis or theory?
3!
Topic I: Kasic concepts
1.72
(a) C ount the n um ber of each of the follow ing types of e le m e n ts in F igu re 1.5:
m ain group elem ents, transi-tion elem ents, inner tran sition e le m e n ts Now
calcu-late the percentage of each type im portant enough for you to learn of
all the e lem ents in that type. For exam ple, of all the m ain group e le m e n ts,
w hat percentage is im portant for you to learn (from F igure 1 5)?
(b) W hich type of elem ent do you think w ill be m ost im p o rta n t in this course?
W hich w ill be second m ost im p orta nt7
1.73 A n u tritio n ist reco m m en d s m ore iron and less sodium in the d ie t of a patie nt
with a blood problem Does the nu-tritionist advocate e ating iron m eta l but not
sodium m etal? Explain
1.74 W hat kind of e lectrical device has the advantage of p orta b ility like a d ry cell but
better econom y?
1.75
(a) A ch em ist d eve lo ps a p harm aceutical to help p atie nts w ith thyro id pro ble m s
In w hat branch of ch em istry is this ch em ist w orking?
(b) A ch e m ist in w hich branch of ch em istry d ete rm in e s the e le c tric a l c o n d u c tiv
ity of a m etal already prepared by another ch em ist?
(c) A chem ist in w hich branch of chem istry is m ost likely to d ete rm ine the num ber
of parts per m illion of an im purity in a city's d rinkin g w ater?
1.76 A ch e m is t uses a co m p ou nd of carbon, h ydrog en , and o x y g e n to s e p a ra te a
m eta l from the rest of a sa m p le to d e te rm in e the m e ta l's p e rc e n ta g e in the
sam ple W hat branch of ch em istry is the ch em ist p ra cticin g ?
1.78
(a) P redict the color of a solution of a red su bstance d isso lved in a ye llo w s u b
stance
(b) Can you pre dict the color of a com pound of a red su b sta n ce and a yellow
su b sta n ce 7
(c) Explain your answ ers
1.79 Explain the follow ing statem ents som etim es m ade in e ve ryd a y c o n v e rs a tio n
(a) “Oil and w ater do not m ix."
(b) “G asoline and alcohol do not m ix.”
1.80 N a?C r 0 4 is the fo rm u la for a certain chrom ium co m p ou nd W h ich of the fo llo w
ing form ulas is m ost likely to be the form ula for a su lfur c o m p o u n d 7
32
topic 1: Kasic concepts
A statem ent that su m m arizes innum erable scientific facts and enables scientists to p re
dict w hat w ill happen in a certain type of situation in the future is called a law. (For
exam ple, the law of gravity enables us to predict that if we drop som ething, it w ill fall
dow nw ard This law resulted from innum erable observations ) One of the m ost im p o r
tant laws in ch e m istry is the law of conser-vation of mass, w hich states that m ass c a n
not be created oi d estroye d in any chem ical reaction or physical change. An e x p la n a
tion that is proposed to explain why a law w orks is called a h ypothesis If the e x p la n a
tion is a ccepted by the scientific com m unity, it is known as a theory. (S ection 1 6)
33
MEASUREMENT
DO LIJdNG
2 .1 Su: dung cdc dan vi cua mot so do de tra giup viec tinh todn lien quan den so
do, 2 .2 Sii dung nhilng thanh phdn ca ban cua he m et - m ot he thong cdc dan vi va
tiep ddu ngU duac thiet ke d i viec thuc hien cdc tinh todn khoa hoc duac de dang
nhat, 2 .3 sii dung cdch ghi so mu de tinh todn vdi nhilng con so rdt lan ho<Jc rat nho,
2 .4 Sil dung dung so chU so co y nghia d i chi ra tinh chinh dc cua m ot so do luang
hay mot ket qua tinh todn, 2 .5 Tinh ty trong, the tich, khdi luang d i nhan dang cac
chat, 2 .6 Phdn biet giUa cdc thang do nhiet do Fahrenheit, Ceisius vd Kelvin.
34
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
A simple do it yourself project will convince you that measuring things quantita
tively tells more than qualitative estimates, especially those made using the human
senses: Fill one beaker with cold water, a second beaker with hot water, and a third
beaker with a mixture of equal amounts of hot and cold water. Place one hand in the
cold water and the other hand in the hot water at the same time. Leave them there for
2 minutes (min). Then place both hands in the mixed water. That water will feel hot to
the hand originally in the cold water but cold to the hand originally in the hot water,
even though both hands are now in the same water!
M easurem ent is the heart of modern science, and even the social sciences are
becoming more quantitative. Measurements make identifications of substances more
precise and enable more scientific generalities to be made. For example, even ancient
peoples knew that when objects were dropped, they fell downward. The law of gravity
was extended by measurements, enabling Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) to determine
that the same laws of gravity that govern the fall of an object here on Earth also gov
ern the motions of the Moon and the planets in the solar system.
There are a wide variety of things to measure in science, and many ways to make
the measurements. For example, the volume of a rectangular box can be calculated
by measuring its length, width, and height, and multiplying them together. The volume
of a sphere can be measured by determining its radius and using the equation V =
firr3. Measuring the radius directly might not be feasible, as for example with a bowling
ball, so we might measure the diameter by placing the ball between two parallel boards
and taking half of the distance between them because the radius is half the diameter.
Alternatively, we might measure the circumference and find r from that, using the
equation c = 2nr. The total volume of a bunch of small pieces of copper can be m ea
sured by measuring the volume of a sample of water, placing the copper in the water,
and measuring the total volume. The difference between the volumes is the volume of
the copper. (This method works only with samples that do not dissolve to form a solu
tion.) Quantities other than volume are measured in a variety of other ways.
Several aspects of measurement will be considered in this chapter. First, Section
2.1 presents the factor label method, which makes calculations with measured quanti
ties easier. This method will be used in the sections that follow and throughout the
book. Section 2.2 introduces the metric system, a system of weights and measures
designed to make calculations as easy as possible. Next, in Section 2.3, we consider
how to calculate with extremely large and extremely small numbers, using exponential
notation. In Section 2.4, we discuss the accuracy and precision of measurements and
how that precision should be reported, using the proper number of significant digits.
The concept of density, considered in Section 2.5, not only is useful in itself, espe
cially for identifying substances, but also enables us to apply the concepts presented
in previous sections. Finally, Section 2.6 discusses temperature scales.
35
Topic 2: Measurement
Do luang la trong tain ciia khoa hoc hien dqi, va tlidm chi la nhilng nganh khoa
hoc xa liqi cung dang tra urn co tinh chat dinli luqng hon. Nlirtng pltep do giup ta nhan
dang duqc cdc chat chinh xdc hon cd cho pliep ta thilc hien dilqc nhilng dieu kliai qua!
hoa cd tinh khoa Iwc hon. Vi du, ngay cd nhilng ngi/di xUa cung hiet rang khi cac i’dt
the dilqc tha ra, chung se roi xuong dildi. Dinh ludt hap dan da dtloc md rang bot cdc
phpp do, cho phpp Sir Isaac Npirton t16/12 1727) xdc dinh rang ciing nhilng dinli ludt
hap ddu do chi plidi sit rot cua mot cat the tren trdi ddt ndy. ciing chi phot nhilng chuxen
dong cun mat trong cd cdc hdnh hull trong lie mat trdi.
Co rat nhieu sit cat khdc nhau cd the ditqc do trong khoa hoc ra co nhieu rdrli di-
the hien cdc phpp do. Vi du, the tich ciia mot edi hop hinli chi? nhat cd the duac tinh
loan hang cdch do chieu dill, chieu rang vd chieu caa ciia no va nhdn cac so do nuy Iqi
vdi nhau. The tich cua mot khoi cau co the duqc do bdng cdch xdc dinli ban kinh cua 116
vd sit dung phitang trinh V = - nr1. Viec do trilc tiep ban kinh cd the khong ditac de
dang, vi du nhit doi vdi mot qua bong howling, do do chung ta co the do duong lanh
bdng cdch dat qua bdng vdo gida hai ban song song va lay ban kinh bang nUa khodng
cdch giiia hai ban nay vi ban kinh la nita mot duong kinh.
Use units in reporting all m easurem ents and the results of ca lcu la tio n s using them
Alw ays use full sp ellings or standard abbreviations for all units
Every m ea surem e nt results in a num ber and a unit R eporting the unit is just as
im p o rta n t as re p o rtin g the n u m b e r For e xam ple , it m akes q uite a bit of d iffe re n c e
w hether your pet is 4 inches tall or 4 feet ta ll1 The units are an in te g ra l p art of any
m easurem ent, and from the outset, you m ust get used to stating the units for every
m easured q uantity and for every quantity calculated from m easured data A lw ays use
full sp ellin gs or standard abb re viatio ns for all units In a great m any ca se s you can
use the units as a clue to which operation m ultiplication or division to p erform in ealeu
lations with m easured quantities.
The units of m ea surem e nt can be treated as algebraic q ua ntitie s in ca lcu la tio n s
For exam ple, we can ca lcu late the total w ages of a stu de nt aide w ho has earne d 7
dollars per hour for 25 hours of work, as follow s
Total w ages = (hours w orked )(h ou rly rate)
7 d o lla r s ] , , ,,
2 d Jietfrs , 175 dolla rs
^ 1 lu m r )
The unit hours (h) in the tim e cancels the unit hour in the rate lea ving the unit
dollars in the a nsw er Each unit is treated as a whole, no m attei how m any letters it
contains M oreo ver, for the units to cancel, it does not m atter if the unit is s ing ula r
(such as hour) or plural (such as hours). If we did not know the equation to ca lcu la te
the total w ages, we could have put down the tim e with the unit hours and m ultiplie d
by the rate of pay. w hich has the unit hour in its den om ina tor The units tell us that we
m ust m u ltip ly 1
The previous ca lcu latio n is an exam ple of the use of the facto r label m eth o d , in
which a q ua ntity is m ultiplied by a factor equal to 1 The units in clu d e d in the ’ actor
are the labels In the previous exam ple. S7 is equ iva len t to 1 hour (h), and the c a lc u la
tion changes the n um ber of hours w orked to the equ iva len t n um ber of dollars To use
36
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
the factor label method, you first put down the given quantity, then multiply by a c o n
version facto r (a rate or ratio) that will change the units given to the units desired for
the answer. The factor may be a constant known to you or a value given to you in the
problem.
To summarize the steps of the factor label method:
1. Put down the quantity given (or, occasionally, a ratio to be converted).
2. Multiply the quantity by one or more factors rates or ratios which will change
the units given to those required for the answer. The conversion factors may
be given in the problems, or they may be constants of known value.
To use the factor label method effectively, you must know the units of all the quan
tities involved.
Small diagrams that show the initial units and the final units connected by the
conversion factor are used in this book to show how to change a quantity from one of
the units to the other. For example, for calculating the student aide’s total wages, we
use the following diagram:
Diagrams like this will accompany many of the solutions to the in-text examples.
When you solve the practice problems and the problems at the end of the chapter,
you may want to make your own diagrams.
Hours j j ^ ! , P o / / a r > j|
7 d o lla rs
25 h o u r = 175 d o lla rs
1 hour
• Trong phuang phdp he so ghi nhdn, cdc dan vi cd the duac khii vai nhau giong
nhu cdc bien so (x,y) trong dai so. Viec sdp xep cdc dan vi sao cho khii duac vdi
nhau de co duac cdc dan vi mong muon Id mot chinh yeu trong phuang phdp
nay.
• M ot so he so la hang so, vi du nhu so cent trong mot do la, mot so khdc la cd the
thay doi, vi du nhu so d$m mot xe hai di duac tren gia va he so nhu vdy phdi
duac cho trong phdn ddu de cua bdi todn.
A. (a) Tinh so phdn tu do la trong 15,50 do la. (b) Tinh gid tri bdng do la cua 2 17
phdn tu do la.
37
topic 2: Measurement
Cdc dan vi ditqc do cd the dtfqc xem nhtf dqi Itfqng dqi so trong phep tinh toan Vi
du. ban cd the tinh tong tien cong cua mot sinli vien tra giang kiem duac 7 do la tren
gid sau 25 gid lam viec nhtf sau:
Tong tien cong = (gid lam viecXdinh mite tien cong gid)
7 dollars
25 iioTfrs 175 dolla rs
1 fMJifr
Dan vi gid (h) trong tlidi gian khtf vdi dan vi gid trong dinh mite tien cong. de con
Iqi dan vi do la trong Idi giai. Moi dan vi dtfqc xem xet nhu moi long the , khong ke dan
vi dd bao gom bao nhieu cliil edi. Han nila, doi vdi cdc dan vi dtfqc kliit di, vi dan i i la
so it hay so nhieu ciing khdng anh htfdng gi. Neu ta kliong biet chitang trinh de tinh
tong tien cong, ta cd the ghi tlidi gian vdi dan vi gid vd nhdn vdi dinh mite tien cong,
dinh mtfc ndy ciing co dan vi gid d moi so. Cdc dan vi cho ta biet rang chung ta phdi
nhdn!
Phep tinh vita rdi Id mot vi du cua viec sii’ d u n g phu'ting p h a p h e so g h i nhdn
trong do mot dqi Itfong dtfqc nhdn vdi mot he so bang vdi 1 Cdc dan vi co hen quan
trong lie so Id nhilng nhdn . Trong vi du vita rdi. 7 dd ta titang ditang vdi mot gio 'Ay ra
linli todn lam thay dot so gid dd him viec thanh so do la titang ditang !)■'’ sit dung
phuang phap he so ghi nhdn. tritdc het ban phai ghi dai litang dd cho rdi nhdn i ai mot
he so ch u y en d o i (mot dmh sudt liay mot ty sol phep nhdn nay se lam thus doi cac
dan vi dd cho tlidnli rdi dan vi mong muon trong Idi gidi. lie si) cd the Id mot hd'ig so
md ban dd biet hay mot gid tri dtfac cho trong bai todn cua ban
1. Ghi ra dqi litang dd cho (hay, doi khi khi la mot ty so can dtfac chuyen dot'
2. Nhdn dqi litang ndy vdi mot hay nlueu lie so • cdc dinh mtfc liay cdc ty so
phep nhdn nay se thay doi cdc dan vi dd cho thanh cdc dan vi dd mong muon
38
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
trong Idi gidi. Cdc h i so chuyen doi co the duac cho trong cdc bdi todn, hay chung
co th i la nhilng h&ng so gid tri dd biet.
D i sic dung phuang phdp he so ghi nhdn mot cdch hieu qua, ban phdi biet cdc dan
vi cua tdt cd cdc dqi luang liin quan.
Nhilng sa do nhd cho thdy cdc dan vi ban ddu vd cdc dan vi sau cung duqc noi vai
nhau bdng h i so chuyen doi duqc sit dung trong sdch ndy d i cho thdy cdch de bien doi
mot dqi luqng til mdt dan vi ndy sang mot dan vi khdc. Vi du, de tinh tong tien cong
cua sinh viin trq gidng, chung ta svC dung sa do sau day:
7 dollars
25 hour = 175 dollars
1 hour
Nhitng sa do nhu vay se di kem vdi cdc Idi gidi trong cdc vi du trong bdi. Khi ban
gidi cdc bdi tap thuc hdnh vd cdc bdi tdp a cuoi chuang, ban co ve rieng nhilng sa do
cua minh.
The m etric system and its more modern counterpart SI (for System e International
d'Unites) are systems of units designed to make calculations as easy as possible. It
was designed to make every word mean one and only one thing. Its subdivisions and
multiples of units are powers of 10 times a primary unit. Each of its prefixes means
the same thing, no matter what unit it is attached to. The abbreviations for the quanti
ties and prefixes are easy to remember. All these features have been built into the
metric system to make it easy.
Learning the following six words is essential to understanding the metric system:
1. meter 4. centi-
2. gram 5. milli-
3. liter 6. kilo-
(A few more words will be added as we progress.) Meter, gram, and liter are the
units of length, mass, and volume, respectively, in the metric system. Just as the En
glish system has subdivisions of its primary units (12 inches (in.) in a foot, for example),
so does the metric system. But the metric system uses prefixes that mean the same
thing no matter what primary unit they are used with. Centi-, milli-, and kilo- are pre
fixes that indicate certain multiples or divisions of any primary unit. Other less impor
tant prefixes are given along with these in Table 2.1.
The m eter is the primary unit of length in the metric system. Its abbreviation is
m. The m eter is defined in such a way that it can be duplicated precisely in any well-
equipped laboratory in the world. It has been denned as the distance between two
marks on a metal bar kept at the Bureau of Weights and M easures in Paris. (It now
has an even more precise definition.) A m eter is 39.37 in. Long 3 .37 in. longer than
a yard to give you an idea of its length.
39
Topic 2: Measurement
U n it Sym bol E q u iv a le n c ie s
D istance M ete r m
M ass G ram g
Volum e L ite r L
Volume Cubic m eter mJ 1000 L = 1 m
Volume Cubic ce n tim e te r cm ' 1000 cm-' = 1 L
L e n g th M ass V o lu m e
40
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
^ O . O lm ^
239 cm = 2.39 m
lc m
^ lcm ^
4.91 m = 491 cm
0.01 m
Some conversions between English and metric system units are presented in Table
2.3. Engineers must know how to do such conversions because they still use some
English system units. However, scientists rarely use English system units, and there
fore, these conversions are less important for them. (The use of a metric unit that is
becoming familiar to the general public is shown. Note that 80 km/h is about 50 mph.)
41
Topic 2: Measurement
Mass
As stated earlier, the p rim ary unit of m ass in the m etric syste m is th e gram Be
cause the gram is so sm all, how ever, the standard m ass in SI and the leg al standard
in the United States is the kilogram .
Volume
V o lu m e can be m easured in two w ays (1) using the ca pa city of a c e rta in c o n
tainer, and (2) using the space defined by a cube of length/on each side The second
m ethod uses the cube of a length (and thus one possible unit for vo lu m e is the cube
of a length unit). The volum e of a rectangular solid is given by
V o lum e = length x w idth x h eight
V = Ix w x h
42
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
• H i met la d i sit dung vi tdt ca nhitng phep chuyin doi deu la luy thiCa cua 10,
tdt cd cdc tiep ddu ngit co y nghla giong nhau khong ke la chung duac gdn vdo
dan vi nao, vd tdt cd cdc ky hieu deu co y nghla.
• Nhilng phep chuyin doi h i Anh - h i met thitong it duoc gidi thiiu, neu co thi
cung chi de cho ban co mot y niem ve kich thuoc cua dan vi he met. Nhilng hiin
tuong ndy khong duac sit dung nhieu trong giao trinh ndy.
• The tich co the duoc biiu dien bdng lit (hay cdc don vi nho hon) hodc lap phuong
cua mot don vi chieu dai (nhu m3 hay cm3). Chit centi- trong cm3 khong co nghla
Id mot phdn trim cua mot met khoi, vi 0.01 phdi duoc lap phuong lin.
A. Hodn chinh nhitng phdn sau day bdng cdch viit theo don vi met dung:
(a) T h i tich cua mot Ion soda 0 .366_______
(b) Chieu cao cua mot van dong viin bong ro chuyin nghiep 1 .8 _______
(c) The tich nUdc trong ho bcri d sau nhd 2 _______
(d) Khdi luang cua mdt phdn tu do la (25c) 5.7_______
B. Hay tinh so (a) met trong 217 mm, (b) lit trong 2217 mL vd (c) gam trong 2117
mg.
C. Hay tinh so (a) lit trong 0.350 m3 vd (b) lit trong 275 cm3.
H$ met
i /p m e t vd phdn bo sung cua no mdi hon la he SI (viit tdt cho Systeme Interna
tional d ’Unites) la nhitng he don vi duac thiit k i d i lam cho viec tinh todn trd nin de
ddng nhdt. No duac thiet ke sao cho mdi tic duac dung d i chi cho mot vd chi mot sit vat.
Udc so vd boi so cua cdc don vi trong he ndy la 10 Idn hon hay nho hon dan vi so cap.
Moi tiep ddu ngit cua he deu co ciing y nghla, khong k i la tiep ddu ngit duac gdn vdo
vdo. Nhitng chit viet tdt cho dai luong vd cho tiep ddu ngit de nhd. Tdt cd nhitng ddc
diem tren dd duac xdy dung trong he met de cho ngudi dung ngay nay duac de ddng.
Viec hoc thuoc sau tit sau day la dieu thiet yeu d i hiiu duac he met:
1. met 4. centi-
2. gram 5. milli-
3. lit 6. kilo-
(Mot so it tit khdc nda se duoc bo sung them trong qua trinh hoc.) Met, gram vd lit
la nhitng don vj tuong itng cua chieu dai, khdi luong va th i tich trong he met. Cung
giong nhu trong he Anh co cdc Udc so cua cdc don vi set cap vi du 12 inch (in) trong mot
foot), he met cung cd nhitng udc so nhu vdy. Nhung he met sit dung cdc tiep ddu ngd de
chi cung mot y nghla khong k i Id tiep ddu ngit ndy duac sit dung vdi don vi so cap nao.
43
Topic 2: Measurement
centi-, milli- ua kilo- la nhilng tiep ddu ngU chi ra rang mot dan vi sa cap bat k\ ditac
nlian len hay chia di bao nhieu lan. Nhilng hep dau ngU khac it quan trong hon ditac
lie! ke vai nhilng tiep dau ngil nay trong bang 2 . 1.
M e t Id dan vi cliieu dai sa cap trong lie met. No ditac viet tdt Id >n M et duac
dinli nghla theo mot phitang thilc sao cho no cd the ditac sao chep Iqi mot cdch chinli
xdc trong bat cur phong thi nglnein nao duac trang bi tdt tren the gnu M et duac dmh
nghla nhd khodng cdch giila hai vach tren mot thanh kun loai duac gii7 a ran phong
trong luang vd do litang d Paris. INgay nay met dd cd mot dmh nghla chinh xdc hail).
De cho ban cd mot y niem ve dd dai ciia met. thi mdt met Id .'19.37 in. ddi hon mdt
yard 3.37 in.
Mot tieu cliudin Id mot quy Udc duac thou thudn ve mdt dai lining ma cac dai luang
litang IU cd the ditqc so sanh vdi no. Vi du, met Id lieu chuan quy Udc cua chieu dai. cac
dd dai khdc co the dilqc so sdnh vdi met. Trong viec do litang, phdn Ian cac dqi luang.
dan vi sa cap cung Id lieu chuan. Tuy nhien, vdi khoi luqng, lieu chudin khdc i <n don vi.
drain Id dan vi sa cap cua khoi htqng trong lie met ( Irani viet tdt la g qua nho nen
kilogram dd ditqc chon nhu mot tieu chuan phap dinh cua khdi luang a M y va la lieu
chuan trong he SI tren loan the gidi. Khdi htqng ditqc do bdng cach so sanh vai cac l/hdi
luqng lieu chuan. Kilogram Ikg) la khoi luqng tuong ditang vai khuang 2,2 pound (Ip).
Khoi lugng
Nhu dd noi tit trudc, dan vi sa cap cua klidi luqng trong he met la gam Tuy nhien.
bdi vi gam qua nhd, khdi luqng lieu chuan trong lie SI vd lieu chuan phap dmh a My la
kilogam.
The tich
The tich cd the duqc do then hai cdch: (1) sit dung dung tich cua mot vd! chita nlidl
dinh, vd (2 ) sit dung khodng khdng gian ditac dinh nghla bdi mdt khdi lap phuang cd
chieu ddi I mdi cqnh Phitang phdp thii hai sit dung mdt luii/i klidi tap phuang m nidi
chieu ddi cunh (vd do do co the cd duqc mdt dan vi the tich la mdt khdi lap phuang co
chieu dm dan vi). The tich ciia mdi khdi ran luii/i chu illicit duac cho bai
T h e tic h = c h ie u d a i x c h ie u r p n g x c h ie u cao
V = 1x w x h
Khoi lap phuong la moi IrUdng hqp dac biet trong dd 1 = w = h, do da the tich cua
klidi lap phitang Id V = 1J.
Don vi the tich trong lie met la lit (L), cd nguon goc duqc dinh nghla la the licli
duqc chiem bdi mot khoi lap phuang cd moi cqnh chinh xdc Id 10 cm f xom h in h 2 6 i
Trong he SI met khoi Id tieu chuan. Vi met khdi cd the tich litang ddi 'an <hang
khodng inia site chUa cua xe tai nhd), dan vi lit duac cac nha hoa hoc ua dunu hon
44
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
2,25 x
Coefficient
Base Exponent
v_____ ______ /
V
Exponential part
45
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
W e can increase either the coefficient or the exponential part of a num ber by any
factor without changing the number’s overall value if we reduce the other part by the
same factor. A simple working rule allows changing the format of a num ber in expo
nential notation: Move the decimal point in the coefficient to the right n places and
reduce the exponent n units, or move the decimal point in the coefficient to the left n
places and increase the exponent n units.
A. Report the following numbers in standard exponential form: (a) 2003 (b) 200 0 0
and (c) 0.00200.
B. Do the following calculations
(a) 1.27 x 103 cm + 6.5 x 102 cm
(b) (1.25 x 103 cm )(8.40 x 102 cm)
(c) 1.50 x 10-3 cm - 6 .50 x 10‘ * cm
• Trong phep cong hay trit, cdc dan vi phdi giong nhau vd cdc so mu phdi giong
nhau de co the cong mot cdch dan gian cdc he so nhdm co duac ket qua dung.
A. Ghi nhilng con so sau day theo cdch ghi bdng so mu tieu chuan: (a) 2003 fbj
2000,0 vd (c) 0,00200.
46
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
47
I'ofiic 2: Measurement
So co so mu
Cdc vdt the ma khoa hoc quan tain nam trong liliodng tit vd cung nho cho den Idn
den mile gdn nhit khdng the titang titang ditqc. So nguyen tit sat xep lien nhau tren mot
dqan thdng ddi 1 cm Id khodng 80 trieu (P han 13.1). So nguyen tit cd the chita day
Irong mot the tich 1 cm ' la 80 trieu lap phitang khodng chifng 5 0 0 ngdn ty ly ' Mdi
nguyen Iif adt nho den mite gdn nhu khdng the lifting 11fang duac
Cdc nhd khoa hoc xi( ly nhitng con so Idn vd nho bdng eac h sit dung c d c h g h i so
m u. Mdt con sd ditac viet theo dinh dang ndy cd cac phdn sau day
2.25 x 10'
lli- so^
Co so So mil
Phan so init
li e so Id mdt con sd binh thudng, sd ndy cd the cd hay khdng co sd le thdp phdn.
No dtfac nhdn vdi p h d n m u, gom mdi cd so vd mdi so m u Trong khoa hoc. ca so
thudng Id 10 vd sd mu Id mdt sd nguyen. lie sd duqc nhdn vdi ca sd tlieo so Idn cho bdi
sd nui. Titc Id, con sd trong vi du Id 2,55 ditqc nhdn vdi 10 ba Idn:
I a co thi' tang ph dn he sd liay plidn mil theo mdt h i sd bill k\ nui khdng h f
ddi gia In ch u n g cua con sd neu ta gidm phdn kia di c u n g nidi lie so Cu m ot / ■. 'i, );
dan gia n ch o viec thay ddi d m h d a n g cua mdt con sd tlieo each g h i bd ng so ,t. u Di
48
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
chuyin ddu chdm thdp phdn trong phdn h i so sang phdi n vi tri vd giam sd mu di n
dan vi hay di chuyen ddu chdm thdp phdn trong he so sang trdi n vi tri vd tdng so mu
lin n dan v\.
10 4 x 1 0 3 = ( 10 x 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 ) x ( 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 )
= 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 = 1 07
Scientific measurements are often repeated three or more times. The average value
of the measurem ents is probably closer to the true value than any one of them. The
accuracy is the closeness of the average of a set of measurements to the true value.
The precision is the closeness of all of a set of measured values to one another. A
set of measurem ents may be precise without being accurate or accurate without being
precise (if the m easurer is very lucky), but the best measurements are both accurate
and precise.
No matter how accurate your measuring tool, the accuracy of your measurements
is limited. For example, an automobile odometer has divisions of 0.1 mile (or 0.1 km),
and you can estimate to one-tenth of that smallest scale division, but you cannot m ea
sure 1 in. or even 1 ft with an odometer. Similarly, you cannot measure the thickness
of a piece of paper with a ruler marked off in centimeters.
The precision with which you can measure must be indicated when you report a
measurement. W hen you use a measuring instrument, you should estimate to one digit
beyond the smallest scale division, if possible. For example, see Figure 2.10. If you
m easure the length of the bar with the top ruler, calibrated in centim eters, you can
see that the bar is between 4 and 5 cm long and can estimate that it extends 0.1 cm
past 4 cm, for a reading of 4.1 cm. In contrast, if you use the bottom ruler, calibrated
in tenths of centim eters— that is, millimeters— you can see that the length of the bar
49
Topic 2: M easurem ent
is between 4.0 and 4.1 cm. You can estimate that it is 4 .08 cm. The last digit you use
to report this measurement tells anyone reading the result that you used a ruler with a
millimeter scale.
Suppose that the bar extended exactly to the 4.1 line on the m illim eter ruler. How
would you report the result? You should report 4.10 cm. If you omit the zero, som e
one reading the result will think that you used a ruler calibrated only in centimeters.
The third digit indicates that the result was obtained on a more precise ruler, but just
happened to be a value ending in zero.
Scientists report the precision of their measurem ents every time they write one
down. The number of digits they use consists of the absolutely certain digits plus one
estimated digit. Every digit that reflects the precision of the m easurem ent is called a
significant dig it, or s ig n ifica n t figure. Note that the word significant has a different
meaning here than in everyday conversation, where it means “important.”
Sometimes, zeros are used merely to indicate the magnitude of a num ber (how
big or small the number is). If the purpose of a zero is only to establish the magnitude
of the number, that zero is not significant. Determining which zeros are significant in a
properly reported measurement is important.
The following rules enable chemists to tell whether zeros in a number are signifi
cant or not:
1. Any zeros to the left of all nonzero digits (for example, in 0.00 3) are not sig-
nificant.
2. Any zeros between significant digits (for example, in 107) are significant.
3. Any zeros to the right of all nonzero digits in a number with decimal place dig
its (for example, in 40.00) are significant.
4. Any zeros to the right of all nonzero digits in an integer (for exam ple, in 500)
are uncertain. If they indicate only the magnitude of the m easurem ent, they
are not significant. However, if they also show something about the precision
of the measurement, they are significant. You cannot tell w hether they are sig
nificant merely by looking at the number.
50
Topic 2: Measurement
• Tinh chinh xac duqc sU dung trong mot phep do duqc phan anh bai so chu so co
y nghla dlioc bao cao.
51
Topic 2: Measurement
• Nhilng quy luat ve chU so co y nghla trong phep cong va phep tru khac vdi nhilng
quy luat trong pliep nhdn va phep chia.
• Cdc chQ so co y nghla vd cdc chil so sau ddu chain thdp phdn khdng giong nlinu.
Khdng nhdt thiet phdi cd sU quan he gilla chung.
• Noi chung, cdc may tinh dien til cam tay khdng cho ra sd chtf so cd y nghla
thich hqp.
• Tdt cd cdc chU so trong he sd cua mot con sd viet d dang sd mu chuan deu 1a cd
y nghla.
• Hay tliUc luen cdc phep tinh cd sd mu tren may tinh cam tay de cd diiac do Ida
dung, sau do phdi nham lai trong ddu de cd duqc sd chil sd cd y nghla thich hop.
A. Cd bao nhieu chU sd cd y nghla vd bao nhieu chil sd le sau ddu chdm thdp phdn
trong nhilng sd sau day ?
(a) 0,0122 cm, (b) 12,03 cm, (c) 10,0 cm, Id) 4.50 xlO'crn
B Thitc hien nhilng phep tinh sau day vdi sd chil sd cd y nghla thich hap:
la) 1,07 cm 0,2212 cm. lb) 11,07 cm)<0.2212 cm)
C. 1.24 x 10' cm 1.11 .r 102 cm
Substancc Dcnsity(g/m L)
A lu m in u m 2.702
C opper 8.92
Gold 19.3
Iron 7.86
Lead 11.3
M agnesium 1.74
M ercury 13.6
P la tin u m 21.45
S ilv e r 10.5
T in 5.75
Octane 0.7025
S a lt ( N a d ) 2.165
Sugar ( sucrose) 1.56
W a te r (a t 4'JC) 1.000
52
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
ChO so co y nghla
Cdc phep do khoa hqc thudng ditac l$p lai ba Idn hay nhieu hon nda. Gid tri trung
binh cua cdc phep do co khd ndng gdn vdi gid tri thuc hon bat ky mot phep do nao
trong sd do. Do chinh xdc Id sU gdn sat gid tri trung binh cua mot tdp hop cdc phep do
cd gid tri thuc. Tinh chinh xdc Id sU gdn sat nhau cua tdp hop cdc gid tri do duqc. Mot
tdp hop cdc phep do co the co tinh chinh xdc nhung khong co do chinh xdc hay co do
chinh xdc nhung khong co tinh chinh xdc (neu ngudi do rat may mdn), nhung nhilng
phep do tdt nhdt phdi vita cd do chinh xdc vita co tinh chinh xdc.
Khong ke Id dung cu do cua ban chinh xdc nhu the nao, do chinh xdc cua nhilng
phep do cua ban phdi co gidi hqn. Vi du, mot dong ho xe hoi cd cdc vach chia 0,1 d$m
(hoQc 0,1 km) vd ban cd the udc luqng den mot phdn mUdi cua phdn chia nho nhdt tren
thang do do, nhung ban khdng the do duqc den 1 in hay thdm chi la 1 ft vdi mot dong
ho do vdn toe. Tuong tu, ban khong the do duqc be day cua mot to gidy bdng mot cay
thudc duqc vach ddu bdng centimet.
Tinh chinh xdc md ban cd the do can phdi duqc chi ra khi ban bao cdo mot phep
do. Khi ban sd dung mot dung cu do, ban phdi Udc luqng den mot chil sd thdp hon phdn
chia nhd nhdt neu cd the duqc. Vi du xem hinh 2.10. Neu ban do do ddi cua mot khuon
ddng nhqc tren ban nhqc bdng cqnh tren cua mot cay thudc duqc vach cd centimet, ban
cd the thdy rdng chieu ddi cua khuon ddng nhqc ndm trong khodng 4 vd 5 cm vd cd the
Udc luqng r in g no ddi hon 4cm vd 0,1 cm, de cd ket qua dqc la 4,1 cm. Nguqc Iqi, neu
ban sit dung thanh day cua cay thudc, duqc vach cd den mot phdn mUdi cua centimet tile
Id millimet - ban cd the thdy rdng do ddi cua khuon nhqc Id d khodng gida 4,0 vd 4,1
cm. Ban cd the Udc luqng rdng dd Id 4,08 cm. Chd sd cuoi cung md ban sii dung de bao
cdo phep do ndy cho bat cd ngudi nao dqc ket qua biet rdng ban dd sd dung cdy thudc
vdi thang do millimet.
Gid sd rdng khuon nhqc ddi chinh xdc den duong vach 4,1 tren thudc do millimet.
Ban se ghi nhan ket qua nhu the nao? Ban se ghi nhan Id 4,10 cm. Neu ban bo sd 0 di
thi mdt ngudi nao dd dqc ket qua se nghi rdng ban dd sd dung cdy thudc chi duqc vach
cd den centimet. Chd sd thd ba, m$c du chi la mot gid tri tdn cung bdng 0 chi ra rdng
ket qua dd thu duqc duqc tren mot cdy thudc chinh xdc hon.
Nhd khoa hqc bao cdo vi tinh chinh xdc cdc sd do cua ho moi Ian ho ghi lai. Sd chd
sd md ho sd dung gom mot sd chd sd chdc chdn tuyet ddi them vdi mot chd sd Udc tinh.
Moi chd sd phdn anh tinh chinh xdc cua sd do duqc goi Id chd sd cd y nghia hay con sd
cd y nghia. Chu y Id td cd y nghla d ddy cd nghla khdc hon trong cdch noi hang ngay,
trong cdch noi hang ngay cd y nghia nghia la “quan trong’ .
Ddi khi, cdc sd 0 duqc sd dung chi de chi ra do Idn cua mot con sd (sd dd Idn hay
nhd nhu the nao). Neu muc dich cua sd 0 chi ra de xdc lap do Ion cua con sd, sd 0 dd la
khdng cd y nghla. Viec xdc dinh nhdng sd 0 nao la cd y nghia trong mot sd do duqc bao
cdo dung cdch la mot dieu quan trong.
Nhdng quy ludt sau ddy giup cho cdc nhd hda hqc biet duqc la cdc sd 0 trong mot
con sd la cd y nghia hay khdng:
1. Bat cd con sd 0 nao d ben trdi tdt cd chd sd khdng phdi Id sd 0 (vi du, trong
0,003) diu khdng cd y nghia.
2. Bat cd nhdng sd 0 nao gida cdc chd sd cd y nghia (vi du trong 107) Id cd y nghla.
3. Bat cd cdc con sd 0 nao d ben phdi cua tdt cd chd sd khdng phdi Id sd 0 trong mot
con sd vdi cdc chd sd sau ddu chdm thdp phdn (vl du, trong 40,00) deu cd y nghia.
Topic 2: Measurement
4 . licit cd con so 0 nao d ben trdi ciia tdt cd cdc d id so khong phai la so 0 trong
mot sd nguyen (vi du, tro n g 500) deu la khong elide chan. Neu chung chi do Idn
cua so do, thi chung khong cd y nghia. Tuy nhien, neu chung cho biet mot dieu
gi dd ve link chinh xdc cua so do, thi chung la cd y nghla. Ban khong the noi
duqc la chung co y nghia hay khdng chi bdng cdch nhin vdo con so
Khong nhilng ban chi phdi ghi nhan cdc dil lieu plidn anh tinh chinh xdc ciia cdc
pliep do, md bat cd ket qua tinh todn nao til cdc dd lieu ciing phdn anh tinh chinh xdc
dd. Mot so quy luat chi phoi viec cd bao nhieu chd so cd y nghla 1a duqc pliep trong cdc
ket qua tinh todn vd lam the nao de cd duqc cdc chU sd dd.
Chil sd 2 trong 6,2 Id mot chil sd Udc tinh; trong sd ndy cd mot sd tinh chut khdng
elide clidn. Do vdy, chil sd 4 trong dap sd cung khdng elide chan, 0 vd 3 la hoan todn
khdng biet. Chung ta khdng the bao cao gia tri 15,403 cm, neu khdng thi nguai dqc se
tudng rdng 3 la chd sd khdng chdc chan duy nhdt. Chung ta phai gidm sd chil sd de con
Iqi sd 4 la chit sd cuoi cung. Noi chung, ta tang chil sd cuoi ciing duqc gid lai neu chil sd
ddu tien phai bo di Id 5 liay Idn hon 5; neu khdng chung ta khdng thay doi chil so cuoi
cung.
Do dd, doi vdi phep cong hay phep trd, chung ta gid Iqi cdc chd sd trong dap so xa
nhdt ve ben phai khdng chdc chan xa nhdt ve ben trdi trong bat cd sd nao duac cong
hay trd. Chu y Id sd cd chd sd co y nghla khong anh Iiddng gi den phep cong hay phep
trd; van de cdc chd sd cuoi ciing ndm d dau. Trong bdi todn vdo roi, cd hai chd sd co y
nghla trong sd thd nhdt vd bon trong so thd hai, nhdng dap sd cd ba chd so cd y nghla.
Doi vdi phep nhdn vd pliep chia, so chd so co y nghla trong so hang cd it chd so
nhdt gidi hqn sd chd sd cd y nghla trong dap sd. Vi du, hay nhdn 11.23 cm cho 5 .0 cm:
11.23 cm x 5.0 cm = 56.15 cm -
(Sd chd sd cd y nghla khdng dung)
Neu chung ta gid dap sd giong nliU tren may tinh cam tay cho ra, mdt nguai nao do
cd the cho rdng phep do dd duqc tlu/c luen vdi mdc do chinh xdc 1 phdn 5615, dieu ndy
khdng dung. Chung ta phai gidm xuong so chd sd cd v nghla trong dap sd den hai so vi so
hang voi it chd sd cd y nghia hon la 2. Do dd chung ta thay ddi ket qua thanh 56cm
Lam tron so
Viec 1dm gidm sd chd sd cua mdt con sd duqc cho phep cd hen quan den mot quy
Irinli duac goi Id la m tro n so. thudng di/oc goi don gian Id lam tron Thong ihudng
nhdt, quy trinh ndy baa gom viec bo bdt mot liay nhieu chd so d ben phai ddu chain
thdp phdn vd dieu chinh sd cuoi cung con gid Iqi neu can thiet
54
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
Quy lu$t
1. Neu chQ so xa nhdt phia ben trdi dugc bo di Idn hem hay bdng 5, ta tin g chQ so
cu6i ciing giQ lai them 1 ma khong can de y den ddu cua con sd.
2. N&u chd sd cuoi cung v i ben trdi diiac bo di nho hon 5, thi ta khong thay doi
chU sd cuoi cung duqc giU lai.
~ mass
Density = -----------
volume
In symbols,
55
Topic 2: Measurement
2.5 Ty trong
Ty trong duac dinh nghia nhu khoi lupng tren dan vi the tich:
™, khoi li/ang
Ty trong = ------------
chia the tich
d = ™
V
Tliii nguyen (thich hqp cua cac dan vi) cua ty trong bao gom mot dan vi klidi luqng
chia clio mot dan vi the tich, nhu gam tren millilit ( g / mL) hay gam tren centimet khoi
(g /c m 1). Do do, de co ty trong ciia mot vdt the, ta eld can chia khoi luang cua vat the cho
the tich ciia no. Nhitng bai tap cd lien quan den ty trong thudng bao gdm n e e tim mot
Irong hiing bien so d, m hay V - trong dd hai bien sd dd duqc cho trudc. De giai nhitng
bai toan ve ty trong, cd the sit dung phuang trinh hay phuong phdp he sd ghi nhan.
Phuang trinh thudng duqc sit dung khi khoi luqng va the tich dd duqc cho. Phuang phdp
he sd ghi nhdn cd the de hon khi ty trong vd moi trong hai bien khdc duac cho va bien
tint ba la can phai tim.
Ty Irong cua mdt sd chat thong thudng duqc cho bang 2.5. Chu y la cdc nha khoa
hqc thudng dat cdc dan vi d tren ddu cot khi ghi cdc sd lieu trong mot bang. Ban phai
nhd rdng ty trong ciia chat long nUdc la khodng 1,00 g / mL = 1,00 g / cm 3.
Cdc chat gian no khi duqc lam ndng len, ket qua la thay doi the tich vd gay ra moi
sd thay doi ve ty trong. Trong khodng nhiet do vita phdi, ty trong cua mot chat la titang
ddi khdng thay doi. Vi du, nude cd ty trong thay ddi tit 0 ,9 9 97 9 g I m L d 0 ‘C den 1,000
g I mL d 4UC den 0 ,95838 g I mL d 100UC. Chung ta thudng bo qua nhitng sai biet nhd
nhu vdy, dqc biet la vi chung ta thudng xuyen lam viec vdi cdc ty trong duqc do chi vdi
ba chi? sd cd y nghla.
Ty trong Id mot tinh chat cilang tinh, thudng duqc sit dung de nhdn dien cdc chat.
Vi du, vdng cd the duqc phdn biet vdi quang pyrite sat bdi cdc ty trong rat khdc nhau
ciia cluing - 19,3 g / c m 3 doi vdi vdng la 5,0 g / c m 3 vdi pyrite sdt. Pyrite sdt con duac goi
Id “vdng g ia ” vi no cd be ngoai sang giong nliU vang Nhieu ngudi di tim vang d mien
lay nUdc M y trong nhilng thang ngay ciia dot sot tim vdng dd that l ong vd cung khi thi
nghiem trong van phong kiem cluing cho thay rdng ho dd tim ra pyrite sat thay vi la
vdng.
Nhilng ty trong tuong ddi duqc xdc dinh khi mot vdt the khdng tan trong mot chat
long cho trudc noi trong chat long do Mdt vdt the se noi neu ty trong cua no nho han /y
trong ciiu chat long. Vi du. ty trong cua chat long nUdc la 1,00 g / mL va cua mot loai go
nao dd Id 0,800 g / mL. Go se not trong nUdc vi no cd ty trong thdp han
56
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
The 32° subtracted is a definition and can be expanded to 32.0°, 32.00°, and so
on. To convert from degrees Celsius to kelvins (T), we use the following equation:
T= t + 273
De doi tit do Fahrenheit (t^ sang do Celsius (t) hay nguqc lai, ta sit dung cdc phuong
trinh: t = | (tF - 32) vd tF = 1 1 + 32°
57
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
32° duac trie di la mot dinh nghia cd the duqc md rdng den 32,OP, 32,00° vd o.v... D i
d6i til dd Celsius sang do kelvin (T), chung ta sit dung phuang trinh sau ddy:
T= f+ 2 7 3
2.1
(a) Which is bigger, a cent or a dollar? Which would you need more of to buy
a certain textbook?
(b) Which is bigger, a centimeter or a meter? Which does it take more of to
measure the length of a certain textbook?
2.2 Identify each of the following as a quantity or rate or ratio:
(a) Minimum wage (b) Price of gasoline
(c) Num ber of hours worked (d) Amount of pay
(e) Cost to fill a gas tank
2.3 Which of the following are units of volume?
L Mg m3 mm3 g m kg mg mL
2.4 W hat is the difference between the masses 5 mg and 5 Mg?
2.6 W hat is the exponential equivalent of each of the following metric prefixes?
2.7
(a) If you multiply a certain number by 100 and then divide the result by 100,
what is therelationship of the final answer to the original number?
(b) If you multiply the coefficient of an exponential number by 100 and divide
the exponential part by 100, what is the effect?
2.8 W hat is the difference in density, if any, among the following?
12.1 g in 1.00 mL
12.1 g divided by I.OOmL
12.1 grams per milliliter
12.1 g/mL
12.1 g in exactly 1 mL
2.10
(a) How can you reduce the sweetness of a cup of coffee without taking out
any sugar?
(b) How can a company raise the price of coffee at the superm arket without
charging more for each can?
(c) W hat happens to the average speed for a trip if the time spent traveling
remains unchanged but the distance is decreased?
(d) W hat happens to the density of an object if its volume is increased but its
58
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
4x3
6x5
\
2.15 W hich of the fo llo w in g anim als is m ost likely to have a m ass of 25 kg?
(a) E le ph an t (b) C hicken (c) S aint B ernard dog (d) Fly
2.16 W rite each o f the fo llo w in g num bers in e xponential notation:
(a) 3 th ou sa n d th s (c) 250 billion (e) 9 thousand
(b) 9.5 m illion (d) 7.1 m illion (f) 2m illionths
2.17 W hich o f the fo llo w in g num bers have values less than zero? W hich have m agni
tudes less than one? W hich have values less than one?
(a )-7 .7 X 1 0 -3 (c) 7.0 X 107
(b) 9.3 X 10-2 (d) - 8 .2 X 104
2.18
(a) How m any square centim eters are in a square m easuring 3.0 cm along each
edge?
(b) How m any cu b ic ce ntim ete rs are in a cube 3.0 cm on each edge?
2.19 W hich of the fo llo w in g is the m ost probable distance betw een a d o rm ito ry room
and the ch e m is try lecture room?
(a) 1 km (b) 1 m (c) 1 cm (d) 1 mm
2 .20 The a uth or of this text is of average build. Fill in the m etric units in the fo llo w
ing d escrip tio n :
H eight: 172.
M ass: 65.
T otal vo lu m e of blood in his system : 4
2.21 The pop ulatio n of New York C ity is 7 m illion people. A lottery a d ve rtise s a $7
m illion jackp ot. How m any sign ifican t digits are probably in each num ber?
59
Topic 2: M easurem ent
2 26 C alculate the n um ber of square yards of rug required to co ver a livin g room floor
that is 13.5 ft w ide and 21 0 ft long.
2.27 C alculate the pay earned by a student who w orked 22 h per w eek for 35 weeks
at $11.00 per hour.
2.32 C onvert
(a) 3.08 m to m illim e te rs
(b) 3.08 L to m illilite rs
(c) 3.08 g to m illigram s
(d) 3.08 w atts to m illiw atts
2.33 C alculate the n um be r of
(a)m illim e ters in 7.27 m
(b) m illiliters in 7.27 L
(c) m illigram s in 7 27 g
2 34 C alculate the n um ber of
(a) feet in 7 27 m iles
(b) E nglish tons (2000 lb per ton) in 7 27 lb
(c) fluid o unces in 7.27 gal
(d) C om pare the d ifficulty of these calculations to those in the p rior p ro ble m
2 35 W hich of the follow ing is the sm allest container that could hold 1 m ; of liq u id '7
(b) S w im m ing pool (d) Soda bottle
(a) D rinking glass (c) Thim ble
2 36 C onvert
(a) 12.7 m to ce ntim ete rs
60
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
(b) 12 7 m to millimeters
(c) 12.7 m to kilom eters
2 37 C alculate the n um ber of liters in
(a) 0.231 m 3 (b) 581 cm 3(c) 622 mL (d) 1404m m :’
2 38 How m any liters are in 0 0732 m 3?
2.42 C alculate the length of each edge of a cube that has a volum e of 7.26cm-1.
2 43 C onvert each of the follow ing num bers to standard e xponential notation:
(a) 300.5m m (b) 62.00 mg (c) 0 1276g (d) 0 00133 L
2 44 C onvert each of the follow ing num bers to decim al format:
(a) 2 .2 5 X 1 0 ’ (b) 2 1 8 X 1 0 ' (c) 4.56 X 10 ( d ) 9 26 X 10‘1
2.45 W rite each of the follow ing num bers in scientific notation
(a) 12.79
(b) 0.0333
(c) 6 0 2 ,0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
(d) 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 70
2 46 C onvert
(a) 8.18 X 10 ' kg to m illigram s
(b) 5.85 X 10 4 m-1 to m illiliters, and express the a nsw er in standard e x po ne n
tial notation
2 47 C on vert each of the follow ing num bers to centim eters, and e xpress the answ er
in standard e xpo n e n tia l notation:
(a) 1 78 7m m (b) 127.4m
(c) 603km (d) 9 191 X 10* mm
2 50 S u b tra ct
61
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
2.51 The edge of a cube is 3.000 x 1 0" cm. What is the volume of the cube in cubic
meters?
2.60 R ound off each of the follow ing m ea surem e nts to th re e s ig n ific a n t d ig its:
(a) 0 .03 37 4 25 cm
(b) 0 .33 74 2 5cm
(c) 3.37 42 5 cm
(d) 33.7 42 5 cm
(e) 3 37.425 cm
2.61 R ound off each of the follow ing m ea surem e nts to three s ig n ific a n t digits:
(a) 0.01 71 6 cm
(b) 0 .1716cm
(c) 17.16cm
(d) 171.6cm
62
Topic 2: M easurem ent
2 62 U nderline the sign ifican t digits in each of the follow ing m easurem ents. If a digit
is uncertain, place a question m ark below it
2 63 R eport the length of the shaded bar, using each of the rulers shown:
2.64 Add the fo llo w in g qua ntitie s, and report the a nsw ers to the proper n um ber of
sign ifican t digits:
(a) 103 g + 12.71 g
(b) 8 9mL + 0 .1 72m L
(c) 0.0123 mL +2.001 mL
(d) 555 km + 16.02km
2 65 U nderline the sign ifican t digits in each of the follow ing m easurem ents. If a digit
is uncertain, place a question m ark below it
(a) 3200cm (b) 16 30cm (c) 50 00cm (d) 0 00600m (e) 7000m m
2 66 How m any sig n ifica n t digits are present in each of the follow ing m ea su re m e n ts7
How rpany d ecim a l place digits?
2.67 How m any s ig n ifica n t digits are present in each of the follow ing m easurem ents?
How m any d ecim a l place digits?
2 68 U nderline the sig n ifica n t digits in each of the follow ing m easurem ents If a digit
is uncertain, place a question m ark under it.
(a) 6 .650cm (c) 50.20cm
(b) 0.06 30 0 cm (d) 670cm
2 69 R ound off the follow ing m easurem ents to three sign ifican t digits:
(a) 402 6 mL (b) 4026 mL (c) Are the answ ers the sam e?
2.72 C on vert each of the follow ing distances to m eters, and e xpress the results as
o rd in a ry n um be rs (not in exponential notation) Be sure to use the proper n u m
ber of sig n ific a n t digits
(a) 1 0 0 x 10 : mm
(b) I 00 x 1 0 Jc m
(c) I 00 x 10 ‘ km
63
Topic 2: M easurem ent
2.73 Solve the fo llo w in g problem and state the a nsw er w ith th e p ro p e r n u m b e r of
significant digits:
107.9 r 9 2 .7 3 r
4 2 ,3 3 m L 0 .77 m l-
2 74 C alculate the a nsw er to each of the follow ing pro ble m s to the proper n um be r of
sign ifican t digits
(a) (6.82 x 103cm )(13 .1 cm )
(b) (8.91 x 10 6m )(7.3 x 10‘3mm)
(c) (22.4 kg)/(6.8 X 104mL)
(d) (6 .1 66 g )/(0 .17 6L )
(e) (1.114 x 104m m )(3 94 x 104cm)
(f) (1.93 g ) +(9.443 x 1 0 '4g)
2.75 C alculate the a nsw er to each of the follow ing p ro ble m s to the p ro p e r n um be r of
sign ifican t digits:
(a) (8.66 x 10?c m ?)/(43 3cm )
(b) (1 83 x 10 * c m 3)/(9 8 X 10 3cm)
(c) (141 g )/(2 .6x 10?mL)
(d) ( 2 1 1 2g)/(7.73m L)
(e) (1 107 x 105cm ?)(2 7 1 x 10pcm)
(f) (2 .1 1g) + (6.7x 10 ' g)
2.76 Do the follow ing calculations to the proper n um ber of s ig n ific a n t dig its
(a) (3.21 x 1O 'cm )3
(b) 2.29 x 10 3 g - 5 06 x 10 ’ g
(c) 7 032 x 106cm - 4 18 x 104cm
2.77 Add the fo llo w in g qua ntitie s, and report the a nsw ers to the c o rre c t n u m b e r of
sign ifican t digits:
(a) 0.123 kg + (8.62 x 10 2 g)
(b) 0.227 kg + (6.96 x 10' g)
(c) 8.20 kg + (177 x 104 g)
(d) (2 00 x 104cm 2) + (7.14 x 104cm )?
2.78 Divide the follow ing q uantities and report the answ ers to the p ro p e r n u m b e r of
sign ifican t digits:
(a) (6 47 x 10?g)/(4 101 m 3)
(b) (0.733 cm ?)/(3 85 x 10 ' cm)
(c) (4 11 x 103c m 3)/(40 0cm )
(d) (1 97 x 10* g)/(2 22 x 10' c m )3
2 79 M ultiply the follow ing quantities, and report the a nsw ers to the c o rre c t n um ber
of sig n ifica n t digits
(a) 6 10cm x (1 60 X 10'cm )
(b) 0 022cm x ( 1 7 6 X 10 'em )
(c) (2.505 x 10 'e m ) X 10 00cm
(d) (6 08 x 103cm )(8 15 X 10'cm )
64
Topic 2: M easurem ent
2 82 Add the fo llo w in g qua ntitie s, and report the a nsw ers to the p ro pe r n um ber of
sig n ifica n t digits:
(a) (4 000 x 10 3 g) + (5 0 x 10’ mg)
(b) (6.00 x 10 ’ g) + (7 77 x 10 4 kg)
2 83 In Problem 2 57. can you tell how m any significant digits are in each m ea sure
m ent as it is given in exponential form in the problem ? Can you tell in decim al
form in the a nsw er?
2 88 C alculate the d en sity of a rectangular solid of m ass 1123 g and dim ensions:
(a) 12.11cm X 4.171 cm X 2.109cm
(b) 0.1211 m X 41.71 mm X 21.09m m
2 89
(a) C alcu la te the vo lum e of a rectangular box 42 6 cm by 4 41 cm by 1.932cm .
(b) C alcu la te the n um ber of kilogram s of m ercury (de nsity = 13.6 g/m L) that
can fit in that box
2 90 C alculate the m ass of m ercury (density = 13.6 g/m L) that fills a rectangular box
36.0 cm by 4.88 cm by 1 892cm .
2 93 Using the d e n sitie s in Table 2.5, identify the m etal in a 27.42 c m 3 solid of m ass
287 g
2 96 E xplain w hy g aso lin e floats on w ater Is w ater good for putting out gasoline fire s 9
65
Topic 2: M easurem ent
2.100 C alculate the volum e in cubic centim eters of an object w ith a d e n s ity of 2 55 g/
mL and a m ass of 499 g
2 101 E xpress the den sity 6 16 kg/L in gram s per cubic c e n tim e te r
2.102 C onvert the den sity 1 721 x 103 kg /m 3 to gram s per cu b ic ce n tim e te r
2 6 T em perature Scales
2 103 C alculate the te m perature in degrees C elsius of each of the follow ing.
(a) 32 0LF (b) 2 1 2°F (c) 80°F (d) 98 6°F
(e) 0°F (f) 100°F (g) 50 0°F
2 104 C alculate the te m p era ture in degrees Fahrenheit of each of the fo llo w in g
—k
03
oo
O
2 109 C alculate the a nsw er to each of the follow ing e xpressio ns to the c o rre c t num ber
of sign ifican t digits
(a) (1.66 cm + 7 2 cm ) X 4.00 cm
(b) 2 29 cm X (4 71 cm - 4.231 cm)
(c) (1 91 cm X 1 7 cm ) + 6 02 c m '
(d) (7.13 X 103 cm )-2 13 cm
(e) 1 11 cm X (3 17 X 10 cm)
(f) 5 7 X 10 cm - 7 8 X 10 ; cm
2 110 C alculate the density of a cube with each edge 4.12 cm and m ass 252 g
2 111 C alculate the density of a cube with each edge 0 0412 m and m ass 0 252
kg
2 112 C om pare the sizes m asses and densities of the cubes in P ro blem s 2 110 and
2 111
2 113 C alculate the n um ber of particles of volum e 1 0 X 1 0 ” c m ' that can fit into a
cubic box of edge length 1 00 m
66
Topic 2: M easurem ent
2.114 C a lcu la te the d e n sity in gram s per m illilite r of a cu bic unit cell (see E xam ple
2.32) of edge 6.63 X 10 8 cm and m ass 5.09 X 10 ?ikg.
2 115 C alculate the m ass of one unit cell (see Exam ple 2.32) of a substance with density
2.50 g/m L if its cu bic unit cell has an edge 6.63 X 10~* cm.
2.11 6 A u nit ce ll of a su bstance has a m ass of 3.89 X 10 ?2g. One particle of the su b
stance has a m ass of 9.72 X 10 “ g. How m any particles are in each unit cell?
2 117 E xplain how it is possible to calculate an a nsw er having five sign ifican t digits
using tw o m ea surem e nts having three significant digits each and two having four
sign ifican t dig its each.
2 118 A certain atom is sphe rica l with radius 2.0 X 10 ,0m. and its m ass is 6.6 X 10 n
g. C alculate its density.
2.119 Perform the fo llo w in g calculations, and report the results to the proper num ber
of sig n ifica n t digits:
(a) (4.65 cm )(2 .4 8 4 cm )(7.6 cm)
(b) (6.1 2 kg )/(3 .9 5 X 102cm )(40 1 cm )(2.8 cm)
(c) (4.0120 g - 0.084 g )/(4 .6642 cm 3)
2.120 Using the d en sitie s in Table 2.5, identify the m etal in a cube with 3.00-cm edges
and a m ass of 519 g
2 110 A certain road m ap of M aine show s part of C anada. The d istances in Canada
are show n in kilom ete rs, and the legend states: “To co nve rt kilom eters to miles,
m ultiply by 0 .62." W hat is actually being converted?
2 122 C onvert
(a) 7.16km to m illim e te rs
(b) 7.16 L to cu b ic m eters
(c) 7.16 mg to kilogram s
2.123 C onvert
(a) 8 25 cm to m illim eters
(b) 8 25 m J to m illiliters
(c) 8 25 cm J to m illiliters
2 124 C alculate the n um be r of cubic m illim eters in 1.00 L.
2.126 C on vert
(a) 8.76 X 105 m m to kilom eters
(b) 6 53 X 10 !m :- to liters
(c) 1 35 X 1 0 3L to m illiliters
2.127 C alcu la te the results of the follow ing calculations to the proper n um be r of s ig
nifica nt dig its
(a) 1 06 x 1 0 ’ ’g - 7.17 x 10?:,g
67
Topic 2: M easurem ent
2 133 C alculate the price of a 2 00-kg bar of gold if the price of gold is S600 per troy
ounce.
2.136 C alculate the sum of 1 .00 m and 0.100 mm. A tte m p t to draw a p ictu re of this
sum to the p ro pe r scale E xplain the effect in term s of sig n ific a n t digits.
2.137 C alculate the d en sity of a 25.0% by m ass sodium c h lo rid e so lu tio n in w ater if
228 g of sodium chloride is used to m ake 765 mL of the solution
2.138 Explain w hy a football referee, after two successive d e fe n sive o ffsid e penalties
on a first dow n, rules without a measurement that a new firs t d ow n has been
achieved but does not do so after a first-dow n running play for no gain follow ed
by tw o offside penalties,
2.139 The den sity of a solution 25.0% by m ass sodium c h lo rid e (table salt) in w ater is
1.19 g/m L. C alculate the m ass of sodium chloride in 755 mL of the solution
2.140 A certain brand of vitam in pill contains 255 0 n g of the vita m in: a n o th e r brand
has 0.2550 mg of the vitam in per pill. W hich is the b etter buy. all o th e r factors
being equal?
2.141 A nurse who is directed to give a patient a pill that has 0 150 eg of active in g re
dients has no pills with ce ntig ra m s as units W hat pill labeled in m illig ra m s should
the nurse a dm inister?
2.142 U nder a certain set of conditions, the density of w ater is 1 00 g/m L and that of
oxygen gas is 1.21 g/L W hich will float on the other?
2 143 C alculate the value of “ 17 3 ks“ in (a) m inutes and (b) hours
2 1 4 4 If a patient has a blood count of 750 w hite co rp uscle s per cu bic m illim e te r w hat
is the n um ber of w hite corp uscle s per cubic centim eter?
68
Topic 2: M easurem ent
2.145
(a) D raw a fig u re show ing the addition of the lengths of tw o line segm ents,
10.0cm and 0.10 cm.
(b) C an you do the sam e with 10.0 cm and 0 010 cm ? Explain.
2 146 How m any grains of sand, each with a volum e of 1 0 m m 3, could be held in a
vo lum e a pp ro xim a te ly equal to that of the Earth? (The Earth's radius is 6.4 X
103km. For a sphere, V = 4/3 7i r3; use n = 3.1416 if n is not on your calculator.)
2.151 C alculate the a pp ro xim a te height in m eters of the man in the cubic m eter box
(Figure 2.7). Use a ratio of the height of the man to the height of the box in the
figure, w hich is equal to the ratio of the heights in real life.
(a) Use a m etric ruler to m easure the figure.
(b) Use an inch ruler.
(c) State a no the r reason why the m etric system is easier to use than the En
glish syste m of m easurem ent.
2.152 R epeat P roblem 2.151 but estim ate the m an's w idth at his w aist instead of his
h eight.
2 153 C a lcu la te the length of teach side of a cube that has a vo lu m e of 2 90.3 cm .
(Be sure to use the p ro pe r units and the proper n um ber of sig n ifica n t digits.)
2 155 C alculate the m ass of gold in a bracelet that contains 66.7% gold by m ass and
that has a vo lu m e of 42 19 mL and a density of 14.9 g/mL.
2.156 C alculate the average density of the Earth, assum ing it to be sphe rica l w ith ra
dius 6400 km and m ass 6.1 x 10?4kg. (V = 4/3 rr r3)
2 157 C alculate the te m p era ture in degrees F ahrenheit of each of the follow ing.
2 158 W hich of the fo llo w in g a m ounts of m oney w ould m ore likely be rounded by a
m ercha nt to the nearest S10?
69
Topic 2: M easurem ent
2.159
(a) C alculate the price of an average grain of a certa in type of rice if a pound
of this rice costs $2.12 and there are 3 3 X 10* g rains of rice per pound
(b) How m any sign ifican t digits should be reported in this c a lc u la tio n 7
2 160
(a) A bank usually charges 14 0% interest for a certa in type of loan If the bank
a dve rtise s a sp ecial 10.0% discount for that type of loan w ha t is the actual
rate?
(b) The percen ta ge of a certain ore in the rock from a m ine is 21% . The per
centage of iron in the ore is 63% W hat is the p ercen ta ge of iron in the ro c k 7
2 161 C alculate the length in m eters of each side of a cube that has a v o lu m e of 4 85
X 10' c m 3.
2 163 Equal vo lu m e s of w ater (density 1 00 g/m L) and ethyl alco ho l (de nsity 0 789 g/
mL) are co m b in e d If the total volum e is 190% of the vo lu m e of each c o m p o
nent, w hat is the den sity of the solution?
2.164 C alculate the m ass of a sphere of radius 3.38 cm and d en sity 0 382 g /c m 3. (V =
5 irr3)
2.165 C alculate the den sity of a sphere of radius 7.73 cm and m ass 586 g. (V = A irr3,
use i t = 3 1416 if n is not on your c a lc u la to r)
2 166 C alculate the d en sity in gram s per cubic ce ntim ete r of an a verag e c h lo rin e atom,
w hich has a radius of 1 05 X 10 ' “and a m ass of 5.89x 10 “ g (1/ = fw 3)
2 167 Equal volum es of w ater (density 1 00 g/m L) and ethyl a lco ho l (d e n sity 0 789 g/
m L) are com bined. If the density of the resulting solution is 0 .94 2 g /m L w hat is
the volum e of the solution com pared to that of the w ater?
2.168 How m any s ig n ific a n t d ig its are in the value 0°F? (The ze ro is not left of all
o the r digits, right of all other digits, or betw een all o the r d ig its ) H ow m any are
there in its C elsius equivalent?
2 169 C alculate the depth of w ater in ce ntim ete rs in a cubic box (not full) w ith 40 0-
cm edges if the m ass of the contents is 28 0 kg
2 170 C alculate the length of a rectangular solid if its d en sity is 4 02 g /c m 3 its m ass
is 399 g, its w idth is 5.11 cm, and its thickness is 3 03 cm
2.171 A vitam in pill m aker produces pills with a m ass of 1 00 g each If each of the
follow ing indicates the m ass of active ingredient, w hat p e rce n ta g e o f the pill is
active in each case?
2.173 Using the d en sitie s in Table 2 5, identify the su bsta nce in a sp h e re w ith a 1 50-
cm radius and a m ass of 22 1 g
2.174 C alcu la te the vo lum e of a (sph erical) atom of c h lo rin e w hich has a r a 3 ijs of
1 .0 5 X 1 0 m (V = 4 3 n r 3 use ti = 3 1 4 1 6 if n is not on your c a lc u la to r)
70
Topic 2: M easurem ent
2 1 75 C alculate the tem perature in C elsius of each of the follow ing: (a) 16UF, (b) 16.0°F
and (c) 0°F. How m any significant digits should be reported for each?
2.177 C alculate the den sity of a solution prepared with 54 08 mL of sulfuric acid and
1.00 mL of w ater. The density of w ater is 1.00 g/m L and that of sulfuric acid is
1 8305 g/m L. The volum e of the solution is 54 52 mL.
2.179 C alculate the d en sity of a solution prepared with 16 39 mL of sulfuric acid and
70.00 mL of w ater. A ssum e that the density of w ater is 1.000 g/m L and that of
su lfuric acid is 1.8305 g/m L The volum e of the solution is 82.068 mL.
2.180 In light of the a nsw ers to the Problem s 2.176-2 179, state w hy the m ethod of
d ete rm inin g vo lum e of irregularly shaped objects in the introduction to C hapter
2 would not w ork for sugar crystals
E xp o n e n tia l n ota tion e nables easy reporting of e xtre m ely large and e x tre m e ly sm all
n um bers A n u m b e r in scien tific notation consists of a co efficie nt tim es 10 to an integral
pow er, w he re the c o e ffic ie n t is equal to or gre ate r than 1 but less than 10 You m ust
know how to c o n v e rt num be rs from e xpo ne ntia l notation to o rd in a ry d e cim a l values,
and vice ve rsa , and a lso how to use e xpo ne ntia l num bers in c a lc u la tio n s You should
71
Topic 2: M easurem ent
D ensity, an inte n sive p ro pe rty, is defined as m ass per unit vo lu m e . It can be ca lcu late d
by d ivid in g the m ass of a sa m ple by its volum e. If a d e n s ity is give n, it m ay be used
as a fa cto r to solve for m ass or volum e. D ensity, an in te n sive p ro p e rty , m ay be used
to help ide ntify a su bsta nce . S a m ples of low er d e n sity flo a t in liq u id s of h ig h e r density.
(S ection 2.5)
72
ATOMS AND ATOMIC MA55E5
n g u y £ n ti )
via KHO'l LLTOHG NGUYEN TI)
3 .4 To calculate atomic masses the relative masses of atoms two ways: (1)
from the ratios of masses of equal numbers of atoms, as was done
historically, and (2) from masses and abundances of the naturally occurring
mixture of isotopes, the more modern method
BO CUC - Layout
73
Topic 3 : Atom s and atimic m asses
3.1 Tinh mot so dqi luqng co lien quan trong nhilng ket hqp hoa
hoc cua nguyen tS, bdng cdch sit dung nhitng dinh ludt co dien dd duac
biet til thdi Dalton, 3.2 Dien gidi cdc dinh ludt co dien vd ket hqp hoa
hoc bdng cdch sit dung thuyet nguyen tit cua Dalton. 3.3 Sit dung nhitng
tinh chdt cua cdc hat tren nguyin tit - proton, electron vd neutron - de
xdc dinh cdu true nguyen tit, 3.4 Tinh cdc khoi luqng nguyin tit - khoi
luqng nguyin tit tuang ddi - theo hai cdch: (1) Tit cdc tl sd khdi luqng
cua nhitng sd litang nguyin tit bdng nhau nhu da duqc thuc hien tH
trudc ddy vd (2) tic cdc khdi luqng vd do pho biin cua hon hqp dong vi
co trong tu nhiin vd la phuang phdp hien dqi han, 3.5 Ldp Iqi xuyen
suot cdc qua trinh cua Mendeleyev vd Meyer trong viic phat trien ra
bdng phdn loqi tuan hodn.
3.1 Dinh ludt ve tong hqp hoa hqc, 3.2 Ly thuyet nguyen tii cua
Dalton, 3.3 Cdc hat nguyin tit con , 3.4 Khdi litang nguyin td , 3.5
Phat trien cua bdng phdn loqi tuan hodn
74
Topic 3: Atom s and atimic m asses
The th e o ry of the atom has had a long history. The a ncien t G ree ks postulated that
m atter e xists in the form of atom s, but they did not base their theory on experim ents,
nor did th ey use it to develop additional ideas about atom s. In 1803, John Dalton p ro
p osed the first m od ern th e o ry of the atom , w hich w as based on the e xp e rim e n ta lly
d ete rm ine d law s of co nse rva tion of m ass, definite proportions, and m ultiple proportions.
D alton su gg este d for the first tim e that atom s of d ifferent e lem ents are d iffe re n t from
each other. His th eo ry generated a great deal of research activity, w hich brought forth
additional law s and know ledge about atom s, and he is recognized as the father of the
atom ic theory.
Section 3.1 takes up the e xpe rim en tal laws on w hich Dalton based his atom ic theory,
and S ection 3.2 d iscu sse s the theory itself. Som e m odern e xten sion s of the theory,
including su batom ic p article s and isotopes, are presented in Section 3 3 The concept
of the m asses of atom s of the individual elem ents is presented in Section 3.4. and the
deve lo pm e nt of the perio d ic table is traced in Section 3 5. A m uch m ore sophisticated
theory of the atom w ill be presented in C hapter 4.
Muc 3.1 thilc luen cdc dinh luat thuc nghiem md Dalton dd dat ca sd cho ly thuyet
nguyen td cua minh va muc 3.2 tlido ludn chinh ly thuyet do. Mot vai phdn md rdng ly
thuyet hien dqi bao gom cdc liqt nhd trong nguyen td vd cac chat dong vi cung duqc trinli
bay trong muc 3.3. Kiwi niem ve khoi htqng nguyen td cua cdc nguyen td rieng biet duoc
trinh bdy trong muc 3.4 va sit phat trien ciia bang phdn loai tuan hodn duqc dua ra d muc
3.5. Ly thuyet tinh vi hem ve nguyen td cung ditqc trinh bdy trong chuang 4.
Antoine L a vo isie r (1743-1794), called the father of m odern chem istry, discovered
the law of co n se rva tio n of m ass (Section 1.6) by show ing that during a ch em ica l rea c
tion. m ass is neither gained nor lost His quantitative work (work involving m e a s u re
m ents) enabled him to co nclude that the m ass of products generated during a c h e m i
cal reaction is the sam e as the m ass of the reactants used up (Figure 3.1). This was
not an easy co n clu sio n because “anyone could see that the ashes left after a large log
burned did not w eigh as m uch as the log itself.” How ever, w hen the oxygen from the
air (also a re a ctan t in the burning of w ood) and the carbon dioxide, w ater va po r, and
o the r p ro du cts form ed (in addition to the ash) were considered, the total m ass of the
reactants and the total m ass of the products w ere found to be equal. L avo isie r's work
led o th e r ch e m ists to m easure their reactants and products to confirm his co nclusio ns
and to see if they could m ake other q uantitative observations
75
Topic 3 : Atoms and atimic m asses
The law of defin ite proportions, or the law of con stan t c o m p o s itio n , em erged
after careful w ork by m any investigators. This law states that any g ive n co m p o u n d is
com posed of d e fin ite p ro p o rtio n s by m ass of its e le m e n ts. For e x a m p le , e v e ry tim e
som eone m akes sodium chloride, there is 1.54 tim es the m ass of c h lo rin e in th e c o m
pound as th ere is sodium . This law was d iffic u lt to prove b eca u se m an y sa m p le s of
com pounds contain im p urities of o the r com pounds that have the sa m e e le m e n ts. For
exam ple, dinitrogen m onoxide (N ?0 ), known as laughing gas. and nitrogen d io xide (NO.,),
an air pollutant, are tw o d iffe re n t com pounds, but each is c o m p o se d of o nly nitrogen
and oxygen The tw o com p ou nd s can form a h om ogeneous m ixture in any proportions.
A nalysis of an im pure sam ple of either gas could lead to a p e rce n ta g e of nitro ge n a ny
w here betw een that in pure din itro g en m onoxide and that in pure nitro ge n dioxide. A
pure sam ple of d in itro g en m onoxide or nitrogen dioxide, not an a rb itra ry m ixture of the
two, is nece ssary to insure a definite p ercen t com position. O nce c h e m is ts isolated and
w orked on pure com p ou nd s, it was a pp aren t that the law of d e fin ite p ro p o rtio n s was
valid (S ection 1.6).
The law of m u ltip le p ro p o rtio n s sta te s th a t fo r tw o (or m o re ) c o m p o u n d s c o m
posed of the sa m e e le m e n ts , fo r a g ive n m ass o f one of th e e le m e n ts , the ratio of
m a sse s of a ny o th e r e le m e n t in th e c o m p o u n d s is a s m a ll, w h o le -n u m b e r ra tio For
e xa m p le , h y d ro g e n p e ro x id e c o n ta in s 1 5.8 72 g of o x y g e n fo r e ach g ra m of h y d ro
gen p re se n t. W a te r c o n ta in s 7 .9 3 6 2 g of o x y g e n fo r e ach g ra m of h y d ro g e n p resent.
For the fixe d m ass of h y d ro g e n (1 g in each c a s e ), the ra tio of m a s s e s o f o x y g e n is
(1 5 .8 7 2 g )/(7 .936 2 g) = 2/1.
S o m e tim e s, the ratio does not a pp e a r to be in te g ra l at first, but it can be co n
verted to an integ ra l ratio w hile keeping the value the sam e by m u ltip ly in g both nu
m erator and d e n o m in a to r by the sam e sm all integer. For e xam ple , a co m p ou nd of co
balt and oxygen co nta ins 3 .6835 g of co ba lt per gram of oxyge n, w hile a second c o m
pound contains 2 .45 56 g of co ba lt per gram of oxygen. Per gram of o xyge n, the ratio
of m asses of co ba lt is (3.6835 g )/(2 .45 56 g) = 1.5000/1. W e can c o n v e rt that ratio to
an integral ratio by m ultiplyin g num erator and d e n om ina tor by 2:
1 .5 0 0 0 x 2 3
1x2 " 2
C. One co m pound of iron and oxygen contains 3 .4906 g of iron for each gra m of
oxygen. A second co m pound of these ele m e n ts co nta ins 2 .3 2 7 0 g of iron for
each gram of oxygen C alculate the m ass of o xyge n per gram of iron in each
com pound, and show that the m asses obey the law of m u ltip le p ro p o rtio n s
76
Topic 3 : Atom s and atimic m asses
• Dinh ludt chi phdi khdi luqng cua cac chdt tham gia phdn ling va cdc san pham
cua cdc phdn ting hda hoc duqc tqo ra va ddt nen mong cho ca so phat trien ly
thuyet ve hda hqc.
A. Khdi luqng loan phdn cua thdy ngan vd oxygen duqc tqo ra tic viec phdn ra lOg
H g ,0 bdng bao nhieu?
li. Barium vd oxygen ket hqp theo mot ti le 137.3g barium chia cho 16.00g oxy
gen. Tim ti le phdn tram cua oxygen trong (a) 5.00g mdu lion hqp! (b) 10.Og
hon hqp?
C. Mot hon hqp sdt vd oxy cd cliiia 3.4906g sdt ling vdi moi gram oxygen. Mot hon
hqp thii hai ciia cdc nguyen td ndy cd chiia 2.3270g sdt ting vdi moi gram oxy
gen. Hay tinh khoi luqng oxygen tren moi gram sdt trong mdi hqp chdt vd chiing
minh rdng cdc khdi luqng ndy tuan theo dinli luat cdc ti le boi so.
77
Topic 3 : Atoms and atimic m asses
le phdn tram xdc dinh. M ot khi cdc nha hda hqc da cd lap va dilqc the hien cong trinh
tren cdc hap chat thudn tuy thi ta thay ro rdng rdng dinh luat ve cdc ti le thanh phan
xdc dinh la nghiem dung (muc 1.6).
D inh lu a t c d c ti le bdi sd' Im u ltip le p ro p o rtio n ) phat bieu rang doi vdi liai (hodc
nhieu) hap chdt cd cdc nguyen td giorig nhau, ling vdi mot khdi litqng dd cho ciia mot
Irong so cdc nguyen to, ti so gi da cdc khdi liiqng cua bat ky nguyen td nao trong cdc hqp
chdt la mdt ti so nguyen, nhd. Vi du, hydrogen peroxide cd chiia 15.872 g oxygen tfng
vdi moi gam hydrogen. Ntfdc cd chiia 7.9362 g oxygen tfng vdi khoi Itfong cd dinh cua
hydrogen (lg trong moi trtfdng hqp), thi ti so cac khdi litqng cua oxygen la 115.872 g) /
(7.9362 g) - 2 / 1 .
Ddi luc ti so ndy khdng xuat hien dildi dang 1a mot sd nguyen nhtfng no cd the bien
ddi sang mot ti so nguyen trong khi van gid gid tri cua cdc tU sd lari mdu sd bdi cung
mot sd nguyen nhd. Vi du mot hon hqp cobalt rd oxygen cd chiia 3.6835g cobalt tren lg
oxygen, trong khi mot hon hop thtf hai cd chiia 2 .4556 g cobalt tren lg oxygen. Nhtf vdy
tren lg oxygen, ti le gida khoi Itfqng ciia cobalt Id (3.368 35 g )l(2 .4 5 5 6 g ) = 1 .5 0 0 0 /1 .
Chung ta cd the bien ddi ti sd ndy sang mot ti sd nguyen bdng cdch nhdn ttf va mdu cho
2 bdng 3 /2 .
1 .5 0 0 0 x 2 _ 3
1x2 ~ 2
Nhiet bien doi cdc ti sd sang cdc ti sd nguyen dtfqc tqo bdi mot chuyen sau trong
phu luc 1.
In 1803. John D alton (1766-1844) (Figure 3.3) proposed his atom ic theory, in c lu d
ing the follow ing postulates, to explain the laws of ch em ica l c o m b in a tio n d is c u s s e d in
Section 3.1
1 M atter is m ade up of very tiny, indivisible particles called atom s.
2 The atom s of each elem ent all have the sam e mass, but the m ass of the atom s
of one elem ent is different from the m ass of the atom s of every other e le m ent
3 A tom s com bine to form m olecules. W hen they do so, they c o m b in e in sm all,
w ho le -n u m b e r ratios
4. Atom s of som e pairs of elem ents can com bine with each o the r in d iffe re n t sm all,
whole n um ber ratios to form d ifferen t com pounds
5 If atom s of tw o e lem ents can com bine to form m ore than one c o m p o u n d the
m ost stable com pound has the atom s in a 1 : 1 ratio (This postu late was q uickly
show n to be in c o rr e c t)
The first three postu late s have had to be am ended, and the fifth w as q u ic k ly a b a n
doned a ltog eth e r But the postulates explained the laws of ch e m ica l co m b in a tio n know n
at the tim e, and they caused great activity am ong ch em ists, w hich led to m ore g e n e r
alizations and further advances in chem istry
The p ostulates of D alton's atom ic theory explained the laws of c h e m ic a l c o m b i
nation very readily
1 The law of co nse rva tion of m ass is explained as follow s B e cau se atom s m erely
exchange p a rtn e rs ' during a chem ical reaction and are not created or d estroyed
th eir m ass is also n either created nor destroyed Thus m ass is co n s e rv e d d u r
ing a ch e m ica l reaction
78
Topic 3 : Atoms and atimic m asses
2 The law of d efin ite proportions is explained as follow s: B ecause atoms react in
d efin ite integral ratios (postulate 3), and atom s of each e le m ent have a d e fi
nite mass (p o stu la te 2), the mass ratio of one e le m e n t to the o the r(s) m ust
also be d efinite
3. The law of m ultiple proportions is explained as follows: Because atom s combine
in different ratios of sm all whole num bers (postulate 4). for a given num ber of
atom s of one elem ent, the num ber of atoms of the other elem ent is in a small,
w hole-num ber ratio. A given num ber of atom s of the first elem ent im plies a given
m ass of that elem ent, and a small, w hole-num ber ratio for the atom s of the se c
ond elem ent (each of the sam e mass) im plies a small, w hole-num ber ratio of
m asses of the second elem ent. For exam ple, consider w ater (H?0 ) and hydro
gen peroxide (H ?0_,). two com pounds of hydrogen and oxygen. For a given num
ber of hydrogen atom s (2). the num bers of oxygen atom s in the two com pounds
are 1 and 2. Stated another way, for a given m ass of hydrogen (2.016 g). the
ratio of m asses of oxygen in the two com pounds is 15.9994 g to 31.9988 g. a
ratio of 1 to 2— a small, w hole-num ber ratio.
W e w ill discu ss the w ays in w hich the first three of D alton's postulates have had
to be am ended after we learn more about the atom.
• Ly thuyet cua Dalton da gidi thich tai sao cdc dinh luat tong hap hoa hoc co
dien da hoat dong ditqc va dd cung cap nen tang ly thuyet trong toan bo stf phat
trien hda hoc.
A. Neu cdc nguyen to A cd B tac dong vdi nhau theo ti le 1 chia 2 nguyen ttf thi
cho ta inot hqp chdt 26.2-1 g B tren 1 gram A, tim so khoi Itfqng trong hqp chat
vdi ti sd cua hai nguyen lit A chia cho ba nguyen lit B ?
79
Topic 3 : Atoms and atimic m asses
1. Vat chat dtfoc tqo thanh bdi nhilng hat rat nhd khdng nhin thdy dtfoc goi la
nguyen til.
2. Cdc nguyen III cua moi nguyen to deu cd cung khoi Itfqng. nhtfng khdi Itfqng cua
cdc nguyen ttf cua mot nguyen td khdc vdi khoi Itfqng cua cdc nguyen til cua cac
nguyen td khdc.
3. Cdc nguyen til ket hqp lai de tqo thanh cac phdn til. Khi ket hop nhtf ray chung
ket hqp theo nhilng ti sd cdc sd nguyen nhd.
4. Cdc nguyen til cua mot sd cap nguyen to co the ket hqp vdi nhau theo nhilng ti
so so nguyen nhd de tqo thanh cdc hqp chdt khdc nhau.
5. Neu nguyen tii cua hai nguyen td cd the ket hqp de tqo thanh nhieu hon mot
hqp chdt, thi hqp chdt ben nhdt cd ti so cdc nguyen til la 1:1 (tien de ndy da
nhanh cliong dtfqc chiing minh la khdng dung).
Ba tien de ddu tien dd dtfqc tu chinh vd tien de thiic nam nhanh chong bi bac bo
nhtfng cdc tien de ndy cung gidi thich dtfqc dinh luat ket hqp hda hqc dtfqc biet trong
tlidi lty dd, vd chung da tqo nen nhilng hoat dong tich ctfc giila cdc nhd hda hqc, nhilng
hoot dong nay da dan den viec khdi quat hda vd dtfa den cdc tien bo chuyen sau ve
dinh luat hda hqc.
Cdc tien de ve ly thuyet nguyen til cua Dalton da gidi thich dinli ludt tong hqp lioa
hqc rat nhanh chong.
1. Dinh luat bao todn khoi Itfqng dtfqc giai thich nhtf sau: Bdi vi cdc nguyen ttf chi
trao ddi “ddi tac” trong mot phdn ling hda hqc vd khdng dtfqc tqo ra hay bi hiiy
di, khdi Itfqng ciia cluing ciing khdng dtfqc tqo ra vd cung khdng bi phd hiiy.
Nhtf the khdi Itfqng dtfqc bao todn trong mot phdn ling hda hqc.
2. Dinh luat ve ti le xdc dinh dtfqc gidi thich nhtf sau: vi cdc nguyen til phdn tfng
theo nhilng ti sd sd nguyen xdc dinli (tien de 3), cdc nguyen til cua ttfng nguyen
td cd mot khoi Itfqng xdc dinh (tien de 2), ti sd khdi Itfqng cua mot nguyen td so
vdi nguyen to khdc cung phai la xdc dinh.
3. Dinh luat ve boi sd ti le dtfqc giai thich nhtf sau: vi cac nguyen til ket hqp theo
nhilng ti sd la cdc sd nguyen nhd khdc nhau, (tien de 4), doi vdi mot Itfqng nhat
dinh cdc nguyen tii! cua mot nguyen td, sd nguyen til cua nguyen td kia phdi
theo mot ti sd bdng sd nguyen nhd. Mot sd xac dinli cdc nguyen til cua nguyen td
thii nhdt quy dinh mot khdi Itfqng xdc dinh cua nguyen td dd, vd mot ti sd theo
sd nguyen nho ciia cdc nguyen til nguyen td thii hai (moi nguyen til deu cd cung
khoi Itfqng) xdc dinh mot ti so cho so nguyen nhd khoi Itfqng ciia nguyen td thii
hai (hinh 3.4). Vi du, xet ntfdc (H f ) ) vd hydrogen peroxide ( H ,O j la hai hqp
chdt ciia hydrogen vd oxy. Doi vdi mot sd nguyen til hydro dd cho (2), so nguyen
til oxy trong hai hqp chdt la 1 vd 2. Noi mot cdch khdc, ddi vdi mot khoi Itfqng
dd cho ciia hydro (2.016g) ti sd khoi Itfqng cua oxy trong hai hqp chat la 15.9994g
vd 31.9988g, ti so 1 tren 2 - la ti sd bdng sd nguyen nhd.
Ta se ban ve nhtfng cdch de bo sung ba tien de ddu tien cua Dalton sau khi dd hqc
nhieu han ve nguyen ttf.
The nucleus does not change during any o rdinary ch e m ica l I reaction
The a tom ic n u m b e r (Z) is equal to the n um be r of p ro ton s (p) in the atom and
d eterm ines its identity
80
Topic 3 : Atoms and atimic m asses
M any types of expe rim en ts have been perform ed and m any discoveries made since
D alton proposed his atom ic theory that have led to the inescapable conclusion that the
atom is not indivisib le . E xperim ents with electricity in the 1850s show ed that chem ical
rea ction s can be caused by the passage of ele ctricity (a p rocess called e lectrolysis)
and that e le ctricity can be generated by chem ical reactions (as in batteries). (See S e c
tion 16.5.) The d isco ve ry of radioactivity, in which atom s of an elem ent are changed
into atom s of o the r elem ents, was another source of e vidence (see C hapter 20). The
fact that the p la ce m e n t of three pairs of elem ents in the periodic table is not in order
of atom ic m ass (S e ction s 3.4 and 3.5) throw s doubt on D alton's theory The inte ra c
tion of light w ith m atter gave fu rthe r evidence that the atom is not indivisible. A b so rp
tion of specific w ave len gth s of light, m eaning specific e nergies of light, led to the co n
clusion that atom s have certain energy levels in them (See the follow ing enrichm ent
section.) M any o th e r d isco ve rie s have been made that are beyond the scope of this
text. If atom s are not ind ivisible, then w hat are the particles that constitute them ?
The atom is com p ose d of m any types of subatom ic particles, but only three types
will be im p orta nt in this co urse Protons and neutrons e xist in the atom 's nucleus,
and electrons e xist o utside the nucleus. The nucleus (plural, nuclei) is incredibly sm all,
with a radius about one te n -th ou san dth of the radius of the atom itself. (If the atom
were the size of a car, the nucleus would be about the size of the period at the end of
this sentence.) The n ucleu s does not change during any o rdinary chem ical reaction.
(N uclear reactions are describ e d in C hapter 20.) The protons, neutrons, and electrons
have the pro pe rtie s listed in Table 3.1. These properties are ind ep en d en t of the atom
of w hich the su b a to m ic p article s are a part Thus, the atom is the sm a lle st unit that
has the ch a ra cte ristic co m p ositio n of an elem ent, and in that sense, it is the sm allest
particle of an e le m e n t
An unco m b ine d atom is neither positive nor negative but e le ctrica lly neutral, and
thus the n um ber of protons (p) m ust equal the num ber of electrons:
Num ber o f p roton s = num ber o f electrons (For a neutral atom)
B ecause neu tro n s are neutral (see Table 3.1). the num ber of neutrons (n) does
not affect the charge on the atom The num ber of protons in an atom dete rm ine s the
e le m e n t's id e n tity All a tom s having the sam e n um be r of p ro ton s are atom s of the
sam e e le m e n t A tom s w ith d iffe re n t n um bers of protons are atom s of d iffe re n t e le
m ents The n um ber of protons in an atom is w hat d ifferen tia tes each ele m e n t from all
others It is called the atom ic num ber (Z) of the elem ent
Z = P
The n um ber of neutrons in the nuclei of atom s of the sam e elem ent can d iffer If
two atom s have the sam e n um ber of protons and different num bers of neutrons, they
are atom s of the sam e e le m ent (they have the same atom ic num ber). H ow ever, they
have d iffe re n t m asse s because of the different num bers of neutrons S uch atom s are
said to be isotopes of each other Each isotope of an elem ent is usually identified by
its m ass num ber (A), w hich is defined as the sum of the num ber of protons and the
num ber of neu tro n s in the atom:
A = p + n = Z + n
G e n e ra lly, the m ass n um ber for the isotopes rises as the a tom ic n um be r rises
but the two are not d ire ctly proportional
S ym bols for the ele m e n ts were introduced in C hapter 1. In addition, each of those
sym b o ls can be used to rep re sen t an atom of the elem ent. M oreo ver, an isotope is
identified by the sym bo l of the elem ent, with the m ass num ber added as a s u pe rscript
8 1
Topic 3- Atom s and alimic m asses
on the left side For e xam ple the jso to p e of hydrogen w ith m ass n um be r of 1 is d e s ig
nated as 'H (Its nam e is hydrogen-1.) Note that the n um ber of n eu tro n s is not given,
the m ass n um ber is The n um ber of protons (the atom ic n um be r) m ay be show n as a
subscript on the left, if desired, as in JH How ever, because the e le m e n t s ide ntity d e
term ines the atom ic num ber, and vice versa, giving both the s y m b o l and the atom ic
n um ber is red un da nt — it ide ntifie s the ele m e n t tw ice E xce pt for 'H . the n u m b e r of
neutrons equals or exceeds the n um ber of protons in the n ucleu s of e ve ry isotope
• Nguyen tit kliong the chia thanh tCtng phan nhitng no bao gom cac proton va
neutron ben trong cac hat nlian ua cdc electron ben ngoai hat nhan
• Nguyen tii co so neutron khdc nhau nhitng co sd proton giong nhau duqc goi Id
cdc chdt ddng ui.
Sd nguyen tii xdc dinh nguyen td md nguyen hi dd Id mot phdn
A. Cd bao nhieu proton co ditqc trong nguyen hi X uon la mot chdt dong ui cua mot
nguyen tii Q cd 47 proton ua 60 neutron ?
B Sd nguyen tit vd sd khdi litqng cua nguyen tii Q ciia bdi tap A bdng bao nhieu{
C. Vdi chdt ddng ui nao thi so khoi litqng nhd hon 2 Ian so nguyen hi?
82
Topic 3 ‘ Atoms and atimic m asses
Nguyen td bao gom nlueu loqi liat nho nhitng chi cd ba loai hat Id quan trong
trong bdi hoc ndy. Proton neutron luen dien trong hat nhdn cua nguyen td con electron
luen dien ben ngoai liat nhdn (sd nlueu Id nuclei) cd ban kinh khodng chdng mot phan
ngan ban kinh ciia chinh nguyen td. (Neu Inch thudc ciia nguyen td bdng kich thudc ciia
cliiec xe hm thi kii li thudc ciia liqt nhdn gdn bdng kich thudc ciia mot ddu chdm trong
quyen sdch). Hat nhdn khdng thay ddi trong suot bat ky phdn ling hda hqc binh thudng
nao. (cdc phdn ling hat nhdn ditqc md td chi tiet trong chuang 20). proton, neutron ra
electron cd cdc tinh chdt ditqc Het ke trong bdng bdng 3.1 Nhdng tinh chdt ndy doc lap
rdi nguyen td ma qua do cdc hut nguyen td con ndy Id thanh phdn. Nhu' the nguyen Id
Id mot don ri nhd nhdt rdn cd cdc td hqp dqc tritng ciia mot nguyen td, vd xet theo y
nghia do, no chinh Id hat nhd nhdt cua mot nguyen td. Mot nguyen td khdng ditqc ket
hqp thi khdng ditang ciing khdng dm nhitng d trang thai trung hoa re dien ra nhu the
so cdc proton(p) phai bdng sd electron:
So proton = s o electron (ung vdi mot nguyen tu)
The charges gircn arc relative charges, based on the charge on the electron, e. as the
fundamental unit of charge 11 e = 1.60 x 10 ' coulombI. The masses are given in atomic
mass unils lamu). described in Section 3.4.
Boi ri cac n eu tron Id trung tinh (xem ba n g 3.1) nen sd cdc neutron in) khdng anh
hitdng d en d ien tich tren nguyen td. S d cdc proton trong mot n guyen td se xdc dinh dac
tinli ciia n g uyen td. Tdt ca cdc nguyen Id cd ciing sd proton g io n g nhau deu Id nguyen td
cua ciing mot n g u y en td. Tdt cd cdc nguyen tif co sd proton kh dc nhau Id cdc n guyen td
c iiu cdc n g uyen td k h a c nhau Sd cac proton trong mdt nguyen td chi d m h cho biet duoc
sit kliac biet cua cac nguy en td. N o ditqc g o i Id sd nguyen td tZ) cua n guyen td:
Z = p
83
Topic j : Atoms and atimic m asses
So cdc neutron trong hat nhan cua nguyen tii cua cung mot nguyen td co the khac
nhau. Neu hai nguyen tii co so proton giong nhau ua so neutron khac nhau thi chung la
cdc nguyen tii cua ciing mot nguyen to (chiing cd cung sd nguyen tii).
Atom s are so tiny that, until recently, the m asses of individual atom s could not be
m easured directly H ow ever, because m ass was so im portant in D alton s th e o ry some
m easure of a tom ic m asses was n ecessary Therefore, a relative s ca le — the atom ic
mass scale— was set up This scale is also called the atom ic w eig h t scale. On this
scale, an average of the m asses of all the atom s of the naturally o c c u rrin g m ixture of
isotopes of a given e le m e n t was m easured relative to the m ass of an atom of a stan
dard. The early p ioneers of chem istry, trying to verify Dalton s a tom ic th e o ry could not
m easure the m ass of ind ivid ua l atom s The best they could do w as to m e a s u re the
m asses of equal num bers of atom s (or other known ratios of atom s) of tw o (or m ore)
elem ents at a tim e, to dete rm ine their relative m asses. They e s ta b lis h e d one e le m ent
as a standard, gave it an arbitrary value of atom ic m ass, and used that value to e s ta b
lish the atom ic m ass scale
The last naturally o ccurrin g m ixture of isotopes that was used as a sta nd ard was
oxygen, d efined as having an atom ic m ass of exactly 16 atom ic m ass units lam u)
That standard was later replaced, see later discu ssion The atom ic m ass unit is tiny, it
takes 6 02 X 1 0 '3 am u to m ake 1 00 g B ecause carbon atom s have an a v e ra g e m ass
only th re e -q u a rte rs th a t of o xyg e n atom s, the a to m ic m ass of c a rb o n is % th a t of
oxygen, or 12 amu. W e can see how atom ic m asses, also ca lle d a to m ic w eig h ts,
were d ete rm ine d h isto rica lly by using the a nalogy p re se n te d in E x a m p le 3 6
The m odern m ethod of dete rm inin g atom ic m ass uses the ,?C isotope as the sta n
dard. w ith a m ass d efin ed as e xa ctly 12 am u (The a tom ic m ass of c a rb o n on this
scale is 12 011 am u and that of o xyge n is 15 9994 am u ) T he a to m ic m ass of an
elem ent is defined as the w e ig h te d a v e ra g e of the m asses of its n atu ra lly o ccurrin g
isotopes (not the m ass num bers of the isotopes), A w eig hte d average is the average
taking into a ccou nt the relative num bers of atom s of each type of isotope The c o n
cept of w eighted average may be understood using an analogy to a situ atio n m e v e ry
day life, presented in E xam ple 3 8
84
Topic 3 : Atoms and atimic m asses
A tom ic m asses of naturally occurring elem ents are listed in the p eriodic table. (B e
cause a tom ic m ass is the w eighted average of naturally o ccurrin g isotopes, a rtificial
ele m e n ts by defin itio n do not have atom ic m asses The m ass n um ber of the m ost stable
isotope of each artificial elem ent is placed in parentheses in the box for the elem ent in
the table ) N aturally o ccurrin g sam ples of an elem ent have a lm ost e xactly the sam e
m ixture of isotopes, no m atter w hat the source For exam ple, w ater from the rain fo r
est of the A m azon, from an iceberg in the Arctic Ocean, or from the com bustion of an
oak tree in N ew York contains oxygen that is 99 759% 60 . 0.037% ’ 'O . and 0.204%
,80 Because the relative percen ta ge s of the isotopes in any naturally o ccurrin g e le
m ent are rem arkab ly constant, the average of the isotopic m asses is also co nsta nt (to
four, five, or even six sig n ifica n t digits). Thus, D alton's postulate of a co nsta nt m ass
for the atom s of an e le m e n t explained the laws of chem ical com bination because there
is a constant average m ass.
How could the early ch em ists be sure that th eir sam ples of tw o elem ents had equal
num bers of atom s? They m ade a com pound of the e lem ents in w hich the atom ic ratio
was 1:1. They did not need to know the exact num ber of atom s of each elem ent, only
that the atom s w ere pre sen t in a 1:1 ratio.
• Khoi htqng nguyen tit ditqc dinh nghia la trung binh trong luqng cua cdc khoi
litqng ciia hon hqp cdc chat dong vi tit nhien trong mot nguyen to. Phai can than
phdn biet so khdi htqng vd khdi htqng cua mot nguyen tit dac biet.
• Ve mat lich sit thi khoi htqng nguyen tit ditqc xdc dinli tit ti so cac khoi luqng
chdng hqn nhit ly thuyet dd ditqc diuig de phat trien dinh luat cdc ti le xdc dinh.
Ngay nay khoi htqng vd h le phdn tram cua tnni mot chdt dong vi deu ditqc
dung.
A Trong mot hqp chdt co chita cdc nguyen tit X ling vdi moi mot nguyen tit oxy. ti
so giita cac khoi htqng la 5.48g X tren lg oxy. Hay xdc dinh nguyen to X.
R Nguyen to X bao gom 9 3 .10! nguyen tit vdi khoi htqng 38:96 amu vd khoi luqng
nguyen tii la -11.14 amu. Xdc dinh nguyen to X.
85
Topic 3 Atoms and atimic m asses
Hon hqp cdc chdt dong vi tit nhien ditqc dung lam tieu chuan chinh Id oxy. ditqc xdc
dinh la cd khoi htqng nguyen td chinh xdc bdng 16 khdi litqng dan vi khoi luang nguyen
td (amu). Tieu chuan ndy sau ndy dd duqc thay the. Dan vi khoi luqng nguyen td citc ky
nho; phdi mat 6.02 x I O'3 amu mdi tqo ra ditqc l,00g. Bdi vi cdc nguyen tu carbon cd
khdi luqng trung binh chi bdng 3 / 4 khoi luqng cua nguyen tii oxy, cho nen khdi luqng
cua nguyen td carbon Id 3 1 4 khdi luqng oxy hay bdng 12 amu. Chung ta cd the thay
cdch md cdc khoi htqng nguyen tit con duqc goi la nguyen td khdi duqc xdc dinh bdng
cdch dung ly luan duqc trinh bdy trong vi du 3.6.
Phuang phdp hien dai de xdc dinh khdi litqng nguyen td dd Id sd dung chdt dong
vi carbon r'C lam chuan vdi mot khdi htqng duqc xdc dinh Id 12 amu. (Khoi litang nguyen
tii cua carbon trong thang chia ndy Id 12.011 amu) va rdng khoi litqng cua oxy Id 15.9994
amu. Khoi htqng nguyen tit cua mot nguyen to duqc dinh nghla la trung binh trong
luqng cua cdc khoi htqng cua cdc chdt ddng vi trong tu nhien (khdng phat la sd khdi
luqng ciia chdt dong vi). M ot trung binh trong luqng la gid tri trung binh duar tinh so
cdc nguyen tii tuong ddi cua mdi mot kieu dong vi. Khdi niem ve trung binh trong luang
cd the ditqc hieu bdng cdch sd dung mot phep tinh tuong tu cho tinh huong trong ddt
song hang ngay d vi du 3.8
86
Topic 3 : Atoms and alimic m asses
ca use a rse n ic's pro pe rtie s w ere m uch more sim ilar to those of phosphorus (P) than to
those of alum inum (Al) or silicon (Si), M endeleyev predicted that two elem ents that fit
the positions under alum inum and silicon in his periodic table had not yet been d is c o v
ered See Figure 3 9. He described th eir expected pro pe rtie s from those of the e le
m ents above and below them in his table. His predictions helped other chem ists d is
co ve r these e lem ents, now known as gallium (Ga) and germ anium (Ge).
S everal o the r ele m e n ts seem ed out of order. For exam ple, th eir atom ic m asses
placed iodine (I) before tellurium (Te), but their chem ical properties required the oppo
site order. M en de leye v concluded that the atom ic m asses m ust have been determ ined
incorrectly and put these tw o elem ents in positions reflecting th eir properties. W e now
know that the perio d ic pro pe rtie s of the elem ents are based on their atom ic num bers,
not their atom ic m asses, w hich explains M en de leye v’s difficulty with the p lacem ent of
certain elem ents.
An entire group of e le m e n ts— the noble gases— was discovered after the periodic
table was first fo rm u la te d These elem ents are colorless, odorless gases and alm ost
totally inert. T h e ir lack of co m b in in g ca pacity m eans that th ey are not found in any
naturally o ccurrin g com pound. If som e com pound had had a percen ta ge of its m ass
u na ccounted for, ch e m ists w ould have known to look for the m issing e lem ents, but
because the noble gases do not com bine spontaneously with substances that they come
into contact w ith in nature, there was no clue to their existence.
That each e le m e n t fits properly into place in a ve rtica l colum n proves the fu nd a
m ental co rrectne ss of arran gin g the elem ents according to th eir atom ic num bers and
chem ical p roperties. H enry M oseley (1887-1915) discovered a q uantitative relationship
betw een the w a ve le n g th of X-rays em itted by an elem ent and the atom ic num ber of
the elem ent. E very atom ic n um ber betw een 1 and 92 was accounted for, w hich m eans
that there are no m ore "u nd iscove re d " elem ents except p ossibly a rtificial elem ents with
very high a tom ic n um be rs yet to be synthesized
A tom ic n u m b e rs and atom ic m asses are usually included in the boxes w ith the
ch em ica l s ym b o ls in the p erio d ic table. The atom ic n um ber is the integer. (A m ass
num ber, w hich is also an integer, is given in parentheses for the m ost stable isotope
of the syn the tic e le m e n ts.)
The perio d ic table is a trem endous source of inform ation for students w ho learn
to use it well. In C h a p te r 4, you w ill learn to use the periodic table to pre dict the e le c
tronic co nfig uratio n of each of the elem ents, and in C hapter 5. you w ill use it to pre
dict o u te rm o st e le ctro n sh ell occupancy. The ta b le ’s num eric data are used in later
ch ap ters on fo rm u la ca lcu la tio n s and sto ichiom e try, and its in fo rm a tio n on ch em ica l
trends is applied in the ch ap ters on bonding and m olecular structure.
• Bang tuan hoan cdc nguyen to ban ddu duqc phat trien bdng cdch sii dung khoi
luorng nguyen td ra hoa va cdc tinh chdt hda ly cua nguyen to nhung ngdx nay
nguai ta biet rdng sd nguyen tii mdi chinh la ca sd thuc te cua bdng plian loai
tuan hodn.
87
Topic 3: Atoms and atimic m asses
A. Bdng cdch nao Mendeleyev biet de du trit cdc cho trong trong bang phdn loai
tuan hodn ddnh cho gallium vd germanium?
Mendeleyev da dat cdc nguyen to duqc biet vdo thdp men 1860 theo thu tu khoi
luqng nguyen tii cua chung (nguyen tii khoi chUa duqc dinh nghia) vd dd luu y rdng cdc
tinh chdt ciia moi mot nguyen to dd duqc biet thii bdy deu giong nhau. O ng ta dd sdp
xep cdc nguyen to trong mot bang vdi cdc nguyen to co cdc tinh chat giong nhau nam
trong cung mot nhom thdng diing. Tai mot vai diem nai md cdc nguyen to duong nhu
khong phu hqp vdi khdi luqng nguyen tii cua no. Ong ta di/ doan rdng cd mot nguyen to
chUa duqc kham phd ddnh cho vi tri do. Vi du nguyen to duqc biet sau nay ndm sau
Zinc (Zn) tinh theo khdi luqng nguyen tii chinh Id nguyen to arsenic (As). Tuy nhien, bdi
vi cdc tinh chdt cua arsenic giong rat nhieu so vdi phosphor (P), thay vi giong vai alumi
num (Ah hoac silicon (Si), nen Mendeleyev dd du doan rang hai nguyen to phu hqp cho
cdc vi tri ndm ben dudi aluminum vd silicon trong bdng phdn loqi tuan hoan cua ong
von cliUa duac kham phd. Xem hinh 3.9 ong ta dd mo td cdc tinh chdt mong dqi cua
chiing tit cdc tinh chdt ciia nguyen td ndm ben tren va ben dudi chung trong bang phdn
loai tuan hodn. Du doan cua ong ta da giiip cho cdc nhd hda hqc kham phd ra cdc
nguyen td nay duqc goi la gallium (Ga) vd germanium (Ge).
Nhieu nguyen td khdc dudng nhu ndm ngoai trat tu. Vi du khoi luqng nguyen tii ciia
chiing dd dat iodide (I) trudc tellurium (Te), nhung cdc tinh chdt hda hoc ciia chung la yeu
cau tii' tii ddo nguqc Mendeleyev ket ludn rdng khdi luqng nguyen tii da duac xac dinh
khong d in g nen dd ddt hai nguyen td ndy d vi tri phan anh tinh chdt cua chung Ngay
nay chiing ta biet rdng cdc tinh chat tuan hodn ciia cdc nguyen to nay la ca sa tren so
nguyen tii cua chiing chi/ khdng dat ca sd tren khoi luqng nguyen tii, dieu nay da giai
thich sU kho khan ciia Mendeleyev trong viec ddt cdc nguyen td vao cdc vi tri nhat dmh
Mot nhom toan bo cdc nguyen tii, cdc khi hiem vd cdc khi tra dd duqc kham phd
sau khi bdng phdn loqi tuan hodn duac thanh lap Ian ddu tien. Nhilng nguyen to nay la
88
Topic 3 : Atom s and atimic m asses
cdc chat khi khong mdu, khong mui, stf khiem khuyet ve khd nang ket hqp co nghla
rang chung khdng di/qc tim thay trong cac hqp chdt ttf nhien. Neu mot vai hqp chdt cd
mot tt le phdn tram khoi li/qng cua no khdng ditqc tinh den, thi cdc nha lioa hqc biet
plidi tim kiem car nguyen to bi khiem khuyet nhitng bdi vi cdc khi tra khdng ket hqp
ddng that vdi cdc chdt ma chung tiep xiic trong tit nhien cho nen khong cd ddu mdi de
chi/ng td cluing liien dien.
Stf kien mdi nguyen to cd tinh chdt phu hqp dtfqc dtfa vao trong mot cot thang
ditng, chiing minh dtfqc tinh dung dan ve mat can ban cua viec sap xep cdc nguyen td
theo sd nguyen tilt vd tinh chdt hda hqc ciia cluing. Henry Moseley (1887 19151 dd kham
phd moi quan he dinh Itfqng giila btfdc song ciia cdc tia X ditqc phat ra bai mot nguyen
td vd sd nguyen tii’ ciia nguyen td do. Mdi sd nguyen tii ndm giQa 1 va 92 deu dtfqc tinh
den cd nghla rang khdng con nguyen to nao chtfa dtfqc kham phd ngoai trit cdc nguyen
td nhdn tqo cd sd nguyen tut rdt cao chtfa dtfqc tong hqp.
Sd nguyen tit vd khdi Itfqng nguyen tit thtfdng dtfqc dtfa vdo trong khung vdi ky
hieu ciia hda hoc ndm trong bang phdn loqi tuan hodn So nguyen ttf la mot sd nguyen
(sd khoi Itfqng A, cung Id mot sd nguyen, no dtfqc dtfa vdo trong cdc ddu ngoac dan dung
cho hdu het chdt ddng vi on dinh cua cac nguyen to tong hqp).
Hang phdn loai tuan hodn 1a mot nguon thong tin ctfc ky quy gia ddnh cho hqc
vien hqc de sit dung no. Trong clitfong 4 chiing ta se hqc cdch sit dung bdng phdn loai
tuan hodn cdc nguyen td de dtf doan cau hinh nguyen ttf ciia mot nguyen td vd trong
clitfong 5 chung ta se sit dung no de dtf doan electron ciia tang ngodi cung. Di7 lieu sd
ciia bdng phdn loqi tuan hodn dtfqc dung trong cdc chtfang ve sau dp dung trong cdc
phep tinh vd thong tin ciia no ve hda hqc dtfqc dp dung trong cdc chtfang ban ve lien ket
vd cau true phdn tit.
3 1 Tw o co m p o u n d s are each com posed of elem ents A and B The first contains
4 22 g of B for every gram of A Of the follow ing p ossibilities, w hich ones could
be the co rre ct n um ber of gram s of B per gram of A in the second co m p o u n d 9
(a) 4.15g ( c ) 2 .1 1 g
3.2 At a racetrack, the w inning horse paid “7 to 2." How m uch does a g am bler win
for each d o lla r bet on that horse? Is that ratio an integral ratio?
3 4 W hat is the w eig hte d average of two m asses of 7.80 kg, six m asses of 7 42 kg
and three m asse s of 7.57 kg?
3.5 On w hat sta nd ard are all atom ic m asses presently based?
89
Topic J: Atoms and atimic m asses ___________________________________________________ ____ ______
3 6
(a) W hat is the a tom ic n um ber of m ag ne sium 7
(b) How m any protons are in a m agnesium atom ?
(c) W hat is the n um ber of positive charges on a m ag ne sium n u c le u s 7
3.7 W hich of the three fo llo w in g num bers, each of w hich a p p e a rs on the p eriodic
table inside the front cover, is an atom ic num ber, w hich is an a tom ic m ass and
w hich is a m ass num ber?
(a) 2 8.086 (b) (243) (c) 52
3.8
(a) W hat is the unit of atom ic m ass?
(b) W hat is the unit of e lectric charge used at the atom ic le v e l7
3.9 Of atom ic num ber, atom ic m ass, and m ass num ber, w hich tw o a pp e a r w ith most
of the sym bols for the e lem ents in the periodic table?
3.10 W hat is the d ifferen ce betw een the sym bol for an e le m e n t and the s y m b o l for
an isotope of that elem ent?
3.12
(a) W hich ele m e n t has atom ic num ber 16?
(b) W hich e le m e n t has an atom ic m ass of 16.00 am u (to fo ur s ig n ific a n t fig
ures)?
(c) Locate the ele m e n ts of part (a) and part (b) on the p erio d ic table
3.13 W hat is the d ifferen ce betw een the m ass of an atom and the m ass n u m b e r of
the atom ?
3.14 In the p e rio d ic table (in side front cover), locate five e le m e n ts fo r w h ich m ass
num be rs rather than atom ic m asses are given.
3 15 W hat ch a ra cte ristic of an atom did Dalton think was the m ost im p o rta n t7
90
Topic 3 : Atoms and atimic m asses
3 21
(a) W hat is the average of a 2 0.0-g m ass and a 30 0-g m ass?
(b) W h a t is th e w e ig h te d a ve ra g e of e ig h t 20 0-g m a sse s and tw o 30 0-g
m asses?
(c) W hat is the w eighted average mass of three chlorine atom s with m ass 35 0
am u each and one chlorine atom with m ass 37.0 amu?
3 22 W hy did M en de leye v not use atom ic num bers instead of atom ic m asses as the
basis for his perio d ic table?
3.1 Law s of C h em ica l C om b in atio n - Djnh luat ve tong hqfp hoa hoc
3.23 A 15.11 -g sa m p le of m e rcu ry(ll) oxide was decom posed into m ercury and o x y
gen, yielding 13.99 g of m ercury.
(a) W hat m ass of oxygen was obtained?
(b) W hat fractio n of the com pound was oxygen?
(c) W hat p ercen ta ge of the com pound was oxygen?
3 24 S odium and ch lo rin e react to form one com p ou nd only In a certa in reaction.
2.017 g of sodium reacts com pletely with 3 109 g of chlorine to produce sodium
chloride
(a) How m uch chlo rin e would react with 7.212 g of sodium ?
(b) How m uch chlo rin e would react with 0.2221 g of sodium ?
3.25 Tw o co m p o u n d s are each com posed of elem ents A and B. The first contains
2.222 g of B for e very gram of A. Of the follow ing p ossibilities, w hich ones could
be the co rre ct n um be r of gram s of B per gram of A in the second com pound?
(a) 1.111 g
(c) 3 333 g
(b) 2 .222 g
(d) 2 011 g
3 26 If 28 7 mg of a com pound containing only carbon and hydrogen is burned c o m
pletely in o xyge n and yields 90.2 mg of carbon dioxide and 36 9 mg of water,
how m uch o xyge n is used up?
3 28 The ratio of m asses of sulfur and oxygen in sulfur dioxide is 1.0 g to 1.0 g Is
this fact a p ro of of the law of m ultiple proportions?
3.29 The ratio of the m ass of carbon to the m ass of oxygen in carbon m onoxide is
about 3 g to 4 g Does this fact confirm the law of m ultiple p ro portions?
91
Topic 3 : Atoms and atimic m asses
C om po u nd 1 C om pound 2
E le m e n t X 92.83 g 8 6.6 2 g
E le m e n t Y 7 17g 13 38 g
3.34 Solve E xam ple 3.3 again, this tim e using 1 g of oxygen in each c o m p o u n d Is
the law of m ultiple p roportions still valid?
3.35 A sam ple of a com pound com posed of only carbon and hydrogen co nta ins 85 63%
carbon Show that this com pound and the one in P roblem 3 18 obey the law of
m ultiple p ro po rtio ns
3.2 D alto n ’s Atom ic Theory - Ly thu yet nguyen tif cua Dalton
3.37
(a) What happens to a scientific hypothesis if experim ents show it to be incorrect7
(b) To w hich of D alton's postulates did this first happen?
3.38 A cco rd in g to D alto n's a tom ic theory, all atom s of the sa m e e le m e n t have the
sam e m ass If an atom of titanium has a m ass of 48 am u and an atom of o x y
gen has a m ass of 16 amu:
(a) W hat is the m ass ratio of one atom of oxygen to one atom of tita n iu m 9
(b) W hat is the total m ass of 100 atom s of o xygen? W hat is the total mass of
100 atom s of titanium ?
(c) W hat is the ratio of m asses of 100 atom s of oxygen to 100 atom s of tita
nium ?
92
Topic 5 : Atoms and atimic m asses
(d) C hoose an arbitrary, large num ber of atom s of oxygen. Then calculate the
m ass of that num ber and the mass of an equal n um ber of titanium atom s
C alculate the ratio of the total masses.
(e) W hat can you conclude about the ratio of m asses of equal num bers of o x y
gen and titanium atom s?
3 39 W ould it m ake any difference in Problem 3 38 if average m asses had been used?
E xplain.
3 40 The form ula for w ater is H.,0, signifying that there are two atom s of hydrogen
for every atom of oxygen. If D alton's fifth postulate had been true, w hat would
the form ula for w ater have been?
3 41 The atom s of e le m e n t Z each have about one third the m ass of a " A I atom
A n othe r e lem ent, X, has atom s whose m ass is about seven tim es the m ass of
Z atom s A third elem ent. Q, has atom s with half the m ass of X atom s
(a) M ake a table of relative atom ic m asses based on ?,AI as 27 amu.
(b) Identify the ele m e n ts Z. X, and Q.
3 42 Sulfur dioxide (SO ,) has two atoms of oxygen per atom of sulfur, and sulfur triox-
ide (SO^) has three atom s of oxygen per atom of sulfur The m ass ratio of sulfur
to oxygen in SO , is 1 0 1 0 W hat is the mass ratio of sulfur to oxygen in S O (9
3 43 Draw a figure like that of Figure 3 4 for sodium oxide. Na^O. and sodium p e ro x
ide, N a ,0 , For a given num ber of oxygen atom s, w hat is the ratio of sodium
atom s in the tw o com pounds?
3 44 A com p ou nd is form ed betw een elem ents A, B, and C in w hich two atom s of A
co m bine w ith each atom of B and four atom s of C Each atom of A has a m ass
of 39 1 units, each atom of B has a m ass of 32 0 units, and each atom of C
has a m ass of 16 0 units
(a) Is there a d efinite ratio of m asses of one elem ent to the other?
(b) C alculate the m ass ratio of A to B and of C to B
3 45 Plot the m ass n um ber versus the atom ic num ber for the last seven actinide e le
m ents C an you see any relationship betw een these q u a n titie s for th ese e le
m ents that have ve ry sim ilar atom ic num bers?
3 46 All n a tu ra lly o ccu rrin g sam ples of m agnesium fluoride, w hen p urifie d , contain
the sam e p ercen ta ge of m agnesium and the sam e percentage of fluorine N atu
rally o ccu rrin g flu orin e consists of only one isotope W hat do the co nsta nt p e r
ce nta ge s say about the three naturally occurring isotopes of m a g n e s iu m 9
3 47 N aturally o ccurrin g silicon consists of 92 21% ' 8Si. w hich has a m ass of 27 97693
amu, 4 70% "’“Si. w hich has a m ass of 28 97649 amu. and 3.09% of ,0Si. w hich
has a m ass of 29 97376 amu C alculate the atom ic m ass of silicon
3.48 R estate D alton s first three postulates in am ended form , based on m odern in
fo rm a tio n
3 50 W hich tw o inner transition isotopes w hose m ass num bers are given in the p e ri
odic table on the inside front cover of the text have the g re ate st n um be r of n e u
tro n s 9
93
Topic 3 : Atoms and atimic m asses
3.51 Identify by a tom ic n um be r the elem ents in the perio d ic table that are not n a tu
rally occurring.
94
Topic 3 : Atoms and atimic m asses
3 60 W hich e le m e n t has atom s with average m ass about 10 tim es those of the a v e r
age nitrogen atom ?
3 61 W hich e le m e n t has atom s with average m ass about 20 tim es those of the a v e r
age helium a to m 7
3 62 A co m pound co nta ins alm ost equal m asses of fluorine and selenium . Using their
atom ic m asses, d ete rm ine the form ula of the com pound
3 63 A com p ou nd co nta ins 2.00 tim es as m uch m ass of iodine as of copper Using
their atom ic m asses, determ ine the form ula of the com pound
3 64
(a) If 11 07% of the people in a W eight W atchers graduating class w eigh 141.9
pounds each and the rest w eigh 139 9 pounds each, w hat is the average
m ass of the class?
(b) If 11 07% of n a tu ra lly o ccu rrin g ce siu m atom s have an a to m ic m ass of
141 9090 am u and the rest have an atom ic m ass of 139 9053 amu. what
is the a tom ic m ass of cesium ?
3 65 C alculate the atom ic m ass of copper if 69 09% of naturally occurring copper a t
om s have a m ass of 62 9298 and 30 91% have a m ass of 64 9278 amu
3 66 W hich of the follow ing represent the m ass of one atom (to three sign ifican t fig
ures)?
(a) 12.0 g
(b) 0 500 amu
(c) 2 1 1 x 1 03amu
(e) 74 9 am u
(d) 6 02 x 102;' amu
95
Topic 3 ' Atoms and atimic m asses
3 69 80Br does not occur naturally. Explain how brom ine gets its atom ic m ass of 79 909
am u.
3.70 l08Ag does not o ccu r naturally. Explain how silver gets its a tom ic m ass of 107.87
am u.
3.71 You can guess the m ass num ber of the p re do m in an t isotope for m any ele m e n ts
from the atom ic m ass of the elem ent, but not in all ca ses The m ass num bers
of the isotop es of se le n iu m are 74, 76, 77, 78. 80. and 82 E x p la in w hy the
atom ic m ass is so close to 79 amu.
3.5 D evelopm ent of the Periodic Table - Phat trien cua ban g p han loai tu a n hoan
3.72 The follow ing are the form ulas for some oxides of seven th ird -p e rio d e le m e n ts
N a?0 M gO A l?0 3 SiO ? P?0 3 SO. C l?0
P redict the form ula for an oxide of each of the e le m e n ts d ire c tly below these in
the p eriodic table.
3 73 The follow ing are the form ulas for certain fluorides of th ird -p e rio d e le m e n ts:
NaF M gF , A1F, S iF 4 PF3 SF? GIF
P redict the form ula for a fluoride of each of the e le m e n ts d ire c tly b elow these
in the perio d ic table
3.74 How im p orta nt was it to the w ork of M endeleyev that a tom ic m ass and atom ic
n um ber rise so m e w h a t proportionally? Explain
3.75 C ould you use the average n um ber of neutrons, instead of a tom ic n um be r, to
build a perio d ic table as good as that of M endeleyev?
3 76 From the fo llo w in g pro pe rtie s of chlorine and iodine, p re dict the c o rresp on din g
p ro pe rtie s of brom ine:
C h lo rin e Io d in e B ro m in e
Gas under Solid under ______
norm al co nditions
Light yellow Deep violet ______
R eacts with m etals R eacts with m etals ______
R eacts w ith oxygen R eacts with oxygen ______
Does not Does not co nd uct ______
conduct e le ctricity electricity
3.77 Is there any p ossibility that the sulfur in the head of a m atch can c o m b in e with
all the o xyge n in the a tm o sp h e re of the Earth to form a c o m p o u n d 7 E xplain,
using a law studied in this chapter
96
Topic 3 : Atoms and atimic m asses
3 80 At a racetrack, the w inning horse paid $2 75 for each dollar bet. W hat odds were
posted?
3 81 A 52 6 g sam ple of e le m ent A reacts incom pletely with a 19.7-g sam ple of e le
m ent B W hat is the total m ass of the product plus the portion of A that did not
react?
3 82 Two co m p ou nd s of carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur have the follow ing percent c o m
positions Show that these com pounds obey the law of m ultiple proportions
(a) 38 66% C. 9.734% H. 51.60% S
(b) 47.31% C. 10 59% H. 42 10% S
3.83 The radius of an a ve ra g e nucleus is one te n -th o u s a n d th of the radius of the
atom as a w hole
(a) W hat is the ratio of the volume of the atom as a w hole to the volum e of
the n u c le u s 7 (V = 4/3 n r:))
3 84 Explain w hy M en de leye v could predict the existence of germ anium but m issed
the entire group of noble gases
3 85 A typical atom has a radius of about 10 10 m Estim ate the radius of a typical
nucleus
3.86
(a) C alcu la te the m ass of oxygen in a 25 0-g sam ple of nitrogen dioxide, using
the a n sw e r to E xam ple 3.2
(b) How m uch oxygen should be com bined with the sam e m ass of nitrogen as
in E xa m ple 3 2 to form the com pound nitrogen m onoxide a ssum in g that
there is tw ice the m ass of oxygen per gram of nitrogen in nitrogen dioxide
as there is in nitrogen m on oxid e 9
(c) W hat is the percent com position of nitrogen m o n o xid e 9
3 87 The atom ic m ass of nickel is 58 71 amu Does any atom of any isotope of nickel
have a m ass of 58 71 am u? Explain.
3 88
(a) Plot m ass n um be r versus atom ic n um ber for 'H, ’60 . s6Fe %Mo. 08Ba ” "A u
and ?MU
(b) Are a tom ic n um ber and m ass num ber d irectly proportional?
(c) W hat can you say about the relationship of these two q u a n titie s 9
3 89 The m asses of the atom s of the only two stable isotopes of co pp er are 62 9298
amu and 64 9278 amu and its atom ic mass is 63 546 amu. C alculate the p e r
ce ntage of each isotope [Hint Let x equal the fraction of one of the isotopes
and (I - x) equal the fraction of the other ]
3.90 The law of m ultiple proportions applies to two or more co m p ou nd s of the sam e
two or m ore e le m e n ts Show that the follow ing data also su pp ort the law
97
t opic j : Atoms and atim ic m asses
3 95 N aturally o ccu rrin g su lfur consists of 95 0% :v'S w hich has a m ass of 31 97207
am u. 0 76% ” S, w hich has a m ass of 32 971 46 am u and 4 22% “ S which
has a m ass of 33 96786 amu C alculate the atom ic m ass of s u lfu r How many
sig n ifica n t dig its are there in the final value?
' Se 49 82 79 9165
“ Se 9 19 81 5167
98
Topic 3 : Atoms and atimic m asses
99
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
OF THE ATOM
Cftu HlMH a e C T R O N CO a NGUYEN TIT
4.1 To understand the dual nature of 4.5 To write electronic configurations Ina
light and the relationships among shorter notation, using the concepts
its energy, frequency, and wave of shells, subshells, and orbitals
length
4.6 To draw the most common orbitals
4 .2 To use the Bohr theory of energy and to understand their spatial ori
levels in atoms to explain light entation and the uncertain nature of
emission and absorption by at locating the electron in the atom
oms
4 .7 To represent pictorially the ener
4.3 To use quantum numbers to write gies of subshells in atoms and of
the electronic structures of the the electrons that occupy the
atoms in their most stable states subshells
4.4 To write detailed electronic configu 4 .8 To relate each element’s posi
rations for the elements, using the tion in the periodic table to the
permitted values for the individual electronic configuration of its at
quantum numbers, the n + (. rule, oms, and to deduce electronic
and the Pauli exclusion principle structures using the periodic table
BO CUC - Layout
4.1 A Brief Exploration o f Light
100
Jiuang dan doc hieu muc dich yeu cau vd bo cuc
4.1 Hieu duac ban chdt litdng tinh cua anh sang va cdc quan he
gitfa ndng Itfong, tan sd va btfdc song cua anh sang, 4.2 Sd dung thuyet
Bohr vi cdc btfdc ndng Itfong trong nguyen tii de gidi thich stf phat xa vd
stf hdp thu anh sang bdi cdc nguyen tit, 4.3 Sd dung cdc sd litang tit de
viet cdu true electron cua cdc nguyen tit trong trang thdi bin nhdt cua
chung, 4.4 Viet cdc cdu hinh electron chi tiet cho cdc nguyen to, sit dung
nhitng gid tri dtfac phep ddi vdi tilng sd litang tit rieng, quy ludt n+l vd
nguyen ly loai trd Pauli, 4.5 Viet cdc cdu hinh electron theo mot cdch
ghi ngdn gon, sd dung nhitng khdi niem vi cdc lap vd, cdc lap vd con vd
cdc orbital, 4.6 Ve nhitng orbital thong dung nhdt vd hieu ditac stf dinh
htfdng khong gian cua chung vd ban chdt khong xdc dinh cua viec dinh
vi electron trong nguyen td, 4.7 Dien td bdng hinh anh cdc mile ndng
litang cua cdc lap vd con trong nguyen td vd cdc electron chiem cho trong
cdc lap vd con, 4.8 Lien he vi tri cua tilng electron trong bang phdn loai
tuan hodn vdi cdu hinh electron cua cdc nguyen tit nguyen td dd vd suy
ra dtfac cdu true electron bdng cdch sd dung bdng phdn loai tuan hodn.
4.1 Mot khao sdt ngdn gon ve anh sang , 4.2 Thuyet Borh, 4.3 Cdc
sd litang td, 4.4 Ndng litang titang ddi cua cdc electron, 4.5 Cdc lap vd,
cdc lap vd con vd cdc ocbital, 4.6 Hinh dang cua cdc orbital, 4.7 Gian do
mdc nang litang, 4.8 Stf bien ddi tudn hodn vi cdu hinh electron
101
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
M uc 4.1 mo td ngdn gon ve mot so tinh chdt vat ly cua anh sang, dac biet la quan
he gida buac song vd ndng luang cua no Muc 4.2 mo td ve viec Niel Bohr da rut ra ket
luan rdng cdc electron xuat hien trong cdc lap vd cd cdc ndng khac nhau nhu the nao.
Thuyet ciia Niel Bohr la mot diem, moc quan trong. nhung no khdng giai thich duac
tinh chat cua cdc nguyen td khdc han la hydro. M uc 4.3 gidi thieu cdc sd luang tu. rihung
con sd ndy cung cap cho chung ta mot hinh anh thoa ddng han ve cdu true dieu tu cua
cac nguyen td cd nhieu han mot electron Sit phu thuoc ve ndng luqng cua mot electron
102
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
vdo cdc s6 luang tii cua no dupe ban trong muc 4.4, vd cdc lap vd, cdc lap vd con vd cdc
orbital dupe ban den trong muc 4.5. Hinh dang cua orbital duac mo td a trong muc 4.6
i»a cdc gian do cho thdy cdc mile ndng luang cua nhilng lap vd con duac trinh bdy trong
muc 4.7. Cdu hinh electron cua mot nguyen tii chiu trdch nhiem ve cdc tinh chdt hoa hoc
vd vat ly cua nguyen to. Quan he gida cdu hinh electron vd vi tri trong bdng phdn loai
tuan hodn duac trinh bdy trong muc 4.8.
W e saw in C h a p te r 3 that light from the Sun was broken into a spectrum and that
a new e le m ent— helium — w as discovered, identified by the dark lines in that spectrum .
It is e sse n tia l to learn at le a st a little a bo ut the p h ysica l natu re of lig h t in o rd e r to
understand how the lines in the spectrum can tell us about energy levels in the atom s.
V isible ligh t is a tin y fractio n of the electromagnetic spectrum, w hich includes
gam m a rays, X -rays, u ltra vio let light, visible light, infrared light, m icrow aves, and radio
w aves. The w ord light is som etim es used to m ean only visible light (the portion of the
e lectrom agnetic sp ectrum d etectable by the hum an eye) and som e tim e s to m ean the
entire e le ctrom ag ne tic spectrum . In this text, light w ill be used to m ean the entire e le c
trom agnetic sp ectrum , and w hen visible light is m eant, the word visible w ill be included.
Light can be d escrib e d as a wave m otion because it can be refracted by a prism
and diffracted by a grating. These phenom ena can be explained only by light p o sse ss
ing wave properties. The wavelength (X) is the distance betw een tw o successive crests.
The am plitude (A) is the m axim um displacem ent from the m ean position. The frequency
(v) is the n um be r of cre sts that pass any point, such as point X, p er second. H ow ever,
light also has a p article nature it can best be described as a stream of p articles called
photons. The p ro pe rtie s of lights em itted by glow ing (red hot) objects and the p hoto
e lectric effect can be e xplained only with light as a stream of particles.
The energy of the photons (E) is related to the freq ue n cy of the w aves. T he fre
quency of a w ave (re prese n ted by v, G reek nu) is given by the equation
E = hv
w here h is a co n sta n t know n as Planck's constant with a value of 6.63 X 10-34 J/s. The
freq ue n cy of any w ave is inve rse ly proportional to its w avelength (A.). In the case of
light, the p ro p o rtio n a lity co n sta n t is the ve lo city of light (c), equ al to 3 .00 X I08 m/s.
(That value is equal to 186,000 miles per second)
Note that E and v are directly proportional, and both are inversely proportional to X .
O nce any of th ese va lu e s is known for light, the other tw o can be ca lculated.
103
Topic 4: Electronic configuratitm o f the atom
• Anh sang cd cd hai tinh chdt song va hat. Budc song ( X ) ciia no t l le nghich vai
tan so (\) cua no vd cung ti le nghich vai nang luang cua cdc photon: £ = h v = h c / X
A. Tinh nang litqng ciia mot photon anh sang neu X = 3 .00 x 10'm .
B. Neu tan sd cua anil sang tang len tU anh sang do sang drill sang tim, dieu gi
xay ra cho (a) ndng litang ciia cdc photon ? <h) btfdc song ?
Anh sang kha kien la mot phdn rat nhd trong phd dien tit, phd nay bao gom cdc
tia gamma, tia x, anh sang ci/c tim, anh sang klia kien, anh sang hong ngoai, cdc song
cUc ngdn vd cdc song vo tuyen. Tit anh sang doi khi duqc sd dung de chi rieng anli sang
lilia kien (Id phdn cua phd dien tU duqc phat luen bdi mat ngudi) vd doi khi de chi toon
bo phd dien tit. Trong bdi ndy anli sang se ditqc sit dung de chi loan bo phd dien tit vd
khi noi den anh sang kha kien thi tit kha kien se ditqc neu ra.
Anh sang cd the duqc md td nhu mot song chuyen dong vi no co the bi khiic xa bdi
mot lang kinh vd nhieu xq bdi mot cdch td vd nhitng hien tuang ndy chi cd the duac giai
thich bdng nhilng tinh chdt song ciia anli sang. Budc song ( ( ) Id khodng cdch gida hai
dinh song lien tiep bien do (A) la sit dich chuyen toi da tU vi tri trung binh. Tan sd (v) la
sd dinh song di qua mot diem bat ky, vi du nhu mot diem X, tinh tren giay. Tuy nhien,
anh sang cung cd ban chdt hat - anh sang cd the ditqc md td nhu mot dong cdc hat goi Id
photon. Cdc tinh chdt ciia anh sang phat xq bdi cdc vat cliay sang (ndng do) va hieu ling
quang dien chi cd the duac gidi thich khi xem anh sang la mot ddng cdc hat.
Ndng htqng cua photon CE) la cd lien quan vdi tan so cua cdc song. Tan so cua mot
song (bieu dien bdng chit v tieng Hy Lap nuj duqc cho bdi phuang trinh:
E = hv
Trong dd h la mot hang sd duac goi Id hang so Planck cd gia tri 6.63 * 10 J s.
Tan sd cua mot song bat ky ti le nghich vdi bitdc song ciia no (}.). Trong trUang hop
anh sang, hang sd ti le la van toe anh sang (c) bdng 3 .0 0 x 10' in / s <gia tri na\ bdng
186.000 dam /giay!).
c
Chu v rdng E vd v ti le thudn vdi nhau vd cd hai deu ti le nghich vdt ). Klti dd
biet mot trong hai gid tri nay cua anh sang, thi gia tri thu hai con lai co the duac tinh.
104
i
Topic 4: Electronic configuratitm o f the atom
W hen gaseous atom s of a given elem ent are heated, they em it light of only sp e
cific ene rg ies. W hen gaseous atom s of that same elem ent absorb light, they absorb
those sam e ene rg ies (see Figure 3 6) To explain these phenom ena of light emission
and light absorption, N iels Bohr (1885-1962) (Figure 4 3) postulated that the e le c
trons in atom s are arranged in orbits, each with a definite energy The Bohr theory
was the first to inclu de the explanation that electrons in atom s have discrete energy
levels; that is. e le ctron s m ay be found only in orbits with sp ecific energies.
W hen an atom abso rb s energy, an electron is "prom oted'' to a higher energy level.
B ecause each o rb it has a discrete energy level, the difference in energy betw een the
orbits is also d efinite. A fter an electron has been prom oted to a higher energy level, it
falls back to a low er e nergy level W hen it falls back, light of energy equal to the d if
ference in e ne rg y b etw een the orbits is em itted from the atom In a d ifferent e x p e ri
m ent, w hen light is absorbed by the atom, the electron is raised from one orbit to a n
other one. B ecause there is the sam e energy difference betw een the orbits, the same
energy of light is abso rb ed . An exam ple of these effects is show n. Som e of the p o s
sible electron tran sition s in a hydrogen atom are diagram m ed
B ohr postulated circu la r orbits for the electrons in an atom and developed a m ath
em atical m odel to re p re se n t the energies of the orbits, as well as their distances from
the a to m 's n ucleu s. His m odel w orked very w ell for the hydrog en atom . It could be
used to calculate the e ne rg y of the em itted and absorbed light, as w ell as the radius
of the atom H ow ever, the inten sity of the various w ave len gth s of light involved was
not e xp la in e d w ell M ore o ve r, no other atom was e xplain ed w ell at all It has since
been rep la ce d by a q ua ntu m m echanical m odel, but B ohr's theory w as a m ilestone
because Bohr w as the first to postulate energy levels in atom s
• Bohr dd khdng dinh rdng cdc electron trong mot nguyen til quay quanh nhdn
tren nhilng quy dqo hinh trdn ra hap thu hay phat xa anh sang khi chung thay
doi tii mot quy dqo nay sang mot quy dqo khdc.
• Tien de ciia Bohr cho rdng cdc electron trong nguyen til cd cdc mile ndng luqng
khdc nhau Id mdt diem mdc quan trong de hieu duqc ban chat cua nguyen til.
A. Neu thuyet Bohr chi dp dung dung cho nguyen til hydro cd ong khdng giai thich
tot re a long do cua cdc rqch phd, tai sao no rdn kha quan trong de chiing ta
phai tim hieuf
B. Co bao nhieu Id trinli khac nhau md electron cd the sil dung de di til qu\ dao
tlui til sang quy dao thii nhdt?
105
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
Thuyet Borh
Klu cdc nguyen tii khi ciia mot nguyen to dd cho diloc nung ndng. chiing phat xq
anh sang clil theo nhilng ndng luqng ddc thu. Khi cdc nguyen tvt dang khi ciia cung
nguyen to dd hap thu anh sang, chiing hap thu ciing nhilng ndng litqng dd (xem hinh
3.6). De gidi thich nhilng hien titqng ndy ciia sit phat xq vd sU hap thu anh sang. Niels
Bohr (1 885-1962) (hinh 4.3) khdng dinh rdng cdc electron trong cdc nguyen tii duoc sdp
xep tren quy dqo, mdi quy dqo cd mot ndng luqng xdc dinh. Thuyet Bohr la thuyet ddu
tien gidi thich rdng cdc electron trong nguyen tit cd nhilng miic ndng htqng rieng biet;
hie la, cdc electron cd the dilqc tim thdy chi tren nhilng quy dqo vdi cdc miic ndng htqng
dqc thu.
Khi mot nguyen tii hap thu ndng htqng, mot electron ditqc “ndng cap ’ len mdt mUc
ndng luqng cao han. Vi mdi quy dqo cd mot miic ndng luqng rieng, chenh lech ndng
luqng giUa nhilng quy dqo dd ciing xdc dinh. Sau khi mot electron dd duoc ndng len
mot mUc nang luqng cao han, no rat trd Iqi miic ndng htqng thdp han. Klu electron rai
trd lai, anh sang ciia ndng htqng bdng vdt chenh lech ndng htqng giUa cdc quy dqo duqc
phat xq ra til nguyen tit. Trong mot thi nghiem khdc khi anli sang duqc hap thu bdi
nguyen hi, electron duqc ndng len tit mot quy dqo sang mot quy dqo khdc, vi giUa cdc
quy dqo cd ciing mot chenh lech ndng luqng, cd cung mot ndng luang anh sang duqc
hop thu. Mot vi du ciia nhilng lueu Ung ndy ditqc trinh bdy tren. M ot so dich chuyen
electron cd the cd trong mot nguyen tii hydro.
Bohr thila nhan nhilng quy dqo hinh tron cho pliep electron trong mdt nguyen tii vd
dd phat trien mot md hinh todn hqc de the luen ndng luqng ciia cdc quy dao cung nhu
khodng cdch cua chiing tinh tit nhdn nguyen tit. Md hinh ciia ong dp dung rat dung cho
nguyen til hydro. No cd the ditqc sit dung de tinh todn ndng htqng cua anli sang phat xa
vd hap thu, cung nhu ban kinh ciia nguyen tii. Tuy nliien cudng dd cua cdc budc song
anh sang khdc nhau cd lien quan khdng duqc gidi thich tdt. Ngoai ra, mo hinh ndy
khdng gidi thich tdt cho mot nguyen tii nao khdc nUa. Md lunh nay sau dd duqc thay the
bdi mot md hinh ca hqc litqng tii nhung thuyet Bohr van la mot diem moc quan trong vi
Bohr 1a ngudi ddu tien khdng dinh cdc mite ndng luqng trong cac nguyen tii.
The p rin cip al quantum num ber (n) can have any p ositive in te g ra l va lu e but the
ele ctron s in atom s in th eir m ost stable sta te s have p rin c ip a l q u a n tu m n u m b e rs with
values from 1 th rough 7 only The m ost stable e le ctron ic state of an atom is ca lle d its
ground state. Any higher energy state is called an excited state. (U nless "e xcited state"
106
Topic /i: Electronic configuration o f the atom
l l i i
Spin quantum num ber in 2’ ’ 2
2 ° r -2
is specified in later discu ssion , ground state is usually im plied.) The p rincipal quantum
n um ber has the large st role in d eterm ining the energy of the electron, and it is also
the m ain factor in d ete rm inin g how far the electron is. on average, from the nucleus.
Thus, it is the m ost im p orta nt quantum num ber.
For each value of n. the angular m om entum quantum num ber ( / ) for an e le c
tron can have integral values from zero to (n - 1) but cannot be as large as n The
a ng ular m om en tu m q u a n tu m n um be r has a sm all role in d e te rm in in g the e ne rg y of
the electron, and it d ete rm in e s the shape of the volum e of space that the electron can
occupy (see S ection 4 6)
T o g e th e r w ith the n + ( rule, d iscussed in the next section, the Pauli exclusion
principle d e te rm in e s the n um ber of electrons in each of the shells in an atom
B How m any d iffe re n t values of me ( are perm itted for an e lectron w ith an value
of 2?
107
Topic 4: Electronic configuratioti o f the atom
• Moi electron trong mot nguyen tii co 4 so luong tU, 4 so nay chi phdi nang luang
va khodng cdch tU nhdn cua electron, cung vdi nhilng thu khac niia. Car gia tri
duqc phep cua cdc sd luqng tu la rat quan trong.
A. Cdc gia tri duqc phep ciia sd luqng tu chinh n la g i?
B Cd bao nhieu gid tri khdc nhau ciia m la duqc phep dot vai mot electron cd gia
tri t bdng 2?
So luqng tii chinh In) cd the cd bat cU mot gid tri nguyen dua rig nao. nliUng cdc
electron trong cdc nguyen til d trcing thai on dinh nhdt ciia cluing chi cd cdc sd luang til
chinh cd gid tri tu 1 den 7 ma thoi. Trang thai electron ben nhdt cua mot nguyen til
dilqc goi la mot trang thai co ban. Bat cU mdt trang thai ndng luqng nao cao hon cung
duqc goi Id mot trang tlidi kich thich. ItrU khi "trang thai kich thich’' dilqc noi rd trong
phdn sau, trang thai ndng liiqng thudng la de clii trang thai co ban) So luqng tii chinh
cd mot vai trd Idn trong viec xdc dinh ndng luqng ciia electron, vd no cung la mdt yeu td
chinh trong viec xdc dinh khodng cdch trung binh ciia electron ddi vdi nhdn. do do no la
sd hfqng til quan trong nhdt.
Doi vdi mdi gid tri ciia n, sd luqng tii ddng luqng goc fl) ciia mot electron cd the cd
cdc gid tri nguyen tii 0 den In - 1) nhung khdng the Idn bdng n. Sd luqng tu dong luqng
goc cd moi vai tro nhd han trong viec xdc dinh nang luqng cua electron, va no xdc dinli
hinh dang ciia the tich khdng gian ma electron cd the chodng cho (xem muc 4.6).
Hai ve cua ciing mot nhd liat khdng the cd ciing mot khu vUc, sd hang, so ghe va
ngay tlidng.
Sd luqng tii spin f m j chi cd the cd mot gid tri - \ hay + ‘ . Gid tri cua m khdng phu
thuoc vao gid tri ciia bat cii mdt sd luong tii nao khdc. Gid tri spin cho biet su dmh
huong ciia IU Irudng cd lien quan vdi electron.
Mot gidi hqn quan trong nila ve cdc sd luqng III cua cdc electron trong nguyen tu
ngoai nhilng dieu dd duoc het ke Irong bang 1.1, la nguyen ly loqi tru Pauli \gu\en U
nay phat bieu rang kliong co hai electron trong cung mot nguyen tU cd the co cung mdt
bo 4 sd luong tii. Dieu nay cung luong tu nhu mot doanh ngluep ludt phat bieu rang
khdng cd hai ve xem nhqc rock cd the cd cung mot bo ngay thang. vd khu vUc. hang ghe
vd sd ghe ngoi. Sd hang cd the phu thudc vdo sd khu vUc vd sd glie phai phu thudc i no
sd hang, nhung ngay lliang kliong phu thudc vdo bat cii so ndo trong ba sd ndi tren
Tuong tit, sd luong tU spin la dqc lap voi 3 sd luqng tU khdc.
Ciing vdi quy luat n + 1 duoc ban den trong doan tiep theo, nguyen ly loai tru Pauli
xdc dinh sd electron trong mdt lop vd trong nguyen tii.
108
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
( = 0 ( = 0
m, = 0 m = , 0
m $ = - 1 /2 m t = +1/2
Since the n values and the ( values are the same in these two sets of quantum
numbers, these possible configurations represent the same energy. Thus, either set of
quantum numbers could represent the electron of hydrogen.
A helium atom has two electrons, so we need two sets of quantum numbers. To
represent the atom in its lowest energy state, we want each electron to have the low
est energy possible. If we let the first electron have the value of 1 for its principal quan
tum number, the set of quantum numbers for it will be the same as that given previ
ously for the one electron of hydrogen. The other electron of helium can then have the
other set of quantum numbers.
First electron Second electron
of helium of helium
n = 1 n = 1
( = 0 ( = 0
m, = 0 m( = 0
ms = -1/2 m s = +1/2
Both of these electrons have the same energy because they have the same n value
and the same ( value Either one could have been chosen as the “first” electron.
A lithium atom has three electrons. The first two of these can have the same sets
of quantum numbers as the two electrons of helium. What should the set of quantum
numbers for the third electron be? W e cannot choose the lowest permitted value for n.
109
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
( = 0 ( = 0 ( = 0
m, = 0 m , = 0 m ,= 0
ms = -1/2 ms = +1/2 m$ = -1/2 (+1/2
With ms - 1/2 for its third electron, the fourth electron of beryllium (Be) will have n
= 2,» (. = 0, me = 0 , and ms = +1/2. For the fifth electron of boron (B), we cannot use the
combination n = 2 and = 0 because of the Pauli principle, so we use n = 2 and ( - 1.
There are three possible values for mt with ( = 1, and together with the two possible
values for ms, they yield six combinations of quantum numbers with n = 2 and I = 1.
The configurations of the first 10 electrons in a multielectron atom are shown in
Table 4.2. It must be emphasized that the value of and the sign of the mt value
are arbitrary in some cases but not in others (see Problem 4.11 at the end of the chapter).
W e can continue in this manner, building up the configuration of each elem ent by
adding a set of quantum numbers for one “last" electron to the configuration of the
element before it. This process of adding one electron to those of the preceding ele
ment is called the buildup principle.
The sets are shown in Table 4.3. Note that the combination n = 3. ( = 1 has the
same sum of n and as n = 4, ( = 0 . Because the sum is the sam e, the combination
with the lower n value is used for the thirteenth through eighteenth electrons because
it is lower in energy.
When we try to add the nineteenth electron to write the configuration for potas
sium (K), we encounter a new situation. The combination with the next lowest sum of
n and is n = 4, ( = 0 . The combination n = 3, t - 2 is higher in energy. The nine
teenth through twenty-first electrons can have the following sets of quantum numbers:
Quantum Nineteenth Twentieth Twenty-first
number electron electron electron
n 4 4 3
1 0 0 2
m, 0 0 -2
m5 _ i
+ ‘ _ 1
2 2 2
n + 1 4 4 5
I 10
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
S e co n d electron 1 0 0 + i
1
T h ird electron 2 0 0 2
Fourth electron 2 0 0
1
F if t h e l e c t r o n 2 1 - 1
~ 2
S ixth electron 2 1 0 + -;
i
S e v e n th electron 2 1 +1 2
1
E i g h t h e le c t r o n 2 1 - 1
+ 2
1
N in th electron 2 1 0
Tenth electron 2 1 + 1 + .1
Quantum number n i in , in
Eleventh electron 1
3 0 0 2
T w elfth electron 3 0 0
i
T hirteen th electron 3 1 -1 2
Fourteenth electron 3 1 1
0
Fifteenth electron _ 1
3 1 +1 2
S ixte en th electron 3 1 -1
S e v en te en th electron 3 1 0 + '
I I I
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f Ibe atom
The fact that e le ctron s having quantum num ber values n = 4 and < - 0 are low er
in energy than electrons w ith n = 3 and ( = 2 is of extrem e im p orta nce , it e x p la in s the
existence and position on the p eriodic table of the tran sition m etals T his p o in t w ill be
explained later
* - If two e le ctron s have the sam e sum n + i but have d iffe re n t n values, the one
with the low er n value is lower in energy
A In each set. d ete rm in e w hich electron labeled X or Y. has the low er energy
(a) X n = 4. i = 2 Y n = 4. ' = 1
(b) X: n = 3. t = 1 Y: n = 4. i = 0
(c) X: n = 5. I = 0 Y: n = 4, t = 2
• Quy luat n + 1, nguyen ly loai tru Pauli vd cdc gia tri cho phep cua cdc sd luqng
tii chi giup chung ta xdc dinli duqc thii tit cua cdc electron trong mot nguyen tii
theo ndng luqng tang dan.
• Cac nguyen tii trong trang thai co ban cd cdc electron vdi nhdng gia tri n + I
nhd nhdt cd the cd.
• Neu hai electron co cung tong n + I nhitng cd cdc gid tri n khdc nhau, tin elec
tron nao co gid tri n thdp hon thi co ndng luqng thdp hon.
A. Theo tiing cap. xdc dinh electron nao, duoc ddnh ddu la X hay Y co ndng luong
thdp hon
fa) X : n = 4, i = 2 Y: n = 4, i = 1
(b) X: n = 3. ( = 1 Y n = 4. t = 0
(c) X: n = 5.' i = 0 Y n = 4. i = 2
I 12
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f tbe atom
tri tang dan cua n + ( . Mot he qua neu liai electron co ciing gid tri n + ( , thi electron
nao co gid tri n thdp lian se co nang luqng thdp han, neu hai gia tri n la bdng nhau va
hai gid tri 1 cung bdng nhau thi cac electron co nang luqng bdng nhau. Trung mot
nguyen tut cdc electron vai cung ndng luqng duqc goi la thoai bien (degenerate)
Hay xdc dinh nhilng bo 4 so luqng tii cho cdc electron trong cdc nguyen tii a trang
thai ca ban ciia 10 nguyen td dau tien. Hydro cd mot electron duy nhdt.
De cho electron ndy d trang thdi ndng luqng tliap nhdt, no can phdi co tong n vd 1
nhd nhdt co the co, do dd cluing ta chon gia tri thap nhat ciia n. n = 1. Sau do xem bang
4.1, ta xdc dinh cdc gid tri cho ba sd luqng tii khdc.
Vdi n = 1 chi cd mot gid tri dupe phep ciia ( la 0.
Bo 4 sd luang tii dot vdi nguyen tii hydro d trang thai ca ban do dd cd the la mot
trong cdc truang hqp sau ddy:
n = 1 hay
c
• = 0 II
( = 0
m( = 0 m! = 0
ma= +
Vi cdc gia tri n vd cdc gid tri ( la nhu nhau trong hai bo sd luqng tii, nhilng cdu
inh cd the cd nay the hien cung mot ndng luqng. Do vdy bat cii bo sd luqng tii nao trong
hai bo sd noi tren deu cd the bieu dien cho electron cua hydro.
Nguyen tii helium co hai electron, vd do dd cluing ta can hai bo cdc sd luqng tii.
De bieu dien nguyen tii trong trang thdi ndng luqng thdp nhdt ciia no. M ot electron
can plidi cd ndng luqng thdp nhdt co the diiqc. Neu ta cho electron tlui nhdt cd gia tri
sd luqng tii chinh la mot. thi bo cdc sd luqng tii cho electron dd se giong nhu ddi vdi
electron cua hydro viia cho trudc dd. Electron cua helium cd the cd mot bo cdc sd IUqng
tii khdc
Eletron thu n h it Eletron thd hai
cua helium cua helium
n= 1 n= 1
i =0 1=0
m =0 m. = 0
mS = - 2
mS = + 2'-
Ca hai electron nay cd cung ndng liiong vi cluing cd cung gia tri n la cung gia tri ' .
Bat cii electron nao trong hai electron ndy cung cd the ditqc chon nhii electron "tlui nhdt”
Mot nguyen tii lithium co ba electron, hai electron ddu co the cd cdc bo sd litqng tii
nhu nhau nhu hai electron cua helium. Bo sd luqng tii cua electron tlui ba phai nhit the
nao? Ta khdng the chon gia tri thong nhdt duqc phep cua n la ( vd I vd m klu do
phai bdng 0. Neu ta chon - la gia tri cua thi electron tlui ba pliai cd bo cdc sd luqng
tii chinh xdc giong nhu cua electron thu nhdt, vd neu ta chon gia tri m = + 1 /2 , thi
electron thu ba phai cd cung bo so luqng tii nhu electron tlui hai. Vi ca hai tinh huong
tren deu khdng duqc cho phep bdi nguyen ly Pauli, n khdng the bdng 1 ddi vdi electron
tlui ba. Ta phdi chon gia tri cao han ke tiep n = 2. Vdi n = 2 cdc gid tri duqc phep ciia
< Id 0 vd 1. Vi ( - 0 se cho ra mot gia tri thdp han cua tong n + ( , ta chon gia tri do
1 13
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f tbe atom
cho I. Vdi < = 0, m, phai bdng 0, va chung ta chon m < = - 1 / 2 hay + 1 /2 , cac so luang til
cho cac electron cua nguyen til lithi do do co the la nhu sau:
1=0 ( =0 ( = 0
m, = 0 mt = 0 m, = 0
m = -\ m, = + l ,n . = ~2 (h a y + ) )
Vdi m = - ' cho electron thd ba, electron thd Id cua berylli (Be) se cd n = 2, 1 = 0
m / = 0 va m = + ' . Ddi vdi electron thd nam ciia boron (B), ta khong the sd dung to
hap n = 2 va ( = 0 vi vi pham nguyen ly Pauli, do do ta sd dung n = 2 va 1 - 1 Co ba
gia tri cd the cd cho m/ vdi 1 = 1 vd cung vdi hai gid tri cd the cd cho m chung cho ra 6
td hap cdc sd luqng td vdi n = 2 vd 1 = 1.
Cdc cdu hinh cho 10 electron dau tien trong mot nguyen td nhieu electron duqc
trinh bdy trong bang 4.2. Can phai nhdn manh rdng gia tri cua mlS va ddu cua gia tri
m la tuy y trong mot sd trUdng hap nhilng khong duqc trong cdc trudng hap khdc (xem
bai ta p 4.11 a cuoi chuang)
Ta cd the tiep tuc theo cdch ndy de xay dung cdu hinh cho tdng nguyen td bdng cdch
them mot bo cac sd luang td cho electron (cuoi cung) vdo cau hinh cua nguyen td trudc.
Qua trinh them mot electron vdo nguyen td ddng trUac duac goi la nguyen ly tich luy.
Khi chung ta thd them electron thd 19 vdo de viet cdu hinh cho Kali <K), ta gdp
moi tinh huong mdi. Td hqp vdi tdng ke tiep nhd nhdt ciia n va < la n = 4 va 1 = 0. To
hqp n = 3, ( = 2 cao han ve ndng luqng. Cdc electron thd 19 den 21 cd the cd cdc bo so
luqng td sau ddy.
Sd luqng td electron 19 electron 2 0 electron 21
n 4 4 3
( 0 0 2
in 0 0 -2
n + ( 4 4 5
Tht/c te la cdc electron cd cdc gia tri sd luqng td n = 4 vd i = 0 thdp han ve ndng
luqng so vdi cdc electron cd n = 3 vd >. = 2 la cilc ky quan trong; no gidi thich cho sit
luen dien vdo vi tri tren bdng tuan hodn cua cdc kim loai chuyen tiep. Dieu nay se di/qc
giai thich d phdn sau.
A shell is defined as a group of e lectrons in an atom all h aving the sam e principal
quantum n um ber A s u b s h e ll is defined as a group of e le ctro n s in an atom all having
the sam e princip al quantum n um ber and also the sam e a ng ular m om en tu m quantum
num ber If two e le ctro n s in an atom have the sam e p rin c ip a l q u a n tu m n u m b e r the
sam e a n g u la r m om en tu m qua ntu m num ber, and the sam e m a g n e tic q u a n tu m n u m
ber. the ele ctron s are said to be in the sam e o rb ita l.
I 14
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
Even though the m , and ms values do not affect the energy of the electron, it is
s till im p o rta n t to learn about them . The n um ber of co m b in a tion s of perm itted values
of these q ua ntu m num be rs determ ines the m axim um n um ber of e lectrons in a given
type of subshell. For exam ple, in a subshell for w hich i = 1, mc can have three d iffe r
ent values (-1 , 0. and +1). and ms can have two d ifferen t values (-1 /2 and +1/2). The
six d ifferent com binations of m , and msallow a m axim um of six electrons in any subshell
for w hich / = 1.
W riting out each quantum n um ber value for every electron in an atom is very tim e-
consum ing. A m ore e fficie n t m ethod is to group all the electrons in a given subshell.
In this m ethod, the fo llo w in g four low ercase letters represent the possible PI values:
V alue of Letter
0 s
1 P
2 d
3 1
B ecause only n and < values affect the energies of electrons, the electrons with
the sam e n value and the sam e < value all have the sam e energy. In other w ords all
the electrons in a given subsh ell are degenerate Each subshell is denoted by its p rin
cipal quantum n um ber and the letter designation for For exam ple, for neon, w ith atom ic
num ber 10, the sets of quantum num bers for the 10 electrons are listed in Table 4 2
We can group them as follow s:
Number of Subshell
Value of n Value of electrons designation
1 0 2 Is
2 0 2 2s
2 1 6 Ip
W e w rite the e le c tro n ic c o n fig u ra tio n by listing each subshell in order of increasing
energy, w ith a su p e rscrip t giving the num ber of electrons in that sub-shell. That is, the
detailed e le ctron ic co n fig u ra tio n for a neon atom is
This co n fig u ra tio n is read aloud as follow s "one ess two, two ess two. tw o pee
six " (The su p e rscrip ts are not exponents, so w ords such as square are not used ) The
sum of the su p e rscrip ts is the total num ber of electrons in the atom
I I5
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
*- D etailed e le ctron ic configurations of elem ents give the su b s h e lls in increa sing
o rder of ene rg ies w ith the n um ber of e le ctron s o cc u p y in g that s u b s h e ll as a
right superscript.
A G ive the d eta ile d e le ctro n ic co nfig uratio n of (a) Be, (b) M g B G iv e the de
tailed e le ctron ic co nfiguration of Ar.
• Cdc electron trong mot lap vd da cho tat cd deu cd cung gid tri n; cdc electron
trong mot lap vd con dd cho tdt cd deu cd cung gia tri n vd cung gia tri 1; cdc
electron trong mot orbital dd cho tdt cd deu cd cung gid tri n, cung gid tri 1 va
cung gid tri m r
• Cdu hinh electron chi tiet ciia cdc nguyen td duqc cho biet cdc lap vd con theo
trat tU tdng dan ndng luqng vdi so electron chtia trong lap vd con do diiqc ghi
bdng ti so nho d tren ben phai.
A. Viet cdu hinh electron chi tiet cua (a) Be (b) Mg.
B. Viet cau hinh electron chi tiet ciia Ar
Mac du cdc gia tri m va m khong anh huong den nang luqng cua electron, chung
van quan trong de phdi hqc. So luqng to hqp cdc gia tri duqc phep ciia nhilng so luqng
tii noi tren xdc dinh so luqng toi da ciia cdc electron mot kieu lap vd con cho trudc. Vi
du, trong lap vd con cd I = 1, m l cd the cd ba gia tri khdc nhau (-1 , 0 va +1) vd m cd
the cd lioi gid tri khdc nhau ( - 1 12va +112) Cd 6 td hqp cua m, vd m cho phep toi da cd
6 electron trong bat cii mot lap vd con nao cd t = 1.
Viet tilng gia tri sd luqng tii cho mdi electron trong mot nguyen tii Id mdt viec rat
mat thdi gian. M ot phuang phdp hieu qua han la nhom tdt cd cdc electron d trong mdt
lap vd con dd cho. Trong phuang phdp ndy, 4 chd nhd ghi ben dudi sau day bieu dien
cho 4 gid tri cd the cd ciia < :
i cua Chi7
0 s
1 P
2 d
J f
Vi chi co cac gia tri n va I anh huang den ndng luang cua cac electron, t ac elec
tron cd cung mot gid tri n va cung gia tri I deu cd cung ndng liiqng. S ot cach khac. tdt
cd cdc electron trong mdt lap vd con dd cho deu la tlioai bien. Mdi lap vo con duar chi ra
bdi sd luang tii chinh ra chd edi quy dinh cho <. Vi du, ddi rdi neon cd sd lueu ngu\en tii
1 16
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
10, cdc bo so luang tii clio 10 electron duoc liet ke trong bdng 4.2. Chung ta cd the nhom
chiing lai nhu sau:
Cho chi dinh cho Idp vd con dila Iren so luong tu ddng luong got
Cau hinh ndy ditac dqc len nhit sau "moi ess hai. hai ess hai, hai pee sdu" (chU so
ghi tren khong phai Id sd md. do do cdc tit nhit binh phuang khdng duac sii dung). Tdng
ciia cdc chH so ghi tren Id tdng so electron trong nguyen tii.
• Cdc orbital s doi xiing can. Ditng nliarn Idn titng thin ciia cdc orbital p i d <1
nhu nhilng orbital neng biet.
I I7
Topic 4: Electronic cotifiguration o f the atom
Energy level diagrams are models for portraying electrons' occupancy of an atom's
orbitals. They help chemists predict how many electrons are in each orbital of a subshell.
Electron occupancy of the individual orbitals is important in determining an atom s mag
netic properties A line or a box or a circle is used to represent each orbital An energy
level diagram that could hold the electrons of any known atom is shown in Figure 4 9.
The energy level diagram is like a graph in one dimension: The higher a subshell is
placed, the higher the energy of that subshell. The lines are spaced horizontally from
left to right only to prevent crowding so that the diagram is easy to read
The low est line on the energy level diagram represents the o rb ital in the Is subsh ell
of the atom M uch higher in the diagram , indicating a m uch h ig he r e ne rg y lines for the
orbitals of the 2p subshell. The third shell lies at an even hig he r e ne rg y and consists
of an s su bshell a p subshell, and a d subshell. Note that the 3d s u b s h e ll lies at a
slightly higher energy than the 4s subshell The order of energy in the d ia gra m is the
same as that given by the n + i rule
W e w ill o fte n fo c u s o u r a tte n tio n on th e p o rtio n o f th e e n e rg y le v e l d ia
gra m c o n ta in in g the la s t e le c tro n a d d e d , in w h ic h w e a re m o s t in te re s te d T he
orbitals that lie above that portion are assum ed to be em pty, and any o rb ita ls Delow
those pictured are a lm ost alw ays com p le te ly filled w hen the atom is in its gro un d state
We rep re sen t each electron with an arrow D ifferent e le ctron sp in s R v a l u e of -
1/2 or +1/2) are indicated by arrow s pointing dow nw ard or upw ard B e cau se each line
1 18
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
represents one orbital, each line may hold a maximum of two arrows. If two arrows
are present, they must be pointing in opposite directions. The energy level diagram
representing the neon atom is shown in Figure 4.10.
Hund's rule states that the electrons wi t hi n a gi ven subshel l remain as unpai r ed
as possible. Moreover, if there is more than one unpaired electron in a given subshell,
they all must occupy different orbitals and have the same electron spin (all arrows rep
resenting unpaired electrons in a subshell point up or all point down) The energy level
diagrams for the carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms illustrate these rules:
In the carbon atom, the lowest two subshells are filled: all electrons are paired in
III II I I
~ 2p ~ 2p~ 2p ~
n u u
2s 2s 2s
n u n
1s 1s Is
Carbon atom Nitrogen atom Oxygen atom
filled subshells. The 2p subshell has two electrons in the three orbitals, so each elec
tron occupies a separate orbital. Moreover, both electrons have the same spin— both
arrows point upward (alternatively, both could point downward). In the nitrogen atom,
the 2p subshell is half filled. Each electron occupies a different orbital, and all arrows
point in the same direction. In the oxygen atom, the 2p subshell is again partially filled.
To get four electrons into the three orbitals requires the pairing of electrons in one
orbital. In the other two. the electrons are unpaired and have the same spin: they are
said to have parallel spin.
The magnetic properties of atoms enable us to tell if all the electrons in an atom
are paired or, if not. how many electrons are unpaired Atoms with all their electrons
paired are repelled slightly from a magnetic field, and are said to be diamagnetic. If at
least one electron per atom in a sample is unpaired, the sample tends to be drawn
into a magnetic field, and are said to be paramagnetic. The greater the number of un
paired electrons, the greater the attraction into the magnetic field (In elemental iron,
cobalt, and nickel, the unpaired electrons in adjacent atoms reinforce one another, and
a very much stronger attraction into a magnetic field results).
I 19
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
• Mot gian do miic ndng luqng trinh bdy bdng hinh anh ti/ng orbital rieng le vdi
nang liiqng tdng dan ve phia tren. Vi chi co hai electron duqc gdn von mot or
bital bat ky (tren bat cii doan th in g ndo), cdu hinh electron ciia nguyen td co
the duac suy ra til mot gidn do nhu vdy.
• Cdc electron trong mot lap vo phu da cho phdn bo tilng electron m ot vao cdc
orbital vdi spin cua chung cung chieu cho den khi lap vo con dd ddy mot ntia,
sau do chung bdi ddu ghep dot.
A. Co bao nlueu electron khong ghep dot co trong mot nguyen tii tuu huynh d trang
thai ca ban?
Doan thdng thdp nhdt tren gidn do mile ndng luang bieu dien cho orbital trong lap
vd con Is cua nguyen tic.
Ndm cao han tren gian dd. de chi mot ndng luqng cao han la doan thdng ciia or
bital 2s. Cao han nUa la 3 doan thdng ciia orbital ciia Idp vd con 2 p. l^dp vo thu ba ndm
d mot ndng luqng con cao han nUa vd gom mot lap vo con s, mot lap vd con p va mdt Idp
vd con d. Chu y la lop vd con 3d ndm d mot ndng luqng hai cao han nang luang ciia lap
vo con 4s. Trat tu ndng luqng trong gian dd cung giong nhu trdi tu duac cho bdi quy
luat n + I .
Chung ta se tap trung chit y vao phdn ciia gian dd nang luqng co chua electron
cuoi cung duqc them vdo, do la phdn ma ta quan tain nlueu nhdt. Cdc orbital nam tren
phdn nay duqc xem nhu la con trong. va bat cii orbital nao ndm dudi phan na > run liinh
ve gdn nhu ludn ludn du duqc lap ddy klu nguyen tu o Iruug hung ihui cu bon luu no.
Ta bieu dien tilng electron bdng mot mui ten. Spin khac nhau cua electron ^m gid
tri m s bdng hay + ;) duqc chi ra bdi chieu mui ten hudng xuong dudi hay huang len
tren. Vi moi doan thdng bieu dien cho mot orbital, moi doan nay chi co the cd chua toi
120
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
da la hai mui ten. Neu co hai mui ten thi chung phdi chi theo cdc hudng nguqc nhau.
Gian do mdc ndng luqng bieu dien trong nguyen td neon.
Quy tdc Hund phat bieu rdng cdc electron ben trong mot lap vo con cho trUdc se
phdn bo sao cho so electron khong ghep doi Id nhieu nhat. Ngoai ra, neu co nhieu han
mot electron khong ghep ddi trong mot lap vo phu dd cho, tdt cd cdc electron ndy phdi
cliodng cho ciia nhdng orbital khac nhau vd phai co rung spin (tdt rd car mdi ten bieu
dien cho cdc electron khong ghep doi trong mot lap vo con deu hudng xuong hay hitdng
len) Cdc gidn do mdc ndng luqng cua cdc nguyen td carbon, nita vd oxy minh hoa cho
nhdng quy luat ndy:
t T t t t
2p
n t t
2p 2p
u u u
2s 2s 2s
u n u
1s 1s 1s
Nguyen tU carbon Nguyen tu Nitrogen Nguyen tu oxygen
Trong nguyen td carbon, hai lap vo phu thdp nhdt dd diiqc lam ddy, vd tdt cd cdc
electron deu dilqc ghep ddi trong nhdng lap vo phu da day. Lap vo phu 2 p cd hai electron
trong ba orbital, do dd mdi electron phai choang chd mot orbital neng biet. Ngoai ra cd
hai electron cd ciing spin - cd hai mui ten deu hudng len (hoac cd hai mui ten cd the
hudng xuong). Trong nguyen td nitrogen. Idp vo con 2 p dilqc lam ddy mdt nda. Moi elec
tron choang chd mot orbital khdc nhau vd tdt cd cdc mui ten hudng theo cung mot chieu.
Trong nguyen td oxy lap vd con 2 p cung duqc lam ddy mot phdn. De cd 4 electron trong
ba orbital thi can cd sit ghep doi cdc electron trong mot orbital. Trong hai orbital kia, cdc
electron la khdng ghep dot vd co cung spin. Chung duqc goi la cd spin song song.
Cdc tinh chdt td ciia cdc nguyen td giup chung ta biet duqc la tdt cd cdc electron
trong mot nguyen td cd ditqc ghep ddi hay khdng, neu khdng thi cd bao nhieu electron
khdng ditqc ghep doi. Cdc nguyen td cd tdt cd cdc electron deu dilqc ghep ddi bi gay nhe
khdi mot td tritdng rd ditqc goi 1a nghich td. Neu cd it nhdt mot electron tren moi nguyen
td trong mot man Id khdng duqc ghep ddi. mdu ndy cd khuynh hudng bi hiit vdo mdt td
tritdng, vd ditqc goi Id thudn td.
So electron khdng duqc ghep ddi cang nhiiu thi lilc hut vdo td trudng cang Idn
(trong sdt) cobalt vd nickel nguyen td cdc electron khdng ghep doi trung cuc nguyen td
Idn can cung cd cho nhau vd tqo ra mot litc hut ve phia td trudng mqnh han nhieu).
121
Topic 4: Electronic cotifiguralion o f the atom
ments because the periodic table was constructed from data about the properties of
the elements
We can use the periodic table to help us write electronic configurations of the at
oms of the elements. The periodic table can be divided into blocks corresponding to
the type of subshell occupied by the last electron added (Figure 4 11). The two groups
at the left of the periodic table— the alkali metals and the alkaline earth m etals— con
stitute the s block because their last electrons occupy s subshells Hydrogen and he
lium also are in this block, and we have to remember to shift helium to a place beside
hydrogen for this purpose The six periodic groups at the right of the table constitute
the p block; their last electrons go into p subshells. The transition metals belong to the
d block, and the / block consists of the inner transition metals
Note the similarity between the number of elements in each period in a particular
block and the maxim um num ber of electrons permitted in the corresponding type
subshell:
Type of subshell Maximum number Number o l elements
or block of electrons in subshell in each period
in a particular block
s 2 2
p 6 6
d 10 10
f 14 14
After each noble gas, a new shell of electrons is started, as is a new period of the
periodic table It turns out that electronic structure is the basis for the periodic behav
ior of the elements.
The four transition metal series arise because, for each of these elem ents, an
electron has been added to the next-to-outermost shell Addition of 10 electrons to the
3d subshell after the completion of the 4s subshell causes 10 elements to occur after
calcium to be the first elements in their periodic groups The second and third transi
tion series occur because the 4d and 5d subshells fill after the start of the fifth and
sixth shells, respectively. The inner transition elements stem from the addition of elec
trons to I subshells two shells lower than the outermost shell of their atoms
Because the periodic table reflects the electronic structures of the atoms we can
use it to deduce the configuration of any atom. W e use the periodic table with its s. p.
d, and /blocks, as shown in Figure 4.11 W e imagine helium to be next to hydrogen in
the Is block. To determine the electronic configuration of an elem ent, we start at hy
drogen — element 1 — and continue in order ol atomic numbers until we get to the
element in question The subshells come from the blocks in the periodic table and the
numbers of electrons (the superscripts in the configuration) are the numbers of e le
ments in the blocks Thus, we determine the electronic configuration of silicon to be
1s2 2sJ 2p6 3s2 3pJ
W e are most interested in the outermost shell and the inner subshells having nearly
the same energies We can therefore write the detailed electronic configuration for just
that shell and those subshells of the atom and use the symbol of the preceding noble
gas in square brackets to represent all the other electrons For exam ple the electronic
configuration of Cs is denoted
Ba [Xe] 6s7
122
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
Using the periodic table as a mnemonic device has several advantages over rely
ing on the n *■ t
rule and other rules: The periodic table is generally available for reference during
examinations The order of subshells is given "automatically." The maximum number
of electrons in each subshell matches the number of elements in each block. To write
a shortened notation for an element, you can start at the alkali metal in the same
period
No matter which “rule" or memory device we use to write configurations, some
transition metals and inner transition metals have configurations different from our ex
pected configurations. Some of these occur because of the added stability associated
with half-filled or fully filled subshells. For example, chromium and copper have actual
configurations with two such outermost sub-shells instead of only the fully filled 4s
subshell and 3d subshell neither half nor fully filled, as expected
Actual configuration Expected configuration
Cr: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s' 3db 1s2 2 s ’ 2p6 3s2 3p“ 4s2 3d4
Cu: 1 s2 2s2 2p6 3s? 3p6 4s' 3 d ’° 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d9
Most, but not all, cations formed from atoms of these elements have the same
configuration predicted by our “rules" or predicted from their actual configurations, and
the compounds containing these cations are of more interest to chemists than the
uncombined atoms of these elements anyway. (Section 5 2)
• Being phdn loqi tuan hodn dtfoc tqo ra tit cdc cdu hinh electron ciia cdc nguyen
tii vd do do no cd the dtfqc sii dung nhtf mot cong cu gqi nhd de suy ra nhdng
cdu liinh ndy.
• Cdc nguyen tii trong mot nhdm tuan hodn da cho cd cdc cau hinh electron ngoai
cung ttfong ttf nhau.
A. Suy ra cdu hinh electron lap ngoai cung ciia Ra md khong xet den viec gdn 86
electron ben trong vao cac lop vo pliu.
123
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
cung (dac biet la lap vo con s) cua cdc electron chi cd chiia mot electron rieng le trung
moi trtfang liap. Cdc kim loai kiem tho co hai electron s nguai cung Nhdng nguyen to
trong moi nhdm noi Iren cda bdng phdn loqi tuan liodn cung co stf ttfang tu trong cdu
hinh electron ngoai cung. Ta suy ra rang plian ngoai cung cua cdu hinh electron la yeu
to chinh xdc dinh cac tinh chdt hda hqc ciia cac nguyen to vi bdng phdn loai tuan hodn
dd dtfqc xay dtfng td nhdng sd lieu ve cdc tinh chat cua cdc nguyen td.
Ta cd the sd dung bdng phdn loqi tuan hodn de giup ta trong viec viet cdc cdu
hinh electron nguyen td cua cdc nguyen td. Bdng tuan hodn cd the dtfqc chia thanh nhdng
khoi ttfang dng vdi loqi lap vd con dtfqc choang ddy bdi electron cuoi cung them vdo
(hinh 4.11) Hal nhdm a ben trdi cua bdng phdn loai tuan hoan - cac kirn loai kiem va
cdc kim loqi kiem tlio tqo tlianh khoi s vi electron cuoi cung cua chung choang cdc lap
vd phu s. Hydro vd heli cung d trong khoi ndy vd ta phdi nhd dich chuyen heli sang vi
tri ke ben hydro vi muc dich nay. 6 nhdm a ben phai ciia bdng phdn loqi tuan hodn tqo
thanh khoi p; cdc electron cuoi cung cua chung di vdo trong cdc lap vd phu p Cdc kun
loqi chuyen tiep thuoc ve khoi d va khoi f gom cdc kim loqi chuyen tiep ben trong
Chu y stf ttfang ttf gida sd Idqng cdc nguyen to cua moi chu ky trong mdt khoi ndo
dd vd so electron toi da dtfqc phep cd trong loai Idp vd con ttfang dng:
Loai lap vd hay khoi Sd electron Idn nhdt So nguyen td trong mdi
trong Idp vd phu trong mdt khdi dtic biet
s 2 2
p 6 6
d 10 10
f 14 14
Loai lap vd con hay khoi sd electron toi da trong lap vd con sd nguyen td cua chu ky
trong mot khdi sau moi khi hiem, mot lap vd electron mdi ddqc bdt ddu, cung nhtf mot
chu ky mdi trong bdng phdn loai tuan hodn. Rd rdng la cdu true electron deu to ban
trong tinh chdt cd tinh tuan hodn cua cdc nguyen to.
4 day kim loai chuyen tiep xuat hien vi ddi vdi moi nguyen td ndy. mdt electron dd
dtfqc them vdo trong lap vd ke vdi lap vd ngoai cung. Stf bo sung cua 10 electron la lap
vd con 3d, sau khi Idp vd con 4s dd hodn tdt khien cho 10 nguyen td xuat hien sau canxi
Id nhdng nguyen td dau tien trong cdc nhdm tuan hodn ciia chung. Cdc ddy chuyen tiep
thd hai vd thd ba xuat luen vi cdc Idp vd con 4 d vd 5 p dtfqc Idp ddy mot cach'ttfang tfng
sau khi cdc lap vd thd 5 vd thd 6 bdt ddu. Cac nguyen td chuyen tiep trong xuat hien do
stf bo sung cac electron vdo cdc lap vd con f cua hai Idp vd thdp han lap vd ngoai cung
trong cdc nguyen ttf cua chung.
Vi bdng phdn loai tuan hoan phan anli cau electron cua cdc nguyen ttf. ta co the stf
dung bdng ndy de suy ra cdu hinh cua mot nguyen td bdt ky. Ta stf dung bang phdn
loqi tuan hodn vdi cdc klioi s, p, d vd f nhtf trinh bdy trong hinh 4.11, ta ttfang ttfang la
heli ddng ke ben hydro trong khoi If. De xdc dinh cdu hinh electron cua mot nguyen td.
ta bat ddu o hydro - nguyen td 1 va tiep tuc theo thtf ttf sd hieu nguyen td cho den klu
den nguyen td dang xet. Cdc lap vd con cd dtfqc td cdc khoi trong bdng tuan hoan va sd
electron chd sd nhd ghi tren trong cdu hinh la nhdng con sd ciia cdc khdi trong cac nguyen
td. Theo dd ta xdc dinh cdu hinh electron cua silicon Id
Mot cdch giu gon han dot klu dtfqc sd dung de gidm bdt cong suat trong i iec t let
cdc cdu hinh electron ddi, trong klu van gid dtfqc hau nhtf todn bo thdng tin
124
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
Ta quan tdm nhieu nhdt d in Idp vd ngodi cung vd nhilng Idp vd con ben trong cd
gdn nhu cung cdc ndng luang. Theo do ta co th i viit cdu hinh electron chi tiit de chi cho
lap vd vd cdc Idp vd con dd cua nguyen tit vd sii dung ky hieu cua khi hiim dvlng trUdc
trong mgt ddu mdc vudng d i bieu dien tdt cd cdc electron khdc. Vi du, cdu hinh nguyen
tii cua Ba dugc viit:
Ba: [Xe] 6s2
Sd dung bdng phdn loai tudn hodn nhu m$t cong cu ggi nhd cd nhieu Uu diim so
vdi viec dua vdo quy ludt n + 1 vd cdc ky thudt khdc: bang phdn loai tudn hodn thudng
dugc cho phep tham khdo trong cdc ky thi. Tha tu cua cdc Idp vd con dugc cho *mot cdch
tu dong’ . Sd electron toi da trong moi Idp vd con phu hgp vdi so nguyen td trong moi
khdi. D i viet theo cdch ghi rut ggn cho mgt nguyen td, ban cd th i bdt ddu tU kim loai
kiem trong cung mot chu ky.
Khong k i Id ta sd dung “quy ludt" hay cdng cu ggi nhd ndo d i viit cdc cdu hinh;
mot sd kim loai chuyin tiip vd cdc kim loai chuyin tiip ben trong cd cdc cdu hinh khdc
vdi cdc cdu hinh md ta trong dgi. Mot sd khdc biet ndy xay ra vi tinh ben tdng them cd
lien quan din cdc Idp vd con ddy mot nda hay ddy hodn todn. Vi du choromium vd dong
cd cdc cdu hinh thuc te vdi hai Idp vd con ngodi cung nhu vdy, thay vi chi cd mot Idp vd
con 4s dugc Idp ddy vd Idp vd con 3d khong duac lap ddy mot nda hay Idp ddy hodn
todn nhu duac trong dai:
Cdu hinh thuc t i Cdu hinh trong dgi
Cr: Is2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3pe 4s' 3d 5 Is2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3pe 4s2 3d4
Cu: Is 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3ps 4s1 3d10 Is 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3pe 4s2 3d9
Phdn Idn nhung khdng phdi tdt cd cdc cation dugc too thanh tic cdc nguyen td cua
cdc nguyen td ndy cd cung cdu hinh dugc tien doan bdi cdc “quy luat” cua chung ta hay
duac tien doan tU cdc cdu hinh thuc te cua chung, vd nhilng hgp chdt cd chUa cdc cation
ndy dugc cdc nhd hda hoc quan tdm han nhitng nguyen td khdng k it hgp cua nhting
nguyen to ndy (muc 5.2)
4.1 W hat difference is there, if any, when your instructor states ‘T h e first line in the
visible spectrum of hydrogen has a definite (a) wavelength." (b) frequency.” (c)
energy of its photons.”
4.2 If you run around a track eight times in an hour, what is your frequency (includ
ing the unit)?
4.3 For what elem ent is the Bohr theory most useful?
4.4 Multiply the wavelength and frequency values at any point in Figure 4.1. W hat
value do you get? Repeat the procedure for a second point. Do you get the
same or a different value? Explain your results.
(a) If you drop six marbles into an empty ice cream cone, how many will have
the lowest position?
(b) If the cone is held steady, how many will have the lowest position possible
under the circumstances?
125
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
(c) If you place six electrons in a carbon atom in its ground state, will all six
electrons have the same energy?
(d) Will all six have the lowest energy possible under the circumstances?
4.6 W hat values are possible for the principal quantum number n for electrons in
the ground state of an atom of Lr, element 103?
4.7
(a) What is the difference between an s subshell and an s orbital?
(b) What is the difference between a p subshell and a p orbital?
4.8
(a) Can two tickets to a concert have the same section, the sam e row, the
same seat, and the same date?
(b) How many of these must be different to avoid seating problems?
(c) Can two electrons in the same atom have the same n value, the same value,
the same m t value, and the same ms value?
(d) How many of these must be different to have a permissible situation?
4.9 W hat principles or rules affect the energies of electrons in an atom?
4.10 Add the energies for the change of the electron in the hydrogen atom from the
third orbit to the second plus that from the second orbit to the first (see Ex
ample 4.3 and Practice Problem 4.3 for data). Compare your answer to the en
ergy for the change from the third orbit to the first, and explain your result.
4.11 For the electrons of Table 4.2, is the sign of the ms value arbitrary for (a) the
first electron, (b) the second electron, (c) the fourth electron, (d) the tenth elec
tron?
4.12 Explain why helium, with two outermost electrons, has the same inertness char
acteristic of neon and argon, each with eight outermost electrons.
4.13 Use the equation £ = heA with E in joules, c in meters per second, and ). in meters
to determine the units of h
4.17 Calculate the frequency and wavelength of a 4.09 X 10-19 J photon, corresponding
to a line in the visible spectrum of hydrogen.
126
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f tb e atom
4 .19 The frequency of a certain beam of light is 2.50 X 1016/s. Calculate the wavelength
and the energy of its photons. Determine in what portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum the beam lies.
4 .20 List the possible series of electron transitions for an electron descending from
the fifth shell to the second in a hydrogen atom.
4.21 How m any different wavelengths of light would be emitted if many identical
atoms underwent the changes described in the prior problem?
4.22 Describe qualitatively the relationship between energy and the electron transitions
occurring in the neon gas in a neon sign.
4.25 W hat values of ms are permitted for an electron with n = 4, ( = 2,and m ( = +2?
4.26 Make a chart showing all possible values o f , m / , and mt for an electron with n
= 2 and another with n = 3.
4.27 Which of the following sets of quantum numbers is (are) not permitted?
4.4 R elative E n ergies of Electrons - Ndng IU<?ng tUOng doi cua cac electron
4.29
(a) W hat values of m ( are permitted for an electron with = 4?
(b) How many different values of m t are permitted for an electron with = 4?
4.30 Compare the energies of the following electrons, identified by their quantum num
bers only:
(a) n = 3. ( = 1. m , = 1, ms = +1/2
(b) n = 3. ( = 1, m t = -1, ms = -1/2
(c) n = 3, ( = 1, m t = 0, ms = -1/2
(a) n = 4, ( = 0, m f = 0, ms = -12
(b) n = 3, ( = 1, m , = +1, ms = -1/2
127
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
(a) n = 4, ( = 3
(b) n = 5. l = 2
(c) n = 5. ( = 1
(d) n = 4, ( = 2
4.33 A rrange the fo llo w in g e lectrons, identified only by th eir n and i q ua ntu m num
bers, in o rd er of increa sing energy from low est to highest.
4.5 Shells, S u bshells, and Orbitals - C ac Idp v 6, cac Idp vo con va c ac orbital
4 34 W hat does the n um be r of values perm itted for a given n value have to do with
the n um ber of su bsh ells in a shell?
4.35 W hat does the n um be r of m t values perm itted for a g ive n v a lu e have to do
w ith the n um ber of orbitals in a sub-shell?
4.36 How m any e le ctron s are present in each of the fo llo w in g atom s? A ssu m in g that
each is a neutral atom , identify the elem ent.
(a) 1s2 2s22p63s'
(b) 1 s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
(c) 1 s22s22p63 s23p64s23 d ’ °4p3
4.37 How m any ele ctron s are perm itted (a) in a d orbital and (b) in a d subsh ell?
4.38
(a) How m any o rbitals are in the 2p subshell?
(b) How m any orbitals are in the 3p subshell?
(c) How m any o rbitals are in the 4p subshell?
(d) W hat is the m axim um n um ber of e le ctron s p erm itted in a 5p s u b s h e ll9
4.39 Explain w hy the helium atom is stable w ith only tw o e le ctron s in its outerm ost
shell, but m ag ne sium is not.
4.40 In a given atom , w hat is the m axim um n um ber of e le ctro n s th a t can have the
follow ing quantum num bers?
(a) n = 5, ( = 3
(b) n = 4, i = 2
(c) n = 2. I = 0
(d) n = 3. i = 2. and m = -2
4 41
128
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
4.44
(a) How m any of the p orbitals pictured in Figure 4.8(b) are oriented along an
axis?
(b) How m any of the d orbitals pictured in Figure 4.8(c) are oriented along axes?
4.45 A cco rding to Figure 4.8(c), w hich two 3d orbitals cannot have an electron in the
xz-plane?
4.46 A ccording to Figure 4 8(b), which 2p orbital cannot have an electron in the xz-
p la n e 9
4 48 Draw an e ne rg y level diagram , and determ ine the num ber of unpaired electrons
in an atom of each of the follow ing:
4.49 W hat is the m axim um num ber of unpaired electrons in (a) an s subshell, (b) a p
subshell, (c) a d subshell, and (d) an/subshell?
4 50 How m any unpaired electrons are present in the ground state of an atom if six
e le ctron s are p re sen t in each of the follow ing subshells? There are no other un
paired e le ctron s
(a) 4p subsh ell
(b) 4d subshell
(c) 5f subsh ell
4 51 How m any unpaired electrons are in an atom in the ground state, assum ing that
all o the r su b sh e lls are either com pletely full or em pty, if its o ute rm o st p subshell
co nta ins (a) three electrons, (b) five electrons, (c) four electrons?
4 53 How m any unpaired electrons are in an atom in the ground state, assum in g that
all o the r su b sh e lls are either com pletely full or em pty, if its o ute rm o st d subshell
contains (a) four electrons, (b) seven electrons, (c) six electrons?
4 54 W hich of the follow ing configurations represents the outerm ost shell of the ground
state of p ho sp h o ru s?
129
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
(a) I I _L _L (b) T 1 T
3D _LL 3p
3s
(c) 1 1 T (d) T ti
fj 3p _LL 1 /T
3s 3j
(e) TI I (0 J ____ L _L
JJ_ ~3p tI 3p
3j 35
4 55 Locate in the p eriodic table (a) the elem ent that has the first 3p e le ctro n and (b)
the e le m ent that is the first to com plete its 2p su bshell
4.56 Use the p e rio d ic ta b le to d e d u c e how m any e le c tro n s can fit into any (a) s
subshell, (b) p subshell, (c) d subshell, a nd (d )/sub she ll
4.57
(a) How m any e le ctron s are added to an atom in the b uildu p p ro ce ss before
the start of the second shell? How m any ele m e n ts are in the p eriodic table
before the start of the second period?
(b) How m any ele ctron s are added to an atom in the b uildu p p ro cess before
the sta rt of the third shell? How m any e le m e n ts are in the p e rio d ic table
before the start of the third period?
(c) How m any ele ctron s are added to an atom in the b uildu p p ro ce ss before
the sta rt of the fourth shell? How m any ele m e n ts are in the p erio d ic table
before the start of the fourth period?
4 58 W rite detailed e le ctro n ic co nfig uratio ns for (a) F. (b) Cl, (c) Br and (d) I
4.59 W rite detailed e le ctro n ic co nfig uratio ns for each of the fo llo w in g
4.61 W rite deta ile d e le ctro n ic co n fig u ra tio n s for Li, Na, K, and Rb. and ded uce the
oute rm o st co n fig u ra tio n s for Cs and Fr.
4 62 Use the p eriodic table to w rite the outer e lectronic c o n fig u ra tio n for each of the
follow ing e lem ents:
4.63 Use the p e rio d ic table to w rite o ute r e le ctro n ic c o n fig u ra tio n s for e ach of the
follow ing ele m e n ts
I 30
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
4.64 Use the p erio d ic table to w rite o ute r e le ctron ic c o n fig u ra tio n s for each of the
fo llo w in g elem ents:
4.66 How m any unpaired electrons are present in the ground state of an atom if there
are fo u r e le ctro n s in each of the follow ing su bsh ells? There are no other un
paired electrons.
4.67 W hat is w rong w ith each of the follow ing ground state configurations?
4.70 Identify the e le m e n t from each of the follow ing partial co nfig uratio ns of neutral
atom s:
(a) 4 s? 3d-1 (b) ... 5 s? 4 d ’° 5p3
(c) 6p‘
(d) ... 5 s '
(e) ...3 d ’0 p4
(f) 6 s25 d '° 4 f’4
4.71 The e n e rg y of each of the first six shells of hydrogen is given in F igure 4 6
C alcu la te the ene rg ies em itted when the electrons in m any hydrogen atom s de
scend from the fifth shell to the second (Hint: See Problem 4 20.)
4 72 C alculate the energy of the first line of the hydrogen sp ectrum Its w avelength
(I) is 410 nm
4 73 Figure 4 11 show s that the periodic table is based on the e le ctro n ic structure of
the atom s E xplain how M endeleyev was able to create the perio d ic table w ith
out know ing abo ut the electron at all
4.74 W hat is the m axim um num ber of unpaired electrons in the ground state of an
atom in w hich only the 1s. 2s. 2p. and 3s subshells have any e le c tro n s 9
131
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
4.75 Is the Bohr theory or the quantum mechanical theory better to describe the elec
tronic a rran ge m en t of
4.76
(a) Draw an energy level diagram for xenon
(b) Can you use this diagram for the electronic structure of s o d iu m 9
(c) Explain w hy one large energy level diagram is su fficie n t for all the elem ents
4.77 The Bohr th eo ry has been essentially replaced. E xplain w hy any th eo ry is ever
rejected.
4.78 W hich one(s) of the follow ing sets of quantum n um bers is (are) not p e rm itte d 7
4 81 In answ ering the question, “W hat is the m axim um value for ( for any electron
in the gro un d state of Lr. e le m e n t 103?" s e ve ra l s tu d e n ts gave the follow ing
a nsw ers and reasoning W hich one is correct?
(a) The m axim um / = 6 because the oute rm o st shell has n = 1 and cannot
be m ore than n — 1
(b) The m axim um i = 3 because th e/sub she ll has an i value of 3 and there
is no subsh ell w ith a big ge r value in Lr
(c) The m axim um t = 1 because the oute rm o st shell ca n n o t have m ore than
8 electrons, and > = 1 is the m axim um t for a filled octet
4.82 W hich one(s) of the follow ing co nfigurations are not perm itted for an atom in its
ground state?
4 83 The orange line in the hydrogen spectrum is the ch a n g e of the e le c tro n from
the third orbit to the second: the green line is the ch an ge from the fo urth orbit
tothe second; the tw o violet lines are the changes from the fifth and sixth orbits
to the second, resp ective ly W hich color represents the m ost e n e rg y and which
represents the le a st9 Is w avelength d irectly p ro po rtio na l to e n e rg y 9
132
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
4 84 D educe the e xpected electronic configuration of (a) Co (b) Ge. and (c) Hg
4 85 W hat type (s. p. d. f) electron was the last electron added in the buildup process
to
(a) A nonm etal
(b) A transition elem ent
(c) An inner transition elem ent
The n + / rule g overns the ord er of increasing energy of the electrons in the atom
S ubshells are filled w ith e lectrons in the order of increasing n +. with due regard for
the lim itations on the quantum num bers and for the Pauli exclusion principle In each
case, the "last'' e lectron can be added to the configuration of the ele m e n t before, us
ing a pro ced ure know n as the buildup principle (Section 4 4)
E lectrons in a given shell of an atom all have the sam e n value E lectrons in a given
su bshell of an atom all have the sam e n value and the same t value. E lectrons in a
given orbital of an atom all have the sam e n value, the sam e i value, and the same
m value By co nve ntio n, subshells are designated using low ercase letters that c o rre
spond to the various ' values, and the electronic configuration of an atom is w ritten
using su p e rscrip ts for the num bers of electrons occupying the su bsh ells (for exam ple.
Is*’ indicates that tw o e le ctron s occupy the Is subshell) (Section 4.5)
Electrons in the various orbitals occupy portions of space having specified shapes. (These
are important when the shapes of molecules are considered in Section 13.4.) (Section 4.6)
E nergy level d ia g ra m s portray ele ctron s' occupation of the orbitals in an atom Such
d ia g ra m s are u se fu l fo r u n d e rsta n d in g Hund s rule and atom s m a g n e tic p ro p e rtie s
133
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
H und's rule states that in p artially filled subshells, the e le ctron s o ccup y o rb itals singly
and have the sam e sp in s as far as possible. If all the e le c tro n s in a s u b s ta n c e are
paired (two electrons in each occupied orbital), the su bstance w ill be repelled slightly
from a m ag ne tic field H ow ever, if at least one e le ctron in each fo rm u la u nit is u n
paired, the su bstance w ill be drawn into a m agnetic field. (S ection 4 7)
The p roperties of the elem ents stem from their ele ctron ic co nfig u ra tio n s, and the prop
erties place them in th eir locations in the periodic table. In each group, the elem ents
have a ch a ra cte ristic o u te rm o st e le ctron ic config uratio n. The e xiste n ce of the tra n s i
tion and in n e r tra n sitio n e le m e n ts stem s from adding e le c tro n s to in n e r s h e lls after
outer shells have been started. B ecause the p eriodic table reflects the e le ctro n ic stru c
tures of the atom s, it can be used as a m nem onic device w hen w riting e le ctro n ic con
figurations. The a bility to w rite and understand such co nfig uratio ns is a ve ry im portant
skill (Section 4 8)
134
CHEMICAL BONDING
li£m k £ 't hoa hqc
5 .1 Dien gidi vd viet cdc cdng thiic hda hoc, 5.2 Viet quy ludt bo tdm ve cdu true
electron cho stf hinh thanh cua cdc hap chdt ion vd suy ra cong thiic cua cdc hap chdt cua
cdc kim loai nhom chinh vdi cdc phi kim, 5.3 Viet gian do electron dang chdm de theo
ddi cdc electron hda tri trong hap chdt, d$c biet la nhilng hap chdt cua cdc nguyin td
nhom chinh, 5 .4 Hqc biet cdch suy ra cong thilc cdc hap chdt cdc kim loai nhom chinh
vdi cdc phi kim vd cdng thiic cua mot ket hqp ion kim loai vd phi kim bdt ky, neu ta
135
Topic 5 : C hem ical bonding
biet ditqc cdc dien tich cua cdc ion, 5.5 Viit cdc gidn do electron dang chdm cho cac hgp
chdt cua hai hay nhieu phi kim lien ket vdi cdc c$p electron sd dung chung vd cung cho
cdc ion nhieu nguyen tii.
5.1 Cdng thiic hoa hqc, 5.2 Lien kit ion, 5.3 Cdc gidn do electron dang chdm Lewis,
5.4 Cong thiic cua cdc hqp chdt ion, 5.5 Lien kit cong hoa tri.
Introduction to chemistry
T he electro n ic structure of an uncom bined atom , d is cu s se d in Chapter 4,
deter-mines the ability of that atom to combine with other atoms to produce molecules
or ionic compounds. In this chapter, the fundamentals of chemical bonding are cov
ered. To discuss compounds, chemical formulas are required. Moreover, when sym
bols for atoms are combined in a chemical formula, some type of bonding is implied.
Therefore, chemical formulas are introduced first, in Section 5.1. (More information about
chemical formulas will be presented in Chapter 7.) Ionic bonding, which occurs when
electrons are transferred from one atom to another, is treated in Section 5.2. A conve
nient way to picture atoms with their outermost electrons the electron dot diagram is
presented in Section 5.3. The number of electrons transferred from one atom to an
other, or the charges on the resulting ions, enable us to deduce the formulas for bi
nary ionic compounds (Section 5.4). Atoms held together solely by covalent bonds form
units called molecules (or much larger units called macromolecules). Covalent bond
ing, in which the sharing of electrons is the primary method of bonding, is introduced
in Section 5.5, which also discusses combinations of ionic and covalent bonding.
136
Topic 5 : C hem ical bonding
Molecules of Elements
Seven elements occur as diatomic molecules when they are not combined with
other elements.
Form ulas are also used to identify m olecules of free elem ents. A molecule
con-tains two or more nonmetallic atoms bonded together. Many free (uncombined)
nonmetallic elements exist as molecules, such as H2, N 2. 0 2, F?, C 12, Br2, and l2. as
well as P4 and S8. The formula Se indicates eight sulfur atoms bonded together. This
formula does not represent a compound, because only one kind of atom is present.
Elemental sulfur in its lowest energy form occurs in such molecules.
Seven elements occur as diatomic molecules (molecules with two atoms) when
they are not combined with other elements. Fortunately, these elements are easy to
remem ber because, except for hydrogen, they form a shape like a seven in the peri
odic table, starting at the element with atomic number 7.
Hydrogen molecules (H 2) are so much more stable than separated hydrogen at
oms that the reaction of the atoms to form molecules produces a lot of heat:
2 H —> H2 + heat
BINARY COMPOUNDS
Atoms of two or more different nonmetals can bond together to form molecules
of a compound. H?0 C H 4, and C H 40 are examples.
I 37
Topic 5 : C hem ical bonding
In the formula for a binary compound (a compound containing only two elem ents),
the element that attracts electrons less is usually written first. The elem ents are as
signed an electronegativity that reflects their affinity for electrons in chemical bonds.
The elements that attract electrons most are said to have the highest electronegativi
ties or to be the most electronegative. Fluorine, the most electronegative elem ent, is
assigned an electronegativity of 4.0, and the other elements have values relative to
that of fluorine. The elements that attract electrons least are said to have the lowest
electronegativities or to be the most electropositive.
Values for the electronegativities of the main group elements are presented. Ex
cept for those of the noble gases, the electronegativities of the elements increase to
ward the right and toward the top of the-periodic table. Fluorine has the highest elec
tronegativity of any element, and oxygen has the second highest value. The most elec
tropositive element is francium (Fr). The metals are more electropositive than the non-
metals. Thus, in the formula of a binary compound, the metal, if one is present, is
written first. If no metal is present, the nonmetal closer to the m etal portion of the
periodic table is written first. Some examples of binary compounds of nonmetals are
CO, H ,0 . S 0 2, and S i0 2.
Formulas for binary compounds of hydrogen do not follow the rule just dis-cussed.
Hydrogen is written first in the formula if the compound is an acid (Chapter 8) and
written later if the compound is not an acid. For example, HCI is hydrochloric acid, and
NH3 is ammonia. The position of the H in these formulas indicates that HCI is an acid
and N H 3 is not. H20 and H20 2 are excep-tions to this rule.
Formula Units
The collection of atoms represented by a formula is called a formula unit. A chem i
cal formula consists of symbols of element(s), often with subscripts that tell how many
atoms of each element are present per formula unit. The subscript follows the symbol
of the element it multiplies. Parentheses may be used in a formula to group bonded
atoms together, and a subscript after the closing parenthesis tells how m any of that
group are present per formula unit. The following formulas illustrate the meanings of
subscripts in formulas:
CO One carbon atom and one oxygen atom are bonded in one formula unit.
C 02 One carbon atom and two oxygen atoms are bonded in one
formula unit.
(N H J 3P 0 4 Three N H 4 groups, each containing one nitrogen atom and four hydro
gen atoms, and one phosphorus atom and four oxygen atoms are present
in one formula unit. The atoms in the N H 4 groups are bonded in some
way, as'is the compound as a whole (Section 5.5).
Br2 Two atoms of bromine are bonded in one formula unit.
H20 T wo atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen are bonded in one
formula unit This formula unit represents one molecule of water
138
Topic 5 : C hem ical bonding
A. How many atoms of hydrogen are present per atom of sulfur in (N H 4)2S 0 4?
B. Which element in SCI2 is more electronegative?
C. What is the formula for elemental chlorine?
• Cdng thilc hoa hqc cua mot chdt cho ban biet (a) tdt cd cdc nguyen to deu duac
lien ket theo mot hinh thiic ndo do vd (b) sd luong nguyen tie tuang ddi ciia tUng
nguyen to.
A. Co bao nhieu nguyen tic hydro hien dien tinh tren nguyen ttf oxy trong (NHJJSOJ
139
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
2 H -> H 2 + nhiet
Stf tqo thanh mot Itfqng nhat dinh cdc phdn td H 2 td cdc nguyen td hydro iao ra
nhieu nhiet hon so vdi stf tqo thanh cung mot Itfqng phdn td C 0 2 ttf viec dot chay carbon
(than dd) trong oxy. Cong nhdn xay dtfng da Iqi dung tfu diem ndy cua phdn dng hydro
nguyen td de han cdc tdm thep lai vdi nhau ma khdng cd stf hien dien cua oxy. Dieu
kien ndy ddng dtfqc mong muon vi oxy cd the lam thep ri.
Cdc nguyen td hydro den td ddu? Chung dtfqc tqo ra bdng cdch cho phong dien
trong mot md han, nhtf dtfqc ve trong so do.
Ngoai dang ben co ban la 0 ? oxy cd the hien dien nhtf cdc phdn td O r dtfqc goi Id
ozone. Ozone cd the dtfqc tqo thanh khi cd stf phong dien qua khi oxy, vd no dtfqc tqo
thanh d thtfqng tdng khi quyen - tan ozone khi cdc tia ndng Itfqng cao ttf khdng gian
ben ngodi bdn phd cdc phdn td Oy cdc phdn td ozone trong thtfqng tdng khi quyen la
quan trong vi chung hap thu anh sang ctfc tim cd hai td mdt trdi. Dieu nay ngdn cho
mot phdn cua thd anh sang dd khdng den dtfqc be mdt trdi ddt la noi cd the gay hai cho
con ngtfdi vd cdc dong vat khdc. Phdn td 0 3 hoat dong vd bi phdn huy ttf phdt chdm.
2 0 3 -> 3 0 2
Ozone la mot tac nhdn oxy hda manh; trong khi quyen gdn be mdt trdi ddt, no gdy
kich dng vd gdy hai vdi cdc nong do Idn hon hai phdn trieu. No cd the dtfoc sd dung nhtf
mot chdt khd trung vd mot chdt tay trang.
Mot so nguyen to ttf do (khdng ket hqp) khdc cung cd d nhieu dang khdc nhau.
Nhdng dang khdc nhau cua cung mot nguyen to dtfqc goi Id cdc dang thu hinh. Ngoai
trd oxy, cdc nguyen to tqo thanh cdc phdn td hai nguyen td khi khdng ket hop khdng tqo
thanh cdc thu hinh, nhtfng nhieu phi kim cd tqo thanh cdc thu hinh. Cdc thu hinh cua
carbon la kim ctfong vd graphic la nhdng vi du dtfqc nhieu ngtfdi biet nhdt. Ltfu huynh
vd phosphor cung dtfqc ghi nhan la cd tqo thanh cdc thu hinh.
Trong cdng thde cua mot hqp chdt hai chdt (mot hqp chdt chi cd chtfa hai nguyen
to), nguyen to thu hut electron kem hon thtfdng dtfqc viet trtfde. Cdc nguyen to dtfqc gdn
cho mot do dm dien de phdn anh electron cua chung trong lien ket hda hqc. Cdc nguyen
td thu hut electron manh nhdt dtfqc goi la cd do dm dien cao nhdt hay dm dien nhdt.
Fluorine la nguyen to dm dien nhdt, dtfqc gdn cho mot do dm dien la 4 0, va cdc nguyen
td khdc cd cdc gia tri ttfang doi so vdi fluorine; thu hut electron kem nhdt dtfqc goi la cd
cdc do dm dien thdp nhdt hay dtfong dien nhdt. Cdc gid tri do dm dien cua nhdng nguyen
td nhdm chinh dtfqc gidi thieu trong hinh 5.4.
Ngoai trd do dm dien cua cdc khi hiem, do dm dien cua cdc nguyen to tdng theo
chieu sang phdi vd theo chieu di len tren trong ban phdn loai tudn hodn. Flourine cd do
dm dien cao hon bdt cd nguyen td ndo vd oxy cd do dm dien cao thd nhi. Nguyen td
dtfong dien nhdt Id francium (Fr). Cdc kim loai dtfong dien hon cdc phi kim. Do dd,
trong cdng thde cua mot hqp chdt hai chdt, kim loai, neu cd, dtfqc viet trudc Neu khdng
cd kim loai thi khong kim loqi gdn vdi phdn kim loai cua bdng tudn hoan duoc viet
trtfde. Mot sd vi du ve cdc hop chdt hai chdt cua kim loqi Id CO, H f i , S O r i d S iO .
Cdng thde cdc hqp chdt hai chdt cua hydro khdng tudn theo quy ludt noi tren. H y
dro dtfqc viet trtfde trong cdng thde neu hqp chdt la mot acid (chtfang 8) vd dtfoc n e t sau
neu hqp chdt khdng phai la mot aicd. Vi du HCI acid hydrochloric vd N H , la amonia.
Vi tri cua H trong nhdng cdng thtfc ndy chi ra rdng HCI la mot acid vd N H , khcng phdi
la acid. H ,0 vd H .O la nhdng ngoai le cua quy ludt ndy.
140
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
The electrons in atoms are arranged in groups, those in each group having nearly
the same energies. These energy levels are often referred to as shells. The first shell
of any atom can hold a maximum of 2 electrons; the second shell can hold a maxi
mum of 8 electrons; and the other shells can hold a maximum of 8 electrons when
they are the outermost shell, but a greater number when they are not (Table 5.1). The
outermost shell is the last shell that contains electrons.
1 2 2
2 8 8
3 8 18
4 8 32
5 8 5 0*
6 8 72*
7 8*
00
Y:
141
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
I 42
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
All ionic compounds have an overall net charge of zero because the electrons are
transferred but do not disappear. The electrons that some atoms accept to form nega
tive ions are donated by other atoms, which become positive ions. Positively charged
ions are called cations (pronounced “cat'-ions"), and negatively charged ions are called
anions (pronounced “an'-ions”). The sodium ion is positive; it is a cation. The ion pro
duced by the chlorine atom accepting an extra electron is negative; it is an anion. If an
anion is a monatomic ion (hav-ing only one atom), its name ends in -ide, so C l' is
called the chloride ion.
Metallic and nonmetallic elements can react with each other to form compounds
by transferring electrons from the metal atoms to the nonmetal atoms. The ions formed
attract each other because of their opposite charges, and these attractions are called
ionic bonds. However, in a solid ionic compound, a single pair of ions does not bond
together; instead, an almost inconceivably huge number of both types of ions forms a
lattice that extends in three dimensions. The three-dimensional nature of the sodium
chloride structure is typical of ionic solids.
The ionic nature of these compounds (the fact that charged particles are present)
can be shown by experiments in which the ions are made to carry an electric current.
Pure water does not conduct electricity well. However, if a compound that consists of
ions is dissolved in water and the solution is placed between electrodes in an appara
tus like that shown in Figure 5.10, the solution will conduct electricity when the elec
trodes are connected to the terminals of a battery. Each type of ion moves toward the
electrode that has the opposite charge of that of the ion. That is, cations migrate to
the negative electrode, called the cathode, and anions migrate to the positive elec
trode, called the anode. (The names cation and anion were derived from the words
cathode and anode.) For electricity to be conducted, the ions must be free to move. In
the solid state, an ionic compound will not conduct because the ions are trapped in
the lattice. H owever, if the compound is heated until it melts or if it is dissolved in
water, the liquid compound or solution will conduct electricity because the ions are free
to move.
143
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
trons, in which case the electrons in the highest subshell of the valence shell are lost
first. For example, the tin atom loses its 5p* electrons to form Sn2* The configuration
is thus.
Sn^ion: [Kr] 5si 4 cf°
• Lap vd ngoai cung cua cdc electron trong mot nguyen tii khong ket hap cua phdn
lan cdc nguyen to nhom chinh co chiia mot so electron bdng vai so nhom.
• Khi mot kim loai mdt cdc electron, lap vo hoa tri cua no rat thudng khong con
electron, do do lap vo ke tiep ben trong trd thanh “lap vo ngoai cung’ cua ion
duqc tqo thanh.
• Trong chuang 3, so electron trong mot nguyen tii bang so proton vi nguyen tii Id
khong co dien tich. Neu do Id cdc dong vi hay mot hon hap cdc dong vi cua mot
nguyen to thi cung khdng anh hudng gi. Trong mot ion, so electron khdng bdng
so proton, do dd ion cd dien tich
A. Cd bao nhieu electron trong lap vd hda tri vd trong lap vd ngoai cung cua (a) cd
K ? (b) K 'l
B. So sanh so proton vd electron trong nhilng trudng hqp sau day: (a) uCl, (b) Cl
vd (Cl)
- all m etals react w ith n o n m e ta ls form ionic com punds: tdt cd cd c kim loai phdn
Ung vdi phi kim loai hqp chdt ion
- the electro n ic con figu rations o f both ions are those o f noble gas a to m s c d c cdu
hinh electron cua cd hai ion la cdu hinh cua khi tra
144
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
Trong thtfc te, 8 electron trong lap vd ngodi cung la cdu hinh ben ddi vdi hdu het
cdc nguyen td cua nhdm chinh. Cdc nguyen td khac ngoai nhdng khi hiem ndy cd khuynh
htfdng tqo thanh nhdng lien ket ion hay cong hda tri (hay cd hai) vdi cdc nguyen td khdc
de dat dtfqc cdu hinh electron ndy. 8 electron trong lap vd ngodi cung dtfqc goi la mot bo
8. Khuynh htfdng cua cdc nguyen td trd nen ben vdi 8 electron trong lap vd ngodi cung
dtfqc goi la quy ludt bo 8. Trong mot so hqp chdt, mot (hay nhieu) nguyen td khdng tudn
theo quy luat bo 8. Mot so ngoai le cua quy luat bo 8 se dtfqc noi qua trong muc 5.5.
Vi so electron toi da trong lap vd thd nhdt cua mot nguyen td la 2, hay la ben vdi
hai electron choang ddy lap vd duy nhdt cua no. Nhdng nguyen td rat nhe khdc - hydro -
lithi vd berylh - cd khuynh hudng hinh thanh nhdng trang thdi ben bdng cdch dat den
cdu hinh 2 electron cua helium. Viec cd 2 electron trong lap vd thd nhdt, khi lap vd ndy
1a lap vd duy nhdt cd do dd la lap vd ngodi cung, la mot trang thai ben vd 2 electron
ddi khi dtfqc got Id mot bo doi. Khi chi cd duy nhdt mot lap vd, 2 electron trong lap vd
dd cd tac dung nhtf 8 electron trong bdt cd mot lap vd ngoai cung ndo khdc. Do vdy mot
nguyen td vdi 2 electron trong lap vd ngoai cung ddu tien thtfdng dtfqc goi la tudn theo
quy ludt bo 8, mac du noi la "quy luat bo doi” se chinh xdc han.
Lap vd hoa tri cua cdc electron trong mot nguyen td la lap vd ngodi cung cua cdc
electron cua nguyen td khdng ket hqp. Cdc electron trong lap vd ndy dtfqc goi la cdc elec
tron hda tri. Neu tdt cd cdc electron bi loqi bo khdi lap vd ndy, thi lap vd ke tiep ben trong
se thanh lap vd ngoai cung mdi. Vi du, nguyen td natri cd hai 2 electron trong lap vd thtf
nhdt cua no, 8 electron trong lap vd thd hai (toi da) vd electron cuoi cung trong lap vd thd
ba. Lap vd hda tri la lap vd thd ba. Neu mot electron bi loqi khdi lap vd thd ba thi lap vd
thtf hai trd thanh lap vo ngoai cung cd chda 8 electron. Lap vd hda tri c d n con la lap vd
145
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
thd ba due nay trong) so electron trong lap vd hoa tri cua mot nguyen to nhom chinh khong
ket hqp bang so nhom trong bdng tuan hoan co dien cua nguyen to do. Nhilng ngoai la
heli co hai electron hoa tri vd cdc khi hiem khdc cd 8 electron hda tri.
Tat cd cdc kim loqi phdn ling vdi phi kim de tqo thanh cdc hqp chat ion. Nhilng
kim loqi nhdm chinh cd khuynh htfdng chuyen cdc electron hda tri cua chung cho cdc phi
kim vd cdc phi kim cd khuynh htfdng nhdn du cdc electron til nhilng kim loqi ndy de
dat dtfqc cdc bo 8 cua chung. Mot vi du la nguyen til natri cd mot electron trong lap vo
hda tri ciia no, vd nguyen tii chlorine cd 7 electron trong lap vd hda tri ciia no. Khi chiing
phdn ling, nguyen tii natri chuyen 1 electron ndy cho nguyen tii chlorine, tqo thanh hai
thtfc the cd dien tich goi la ion. Cd hai ion deu cd 8 electron trong lap vd ngoai cung cua
chung. (Ion natri cd 8 electron trong lap vd thii hai la lap vd ngodi ciing). Cdu hinh
electron ciia cd hai ion la cdu hinh cua nhilng nguyen tii khi hiem (ion natri cd cdu hinh
cua nguyen tii neon vd ion chlorine cd cdu hinh cua nguyen argon). Tuy nhien, nhitng
nguyen tii ndy khong bi bien doi thanh nhilng nguyen tii khi hiem vi nhdn cua chiing
khong thay doi.
Ion natri cd dien tich ditang 1 vi nguyen tii trung hda dd cho di m ot electron cd
dien tich dm. Ion natri dtfqc viet la Na*. Cdc dan vi cdng thilc cua H e F } the hien nhilng
nguyen td dan vd nhilng phdn td hay nguyen td cd ttfang dng. Khdng nhtf phdn td Ff
trong dd mot nguyen td fluorine dtfqc lien ket vdi mot nguyen td fluorine ddc thu khdc,
trong hqp chdt ion NaCl mot ion Na* dtfqc lien ket vdi 6 ion Cl Ian can vcri no (cdc ion thd
5 vd thd 6 ndm trong nhdng lap a trtfde vd sau lap dtfqc trinh bdy trong hinh ndy); (xem
hinh 5.9) TI so cua cdc ion Na* vdi cdc ion Cl theo dd la 1:1. Bdt cd mot cdp ion Na* vd
Cl ndo nhtf cdp ditqc khoanh tron mdu dd hay cdp dtfqc khoanh tron mdu xanh luc, deu la
mot dan vi cdng thde.
Cdc thtfc the cd dien tich trdi ddu hut nhau, do dd cdc ion Na* vd cdc ion Cl hut
nhau. Kieu Itfc hut ndy dtfqc goi la Itfc hut tinh dien. Tong quat thi stf chuyen cdc elec
tron td mot nguyen td sang mot nguyen td khdc tqo ra nhdng ion cd dien tich trdi ddu.
Nhdng ion ndy hut Ian nhau. Cdng thde ddi vdi hqp chdt cua natri vd chlorine la NaCl,
cdng thde ndy cho thdy rdng ddi vdi mot electron Cl thi cd mot ion Na*.
Tdt cd cdc hqp chdt ion cd mot dien tich tong bdng 0 vi cdc electron dtfqc chuyen
dai nhtfng khdng bien mdt. Cdc electron md mot so nguyen td nhan de tqo thanh nhdng
ion dm dtfqc cho bai cdc nguyen td khdc, nhdng nguyen td ndy trd thanh cdc ion ditang.
Cdc ion cd ditqc dien tich ditang dtfqc goi la cdc cation (dqc la cation), cdc ion cd dien
tich dm dtfqc goi la anion (dqc la “anion”), ion natri ditang dd la mot cation. Ion dtfqc
tqo ra bdi nguyen td chlorine bdng cdch nhan them mot electron la dm no la mot anion.
Neu mot anion la mot ion dan nguyen td (chi cd mot nguyen td), ten cua no dtfqc tan
cung bdng -ide, do dd Cl dtfqc goi la ion chloride.
Cdc nguyen td kim loqi vd phi kim cd the phdn dng vdi nhau de tqo thanh nhdng
hqp chdt bdng cdch chuyen di cdc electron ttf cdc kim loqi sang nhdng nguyen to khdng
kim loqi. Nhdng ion ndy dtfqc tqo thanh ndy hut Ian nhau vi chung cd dien tich trdi dau
vd nhdng Itfc hut ndy dtfqc goi la nhdng lien ket ion. Tuy nhien, trong mot hap chdt ion
rdn, cap ion rieng re khong tqo hen ket vdi nhau, thay vdo do mot sd htqng vo cung Idn
cdc ion cua cd hai loqi tqo thanh mot mang Itfdi md rong theo ba chieu. Ban chdt ba
chieu cua cdu true natri chlorine Id tieu bieu cho cdc chdt ran ion.
Ban chdt ion cua nhdng hqp chdt ndy (co mdt cdc hat cd dien tich) co the dtfac
chdng minh bdng nhdng thtfc nghiem trong do cd cdc ion dtfqc lam cho mang dcng dien.
Ntfdc tinh khiet khong dan dien tot. Tuy nhien neu mot hqp chdt cho cdc ion ditac hda
tan trong ntfdc vd dung dich dtfqc ddt gida hai dien ctfc trong mot thiet bi g icn g nhtf
146
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
trong h in h 5.10, dung dich se d&n dien khi cdc dien ctfc dtfac noi vai cdc dau cua mot bo
pin. M oi loqi ion di chuyen ve phia dien ctfc co dien tich trdi ddu vai ion do, tile la cdc
cation di chuyen ve dien ctfc dm, goi la catot; vd cdc anion di chuyen ve dien ctfc dtfong
goi la anot. Ten goi cation vd anion bdt nguon tie nhdng tit catot vd anot). De dan dien,
cdc ion phdi chuyen dong ttf do. Trong trang thdi rdn mot hap chdt ion se khong dan
dien vi cdc ion bi gid trong mang Itfdi. Tuy nhien, neu hap chdt dtfoc dot ndng cho den
khi no ndng chay ho$c dtfac hda tan trong ntfdc, hap chdt long hay dung dich se dan
dien vi cdc ion chuyen dong ttf do.
Doi vdi cac electron chi tiet cua cac anion d$t them (tuy chon)
Doi vdi cdc electron chi tiet cua cdc ion, mot nguyen tii cd the dtfac suy ra bdt ddu
tit cdu true cua nguyen tii trung hda ttfang dng (dtfac gidi thieu trong chtfang 4). Cdc
anion mot nguyen tit dan gidn la dd dtfac cong them du cdc electron vdo lap vo con
ngodi cung p se hodn chinh lap vd trong dd. Quy luat n+ I da dtfac sit dung de suy ra
cdu true cua ion cung nhtf cua nguyen tii trung hda dd. Vi du cdu hinh electron cua ion
oxide (anion cua oxy) dtfac suy ra bdt ddu tit cau hinh cua oxy:
Ion oxide cd dien tich dm 2, dien tich ndy cd dtfoc bdng cdch nhan them 2 electron.
Nhitng electron ndy di vdo trong lap vd con 2p.
Cdu hinh electron ndy giong nhtf cdu hinh cua neon. M ot ion vai mot cdu hinh giong
nhtf mot khi hiem dtfoc goi la cd cdu hinh khi hiem.
Cau hinh electron chi tiet cua cac cation d$t them (tuy chon)
De tqo thanh cdc cation dan nguyen td, cdc kim loqi bi mdt electron di tit lap vd
hda tri thd nhdt. M ot so kim loqi nhdm chinh cd nhieu han mot lap vd con cua lap vd
hda tri bi chodng chd bai cdc electron, trong tritdng hqp dd cdc electron trong Idp vd con
cao nhdt cua lap vd hda tri mdt di trtfde. Vi du nguyen td thiec mdt cdc electron 5P2 cua
no de tqo thanh Sn2\ Cdu hinh do dd Id:
The discussion in Section 5.2 showed that the transfer of valence electrons is very
important in ionic bonding. Section 5.5 will show that their sharing is very important in
covalent bonding. The Lew is electron dot diagram is a way to picture the transfer or
sharing of valence electrons that aids in understanding both processes. Keep in mind,
however, that electron dot diagrams are simplified representations of atoms and not
true pictures.
In an electron dot diagram, the symbol of the element represents the nucleus of
the atom plus its inner shells of electrons, and dots around the symbol stand for the
valence electrons. The dots are placed arbitrarily to the left or right or above or below
the symbol. In unbonded atoms, two dots, at most, are located in each position. For
example, atoms of the second period elements may be rep-resented as follows:
Li Be B: C: N: 0: F: Ne:
147
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
• Cdc gidn dS electron dang chdm ciia cdc nguyin til khdng ket hap co the co 4 vj
tri tuang duong nhau co cdc electron hoa tri (trin dudi, hai bin), moi vi tri co t6i
da 2 electron.
A. Ve mot gidn do electron dang chdm cho nguyin til lUu huynh
Trong mot gidn do electron dang chdm ky hieu cua nguyin to dqi dien cho cdc hat
nhdn cua nguyen til cong vdi cdc lap vd bin trong cua cdc electron, vd cdc chdm bao
quanh ky hieu the' hien cdc electron hoa tri. Nhdng chdm ndy cung duac ddt mot cdch
tuy y vdo bin trdi, bin phdi ho$c a trin hay a dudi cua ky hieu. Trong nhilng nguyin td
khong lien ket, cd toi da la 2 chdm deu ddt a moi vi tri. Vi du nguyin til cua cdc nguyen
to chu ky thU hai co th i duqc bieu dien nhu sau:
Li Be B: C: N: 0: F: N e:
Let's consider the ionic compound formed by the reaction of sodium and sulfur.
The sodium atom has 1 electron in its valence shell. (Sodium is in periodic group IA
[1].) W hen the atom donates this electron to a nonmetal atom, the positive ion formed
has an octet like that of neon. However, the sulfur atom, with 6 valence electrons,
needs 2 additional electrons. Therefore, it takes two sodium atoms to provide the 2
electrons for one sulfur atom; so the formula for sodium sulfide is N a2S.
The reaction of sodium and sulfur to form N a2S can be visualized easily with elec
tron dot diagrams:
N a- N a- Na+
+ :S : — :S : - + [: S :] 2”
N a- N a- N a+
148
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
Electrons from two sodium atoms are needed to allow one sulfur atom to attain
its octet. W e can write the reaction more simply as follows:
or 2Na + S —* Na2 S
Similarly, the formula of aluminum chloride is AICI3 because the aluminum atom
has 3 valence electrons that it can donate to form the 3 + ion.
W e can predict the charges on the ions of some elements but not others. In com
pounds, the metals of periodic groups IA and IIA (1 and 2), as well as zinc, cadmium,
aluminum, and silver, always form ions with positive charges equal to the elem ent’s
classical periodic group number. The charge on every monatomic anion (except H~) is
equal to the classical group number of the elem ent minus 8. The number of added
electrons is the absolute value of that difference. (Not all nonmetals form monatomic
anions, however.) Hydrogen can react with very active metals to form the hydride ion,
H-, which has the 2-electron configuration of helium. The maximum positive charge on
a monatomic cation is 4+; the maximum negative charge on a monatomic anion is 3.
Charges on the most common monatomic ions are presented in Figure 5.11. In addi
tion to the generalities just presented, note that all the elements of the first transition
series except scandium form an ion with a 2+ charge, and most of them also form an
ion having another charge. (The transition metals form ions having different charges
by donating varying numbers— from 0 to 2— of their inner electrons to nonmetals.)
Because the overall charge on any ionic compound is zero, we can deter-mine
the formula of an ionic compound by balancing the charges on the cations and anions.
That is,
Number of positive charges = Number of negative charges
The compound of Pb4* and O2’ is thus P b 0 2 because there are four negative charges
on two O2_ions to balance the four positive charges on one Pb4* ion. W e can even
write formulas for compounds whose ions are totally unfamiliar to us, as long as we
know their charges. For example, the compound of
AB42* and X Z 23'is (AB4)3(X Z2)2 and that for AB42* and X Y is AB4X Y 3
• Dien tich trong cong thiic cua mot hop chdt hoan chinh phdi bdng 0, vi tong cdc
dien tich dtfcmg vd dm phdi bdng nhau. Sd nguyen nhd nhdt cua cdc cation vd
cdc anion dtfoc sii dung de cdn bdng dien tich.
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
• Hau het cdc cation nhom chinh vd tat cd cdc anion mot nguyen til co nhilng dien
tich dQc trUng de thuoc, do do trong cdc hqp chdt cua chung vai cdc ion khdc, ta
cd the de ddng suy doan ra diin tich cua cdc ion khdc.
A. Viet cong thiic cho hap chdt cua Lu3' vd S 2
B. Viet cong thilc cho cdc ion trong moi hap chdt sau ddy:(a) V20 } vd (b) P b 0 2
Phdn ilng cua natri vd Itfu huynh de tqo thanh NajS co the dtfqc the h iin bdng
hinh dnh vai nhilng gidn do electron dang chdm:
Cdc electron tit hai nguyen til natri la cdn thiet de cho mot nguyen tit Itfu huynh
dat dtfqc bo 8 cua no. Ta co the viet phdn ilng ndy mot cdch dan gidn han nhtf sau:
2 Na • + :S : — 2 Na+ + [:S=]2'
Ttfang ttf, cong thilc cua aluminum chloride la A lC l3 v i nguyen til nhom cd 3 elec
tron hda tri, no cd the cho di de tqo thanh ion 3+.
Ta cd the tien doan dien tich tren ion cua mot sd nguyen to nhtfng cdc nguyen td
khdc thi khdng. Trong cdc hqp chdt, nhilng kim loqi nhdm 1A vd HA trong bdng tuan
hoan(l vd 2) nhtf kem, cadnium, nhdm, vd bqc ludn ludn tqo thanh cdc ion vdi dien tich
ditang bdng vdi so nhdm cua nguyen to trong bdng phdn loqi tudn hodn co dien. Dien
tich tren mdi anion mot nguyen til (H~) bdng vdi sd nhdm trong ban tudn hodn cd dien
cua nguyen td trit di 8 sd electron dtfqc them vdo Id mot gid tri tuyet ddi cua tri sd ndy.
(Tuy nhien, khdng phdi tdt cd cdc phi kim deu tqo thanh cdc anion nguyen tit). Hydro cd
the phdn ilng vdi nhitng kim'loai rdt hoqt dong de tqo thanh ion hydride, H-, ion ndy cd
cau hinh 2 electron cua heli. Dien tich ditang Idn nhdt tren 1 cation m ot nguyen til Id
4+; dien tich dm Idn nhdt tren mot anion tren mot nguyen til la 3 - . Dien tich tren hau
het cdc ion m ot nguyen til thdng dung dtfqc gidi thieu trong hinh 5.11. Ngoai nhilng
dieu khdi quat vita dtfqc gidi thieu, chu y Id tdt cd cdc nguyen td cua nhilng ddi chuyen
tiep thd nhdt, trie scandium tqo thanh mot ion vdi dien tich 2 + vd hau het con too thanh
mot ion cd mot dien tich khdc nila. Cdc kim loai chuyen tiep tqo thanh vac ion cd nhilng
dien tich khdc nhau bdng cdch cho di mot sd khdc nhau cdc electron cua lap i d ben
trong - til 0 den 2 - cho cdc kim loai).
150
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
Vi dien tich chung cua bdt cd hgp chdt ion ndo cung bdng 0, ta co the xdc dinh
cong thiic cua mgt hgp chdt ion bdng cdch cdn bdng cdc dien tich tren cdc cation vd cdc
anion. Tile la
Hgp chdt cua Pb4* vd O2 do do phdi la P b 0 2 vi co 4 dien tich dm trin hai ion O2
cdn bdng vdi diin tich dtfong trin mot ion Pb4'.
Ta tham chi co the viet nhdng cong thde cho cdc hap chdt md cdc ion la hodn todn
khong quen thuoc vdi chung ta, mien la ta biet dtfac cdc dien tich cua chung. Vi du hap
chdt cua A B 2t vd X Z 3 la ( A B J / X Z ^ vd cua A B 2' vd X Y 2 la A B 4X Y r
H +
Electrons shared between hydrogen atoms are counted toward the duets of both
atoms. In the hydrogen molecule, each hydrogen atom has a total of two electrons in
its first shell and, thus, a stable configuration. Electrons shared between other non-
metal atoms are counted toward the octets of both.
Steps
Step 1: Determine the arrangement of the atoms.
Step 2: Determine the total number of valence elec-trons available from all the
atoms in the for-mula unit.
I 51
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
Step 3: Determine the total number of electrons required to get 8 electrons around
each nonmetal atom except hydrogen and 2 electrons around each hy
drogen atom.
Step 4: Subtract the number of electrons available from the number required to
determ ine the number of shared electrons. (The shared electrons are
counted for each atom; that is, they are counted twice to obtain the total
number of electrons needed.)
Step 5: Distribute the shared pairs between adjacent atoms.
Step 6: Distribute the rest of the electrons to positions other than betw een at
oms, making sure that the number of electrons required for each atom
(step 3) is now present.
Polyatomic Ions
A great many compounds contain polyatom ic ions (“many-atom" ions). There are
many polyatomic anions but relatively few polyatomic cations. T he most important
polyatomic cation is the ammonium ion, N H 4* (compare with ammonia, NH.,). Some of
the most important polyatomic anions are listed in T ab le 5.2, the first seven of which
are also presented in Figure 5.13.
The atoms within a polyatomic ion are bonded together with covalent bonds, but
polyatomic ions as a whole are bonded to oppositely charged ions by the attraction of
the opposite charges by ionic bonding. For example, potassium chlorate, K C I0 3, con
tains potassium ions, K*. and chlorate ions, C I0 3*. The K* ions are attracted to the
C I0 3 ions by their opposite charges. The chlorine and oxygen atoms within each C I0 3~
ion are covalently bonded. The electron dot diagram for potassium chlorate is simply a
combination of that for the potassium ion and that for the chlorate ion. The represen
tation can be determined by the systematic process described pre-viously. Note that
the potassium ion is bonded ionically and that it shares no electrons with other atoms.
For that reason, no electrons are allotted for its valence shell.
The number of electrons to be shared is 32 - 26 = 6. The structure, with only the
shared electrons:
K 0 ;C1;0
(Incomplete)
o
K+ 0 ;C1;0 :
" :Q: "
The structure of the chlorate ion is the same as when the ion was in potassium
chlorate. In that case, the potassium atom donated its electron to the chlorate ion. In
this case, you do not know where the extra electron came from, but it does not m at
ter. The total number of valence electrons is still 25, and the number of electrons to
be shared is still 6. the chlorate ion does not exist in isolation, even though we som e
times write it alone.
152
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
Nonoctet Structures
Not all atoms in molecules or polyatomic ions obey the octet rule; those that do
not are said to have nonoctet structures. For example, boron, which is in the second
period of the periodic table, is apt to have fewer than 8 electrons in the valence shell
of its atoms. Thus, the boron atom in BF3 is represented as having only 6 electrons in
its valence shell:
:F :B :F :
:F ;
If the central elem ent in a molecule or polyatomic ion is in the third period or
higher and does not obey the octet rule, it is apt to expand its valence shell beyond 8
electrons. The phosphorus atom in PF5 has 10 electrons around it:
. f ’; ;' f ‘;
• Cdc ion nhieu nguyen ti2 dtfoc noi den trong phdn ve lien ket cong hda tri vi lien
ket gida nhilng ion ndy Id cong hoa tri.
• Cdc gidn do electron dang chdm cho nhilng nguyen til lien ket cong hoa tri co
the co bon vi tri hay it han cho cdc electron quanh mot nguyen til, cd the cd den
6 electron trong bdt cii vi tri ndo.
• Ddi vdi cdc thtfc the hoa hoc d$c trtfng theo quy luat bo tdm, so electron quanh
nhdng nguyen td phi kim khi cdc hydro Id 8.
A. Ve gidn do electron dang chdm cho (a) CHJV vd (b) C2Hf
B. Ve gidn do electron dang chdm cho (a) NCS vd (b) CHjO
153
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
X et phdn td hydro H T Mdi nguyen td hydro cd mot electron vd se la ben han vdi 2
electron (cdu hinh heli). Khong cd ly do gi d i cho mot nguyen td hydro se cho electron
cua no va mot nguyen td khdc se nhdn. Thay vdo dd hai nguyen td hydro cd t h i sd dung
chung cac electron cua chung:
H .+ .H -> H .H
Cdc electron dtfqc sd dung chung gida cdc nguyen td hydro vd dtfqc tinh vao bo ddi
cua cd hai nguyen td. Trong phdn td hydro, moi nguyen td hydro cd tong cong hai nguyen
td eletron trong lap vo thd nhdt cua no, do vdy la mot cdu hinh bin. Cdc electron dtfqc
154
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
sd dung chung giUa cdc nguyen til khong phi kim khdc dtfoc tinh vdo trong cdc bo tdm
ciia hai nguyen tii.
C d c b iid c
Btfdc 1 : Xdc dinh cdc sdp xep cua cdc nguyen td.
Btfdc 2: Xdc dinh tong sd gid tri electron cd the cd td tdt cd cdc nguyen td trong
don vi cong thde.
Btfdc 3: Xdc dinh tong so electron cdn thiet de cd dtfoc 8 eletron xung quanh cdc
nguyen td phi kim trd hydro vd 2 electron quanh moi nguyen td hydro.
Btfdc 4: Ngoai trd so electron co the co cho sd electron cdn thiet de xdc dinh sd eletron
sd dung chung. (Cdc electron sd dung chung dd dtfoc tinh cho tdng nguyen
td, tdc la chung dtfoc tinh hai Idn de cd dtfoc tdng sd electron cdn thiet.)
Btfdc 5: Phdn bo cdc doi eletron sd dung chung gida cdc nguyen td Idn can.
Btfdc 6: Phdn bo cdc electron con Iqi vdo nhdng vi tri ngodi nhdng vi tri gida cdc
nguyen td, dam bao la luc ndy co du cdc electron cdn thiet cho moi nguyen
td (btfdc 3).
Nhdng nguyen td trong mot ion nhieu nguyen td dtfqc lien ket vdi nhau bdng cdc
lien ket cong hda tri, nhtfng cdc ion nhieu nguyen td xet chung dtfqc lien ket vdi cdc ion
cd dien tich trdi ddu bai Itfc hut cua dien tich trdi dau - bdng lien ket ion. Vi du kali
chlorate, K C 1 0 3 cd chda cdc ion kali, K * ua cdc ion chlorate CIO3. Cdc ion K + bi hut ve
cdc ion CIO3 bdi nhdng dien tich trdi ddu cua chung. Cdc nguyen td clo vd oxy trong
moi ion CIO3 cong hda tri vdi nhau. Gidn dd electron dang chdm cho potassium chlorate
dan gidn la mot ket hqp gida gidn do cua ion potassium vd gidn do cua ion chlorate.
Cdc bieu dien cd the dtfqc xdc dinh bdng quy trinh cd he thdng dd dtfqc md td a phdn
trtfde. Chu y la ion kali dtfqc lien ket ion vd no khong sd dung chung vdi cdc electron vdi
cdc nguyen td khdc. Vi ly do dd, khong cd electron ndo dtfqc phdn phdi vdo lap vo hda tri
cua no.
155
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
K + :0 :C I:0 :
" :6 = "
Phai dam bao co viet dien tich tren moi ion bdi vi dien tich la mot phdn khdng the
thieu cua cdng thiic. Vi du, cd mot stf khdc biet lan gifia ClO} I’d CIO1
De ve mot gidn do electron dang chdm cho mot ion nhieu nguyen til rieng biet, bqn
phdi xet den dien tich cua no khi dem so electron cd the cd. Cd them mot electron doi vdi
moi dien tich dm vd cd it hem 1 electron doi vdi moi dien tich duong.
Neu nguyen to trung tdm trong mot phdn til hay mot ion nhieu nguyen til d trong
chu ky ba hay chu ky cao han vd khdng tudn theo quy ludt bo tdm, thi no thich ilng vdi
viec md rdng cdc lap vd hda tri cua no ra ngodi 8 electron. Nguyen til phosphorus trong
PFS cd 10 electron xung quanh no.
:>■; ; V :
. F • f ■' f ' .
F
Nhitng cdu tao khdng phdi bo tdm dtfqc ban ky hem trong cdc gido trinh ndng cao.
N am e F o rm u la
Group IA metals form ions with a 1+ charge only. Group IA elements form ions
with a 1 + charge only,
(c) Does the same problem exist for group IIA?
5.3 W hat is the difference in bonding between CoCI2 and COCI2?
5.11 Rules for writing diatomic molecules and for deducing the charges on alkali
m etal ions w e re introduced in this chapter. W hich of these refers only to
uncombined elem ents and which refers only to elements in compounds?
5.12 (a) Write the formula of the compound of Mg2* and F'.
157
Topic 5 : Chemical bonding________________________________________________
5.13 (a) Is the electron dot diagram of H* like that of any noble gas?
5.15 Write the formulas for ammonia and for the ammonium ion.
5.16 What is the charge on (a) the barium ion, (b) the cadmium ion, (c) the nitride
ion, and (d) the fluoride ion?
5.17 W hat is a valid generalization about the charges on monatomic anions? What is
a valid generalization about the charges on polyatomic anions containing oxy
gen and another element?
5.18 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following. Because the species all
have the same number of electrons, explain why the diagrams are not all the
same.
(a) H- (b) He (c) Li* (d) Be2*
5.19 In which classical periodic groups are the atom's valence electrons equal in num
ber to the group number?
(b) How many electrons, if any, should a lithium atom share in its compounds?
5.23 Draw electron dot diagrams for (a) NaH and (b) M gH 2.
5.26 How many atoms of each elem ent are present in one formula unit of each of
the following?
(a) (N H 4)2S 0 3 (b) M g3N2 (c) Zn(C 2H30 2)2
5.27 How many atoms of each element are present in one for-mula unit of each of
the following?
(a) V 0 ( N 0 3)2 (b )M g 2P20 7 (c) (NH 4)2Cr20 7 (d) K H C 0 3-M g C 0 34 H 20
5.28 What is the difference between (a) 2 O and 0 2? (b) N20 4and 2 N O ?7
5.29 W hat is implied about bonding in the mercury (I) ion, Hg22*?
I 58
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
5 .30 W hat information (from Section 5.1) is conveyed by the formula Ba3(P 0 4)2?
5 .2 Ionic Bonding
5.31 Complete the following table:
5.35 (optional) Write a detailed electronic configuration for each of the following ions:
(a) O2- (b) F- (c) N3-
5.36 (optional) Write a detailed electronic configuration for each of the following ions:
(a) K* (b) C a2* (c) G a3*
5.37 (optional) Write a detailed electronic configuration for each of the following ions:
(a) Cu2 (b) Co3* (c) Cd2*
5.3 Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
5.38 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following ions:
(a) N3-
(b) s 2-
(c) Br
5.39 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following ions:
(a) K* (b) Sr2* (c) Al3* (d) Pb2*
5.40 Draw electron dot diagrams for atoms of the following elem ents and the ions
they produce when they com-bine:
(a) Mg and N (b) Ca and Cl (c) Al and S
5.41 Draw electron dot diagrams for atoms of the following elem ents and the ions
they produce when they combine:
(a) Li and H (b) Be and H (c) Al and H
159
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
5.42 Write the formula for the compound formed between each of the following pairs
of ions:
(a) N3- and M g2*
(b) Cu* and O2-
(c) Al3* and O2-
5.43 Write the formula for the ion formed by each of the following metals in all of its
compounds:
(a) Potassium (b) Barium (c) Cadmium (d) Lithium (e) Silver
5.44 Cobalt forms ions of 2+ and 3+ charges. Write formulas for (a) two chlorides of
cobalt and (b) two oxides of cobalt.
5.45 Write the formula for the compound formed between each of the following:
(a) Li and H
(b) Be and H
5.46 Complete the following table by writing the formula of the compound formed by
the cation on the left and the anion at the top:
S 2- N3- Cl-
Li* _______________________________ _______
Mg2* _______________________________ _______
Al3* _______________________________ _______
5.47 Com plete the following table by writing the formula of the com pound formed
by the cation at the top and the anion on the left.
Ni2 Co3* NH4*
CIO4- _______ _______ _______
s o 2- _____ ____ ____
P 0 43- _______ ______ _______
P A 4- ------ ------ ------
5.48 For each of the following compounds, identify the individual ions, and indicate
how many of each are present per formula unit.
(a) Ni(C2H302)2 (b) Co2(C03)3 (c) M g S 0 4 (d) KOH
5.49 Identify the individual ions in each of the following compounds:
(a) CaCI2 ( b ) K 2S 0 4 (c) Ba3(P 0 4)2 (d) AI2(S 0 4)3
(e) Na202 (f) B a(C N )2 (g )S n (C 1 0 2)2
5.50 Complete the following table by writing the formula of the compound formed by
the metal at the left and the nonmetal at the top:
Nitrogen Sulfur Bromine
Cadmium _______________ _______ ________________
Silver _______________ _______ ________________
Aluminum _______________ _______ ________________
5.51 Write the formula for the compound formed by each of the following pairs of elements:
(a) Mg and N (b) Mg and S (c) Ca and P
(d) Al and S (e) Na and P (f) Al and I
(g) Li and N (h) Mg and Cl (i) Zn and Br
160
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
5.52 Write the formula for the compound formed by each of the following pairs of
elements:
(a) Zinc and bromine (b) Lithium and oxygen
(c) Barium and fluorine (d) Silver and bromine
(e) Oxygen and aluminum (f) Fluorine and sodium
5.53 Identify the individual ions in each of the following compounds:
(a) NaH (b) ZnCI2 (c) K20 2 (d) NaCIO,
(e) B a (C I0 3)2 (f) Ho2(C I0 3)2 (g) (N H 4)3P04
5.54 How many valence electrons does a Sn2* ion have?
5.55 W hat individual ions are present in (a) Cu2S and (b) CuS?
5.56 Identify the anion and both cations in each of the following pairs of compounds:
(a) NiO and N i0 2
(b) Co20 3and CoO
(c) F e S 0 4 and Fe2( S 0 4)3
5.56 Covalent Bonding
5.57 Explain why a hydrogen atom cannot be bonded with a double bond or two single
bonds.
5.58 Which of the following involve ionic bonding only, which involve covalent bond
ing only, and which involve both?
(a) N2O s (b) CaO (c) C2H4
(d) C a C 0 3 (e) H20 (f) N H 4CI
5.59 What similarities and differences are there between a molecule and a polyatomic ion?
5.63 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following compounds. In each of
the first four compounds, the hydrogen atom is bonded to an oxygen atom.
(a) H C I0 4 (b) H C I0 3 (c) H C I0 2
(d) HCIO (e) HCI
5.64 Draw resonance structures for each of the following:
(a) S 0 3 (b) C O / ' (c) 0 3
5.65 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following compounds:
(a) C H 2Br2 (b) C H SN (c) C H 40 (d) HCN
5.66 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following compounds. Indicate any
double or triple bonds.
(a) C 2H2 (b) C 3H6 (c ) C3He
161
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
5.69 Complete the following table by writing the formula of the compound formed by
each cation on the left with each anion at the top:
N 0 3- Cr2 07J- S O /-
Cs* _______ _______ ______ __ _______
C a2* ______ _______ _________ _______
Co2* _______ _______ ______ __ _______
Co3* ----------- ------------ ----------- ---- ------------
5.70 Write the formula of each ion in each of the following compounds:
(a) V 0 2C I0 4 (b) (C H 3N H 3)2S 0 4
(c) U02(C I0 3)2 (d) K4P20 7
(e) M g M n 0 4 (f) C e (S 0 4)2
(g) Na2S20 3 (h) B a(O C N )2
5.71 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following:
(a) Hydrogen peroxide, H20 2
(b) Ethylene, C 2H4
(c) Methyl alcohol C H 3OH
5.72 For each of the following compounds, identify the individual ions, and indicate
how many of each are present per formula unit:
(a) AICI3 (b) M g (H C 0 3)2 (c) Al20 3
(d) (N H 4)2S e 0 4 (e) Sr3( P 0 4)2 (f) (N H 4)2S 0 4
(9) P b 0 2
5.73 Write the formulas of the ions present in each of the following compounds:
(a) N a H C 0 3 (b) B a H P 0 4 (c) NalO
5.74 Write the formula for the compound of each of the following pairs of ions:
(a) P043~and Co3*
(b) S 0 32-and Ag*
(c) C 0 32' and N H 4*
5.75 Identify the formulas of the ions in each of the following:
(a) Pb3( P 0 4)4 (b) V 0 S 0 4
5.76 Write formulas for the ions in each of the following compounds:
(a) C u (C2H30 2)2 (b) KSCN (c) N a M n 0 4
(d) N H 4CNS (e) (N H 4)2C r0 4 (f) Z n S e 0 4
(g) (N H 4)2Cr20 7 (h) Co(O H )2
5.77 W hat familiar ion do you recognize in each of the following compounds? Also
write the formula for the other ion present.
(a) B a (B r0 3)2 (b) (N H 4)2S 0 4 (c) K2C20 4
5.78 W hat is the difference between S e 0 3 and S e 0 32-? Draw an electron dot dia
gram for each.
5.79 Complete the following table by writing the formula of the compound formed by
each cation on the left with each anion at the top:
162
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
C IC V S O /- S iO /- P 0 43-
Na* ----------- --- ------------ ---- -----------------------------
Ca2* ----------- --- ------------ ---- -----------------------------
Al3" ----------- --- ------------ ---- -----------------------------
5.80 Identify the cation and the anion in each of the following compounds:
(a) L u (O H)3 (b) CuCr20 7 (c) (N H 4)2S 0 3
(d) L iN 0 2 (e) V 0 S 0 3 (f) Li2C r0 4
(g) K B r0 3 (h) N H 4H C 0 3 (i) Na2Cr20 7
5.81 Try to draw an electron dot diagram for the “ammonium molecule," N H 4, which
does not exist. W hat do you find? Draw an electron dot diagram for the
ammo-nium ion, N H 4*.
5.82 Draw an electron dot diagram for (a) 0 2, the perox-ide ion, and (b) N3', the azide ion.
5.83 Write the formula for the compound composed of each of the following pairs of ions:
(a) M g2*and H C O -
(b) Mn2* and CIO?-
(c) Ag* and AsO i i ~
(d) N H / and S O /-
5.84 (a) How many total valence electrons are in an ammonium ion
(b) How many electrons, if any, should that ion share with other ions in its compounds?
5.85 Draw electron dot diagrams for (a) CoCI2 and (b) C O C I2.
5.89 (optional) State the octet rule in terms of detailed elec-tronic configurations.
5.90 C arbo n does not have lone pairs of electrons in the great m ajority of its
compounds. (Exceptions are C22-, CN-, and CO.) Draw electron dot diagrams
for each of two different compounds, having the nonhydrogen atoms connected
in different ways, each having the for-mula (a) C 2H60 , (b) C 2H7N.
5 91 Draw electron dot diagrams for C /" , C N _, and CO. Comment on their similarity.
163
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
5.94 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following pairs of elem ents and
their compounds:
(a) Magnesium and nitrogen
(b) Magnesium and chlorine
Contrast this problem with Problem 5.40, parts (a) and (b).
5.95 W hat is the charge on the only monatomic cation of bis-muth?
16 18
P3-
13 _______ 10
18 1+
5.98 Write the formulas for the ions represented in each of the following:
(a) K12Si60 ie (b) (NH 4)2H P04 (c) (VO )3(P 04)2
20 18
36 2+
18 1-
5.100 A certain ionic compound contains eight oxygen atoms, one lead atom, and two
sulfur atoms per formula unit. Identify the ions that make up the compound.
5.104 In which of the following are there any covalent bonds? C a C 0 3 M nO C ,H , PCI,
5.105 Write formulas for the two new compounds formed if each of the following pairs
of compounds traded an-ions
164
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
5.108 How many atoms of each element are in one formula unit of (a) N i(CO )4 and (b)
(C H 3C H 2N H 3)2S 0 4?
5.109 Write formulas for both kinds of ions in each of the following compounds:
(a) Li3N (b) N a2S 0 4 (c) K B r04
5.110 (optional)
(a) Write the outer electronic configuration of thallium (TI).
(b) On the basis of its configuration, explain why thallium forms both a1 + ion
and a 3+ ion.
5.111 (a) How many oxygen atoms are covalently bonded to each silicon atom in S i0 2
(Figure 5.12)?
(Hint: Look at the top silicon atom and the oxygen atoms attached below it.)
5.112 Consult Figure 5.12 to determine how many carbon atoms are bonded to a given
carbon atom in (a) dia-mond and (b) graphite.
(Hint: Look in the middle of each figure, not at the edges.)
5.113 Draw a structural formula for (a) C2CI4 and (b) C C I4.
5.114 Draw a structural formula for cyclopentane, C 5H 10, in which the five carbon at
oms are bonded in a ring and each has two hydrogen atoms bonded to it.
5.115 Relatively speaking, how many atoms are covalently bonded in a diamond crystal?
5.116 (optional) W e deduce the electronic configuration of copper from the periodic
table, the n + / rule, or other rules or memory devices to be
Is2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d9
The actual configuration is:
Is2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4 s ’ 3d'°
S U M M A R Y -T O N G KET CHUONG
Chemical formulas identify compounds, ions, or molecules. In formulas for binary com
pounds, the more electropositive element is written first. The formula implies that the at
oms are held together by some kind(s) of chemiical bond(s). When they are not combined
165
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
with other elements, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine
exist as diatomic molecules. A formula unit represents the collection of atoms in the for
mula. Subscripts in a formula indicate the numbers of atoms of the elements in each for
mula unit. For example, the formula unit H20 has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom. Formula units of uncombined elements, such as Ne, are atoms. Formula units of
covalently bonded atoms are called molecules. Formula units of ionic compounds do not
have any special names. In formulas, atoms bonded in special groups may be enclosed in
parentheses. A subscript following the closing parenthesis multiplies everything within the
parentheses. For example, a formula unit of B a(C I03 )2 contains one barium atom, two
chlorine atoms, and six oxygen atoms. Formulas for hydrates have a centered dot preced
ing a number and the formula for water, such as C u S 0 4-5H 20 . The number multiplies ev
erything following it to the end of the formula (Section 5.1).
Atoms of main group elements tend to accept, donate, or share electrons to achieve
the electronic structure of the nearest noble gas. Metal atoms tend to donate elec
trons and thereby become positive ions. W hen combining with metals, nonmetal at
oms tend to accept electrons and become negative ions. The number of electrons do
nated or accepted by each atom depends to a great extent on the periodic group num
ber; each atom tends to attain a noble gas configuration. The attraction of oppositely
charged ions is called an ionic bond. Transition and inner transition metal atoms do
nate their valence electrons first but ordinarily do not achieve noble gas configurations.
Most of them can also lose electrons from an inner shell and thus can form cations
with different charges (Section 5.2).
Electron dot diagrams can be drawn for atoms, ions, and molecules, using a dot to
represent each valence electron. These diagrams are most useful for main group ele
ments. The diagrams help in visualizing simple reactions and structures of polyatomic
ions and molecules (Section 5.3).
Formulas for ionic compounds may be deduced from the charges on the ions, since all
compounds have zero net charge. Given the constituent elements, you can predict the
formula for binary compounds of most main group metals. You cannot do so for most
transition metals because of their ability to form ions of different charges (Given the
specific ions, you can write a formula for any ionic compound.) Conversely, given the
formula of an ionic compound, you can deduce the charges on its ions Writing correct
formulas for compounds and identifying the ions in compounds from their formulas are
two absolutely essential skills (Section 5.4).
Nonmetal atoms can share electrons with other nonmetal atoms, forming covalent bonds.
In electron dot diagrams, the shared electrons are counted as being in the outermost
shell of each of the bonded atoms. A single bond consists of one shared electron pair;
a double bond consists of two shared electron pairs; a triple bond consists of three
shared electron pairs. Macromolecules result from covalent bonding of millions of at
oms or more into giant molecules.
Drawing electron dot diagrams for structures con-taining only atoms that obey the oc
tet rule can be eased by subtracting the number of valence electrons available from
the number required to get an octet (or duet) around each nonmetal atom The differ
ence is the num-ber of electrons to be shared in the covalent bonds For an ton. you
must subtract 1 available electron for each positive charge on the ion or add 1 avail
able electron for each negative charge. Main group metal ions generally require no
outermost electrons, but each hydrogen atom requires 2. and each other nonmetal atom
requires 8. Atoms in some compounds do not follow the octet rule (Section 5 5/
166
t
NOMENCLATURE
DANH tfC H
6 .4 To name hydrates
6 .1 Goi ten vd viet cong thiic cda cdc hop chdt hai chdt phi kim loai, 6 2 Goi ten vd
vd viet cong thde cho cdc cation, anion vd cdc hap chdt ion, 6.3 Goi ten vd viet cong thde
cho cdc acid vd cdc muoi acid, 6.4 Goi ten cho hydrate.
6.1 Cdc hap chdt hai chdt phi kim - phi kim, 6.2 Goi ten cdc hap chdt ion,6 .3 Goi
ten cdc acid vd cdc muoi acid, 6.4 Cdc hydrate.
167
Topic 6: Nomenclature
Introduction to chemistry
So far in this book, we have used nam es for som e sim ple ch e m ic a l com pounds,
but we have not yet considered n o m e n c la tu re — how to nam e co m p o u n d s s y s te m a ti
cally The great variety of com pounds requires a system atic app ro ach to n am in g them.
U nfortunately, three or four d ifferen t nam ing system s are used to nam e d iffe re n t types
of com pounds M em orization of a few sim ple rules w ill allow n am ing of a great many
com pounds, but in addition to learning the rules, you m ust be sure to learn when to
use each one Learning generalities will help you to handle g re at q u a n titie s of inform a
tion and to respond to sp ecific questions. Even having fo ur d iffe re n t syste m s for nam
ing com p ou nd s is m uch better than using the trivia l nam es that w ere first used, such
as baking soda for N a H C 0 3, calom el for H g?CI?, lim e for CaO, laughing gas for N?0 .
and so forth Im agine having to learn for each com pound a nam e that does not even
give a clue as to the ele m e n ts that m ake it up
This chapter covers the basic rules for nam ing m any com pounds and ions Sec
tion 6 1 considers the nam ing of binary nonm etalnonm etal com p ou nd s The nam ing of
ionic com pounds is addressed in Section 6 2 First, the nam ing of cations and anions is
discussed, leading into the nam ing of com plete com pounds Section 6 3 covers the naming
of acids and acid salts H ydrates are considered briefly in S ection 6 4 Tables and fig
ures in the chapter sum m arize how to name com pounds in a system atic w ay
Chtfang ndy noi ve nhdng quy ludt ca ban de goi ten nlueu hqp chdt va ion Muc
6.1 xem xet cdch goi ten cdc hap chdt cua liai chdt phi kim ■ phi kim Cdch goi ten cdc
hqp clidt ion dtfac noi den a muc 6.2. Ddu tien, phdn ndy ban ve cdch goi ten cdc cation
vd anion vd sau do ddn den cdch goi ten mot hqp chdt hodn chinh. M uc 6 3 noi ve cdch
dat ten ciia cdc acid va cdc muoi acid. Cdc hydrate dtfqc xem xet mot cach ngdn gon
trong phdn 6.4 Cac bang va hinh dnh trong chtfang ndy tdm tdt cdch goi ten cac hap
chdt theo mot phtfang phdp cd he thong.
The elem ent farther to the left or farther down in the periodic table is nam ed first
E xcept for co m p ou nd s of hydrogen, the form ulas for co m p o u n d s of two n o n -m e t
als are w ritten and nam ed with the elem ent farther to the left or low er in the p erio d ic
table given first If one e le m e n t is below and to the right of the o the r in the oenodtc
table, the one to the left is given first unless ttiat e le m ent is o xygen or flu orin e
168
Topic 6: N om enclature
B in ary co m p ou nd s of hydrogen that are not acids are given sp ecial nam es. Two
ve ry im p o rta n t e xam ple s are water, H.,0, and a m m o n ia , N H 3 (Figure 6.1). (O ther m uch
less im p o rta n t h yd ro g e n -c o n ta in in g binary co m p o u n d s are a lso know n by com m on
nam es These inclu de p hosphine, P H r and arsine, A s H 3.) H ydrogen co m p ou nd s that
are a cid s in a q u e o u s so lu tion are nam ed, and th e ir fo rm u la s are w ritte n in sp ecial
w ays (see S e ction 6.3).
. Table 6.1 P re fixes Used in N am ing Binary N onm etal-N onm etal C om pounds
1 mon(o)-
2 d i-
3 tr i-
4 te trla )-
5 p e n tia i-
6 hex( a )-
7 heptf a )-
8 oct( a )-
9 non* a i
10 ded a)-
The last o or a o f the p re fix is usually dropped when the elem ent name begins w ith o
• Cdc hop chdt hai chdl cua cac phi dtfqc goi len vai mot nhom cdc tiip ddu ngd
co dien. nhdng tiep ddu ngd ndy lidu het khong dtfac stf dung cho hap chdt khdc.
• Neu chi cd mot nguyen td ciia nguyen to thd nhdt. thi khong sd dung tiep dau
ngd.
A Goi ten (a> P O i d tb) S iO r
B Viet cdng tlitfc cua tatiodine heptafluoride id (b) diphosphorus pentasulfide.
Ngoai trd cdc hqp chdt hydro, nhdng cdng thde ciia cdc hqp chdt hai chdt phi kim
dtfqc viet vd goi ten vdi nguyen to ddng xa han ve phia ben trai hoac ddng thdp han
trong bdng phdn loai tudn hodn dtfqc neu ra trtfde. Neu mot nguyen to a dtfdi vd a phia
ben phai nguyen to khac trong bdng phdn loai tudn hodn, thi nguyen to a ben trdi dtfac
neu ra trtfde. trd klu nguyen to dd 1a oxy hay fluorine.
169
Topic 6: N om enclature
Cdc hgp chdt hai chdt cua hydro khdng phdi la acid duoc cho nhdng ten ggi dtfc
biet. Hai vi du quan trong la nuac, H}0 vd ammonia, NH} (hinh 6.1). (N hiiu hgp chdt
hai chdt cd chiia hydro It quan trgng hem ciing ditgc biet den bdng nhilng ten ggi thdng
dung. Nhilng chdt ndy gom phosphine, PH} vd arsine, AsHr ) Nhdng hgp chat hydro Id
nhilng acid trong dung dich nildc duoc ggi tin vd viet cong thilc theo nhdng cdch di}c
biet (xem muc 6.3).
In most cases, naming ionic compounds involves simply naming both ions. A huge
majority of ionic compounds are made up of one type of cation plus one type of anion.
Thus, to name most ionic compounds, we name the cation first and then the anion. The
more difficult part of the process is learning to name cations and anions themselves.
The charges on the ions allow us to deduce the formula from the nam e of a com
pound, even though the numbers of each type of ion are not stated in the name. Writ
ing formulas for ionic compounds requires deducing how many of each type of ion must
be present to have a neutral compound (see Section 5.2).
Naming Cations
You learned in Chapter 5 that some metals always form monatomic ions having
one given charge in all their compounds. In this book, we will call this type of ion the
constant type. Other metals form monatomic ions with different charges (see Figure
5.11). W e will call this type the variable type. There are also some polyatomic cations,
but only two of these are important for this course. Thus, the first step in naming a
cation is to decide which of these three types it is: poly-atomic, constant type, or vari
able type. W e name them in different ways.
Polyatomic cations
Only two polyatomic cations are important at this point. The am m onium ion (N H /) is
very important and the mercury(l) ion (H g /*) is fairly important. Others may be introduced later.
170
Topic 6: N om enclature
Naming Anions
Just as for cations, there are three types of anions for nam ing purposes. M ona
tom ic anions are easy to nam e A second type, oxoanions, are anions that contain
o xyge n c o v a le n tly b o n de d to a n o th e r elem ent. Table 6.3 p re s e n ts som e im p o rta n t
o xoanions in a fo rm a t d e sig n e d to m ake th eir nam es e a sie r to learn. S e vera l o the r
im portant anions, referred to as special anions in this book, are listed in Table 6.4.
Monatomic Anions
All m onatom ic anions are nam ed by changing the ending of the e le m e n t’s name
to -/'de. For exam ple. I . H , and 0 ? are called iodide ion, hydride ion, and oxide ion,
resp ective ly (The nam es of a few special anions also end in -ide; am ong the m ost
im portant are hydroxide and cyanide ions, listed in Table 6.4.) The charge on any m ona
tom ic anion is co n sta n t and, except for that on H \ equal to the classica l group num ber
m inus 8 (see Figure 5.11).
"T h e ions do not exist w h ere there are spaces in the table.
171
Topic 6: N otnenclature
Oxoanions
In many important anions, oxygen atoms are covalently bonded to a central atom.
These ions have extra electrons from some source, which give them their negative
charges. They are called oxoanions but were formerly known as oxyanions. For the
seven most important oxoanions, the name is that of the root of the central element
with the ending -ate added. They are listed in the third column of Table 6 3. Once
you learn the names and formulas of these ions, you can deduce the formulas of the
corresponding ions with fewer or more oxygen atoms. Ions ending in -He have one
fewer oxygen atom than the corresponding -ale ions. In some cases, removal of two
oxygen atoms from an ion ending in -ate results in an ion nam ed with the prefix hypo-
anti the ending -ite. Addition of one oxygen atom to an ion with the ending -ate yields
an ion named with the prefix per- and the ending -ate. Note in Table 6.3 that all the
ions with a given central atom have the same charge. Note also that the charges are
all odd for ions with a central elem ent from an odd-num bered periodic group and all
even for ions with a central elem ent from an even-num bered periodic group (see Fig
ure 5.13).
OH Hydroxide
CN Cyanide
o, Peroxide
C r0 4 2 Chromate
Cr 2 0 72- dichromate
M n 0 44 Permanganate
c 2 h 3o 2 Acetate
Special anions
Other important anions that don't fit into the prior two categories are called spe
cial anions in this book. They are listed in Table 6.4. Nam es for anions that contain
oxygen but are not included in Table 6.3 may sometimes be determined because of a
periodic relationship between their central element and that of an ion in that table For
example. M n 0 4~ is analogous to C IO / because both central elements are in periodic
groups numbered VII. Its name is permanganate, which is analogous to perchlorate.
Similarly, C r 0 42~ and S 0 42 both have central atoms that are in periodic groups num
bered VI. The name of C r 0 42~ is chromate, analogous to sulfate. (Not all such analo
gies are valid, however.)
S n a p s h o t R e v ie w - On tap nhanh
*■ C ations are nam ed first, then anions.
*" Learning the types of cations and anions enables you to choose the proper
name endings for them
You must learn not only the rules, but when to use each o n e1
•- The proper formulas must be written according to the rules presented in Chapter 5.
172
Topic 6: N om enclature
Cdc dien tich tren cdc ion cho phep chiing ta suy ra cdng thiic tu tin goi cua mot
hqp chat, mac du sd luqng cua tdng loqi ion khdng ditqc cho biet trong tin goi. Viec viet
cdc cdng thiic cho cdc hqp chat ion ddi hoi phdi suy ra duqc va cd bao nhieu ion cua mdi
loai cdn phdi hien dien de cd ditqc mot hqp chdt trung hda (xem phan 5.2).
173
Topic 6: N om enclature
Cac oxoanion
T rong nhieu anion quan trqng. cac nguyen td oxy duqc lien ket cdng hda tri ten mdt
n guyen td tru n g tdm. S l i d n g ion nay cd ten cdc electron td m o t so n g u o n , k h ien cho
cluing cd dien tich dm. C h u n g duqc g oi la cdc oxoanion n h u n g trudc d dy curig d u q c goi
Id oxyanion. D oi vdi bay oxoanion quan tron g nhdt. ten cua clu in g la g o c cu a n g u y en td
trung tdm c o n g th em vdi duoi ate. N h d n g oxoanion ndy d u q c h e t ke tr o n g cot t h u ba
cua bang 6.3. M ot khi ban da hoc ten va c o n g thde cua n h d n g ion nay, ban co the suy ra
cdng thde cdc ion tuang dng co so nguyen td oxy it hon hay n lu eu hon. Cdc ion tan cu ng
bdng ite cd it han mdt n guyen td oxy so vdi cdc ion ate tuang dng. T ro n g m ot sc truang
hqp, viec loqi bo bdt hai n g u y en td oxy td mdt ion cd d u o i-a te tao ra m o t ion cd ten g o i
vdi tiep ddu n g d hypo- vd co dudi la ite. V iec th em m o t n g u y en td o xy vdo m o t ion cd
174
Topic 6: N om enclature
duoi Id ate cho ra mot ion co ten goi co tiep ddu ngd la per- vd cd dudi la ate. Chu y
trong b an g 6.3 tdt cd cdc ion vdi mot nguyen tii trung tdm cho trade deu cd cung mot
dien tich. Cung chu y Id cdc dien tich deu la le doi vdi cdc ion cd nguyen to trung tdm tit
mot nhdm le cua bdng tudn hodn vd tdt cd deu la chdn doi vdi cdc ion cd nguyen td
trung tdm ta mot nhdm chin trong bdng tudn hoan.
Naming Acids
C om pounds nam ed as acids do not include the word hydrogen in the nam e. The
word add im plies the p re se n ce of hydrogen.
A cids are nam ed by rep la cing the ending of the related anion by an ending in
cluding the w ord acid, as follow s:
Name of anion Name of acid
175
Topic 6: Nomenclature
If the acid is a binary hydrogen com pound, including HF. HCI. HBr, HI. and H2S,
the pure com pound is nam ed as if hydrogen w ere an alkali m etal For e xam ple , pure
HCI is nam ed hydrogen chloride, and H2S is nam ed hydrogen sulfide w ith no prefixes
for either e le m ent in e ithe r case. W hen the hydrogen halides are d is s o lv e d in water,
they are usually nam ed as acids. Thus HCI in w ater is referred to as h y d ro c h lo ric acid.
176
Topic 6: N om enclature
• Hydro ditoc viet trudc trong cong thiic cua cdc acid, nhung trong ten ciia chung
khdng cd td hydrogen.
• Cdc acid cd lien quan vdi cdc anion; doi vdi moi nguyen tii hydro diiqc bdi di
khoi cdng tliiic cua mot acid, thi cd mot dien tich dm duoc them vdo trong anion
diiqc tqo thanh.
• Ten acid vd cdc anion cung cd lien quan vdi nhau:
177
Topic 6: N om enclature
de tqo thanh cdc ion trong dung dich. Nhilng nguyen tii hydro phan ling vdi nUdc de tqo
thanh ion duqc goi la cdc nguyen tii hydro co the ion hoa. Cong thiic ciia cdc acid cd cdc
nguyen tii hydro co the ion hoa duqc biet trddc. Trong phdn ddu cua cdc gido trinh, tat
cd cdc hqp chdt (ngoai trii nude vd hydrogen peroxide) vdi hydro duqc viet trudc la cdc
acid. Nhu vay, HCI la mot acid vdi mot nguyen tii hydro co the ion hda tren phdn tii vd
HJSOj la mot acid vdi hai nguyen tii hydro cd the ion hda tren phdn tii. CHf vd NH3
khong phdi la cdc acid, (trong thiic te, N H , cd tac dung nhu mot base trong dung dich
niidc). Noi cdch khdc, sii xuat hien cua hydro d trudc trong cdng thiic khdng phdi la duqc
diia vdo vi tri tuang doi cua hydro trong bdng phdn loai tudn hodn nhu dot vdi cdc
nguyen to khdc, md chi la de chi chdt hqp chdt dd no cd phai la mot acid hay khdng.
-ate ic acid
Luu y rdng neu anion cd tiep ddu ngd hypo- liodc per-, thi acid cung cd tiep ddu ngd dd.
Neu acid la mot hqp chdt hydro hai chdt, bao gom HF, HCI, HBr, H I vd HJS, hqp
chat tinh khiet duqc goi ten nhu Id hydro la mot kim loai kiem. Vi du, HCI tinh khiet
duqc goi la hydrogen chloride, vd H d i i q c goi ten la hydrogen sufide, khdng cd cdc tiep
ddu ngd cho bdt cd nguyen td ndo trong bdt cd trudng hqp ndo. Khi cdc hydrogen halide
duqc hda tan bdi nude, chung thudng duqc goi ten nhu cdc acid. Do dd HCI trong nUdc
duqc goi la hydrochloric acid.
178
Topic 6: N om enclature
5 1) Naming and writing formulas for hydrates is easy. W e simply name the compound
first and then combine a Table 6 1 prefix that identifies the number of water molecules
with the word hydrate to indicate the presence of the water molecules. For example,
C u S 0 4. 5 H ?0 is called copper(ll) sulfate pentahydrate If we wish to emphasize that
no water is attached. C u S 0 4 may be called anhydrous copper(ll) sulfate
• Cdc hydrate la cdc hgp chat co ndac gdn vao - chung duac goi ten vdi tiep ddu
ngd td ba n g 6.1 gdn them vao td hydrate de chi so luang phan td ndac.
A. Goi ten CrPOr 2H O.
B V iet co n g thde ciia barium iod id e diliydrate
Hydrate
Hydrate la nhdng liap chdt ket tinh ben gom co cac hap chdt ben khac cung vcn mot
so luang phdn td nuac duac gan vdo (muc 5.1). Duac goi ten vd viet cong thde cua hydrate
kha de. Ta chi can goi ten hap chdt trudc vd sau do ket hap vdi mot tiep ddu ngd trong
ban g 6.1 de chl ra so phdn td nUdc vdi td hydrate de chi sd hien dien cua cdc phdn td
nude. Vi du, C u S O ,.5 H Q duac goi la dong (ID sulfate pentahydrate. Neu ta muon nhan
manh Id khong cd ndac ddac gan vdo, CuSO, cd the ddac goi la anhydrous dong(II) sufate.
6.1 W hat is the d iffe re n ce in the m eanings of the prefixes fc>/-and di- (as used in this
chapter)?
6.2 W hich m etals form cations of the constant ty p e 7 W hat are the charges on these
cations?
6.3 Use the Table of E lem ents on the inside of the back cover, if necessary, to name
each of the follow ing
(a) NO (b) No (c) Hf (d) HF
6 4 W hat are the rules for rem em bering the charges on (a) m onatom ic anions and
(b) oxoanions?
6.5 C lassify each of the follow ing as ionic or covalent, and nam e each:
(a) CaO (b) N 0 2 (c) CoO (d) Lil
6 .6 W hat is the d iffe re n ce betw een S 0 3 and S O / ' ? Nam e each one
6 7 C lassify the m etal in each of the follow ing com pounds as co nsta nt type or v a ri
able type, and then nam e each com pound:
179
Topic 6: N om enclature
6.10 (a) W hat is the difference between hydrogen ion and hydride ion?
(b) Explain why H* is called the hydrogen ion rather than the hydrogen(l) ion,
even though hydrogen can form two different ions.
6.11 Write formulas for (a) sulfide ion, (b) sulfate ion, and (c) sulfite ion.
6.16 W hat is the difference between the two names for HBr: hydrogen bromide and
hydrobromic acid?
6.18 Nam e each m em ber of the following pairs, and compare the names:
(a) HCI (pure) and NaCl
(b) H2S (pure) and N a2S
180
Topic 6: N om enclature
6.28 Explain why chemists often refer to Cl" as “chloride" (without the word ion) but
do not refer to Na* as “sodium" (without the word ion).
181
Topic 6: N om enclature ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________ _______________________
6 34 W rite the form ula for each of the follow ing ions:
(a) N itrate ion (b) C hlorate ion
(c) D ichrom ate ion (d) Phosphate ion
(e) C yanide ion (f) H ypobrom ite ion
6.35 N am e each of the follow ing anions:
(a) S O /- (b) P O /* (c) S O / '
6.36 N am e each of the fo llo w in g com pounds:
(a) A 1 j(S 0 4)3 (b) C u 3(P 0 4)2 (c) (N H 4) 2S0 4
6.37 N am e each of the follow ing anions:
(a) C rO /- (b) C 2H 30 ?- (c) C r 20 / '
(d) M n 0 4 (e )O /- (f) CN-
6.38 N am e each of the follow ing com pounds:
(a) C u2S (b) CuO
6.39 N am e each of the follow ing com pounds:
(a) F e S 0 4 (b) N iS 0 4 (c) (N H 4) 2S0 4
6.40 W rite the form ula for each of the follow ing com pounds:
(a) N icke l(ll) oxide (b) C o b a lt(lll) sulfate
(c) M agnesium hydroxide (d) C o p p e r(ll) chlorate
(e) Lithium cyanide (f) A m m onium ca rbonate
6.41 W rite the form ula for each of the follow ing com pounds:
(a) B arium p eroxide (b) G o ld (lll) acetate
(c) N ickel(ll) chloride (d) C opper(H ) oxide
(e) A lu m in um carbonate (f) A m m onium sulfide
6.42 C om p le te the fo llo w in g table by w ritin g the fo rm u la for each ion ic com pound
w hose cation is given on the left and w hose anion is g iven at the top:
N itrate S u lfa te A c e ta te P h o sp h a te
A m m o n iu m ______ ____________ _____________ _______
Iro n (ll) ______ _____ _______ _____ _______ _______
C h ro m iu m (lll) ______ _____ _______ _____ _______ _____________
T in (IV ) ______ _____ _______ _____ _______ ______
6.43 C om p le te the fo llo w in g table by w ritin g the fo rm u la for each ionic co m pound
w hose cation is given on the left and w hose anion is given at the top
C hloride H ypochlorite P h osp h ate
S odium ______ _______ _______
C h ro m iu m (ll) _______ ______ _______
Iro n (lll) ______ _______ _______
I 82
Topic 6: N om enclature
6.45 An instru ctor tells the students in a class that Na* is the only stable ion of so
dium and that N aJ* cannot be prepared in a solid. W hat nam e should the in
structor use for N a?*?
6 46 C o m p le te the fo llo w in g table by w riting the fo rm u la for each ionic com pound
w hose cation is given on the left and whose anion is given at the top:
S u lfate D ihydrogen
S u lfa te Hydrogen Phosphate
V a na d iu m (H ) ______ ______ ______
Iron(HI) ______ ______ ______
C alcium ______ ______ ______
S ilver _______ ______ ______
6.47 W hat is the d ifferen ce betw een the nam es phosphorus and phosphorous?
6.48 W hat is the d ifferen ce betw een hypobrom ous acid and hydrobrom ic acid?
6.49 W hat is the d ifferen ce betw een iodic acid and h ydroiodic acid?
6.53 C la ssify each of the fo llo w in g as an acid, an acid salt, or a regular salt, and
nam e each:
(a) H 2S 0 4 (b) N a 2S 0 4 (c) N a H S 0 4
6.54 N am e each of the follow ing com pounds as an acid and also as a binary c o m
pound of nonm etals:
(a) HI (b) H2S (c ) HCI
6.4 H ydrates
6.56 W rite the fo rm u la fo r (a) iro n (ll) sulfate m on oh ydrate and (b) barium brom ide
d ih ydra te
6.57 S e lect all of the follow ing com pounds that should be nam ed using the prefixes
of T able 6 1. that should be nam ed with Rom an num erals, and that should have
n ei-ther. N am e each.
(a) KOH (b) Z n C 0 3 (c) PCI3
(d) C o (N 0 3)2 (e) N a2S (f) C 0 2
6.58 N am e each of the follow ing:
(a) H 2S 0 3 (b) N a 2S 0 3 (c) S O /-
183
Topic 6: N om enclature
(d) S 0 3 (e) N iS O j
6.59 N am e (a) C uO and (b) C u 20 .
6.62 W hich of the follow ing pure com pounds have co valen t bonds only?
C02 H2S n 2o N H ,C 2H 30 2 C oF 3
6.63 C om plete the follow ing table by w riting the form ula and nam e of each com pound
form ed from an anion at the top and a cation on the left:
no 3- so /- po 43-
A m m o n iu m _______ ______ _______
N ickel(H) _______ ______ _______
V a n a d iu m (H I) _______ ______ ______
6.64 C om plete the follow ing table by w riting the form ula and nam e of each com pound
form ed from an anion at the top and a cation on the left:
C arbonate C hlorate A rsenate
N i2* ----------- ----------- -----------
Pt?. -------------------------------- ---------------------
184
Topic 6: N om enclature
6.73 W hich of the follow ing com pounds have acid properties?
nh3 hno3 k h 2p o 4 khso3 ch4
6.74 W rite fo rm u la s fo r (a) m a n g a n e s e (ll) m o n o h y d ro g e n p h o s p h a te and (b)
m a n g a n e se (ll) dihydrogen phos-phate.
6.75 W rite fo rm u la s fo r the fo llo w in g ions, as w ell as fo rm u la s and nam es for the
co rresp on din g acids and an-ions (with no hydrogen):
(a) H ydrogen su lfid e ion
(b) D ihydrogen phosphate ion
(c) H ydrogen sulfate ion
(d) H ydrogen carbonate ion
6.76 G ive a m ore m odern nam e for each of the follow ing
(a) Sodium bica rb o na te (b) C obaltic chloride
(c) N ickelous sulfate (d) C hrom ic oxide
6.77 W rite the fo rm u la fo r potassium bisulfide.
6.79 W rite fo rm u la s fo r hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen sulfide ion, and h ydrosulfuric acid.
6.84 N am e (a) B a 0 2 and (b) S n 0 2 (Hint: Peroxide ion gen -e ra lly exists only in c o m b i
nation w ith m etals in the form of th eir ion of highest charge.)
6.86 N am e and w rite fo rm u la s for the ions in (a) Li?S and (b) H g 2S.
6 89 Identify the type of substance, using the follow ing sym bols. T hen w rite form ulas
for each
185
Topic 6: N om enclature
6.94 Identify the type of su bstance using the sym bols of P roblem 6 89. and w rite the
form ula for each.
(a) Potassium p erm anganate
(b) Sodium peroxide
(c) Iro n (lll) d ichrom ate
(d) C o p p e r(ll) acetate
(e) B arium hydrogen carbonate
(f) S ulfur trioxide
I 86
Topic 6: N om enclature
187
Topic 6: N om enclature
6.104 From Figure 6 4, give the route by w hich you w ould nam e (a) C r( C IO j . (b) ICI .
and (c) (N H 4) 2C rO d.
6.105 (a).A zid e ion has the form ula N 3~. W rite the fo rm u la fo r the c o rre s p o n d in g acid,
(b) W hat is the nam e of that acid? (Hint: Add the le t-te r o to the stem )
6.106 If oxalate ion is C 20 4?‘ . w hat are the form ula and nam e of its p a re n t acid?
188
Topic 6: N om enclature
189
ATOMS AND ATOMIC
n g u y £ n ti)
VIA KHO'I LUQIiG NGUYEN TLT
7 .4 To d e te rm in e th e e m p iric a l fo rm u la
fro m p e rc e n t c o m p o s itio n or o th e r
m a s s -ra tio d a ta
7 .5 To d e te rm in e th e m o le c u la r fo rm u la
fro m p e rc e n t c o m p o s itio n and m o
lecu lar m ass d a ta o r fro m th e e m p ir i
cal fo rm u la and m o le c u la r m ass data.
7.1 Tinh khoi luang cdng thiic, 7.2 Tinh thanh phan phan tram theo khoi luang tit
cong thiic cua hqp chdt, 7.3 Sit dung dai luang hda hqc ca ban moi de thuc hien cdc
phep tinh duac thudn tien, 7.4 Xac dinh cong thiic thuc nghiem tu thanh phan phdn
tram hay cdc sd lieu ti sd khoi luqng khdc, 7.5 Xdc dinh cdng thiic phdn tii tu thanh
phdn phdn tram vd cac sd lieu khoi luqng phdn tii hay ti/ cdng thiic thuc nghiem i a cdc
so lieu khoi luang phdn tu
7.1 Khoi luqng cdng thiic, 7.2 Thanh phdn phdn tram, 7.3 Moi. 7.4 Cong thuc thuc
nghiem, 7.5 Cdng thiic phdn tii
190
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic
The m eaning of a ch em ica l form ula was discussed in C hapter 5, and you learned how
to in te rp re t fo rm u la s in term s of the num bers of atom s of each e le m ent per form ula
unit. In this chapter, you w ill learn how to calculate the n um ber of gram s of each ele
m ent in any given q ua ntity of a com pound from its form ula and to do other ca lcu la
tions invo lvin g form ulas. Form ula m asses are presented in S ection 7 1, and percent
com position is considered in Section 7.2. Section 7 3 discusses the m ole - the basic
chem ical qua ntity of any substance. M oles can be used to count atom s, m olecules, or
ions and to ca lcu late the m ass of any known num ber of form ula units of a substance.
Section 7.4 show s how to use relative m ass data to determ ine e m pirical form ulas, and
the m ethod is extended to m olecular form ulas in Section 7 5
B ecause each sym bo l in a form ula represents an atom, which has a given aver-age
atom ic m ass, the fo rm u la as a w hole represents a co lle ction of atom s w ith a given
form ula m ass The fo rm u la m a ss (also called fo rm u la w e ig h t) is the sum of the atom ic
m asses of all atom s of e ve ry e le m e n t (not m erely each type of atom ) in a form ula
unit. In general, form ula m asses should be calculated to as m any sign ifican t digits as
are given in any data p resented in a problem . For m any calculations of this type, no
data are given in the sta te m e n t of the prob-lem , and at least three sig n ifica n t digits
should be used in values from the periodic table. For exam ple, we can calculate the
form ula m ass for fo rm a ld eh yde , C H 20 , as follows:
Number of
I9 l
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic
The three types of formula masses correspond to the three types of formula units:
(1) atomic masses (also called atomic weights), (2) molecular masses (also called mo
lecular weights), and (3) formula massed for ionic compounds (also called formula
weights) The term atomic mass may be used whether an atom is com bined or not,
but it always refers to the mass of one atom of an element.
S n a p s h o t R evie w - O n ta p n h a n h
*- The formula mass atomic mass for atoms, molecular mass for molecules, and
formula mass for ionic substances is merely the sum of the atomic masses of
every atom in the formula unit.
A. Calculate the formula mass for each of the following substances and state which
is an atomic mass, which is a molecular mass, and which is neither: (a) CO,
(b) Co, and (c) C o C 0 3.
• Khoi luqng cong thilc - la khoi luqng nguyen tii doi vai cdc nguyen til, khoi
luqng phdn til doi vdi cdc phdn til vd khoi luqng cong thilc doi vcri cdc hqp chdt
ion - chl dan gian la tong cdc khoi luqng nguyen til ciia tUng nguyen til trong
dan vi cong tliiic.
A. Tinh khoi luqng cong thilc ciia nhdng chdt sau ddy va cho biet khoi luqng ndo Id
khoi luqng nguyen til, khoi luqng ndo la klidi luqng phdn til va khoi luqng ndo
khong phai la cd hai: (a) CO, (bi Co vd (c) CoC O t
K h o i lu d n g c a c c o n g thufc
V i moi ky hieu trong mot cong thilc bieu dien cho mot nguyen til, nguyen til nay co
mot khoi luqng nguyen til trung binh, todn bo cong thilc bieu dien cho mot tdp hap cua cdc
nguyen til vdi khoi luqng cong thiic dd cho. Khdi luqng cdng thilc (con dilqc goi la trong
luqng cdng thiic) la tong cdc khoi luqng nguyen til ciia tdt cd cdc nguyen til ciia mdi nguyen
td (khdng chi la cua mot loai nguyen til) trong dan vi cdng thuc. Noi chung cdc khoi luang
cdng thuc cdn duac tinh vdi nhieu chil sd cd y nghla nhu dd duac cho trong dil lieu ciia bai
toan. Ddi vdi nhieu phep tinh loai ndy, khdng cd cdc sd lieu duqc cho trudc trong de bdi, vd
it nhdt phai sii dung ba chd so cd y nghla trong cdc gia tri tu bdng phdn loai tudn hoan.
So nguyen tu
tren mot dan vi Khoi luang
cdng thilc nguyen til
1C 1 \ 1 2 .0 a m u = 12 0 a m u
2 H 2 x 1 0 1 a m u - 2 0 2 a m u
10 1 x 16 0 a m u - 16 0 a m u
192
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic
Vi du ta cd the tinh khoi luang cong thilc cua formaldehyde C H f i nhu sau:
Khdi luqng cong thilc - 30.0 amu vi cdch tinh khoi luqng cdng thilc chu yeu la viec
cong hai hay nhieu con sd, cdc con sd duqc cdng, duac lam tron den cung cdc sd le thdp
phdn, hai nguyen til H trong bdi todn d tren phdi duqc lam tron Id 2.0 amu. Neu nhdn
tri/ac thi cd the dnh hudng den sd sd le md ban cdn gitl trong cdc khoi luqng nguyen td.
Cd ba loqi khdi luqng cdng thiic tuang Ung vdi ba loai dan vi cdng thilc: (1) Khdi
luqng nguyen til (cdn goi la trong luqng nguyen til) (2) khoi luqng phdn til (cdn goi la
trong luqng phdn td) (3) khdi luqng cdng thiic cho cdc hqp chat ion (cdn goi la trong
luqng cdng thilc). Thuat ngU khdi luqng nguyen td cd the duqc sd dung cd khi nguyen td
cd duqc ket hqp hay khdng, nhung no ludn ludn chi khoi luong cua mot nguyen td cua
mot nguyen to.
If we know the total m ass of each elem ent in a form ula unit and we also know
the m ass of the entire form ula unit, we can calculate the p e rc e n t c o m p o s itio n of the
com pound. W e sim p ly divide the total m ass of each elem ent by the total m ass of the
form ula unit and m u ltip ly each q u o tie n t by 100% to co n ve rt it to a percen ta ge . T o
gether, all the p ercen ta ge s constitute the percent com position.
S n a p s h o t R e v ie w - O n ta p n h a n h
*■ The p ercentage of an elem ent in a com pound is 100% tim es the ratio of the
m ass of the e le m e n t divided by the form ula m ass. The percen t com position
of the co m pound is the percentages of all the elem ents
*- It does not m atter if the com pound is covalent or ionic.
A. C alculate the p e rce n t com position of each of (a) ethyl alcohol, C?H 60 . and (b)
fo rm a ld eh yde . C H 20 .
• Phdn tram cua mot nguyen td trong mot hqp chdt la 100 % nhdn vdi ti sd giila
khoi luqng ciia nguyen td chia cho khoi luqng cdng thilc. Thanh phdn phdn tram
cua hqp chdt la cdc ti le phdn tram cua tdt cd cdc nguyen td.
• Viec hqp chdt do la hqp chdt cong hda tri hay hqp chdt ion khong dnh hudng gi
den phep tinh.
A Tinh thanh phdn phdn tram cda (a) ethyl alcohol C J l f i vd (b) formaldehyde
C H fi
193
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic
The a tom ic m ass unit (am u) is an e xtre m ely sm all unit, s u ita b le fo r m easuring
m asses of individual atom s and m olecules. H ow ever, to m ea sure m a sse s on labora
tory b alances takes a huge n um ber of atom s, m olecules, or fo rm u la units. Chem ists
have to w eigh a large collection of form ula units, so that the total m ass is m easurable
on a laboratory balance (Try to w eigh one grain of rice on a scale d e sig n e d to weigh
people, and you w ill get an inkling of the problem of m easuring the m ass of one atom
or m olecule. See Figure 3.7.)
The m ole (ab b re via te d m oi) is the standard ch e m ic a l unit used to m ea sure the
quantity of a substance. A m ole is defined as the n um be r of ' 2C atom s in exactly 12 g
of 12C. The m ole is equal to 6.02 21 3 67 x 10 23 particles. T hu s the m ole is a number,
essentially like a dozen, e xcep t very m uch larger This n um be r is about the num ber of
grains of sand that w ould fit into a sphere the size of the Earth. (See P roblem 2.146.)
This n um ber is know n as A vo ga d ro 's num ber. You should rem e m b e r the value of this
num ber to at least three sig n ifica n t digits.
A vo g a d ro ’s n um be r w as set at 6.0221367 x 10 23 so that the a tom ic m ass of each
elem ent and the n u m b e r of gram s per m ole of that e le m e n t have the sa m e numeric
value, although in d iffe re n t units. The atom ic m ass of l2C is 12.00 am u. and that same
n um ber is the n um be r of gram s per m ole of l2C. The fo rm u la m ass of any compound
or e le m e n t is also e qu al to its n u m b e r of g ra m s p e r m ole T he fo rm u la m ass of a
substance in units of gram s per m ole is often called the m olar m ass of the substance.
(M olar m ass can be a bbreviated MM.)
The ch em ica l fo rm u la for a com pound gives the ratio of atom s of each elem ent in
the co m p ou nd to a tom s of e ve ry o th e r e le m e n t in the co m p o u n d . It a lso g ive s the
ratio of dozens of atom s of each ele m e n t in the com pound to d ozens of atom s of ev
ery other e le m e n t in the com pound. M oreover, it gives the ratio of m oles of atom s of
each elem ent in the co m pound to moles of atom s of e very o th e r e le m e n t in the com
pound For exam ple, a given q uantity of H ,0 has 2 moi of H atom s fo r e ve ry m ole of
O atom s, and a g ive n q u a n tity of N H 3 has 1 m oi of N a tom s fo r e v e ry 3 m oi of H
atom s. The m ole ratio from the form ula can be used as a fa cto r to c o n v e rt from moles
of any e le m e n t in the fo rm u la to m oles of any o the r e le m e n t or to m oles o f the for
mula unit as a w hole. In Figure 7 2. these additional c o n ve rsio n s have been added to
those already presented in Figure 7.1
The percent com position of a com pound can be calculated in te rm s of m olar masses
instead of form ula m asses.
Mol
Dan i’i khoi luong nguyen tu <amu) la mot dan vi cuc nho. thich hap cho n e e do
luang nhilng khdi luang cua cdc nguyen tii va cdc nguyen tu rieng biet Tu\ nhien. nhilng
khoi luang do luang trong phong thi nghiem cd mdt sd rat Idn cdc ngu\en tu phdn til
hay dan vi cong thuc
194
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic
Cdc nha hoa hqc phai cdn mot tap hqp Ion cdc don vi cong thde sao cho tong
khoi luqng la cd the do duqc trong phong thi nghiem (Ban thii cdn mot hat gao
tren mot edi cdn ddnh de cdn ngudi va ban se cd y m em ve van de do ludng khoi
luqng cua mot nguyen til hay mot phdn til) xem hinh 3.7).
M ole (viet tdt moi) la dan vi hoa hqc tieu chuan duac sii dung de do ludng luong
cua mot chdt, mot moi duqc dinh nghia nhu so nguyen tii l2C trong 12g c h in h xac cua
l2C. M ot moi bdng vdi 6 ,0 2 2 1 3 6 7 x 1023 hat. Do do moi la mot con sd, chu yeu cung
nhu con sd mot chuc, chi khdc la no Idn hon rdt nhieu. Con sd ndy bdng khodng so hat
cat xep V i l a tren mot hinh cdu co kich thudc bdng trdi ddt (xem b a i ta p 2.146) Con sd
ndy duqc goi la sd Avogadro. Ban phdi nhd gid tri cua con sd ndy vdi it nhdt la 3 chil
sd co y nghla.
Sd Avogadro duqc xdc dinh la 6,0221367 x 1023 sao cho khdi luqng nguyen td cua
mdi nguyen td vd sd gam tinh tren moi cua nguyen td dd cd cung mot gia tri sd, nhung
vdi cdc don vi khdc nhau. Khdi luqng nguyen til cua l2C la 12,00 amu vd con sd ndy
cung Id sd gam tinh tren moi cua ,2C. Khdi luqng cong thilc cua mot hqp chdt hay nguyen
td bdt ky cung deu bdng vdi sd gam cua hqp chdt hay nguyen td dd tinh tren moi. Khoi
luqng cdng thilc cua mot chdt tinh bdng don vi gam tren moi thudng duqc goi la khdi
luqng moi cua chat (khdi luqng moi cd the duqc viet tdt Id MM).
Cdng tliilc hda hqc cua mot chdt cho ta biet ti sd cdc nguyen til cua cung nguyen td
trong hqp chdt so vdi sd nguyen tu cua tdng nguyen td khdc trong hqp chdt. No cung cho
biet ti so cua sd chuc nguyen td cua ti/ng nguyen td trong hqp chdt so vdi sd chuc nguyen til
cua ti/ng nguyen td khdc trong hap chdt. Hqn nda, no cho biet ti sd moi cua nguyen tii cua
ti/ng nguyen td trong hqp chdt so vdi sd moi ciia cdc nguyen ti/ cua tdng nguyen td khdc
trong hqp chdt. Vi du, mot li/ang xdc dinh cua H.,0 cd 2 moi nguyen tit H ddi vdi mot thdi
moi nguyen td O; mot khoi luqng xdc dinh cua NH } cd 1 moi nguyen til N ddi vdi 3 moi
nguyen til H. Ti sd moi trong cdng thi/c cd the duqc sit dung nhu mot he sd de chuyen doi
td so moi cua bdt cd nguyen td nao trong cdng thde thanh sd moi cua bdt cd nguyen to ndo
khdc hay thanh so moi cua cd dcm vi cdng thde. Trong h in h 7.2 la nhdng phep chuyen doi
bo sung duac them vdo nhdng chuyen doi dd duac gidi thieu trong h in h 7.1.
Thanh phdn phdn tram cua mot hqp chdt cd the duqc tinh todn bdng cdc khdi luang
moi thay cho cdc khoi luqng cdng thde.
S n a p s h o t R eview - O n ta p n h a n h
*- The m ole is A vo ga d ro 's num ber of form ula unitsequal to 6 02 X 10 23 units.
*- A m ole of a su bsta nce has a mass (in gram s) equal to its form ula m ass, called
the molar mass, w hich can be used as a factor in solving problem s
A A m ole of a su bsta nce with form ula m ass 84.5 amu has (a) how m any form ula
units? (b) w hat m ass?
B C alculate the m ass of 7 00 moi of the am ino acid glycine, C ^KN O ^.
C. C alculate the n um ber of m olecules in 7.00 moi of glycine.
• Moi la sd Avogsdro cua cac don vi cdng thde bdng 6.02 x 1023 don vi.
• M ot moi cua mdt chdt cd khoi h/qng tinh bdng (gram) bdng khdi luqng cdng
thde cua chdt do. di/qc goi la khoi luqng moi; khoi luang moi duqc sii dung nhu
la yeu td de giai cac bai todri.
A. M ot moi cua mot chdt cd khdi h/qng cdng thde la 84.5 amu cd (a) bao nhieu dan
vi cdng thde? >b) khoi luqng Id bao nhieu?
195
Topic 7: Atoms and atomic_____________________________ ________________
B. Tinh khoi lilgng cua 7,00 moi cua amino acid glycine, C
C. Tinh so phan tit trong 7.00 moi glycine.
The empirical formula of a compound is the formula that gives the lowest whole-
number ratio of atoms of all the elements. For example, the empirical formula of the
simple sugar fructose, C6H 120 6, is C H 20 . The simplest ratio of carbon to hydrogen to
oxygen atoms in fructose is 1 to 2 to 1. An empirical formula always has the smallest
integral subscripts that give the correct ratio of atoms of the elements.
We can find the empirical formula from percent composition data. The empirical
formula represents a ratio; therefore, it does not depend on the size of the sample
under consideration. Because the empirical formula reflects a mole ratio, and percent
composition data are given in terms of mass, we have to con-vert the masses to moles.
We then convert the mole ratio, which is unlikely to be an integral ratio, to the small
est possible whole-number ratio, from which we write the empirical formula.
The steps we take to obtain an empirical formula from percent composition data
are given in the left column (Steps) that follows. In the right column (Exam ple), the
empirical formula of a compound containing 27.87% phospho-rus and 72 13% sulfur is
calculated.
We can obtain an empirical formula from mass data instead of a percent compo
sition.
Most ionic compounds such as NaBr, M gCI2, Al20 3, and N H 4C I0 3 are identified by
their empirical formulas, and such formulas are used for calcula-tions involving these
compounds. Compounds such as N a20 2, Hg2CI2, N a2C 20 4, and K2S 2Oa. having certain
polyatomic ions, are exceptions. For molecular substances, empirical formulas are used
as a basis in determining mo-lecular formulas, as described in the next section
C h u t h ic h tO - c u m t i f v a h i/crn g d a n d p c h ie u
Ta cd the tim ra cdng thiic thiic nghiem tii cdc so lieu thanh phdn phdn tram, cong
thilc thilc nghiem the hien mdt ti so. do vdy no khdng phu thuoc vdo kich cd cua mdu
196
Topic 7: Atoms and atomic
dang xem xet. Vi cong thilc thiic nghiem phdn dnh mot ti so moi, cdc so lieu thanh phan
phan tram dilqc cho d dang khoi luqng, ta phdi doi cdc so luqng thanh moi. TI so moi
chua chdc dd la mot tl so nguyen, sau do chung ta doi tl so ndy thanh tl so lay tron so
nhd nhdt co the duqc, tii do ta viet diiqc cong thiic thiic nghiem.
Cdc budc md ta thiic hien de co duqc cong thilc thiic nghiem til cdc so luqng
thanh phdn phdn trdm duqc cho trong cot ben trai (cdc budc) nhu sau. Trong cot ben
phdi (vi du) cong thilc thiic nghiem cua mot hop chdt co chUa 27.87% phosphorus vd
72.13 % sulfur duqc tinh.
Ta co the thu duqc cdng thilc thiic nghiem tii cdc so lieu so luqng thay cho thanh
phdn phdn trdm.
Phdn lan cdc hqp chdt ion nhu NaBr, MgClp A l20 } vd N H 4C103 diiqc xdc dinh bdi
cong thilc thiic nghiem cua chiing, vd nhilng cong thUc ndy dd duqc sii dung trong cdc
phep tinh co lien quan den cdc hqp chdt do. Nhilng hqp chdt nhu Na20 ? H gfilp Na2C f l 4
vd K fijO p co mot so ion nlueu nguyen til, la nhilng ngoai le. Doi vai cdc chdt phdn til,
cong thilc thiic nghiem duqc sii dung nhu cong thilc ca ban trong viec xdc dinh cdc cong
thUc phdn til, nhu duqc mo td trong doan tiep theo.
S n a p s h o t R eview - On ta p n h a n h
*■ An empirical formula— the simplest formula for a compound— is obtained from
the integral mole ratio of its elements.
•- To determine an empirical formula, calculate the number of moles of each el
ement in a sample (arbitrarily choose 100 g if percentages are given), divide
each of them by the smallest number of moles, and then multiply by some
integer if necessary to get integral numbers of moles.
A. Calculate the empirical formula of a compound consisting of 8 9.9 4% C and
10.06% H.
• M ot cong thUc thiic nghiem, la cong thilc dan gidn nhdt cua mot hqp chdt, co
duqc tii ti sd moi nguyen cua cdc nguyen to cua no.
• De xdc dinh mot cdng thUc thiic nghiem, hay tinh so moi cua tUng nguyen to
trong mdu (chon la lOOg neu dd biet cdc ti le phdn trdm), chia mdi so moi cua
chung cho so moi nhd nhat vd sau do nhan vdi mot so nguyen neu cdn thiet de
co duqc nhilng so moi nguyen.
A. Tinh cong thiic thiic nghiem cua mot hqp chdt cd chUa 89.949c C vd 10.06% H.
The m olecu lar form ula gives the number of atoms of each elem ent in one mol
ecule. This information includes (1) the ratio of atoms of each elem ent to atoms of
every other elem ent in a compound, (2) the ratio of atoms of each elem ent to mol
ecules of the compound, and (3) the corresponding mole ratios. For example, C 2H4
has a ratio of 2 moi of carbon atoms to 4 moi of hydrogen atoms, as well as a ratio of
2 moi of carbon atoms to 1 moi of C2H4 molecules. The molecular formula is always
an integral multiple (1. 2, 3, . . . ) of the empirical formula Thus, the molecular for
mula gives all the information that the empirical formula gives plus the ratio of the
number of moles of each element to moles of the compound. Molecular formulas can
be written only for com-pounds that exist in the form of molecules.
197
Topic 7: Atoms and atomic
Neu ta tinh thanh phdn phdn trdm cua C f l 4 vd C6H 6 (h in h 7.3) trang 195, ta se
thdy rang cd hai cd cung ti le phdn trdm cua carbon vd ti le phdn trdm cua hydro (so
sdnh vdi bdi tap 7.95 d cuoi chuang). Cd hai deu cd ciing m ot cdng thilc thuc nghiem
la - CH. Ket qud ndy cd nghia Id chung ta khdng the noi rdng hai hqp chdt ndy khdc
nhau vd chi dua vdo cdc sd lieu thanh phdn phan trdm. Tuy nhien, neu ta cd them
klioi luqng phdn til thi ta cd the sii dung thong tin ndy ciing vdi cdc sd lieu ve thanh
phdn phdn trdm de xdc dinh khdng chi cdng thilc tliUc nghiem md cdn cd cdng thilc
phdn til.
Cdng dung quan trong cua cdng thUc phdn til Id de xdc dinh cdc hap chdt phdn til.
Neu mot nhd hda hqc tach neng la duqc mot chdt cd ich tu mot nguon thuc vdt ha\ dong
vat, nhd hda hqc ndy muon biet cdng thilc de cd the san xuat hqp chat ndy trong phong
thi nghiem. San xuat ra mot hqp chdt thudng la thudn tien vd kinh te han la thu lay
hqp chdt dd til mot nguon tu nhien. M ot so vitamin vd penicilin Id nhilng vi du cua
nhilng hqp chdt nhu vdy.
198
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic
• Cdc cdng thiic phdn tii chl sii dung cho cdc hap chdt cdng hoa tri md thdi.
• Cdng thiic phdn tii co the duqc tinh til cong thiic thuc nghiem vd khdi luqng
phdn til bdng cdch chia khdi luqng phdn tii cho khdi litqng cua mot dan vi cong
thiic thilc nghiem. Phep chia nay cho ra sd dan vi cong thiic thilc nghiem tren
mot phdn tii.
A. Tinh cong thiic phdn tii cua mot hqp chdt co cong thiic thuc nghiem C H 2 vd cd
khdi luqng phdn tii la 154 amu.
B. Mot dang thu hinh cua phosphorus cd cdng thiic trong dd x Id mot sd nguyen
nhd. Khoi luqng phdn tii la 124 amu. Tinh cdng thuc phdn tii.
7.1 For each of the fo llo w in g, select the proper units from the follow ing list: amu,
gram s, gra m s/m o le .
(a) A tom ic m ass (b) M olecular mass
(c) M a ss(d ) F orm ula m ass
(e) M olar m ass
7.2 W hat sm all integ er should you m ultiply each of the fol-low ing ratios by to get a
w h o le -n u m b e r ratio? W hat ratio results in each case?
7.3 W hat sm all in te g e r should you m ultiply each of the fol-low ing ratios by to get a
w h o le -n u m b e r ratio? W hat ratio results in each case?
CH C 5H „ C 4H ,0 C 6H tJ C 9H ,s
c 3h 6 c ,h 5 c 5h , ? c 5h ,0 c 3h 6
7.7 W hat inform a tion do you need to determ ine each of the follow ing?
(a) A fo rm u la m ass (b) An em pirical form ula
(c) A m o le cu la r form ula
7.8 For this pro ble m , assum e that all the socks are identical.
(a) How m any pairs of socks are in 3 dozen pairs of socks?
199
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7.9
(a) How m any nitrogen m olecules are in 3.00 m oi of n i-trogen m olecules?
(b) How m any nitrogen atom s are in 3.00 moi of n itro-gen a to m s 7
(c) How m any nitrogen m olecules are in 3.00 moi of bonded nitrogen atoms?
(d) How m any nitrogen atom s are in 3.00 moi of n itro-gen m olecules?
(e) H ow m any m oles of n itro g e n m o le cu le s are in 3 .0 0 m oi o f b o n de d n itro
gen a tom s?
(f) How m any m oles of nitrogen atom s are in 3.00 m oi of nitrogen m olecules?
7.10
(a) W hich w eighs m orea dozen w aterm elon or a dozen grapes? W hich contains
the g re ate r n um ber of fruits?
(b) W hich w eighs m orea m ole of lead atom s or a m ole of lithium atom s? Which
contains m ore atom s?
7.11
(a) If a shirt box is 1 0 in. high, how m any feet high is a stack of a dozen shirt
boxes?
(b) If a shoe box is 5.0 in high, how m any feet high is a stack of a dozen shoe
boxes?
(c) If a hat box is 8 0 in. high, how m any feet high is a stack of a dozen hat
boxes?
(d) Explain your results.
7.12
(a) C om pare the m ass of a dozen socks rolled into pairs w ith the m ass of the
sam e socks unrolled.
(b) C om pa re the m ass of a dozen socks w ith the m ass o f a d oze n pairs of
socks.
(c) C om p a re the m ass of 1 00 m oi of n itrogen atom s w ith th a t of the same
atom s bonded into N 2 m ole-cules.
(d) C om pare the m ass of 1.00 moi of nitrogen atom s w ith that of 1 00 m oi of
nitrogen m olecules
7.13
(a) If a certa in atom has a m ass of 1 00 am u, w hat is the m ass in gram s of
1 0 0 m oi of these atom s?
(b) If a certain atom has a m ass of 132 9 amu w hat is the m ass in gram s of
1 00 moi of these a to m s 7
(c) If a certa in atom has a m ass of 74 9 amu w hat is the m ass n g^ams of
1 00 moi of these atom s?
(d) Explain your results
200
1\ ms-y
7.15 W hat is the m olar m ass of (a) a 4.00 moi sam ple of C 2H 60 ? (b) an 8.00 moi
sam ple of C 2H 60 ? (c) a 0.250 moi sam ple of C 2H 60 ?
7 16
(a) W h a t is the d iffe re n ce betw een the atom ic m ass of flu o rin e and the m o
lecu lar m ass of fluorine?
(b) W hy is the phrase “m olar m ass of flu orin e ” am bigu-ous?
(c) To w hat does "m olar m ass of fluorine gas" refer?
7.17 Is m olar m ass an intensive or extensive property?
7.18 C alculate the fo rm u la m ass of each of the follow ing to tw o decim al places twice,
first by rounding atom ic m asses and second by using the entire n um ber of s ig
nificant digits in the atom ic m asses and rounding the form ula mass:
(a) C 8H, (b) KCIO (c) BCL,
7.19 W hat co nve rsio n fa cto r(s) is (are) used to convert a m ass of a substance to a
n um ber of form ula units of that sub-stance?
7.20 W hich of the fo llo w in g su bsta nce s have m olecular m asses? W hich have m olar
m asses?
C aH j C 2H? N 2H 4 Kr
7.21 W hich of the follow ing substances have m olecular m asses? W hich have m olar
m asses?
P C I5 A l 20 3 (N H 4) 3P0 4 Na
7.22 State w h e th e r the p ercen t com position, the em pirical for-m ula, or the m olecular
form ula give s the inform ation specified in each part.
(a) Ratio of m oles of each elem ent to m oles of com pound
(b) Ratio of m oles of each elem ent to each other elem ent, and no m ore
(c) Ratio of m asses of each elem ent to m ass of com pound
7.23 W hat can you d ete rm in e from percent com position data?
7.25 W hat is a syn on ym for m olar m ass (a) for m olecules? (b) or atom s? (c) for ionic
co m p ou nd s? W h a t is a syn-onym for form ula m ass (d) for m olecu les? (e) for
atom s? (f) for ionic com pounds?
7.26 W hich of the fo llo w in g form ulas identify ionic com -pounds but are not em pirical
fo rm u la s?
N a 20 2 B a C I2 C 4H 4CI 2 P 4S 10
7.27 W hich of the fo llo w in g form ulas identify ionic com -pounds but are not em pirical
fo rm u la s?
PA C 2H 6 Z nC I 20 6
k 2o 2 k 2s 2o 8
201
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic
7.29 How m any m oles of chlorine atom s are p resent in 6.25 m oi of B a (C lO ,)j?
PROBLEMS - BAI T * P
7.38 C alculate the p ercen t com position of vitam in B?, C 17H 20N 406.
7.41 C alculate the percent com positions of butene, C 4H6, and cycloo cta ne C .H , C om
pare the values, and explain the results.
7.43 C alcu la te the p ercen t chlorine in DOT, C 14H 9C I5, an in -s e c tic id e that has been
d isco ntin ue d because it does not biodegrade
202
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic
7.44 C alculate the percen t com position of niacin, a B -com plex vitam in, C 6H 5N 0 2.
7.46 C alculate the percen t com position of (a) sodium d ichrom ate and (b) potassium
p e rm a ng an a te.
7.47 How m any m oles of atom s of each elem ent are p resent in 1.00 m oi of each of
the follow ing com pounds?
(a) C H 3C H 2C H 2N H 2 (b) C d(C 2H 30 2)2
(c) N a 3A IF 6 (d) (N H 4) 3P 0 4
7.48 How m any m oles of atom s of each elem ent are present in 1.00 moi of each of
the follow ing com pounds?
(a) C o 2(CO )9 (b) NH 4C 2H 30 2
(c) C 12H 22O u (d) K H C 0 3-M gC 034H 20
7.49 How m any m oles of atom s of each elem ent are present in 1.00 moi of each of
the follow ing com pounds?
(a) N icke l(ll) perchlorate
(b) A m m on iu m su lfite
(c) Barium sulfate
7 50 C alculate the form ula m ass and the m olar mass of each of the follow ing c o m
pounds to three sig n ifica n t figures:
(a) (N H 4) 2S 0 3 (b) B a (C I0 4)2 (c) BaC 20 4
7.51 C alculate the n um ber of grams of acetic acid, HC 2H 30 2, in 37 0 moi of acetic acid.
7.53 C alculate the n um be r of m oles of fruit sugar fructose, C 6H t206— in 283.5 g (10.00
oz).
7.56 C alculate the n um be r of m oles in 172 g of a com pound with a m olar m ass of
48. 1 g/m ol.
7.58 C alculate the m ass of 3 50 moi of (a) unbonded nitro-gen atom s, (b) nitrogen
atom s bonded into N 2 m olecules, and (c) N? m olecules
203
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic __________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Calculate the number of moles that contain 7 16 x 1 0 " form ula units of
N a C I0 3.
7 62 C alculate the m ass of a sam ple of the sim ple s u ga r g lu cose C 6H BO s. containing
6 .8 6 x 1 0 24 m olecules.
7.64
(a) C alculate the n um ber of m oles of C 2H 6 in 7.22 g of C 2H 6.
(b) C alculate the n um ber of m oles of carbon atom s in 7 22g of C 2H6.
(c) C alculate the n um ber of individual carbon atom s in
7 22g of C ?H6.
7 65 C alculate the n um be r of gram s of hydrogen in 5.22 m oi of am m onia
7.69 C alculate the n um ber of m oles of H 3P 0 3 that contains 1.92 x 10 22 oxygen atoms.
7.70 C alculate the n um be r of m oles of am m onia that co n-tain s 6.71 x 102‘ hydrogen
a tom s.
7.74 C alculate the m ass of C r(C I0 3)3 that contains 9.14 x 10 22 c h lo rin e atom s.
7.75 C alcu la te the m ass of a m m onium chloride that co nta ins 7 02 x 10 23 hydrogen
atom s.
7.77 C alculate the n um ber of m olecules in 6.19 g of a co m -po un d w ith a m olar mass
of 48.0 g/m ol.
7 78 C alculate the m ass of a sam ple of the sim ple sugar g lu-cose C £H ..O .. contain
ing 1.00 X 10 22 m olecules.
204
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic
7.87 D eterm ine an em p irical form ula from each of the follow ing sets of p ercen t co m
position data:
(a) 87.73% C. 12.27% H
(b) 43.64% P, 56.36% O
(c) 72.03% Mn. 27 97% O
(d) 47.05% K, 14.45% C. 38.50% O
(e) 77.26% Hg, 9.25% C, 1.17% H, 12.32% O
7.88 D eterm ine an e m p irical form ula from each of the follow ing sets of percent c o m
position data:
(a) 37.82% C, 6.35% H, 55.83% Cl
(b) 54.53% C. 9.15% H. 36.32% O
(c) 74.98% C, 5.24% H, 19.77% F
(d) 66.42% C, 5.57% H, 28.01% Cl .
7.89 N itro glyce rin is co m p ose d of 15.87% carbon, 2.22% hydrogen, 18.51% nitrogen,
and 63.41% o xygen. D eterm ine its e m pirical form ula.
7.90 D eterm ine an e m p irica l form ula from each of the follow ing sets of p ercen t c o m
position data:
(a) 72.36% Fe, 2 7.6 4% O
(b) 77.73% Fe. 2 2.2 7% O
(c) 6 9.94% Fe. 30 06% O
7.91 T estoste ron e, a m ale horm one, is com posed of 79.12% carbon, 9.79% h y d ro
gen, and 11.10% oxygen. W hat is its em pirical form ula?
7 92 P o lyprop ylen e, a w ell-kn o w n plastic, is com posed of 85.63% carbon and 14 37%
hydrogen. D eterm in e its em pirical form ula.
7.93 C a lcu la te the e m p iric a l fo rm u la of each of the su b -sta n ce s from the fo llo w in g
analyses:
(a) 75.95 g C. 9 57 g H, 224.2 g Cl
(b) 5.52 g C. 0 .464 g H, 13.1 gF
7.94 C alcu la te the e m p irica l form ula of each of the follow -ing su bstances. N am e each.
(a) 76.8 g Na. 80.1 g 0.53 4 g S
(b) 9.07 g H. 288 g O. 144 g S
205
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic
7 97 What is the empirical formula mass and the molecular mass of each of the following?
(a) C 12H 12 ( b ) C 2H 6 (c )C ,H 6
7.98 W hat is the e m p irical form ula m ass and the m olecu lar m ass of each of the fol
low ing?
(a) C 5H 10 ( b ) C 4H 6 ( c ) C 4H 10
7.99 C alculate the e m p irical form ula m ass of each of the follow ing:
(a) H g 2B r 2 (b) N a 2S 20 3 (hypo)
7.100 D eterm ine the m olecu lar form ula of a substance if its e m p irica l form ula is NO?
and its m olar m ass is
(a) 92.0 g/m ol and (b) 46.0 g/mol.
7.101 Find the m olecu lar form ula of a substance with an e m -pirica l fo rm u la C H 2 and a
m olar m ass
(a) 84.0 g/m ol, (b) 98.0 g/m ol, (c) 168.0 g/m ol, and (d) 280 g/m ol.
7.102 Find the m olecu lar form ula of a substance if the e m p irical fo rm u la is CH and its
m olar m ass is
(a) 52.0 g/m ol. (b) 65.0 g/m ol. (c) 91.0 g/m ol, and (d) 182 g/m ol
7.103 D eterm in e the m o le cu la r form ula of a sim ple s u ga r from its p e rc e n t com position
of 40.0% C, 6 .67 % H, 53 3% O, and its m olar m ass of 150 g /m o l
7.106 R hom bic su lfu r is one form of e lem ental sulfur. Its m olar m ass is 256 g/mol
C alculate its m olecu lar form ula.
7.107 The m ost w ide ly used antifreeze, ethylene glycol, is co m p ose d of 38 70% car
bon, 9.74% hydrogen, and
7.108 O ctane and heptane are two ingredients of gasoline O ctane has 8 4 12% c a r
bon and 15.88% hydrogen, and heptane has 83 90% carbon and 16 10% h ydro
gen T h e ir m olecu lar m asses are 114 amu and 100 am u, re -s p e c tiv e ly W hat
are their m olecular fo rm u la s 7
206
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic
7.109 C alcu la te the m olecu lar form ula of a substance if its p ercen t com p ositio n is 79.91
% C and 20.09% H, and its m olar m ass is app ro xim a tely 30 g/mol.
7.110 C alculate the m olecular form ula of a substance if its percent com position is 85.63%
C and 14.37% H, and its m olar m ass is a pproxim ately 43 g/m ol.
7.111 C alcu la te the m olecu lar form ula of a com pound if a sam ple contains 109 g of
p hosphorus and 141 g of oxy-gen and its m olar m ass is 284.
7.113 C alculate the n um be r of carbon atom s in 1.000 gallon of octane, C 8H 1S, a m ajor
com p on en t of g asoline (1 gallon = 3.785 L; density = 0 7025 g/m L).
7.115 (a) V itam in B ,2 has one cobalt atom per form ula unit. The com pound is 4.348%
Co. C alculate its m olar mass.
(b) V itam in D, has tw o oxygen atom s per form ula unit. The com pound is 4.03%
O. C alculate its m olar mass.
7.116 C alculate the n um be r of hydrogen atom s in 155 g of a com pound that contains
91.25% carbon and 8.75% hydrogen.
7.117 C alculate the n um be r of m olecules in 27.3 g of a com pound that has a m olar
m ass of 92.13 g/m ol and contains 91.25% carbon and 8 75% hydrogen
7.119 C alculate the n um be r of hydrogen atom s in 72.5 g of a com pound that contains
9.14% hydrogen.
7.120 C alculate the n um be r of m olecules in 117 g of a com -pound that has a m olar
m ass of 84.13 g/m ol.
7.121 A sam ple is 45 0% KC1 by mass, and the rest is w ater. C alculate the num ber
of m olecu les of w a te r in 64.7 g of the sample.
7.122 C alculate the p e rce n t e rror in rounding off the atom ic m ass of each of the fo l
low ing e le m e n ts to three significant digits:
(a) C arbon (b) Oxygen
(c) R ub idium (d) Argon
(e) H ydrogen (f) C hlorine
7.123 A scie n tist isolates a pure substance from a new ly discovered plant in the A m a
zon R iver basin W hat data does the scientist need to start to d ete rm ine w he th er
the su bsta nce is a new com pound and w hat its form ula is?
7.124 How m any m oles of carbon atom s is present in the q uantity of C 2H tO that co n
tains 7.19 g of hydrogen?
7 125 A 7.832-m g sa m ple of a hydrocarbon was burned in air The p roducts w ere 22.97
mg of C 0 2 and 14 09 mg of H?0.
207
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic
S U M M A R Y - ON TAP CHUCJNG
The fo rm u la m ass (form ula w eight) of a su bsta nce is d e te rm in e d by adding the
atom ic m a sse s (ato m ic w e ig h ts) of each atom (not each e le m e n t) in a fo rm u la unit
M olecular m ass is one type of form ula m ass (for substances that form m olecules) and
is ca lcu la te d in the sam e w ay as the fo rm u la m ass fo r an ionic co m p o u n d For ex
am ple, the fo rm u la m ass of H?0 is 18 0 amu, the atom ic m ass of tw o h ydrog en atoms
plus that of one o xyge n atom . T hree or m ore sign ifican t dig its should be used to re
port fo rm u la m asses. (S ection 7.1)
The percent com position is the percentage of each elem ent in a com pound The per
centage of an elem ent in a com pound is calculated by finding the ratio of the total mass
of that elem ent to the form ula m ass and m ultiplying that ratio by 100% The percentages
of all the elem ents in a-com pound should total 100% (within less than 1 %). (Section 7 2)
The m ole is d efin ed as the n um ber of C atom s in e x a c tly 12 g of ' ! C w hich is
6 02 x 10 23 A vo g a d ro 's n um be r The sam e num ber of m oles of tw o (or m o re i different
su bsta nce s has the sam e n um ber of form ula units but not the sam e m ass The molar
m ass is the m ass in gram s of a m ole of a substance The n um be r of g ram s per mole
the m olar m ass is a fre q u e n tly used conversion factor, used for c o n v e rtin g betw een
gram s and m oles, (S ection 7.3)
An e m p irical fo rm u la gives the low est integral m ole ratio of atom s of all the e le
m ents in a co m pound An e m p irical form ula is dete rm ine d from a p ercen t co m p o-sition
by changing the p ercen ta ge s to num bers of gram s (by a ssum in g a 1 0 0 -g sa m p le ) and
then d ivid in g the n um ber of gram s of each elem ent by its atom ic m ass in g ra m s The
nom nte g ra l m ole ratio that results is co nve rte d to an in te g ra l m ole ratio by d iv id in g
208
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic
each of the n um be rs of m oles by the m agnitude of the sm allest, and then, if nece s
sary, m ultiplyin g e very one of the quotients by the sam e sm all w hole num ber. N ever
round o ff by m ore than 1% during this procedure. If data are given in gram s rather
than as a p ercen t com position, sim ply om it the first step. (S ection 7.4)
M o le cu la r form ulas give the sam e inform ation as e m p irical fo rm u la s, as w ell as
the ratio of the n um ber of m oles of each elem ent to the n um ber of m oles of the co m
pound (M o le cu la r fo rm u la s are used only for m o-lecu la r su bsta n ce s, not ionic s u b
stances.) A m o le cu la r fo rm u la can be d eterm ined from the e m p iric a l fo rm u la of the
com pound and its form ula m ass: First, divide the form ula m ass by the m ass in amu of
one e m p irica l fo rm u la unit, w hich w ill result in a sm all integer. T hen, m ultiply each
subscript of the e m p irica l form ula by that integer. (Section 7.5)
209
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
CAC PHAM ONG H d A H O C
8.1 Dien gidi mot phdn ting hoa hqc cdn bdng trong pham tru ti so moi cua cdc
chdt phdn ilng vd cdc san pham, 8 .2 Cdn bdng phdn ling hda hqc, tile la de cd duqc
cung sd luqng nguyen til cua tiing nguyen td d moi ben., 8 .3 Tien doan cdc san pham
cua hang ngdn phdn ilng hda hqc bdng cdch phdn loqi phdn ting vd mot sd quy luat dan
gidn tiep theo., 8.4 Tien doan san pham cua cdc phdn ilng giUa cdc acid ra cdc base vd
sii dung mot danh phdp dac thu cho cdc phdn ilng acid base.
8.1 Phuang trinh hda hqc, 8 .2 Cdn bdng cdc phuang trinh, 8 .3 Tien doan nhilng
san pham cua cdc phdn Ung hda hqc, 8.4 Cdc acid vd cdc base
210
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
In C h a p te r 7, you learned how to do num erical calculations for com pounds, using their
form ulas as a basis. This chapter lays the foundation for doing sim ilar calculations for
ch em ica l reactions, using the balanced equation as a basis. The chem ical equation is
introduced in S ection 8.1, and m ethods for balancing equations are presented in S e c
tion 8.2. To w rite equations, you m ust often be able to predict the products of a reac
tion from a know led ge of the pro pe rtie s of the reactants. S ection 8.3 show s how to
classify ch em ica l reactions into types to predict the products of thousands of reactions.
An im portant type o f reaction— the acid-base reaction— is discu ssed in S ection 8.4.
Even better, we can w rite a balanced equation, w hich show s the relative n um
bers of atom s of each of the e lem ents involved. The unbalanced equ atio n ju s t p re
sented seem s to indicate that an iodide ion has disappeared during the reaction and
that a fluoride ion has appeared from nowhere. As w ritten, that equation violates the
law of co nse rva tion of m ass. Thus, you m ust alw ays w rite balanced equations for re
actions. The w ord equation is related to the word equal; an equation m ust have equal
num bers of atom s of each elem ent on each side. Such an equation is said to be bal
anced.
2 l I
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
The co efficie nt does not im ply any chem ical bonding In a b alan ced ch e m ic a l equa
tion, the absence of a co efficie nt before a form ula im plies a c o e ffic ie n t o f 1 . The two
form ula units of AgF are com posed of tw o Ag* ions and tw o F ions T he tw o F* ions
in the one form ula unit of B aF 2 produced com e from the tw o fo rm u la units of AgF.
The balanced equation for the reaction of hydrogen and o xyge n, illu strate d in Fig
ure 8 . 1 , is
2 H 2 + 0 2 - * 2 H20
The co efficie nts in a balanced equation give the ratio of moles of each substance
in the reaction to m oles of any o th e r su bsta nce . T he y also give the ratio of form ula
units of each su bsta nce to fo rm u la units of any o the r substance. The b alanced chem i
cal equation is the co rn e rsto n e from w hich we can ca lcu la te how m uch o f one sub
stance reacts w ith or is p ro du ced by a certa in q ua n tity of a n o th e r su b s ta n c e (to be
covered in C h a p te r 10).
R eaction co nd itio ns are often w ritten above or below the arrow , as in
S n a p s h o t R e v ie w - O n ta p n h a n h
*■ A balanced e quation gives the m ole ratios of reactants and p ro du cts as well
as the ratios of fo rm u la units.
A. For the reaction 4 H20 + PCI 6 -> 5 HCI + H 3P 0 4
(a) How m any m olecu les of HCI w ill be produced from tw o m o le cu le s of PC IS?
(b) How m any m oles of HCI w ill be produced from 2 0 m oi of P C I t7
• M ot phuang trinh can bdng cho biet cdc ti so moi cua cdc chat phdn Ung va cdc
san pham cung nhu cho biet ti so cua cdc dan vi cong thiic.
A. Dai vdi phdn ilng 4 H 20 + PCls —» 5 HCI + H 3P 0 4 (a) Co bao nhieu phdn tii
HCI dd duac tqo thanh til hai phdn tii PCIJ (b) Cd bao nhieu moi HCI se duqc
tqo thanh tU 2.0 moi PCl}?
B. Khdc biet ndo neu cd giUa nhilng phuang trinh sau ddy:
212
Topic & • Chemical reactions
Barium iodide cong vdi bac fluoride cho ra barium fluoride cong vdi bac iodide
Ta cd the sii dung cdc cdng thiic de bieu dien cdc chdt cd lien quan trong mot phdn
ling khi ta viet mot phuang trinh hda hqc. Trong mot phuang tr in h , cdc cdng thiic cua
cdc chdt phdn ling ditqc dat d ben trdi cua mui ten vd cdng thiic cua cdc san pham duac
ddt d ben phdi mui ten. Chat ndo viet tritdc d moi ben cua phuong trinh cung ditqc.
Cdc he so: la nhilng con sd duqc viet trudc cdc cdng thiic - noi len con so cdc don vi
cdng thiic tuang doi cua cdc chat phdn ilng vd cdc san pham cd hen quan trong mot
phdn ling vd cdn bdng so nguyen til cua tilng nguyen to cd lien quan. Cdc he so duoc
nhdn vdi moi thii trong cdng thiic.
He sd
H e so khong chi ra bdt cii mot lien ket hda hqc ndo. Trong mot phuang trinh hda
hqc cdn bdng, khi khdng cd mot he so trade mot cdng thiic thi cd nghia Id he sd bdng 1.
Hai dan vi cdng thiic cua A g F dd ditqc hqp thanh tit hai ion A g' vd hai ion F~ Hai ion
F trong mot don vi cdng thiic cua BaF., duqc tqo thanh den tit hai dan vi cdng thilc AgF.
Phuang trinh cdn bdng cho phdn ilng cua hydro vd oxy duoc minh hoa trong hinh
8.1ld
2 H 2 + 0 2 -> 2 H 20
Cdc he sd trong mot phuang trinh cdn bdng cho biet ti sd moi ciia moi chdt trong
phdn ling vdi sd moi cua mot chdt bdt ky khdc. Chiing cung cho biet ti sd giUa sd dan vi
cdng thiic giUa titng chdt vdi sd dan vi cdng thiic ciia mot chdt bdt ky khdc. Phuang trinh
hda hqc cdn bdng la nen tdng de til do ta cd the tinh duqc cd bao nhieu ciia mdt chdt
phdn ling vdi hoac duqc tqo ra bdi mot luqng nhat dinh ciia mot chat khdc..
Cdc dieu kien phdn ilng thudng duqc viet ben tren hay ben dudi mui ten nhu trong
213
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
Y our first m ajor task of this chapter is to learn to balance e qu atio ns fo r chem ical
reactions. B alancing sim ple equations w ill be covered in this chapter: e quations for more
com plicated o xid atio n-red uctio n reactions w ill be considered in C h a p te r 16.
The first step in w riting a com plete and balanced equation for a ch e m ic a l reaction
is to w rite co rrect form ulas for the reactants and products To help you as you learn,
you m ight w rite the equ atio n in w ords and then w rite the fo rm u la s. C o rre c t form ulas
cannot be changed to m ake an equation balance! Only after the c o rre c t fo rm u la s have
been w ritten can we go on to the next step. Then, we use c o e fficie n ts to change the
num bers of fo rm u la units to get the sam e n um ber of atom s of each e le m e n t on the
two sides of the equation.
For exam ple, the unbalanced equation for the reaction of carbon m onoxide with
oxygen to give carbon dioxide is
CO + 0 ? —> C 0 2 (Noi balanced)
D on’t fo rg et that e le m e n tal oxygen occurs as 0 2. W ith one m olecule of each sub
stance, the n um bers of oxygen atom s on the two sides of the equation are not equal,
so the equation is not balanced. W e can balance the equation by in se rtin g proper co
efficients in front of the form ulas:
2 C 0 + 0 2 -> 2 CO 2 (Balanced)
The n um be r 2 before the CO indicates that there are tw o carbon m onoxide m ol
ecules, conta ining tw o carbon atom s and two oxygen atom s. T here are tw o m ore oxy
gen atom s in the 0 2 m olecule B ecause there are two carbon atom s and four oxygen
atom s in the tw o C 0 2 m olecu les, the equation is now balanced. You sh o u ld always
ch eck an e q u atio n a fte r you balan ce it to m ake sure that the n u m b e rs of atom s of
each e le m e n t on each side of the arrow are equal.
One of the p roblem s encountered by students ju s t learning to balan ce equations
is that the a bsence of a co e fficie n t in a balanced equation m eans a c o e ffic ie n t of 1 ,
but the absence of a co efficie nt before the equation is fu lly balanced m ig ht m ean that
this su bstance has not yet been considered. To avoid any co nfu sion , you can place a
question m ark before each form ula when you start to balance an equation. (A fte r you
have had a lot of practice, you w ill not need to use the q uestion m arks.)
If the initial p la cem e nt of the co efficie nt 1 yields fractio na l co e ffic ie n ts in the equa
tion, you can get integ er values by sim ply m ultiplying every co e ffic ie n t (in clud ing the
co efficients equal to 1 ) by a sm all integer that w ill clear the fractio ns
W hen any e le m e n t appears in m ore than one su bstance on the sam e side of the
equation, you should balance that e le m ent last
Any p olyatom ic ion that m aintains its com position th rough an entire reaction can
be balanced as a group of atom s, instead of balancing the ind ivid ua l e le m e n ts
Inform ation abo ut the s ta te of a reactant or p ro d u ct (w h e th e r it is p re s e n t as a
solid, liquid, gas, or solute) m ay be given in a chem ical e quation The fo llo w in g a bb re
viations are used: solid (s). liquid ( r ). gas (g), and solute in a queous so lu tion (aq) An
a q u e o u s s o lu tio n is a solution in w ater. Thus, the reaction of s ilv e r nitra te w ith s o
dium chloride can be represented by the follow ing equation:
214
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
S n a p s h o t R evie w - On ta p n h a n h
*■ Because the balanced equation is a set of reacting ratios, one coefficient is
rather arbitrary. W e set the coefficient of the most skiii Builder complex for
mula to 1, but we might later have to adjust all the coefficients to get integers.
• Vi phuang trinh cdn bdng la tap hap cdc tl so phdn ling, mot he so la tuy
chon. Ta chon he so cua cdng thiic phiic tap nhat Id 1, nhung sau dd ta phdi
dieu chlnh tdt cd cdc he so de co duqc cdc so nguyen.
A. Cdn bdng cdc phuang trinh sau ddy:
Vi du, phuang trinh khdng cdn bdng cua phdn ling giUa carbon monoxide vd oxy
de cho ra carbon dioxide la
215
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
Dung quen rdng oxy nguyen to co a dang O V d i mdt phan td cua moi chdt, s6
nguyen tii oxy a hai ben cua phuang trinh la khong bdng nhau, do do phuang trinh
chua duac cdn bdng. Chiing ta cdn bdng phuang trinh bdng cach dua cdo cdc he s6
thich hqp a phia trudc cdc cong thiic:
So 2 a trudc CO chl ra rdng cd hai phdn tii carbon monoxide, chiia hai nguyen til
carbon vd hai nguyen tii oxy. Con cd hai nguyen tii oxy niia trong phdn tli Op vi cd hai
nguyen tii carbon vd 4 nguyen tii oxy trong hai phdn tii C0.f phuang trinh chua duqc
cdn bdng. Ban luon ludn phdi kiem tra mot phuang trinh sau khi cdn bdng no de dam
bao la so nguyen tii cua mdi nguyen to d moi ben cua rmii ten la bdng nhau
M ot van de md cdc sinh vien thudng gap phdi khi mdi viia hqc cdch cdn bdng cdc
phuang trinh la khi khdng cd mot he sd trong mot phuang trinh cdn bdng, cd nghia la
lie so la 1, nhung khi khdng cd mot lie sd trudc mot phuang trinh dd cdn bdng cd the co
nghia Id chat dd da chua duqc xem xet den. De trdnh bdt cii su lam Ian nao, ban phai
ddt mot dau hoi trudc mdi cdng thiic khi ban bdt ddu cdn bdng mot phuang trinh. (Sau
khi ban dd thuc hdnh nhieu, ban se khdng cdn sii dung cdc ddu hoi).
Neu viec chon lie so 1 ban ddu cho ra cdc he sd phdn sd trong phuang trinh, ban cd
the cd duqc cdc gid tri nguyen dan gidn bdng cdch nhdn ti/ng he so (gom cd nhtfng he so
bdng 1) vdi mot so nguyen nho de lam mat phdn so.
Vdi bdt cii nguyen td ndo cd trong nhieu han mot chdt a cung mot ben cua phuang
trinli, ban phai cdn bdng nguyen to do sau ciing.
Bdt cii mot ion nhieu nguyen tii ndo gitf nguyen thanh phdn cua no trong todn bo
phdn i/ng cd the duqc cdn bdng nhu mot nhdm nguyen tic, thay vi phai cdn bdng ti/ng nguyen
td rieng biet
Thong tin ve tra n g th d i cua mot chdt phdn i/ng hay mot san pham (no hien dien
nhu mot chdt rdn, chdt Long, chdt khi hay chdt hda tan) cd the di/qc cho irong mot phi/ang
trinh hda hqc. Nhtfng chtf viet tdt sau ddy duqc sii dung: rdn (s), long ( f ), khi (g) va
chdt tan trong dung dich nUdc (aq). Mot du n g dich. ntidc la mot dung dich trong nUdc.
Theo dd, phdn ling cua bac nitrate vd natri chloride cd the duqc bieu dien bdng phuang
trinh sau ddy:
Phdn i/ng ciia kali carbonate trong dung dich nUdc vdi mot dung dich hydrochloric
acid cd the duqc bieu dien bdng phuang trinh sau ddy:
To the b eginning student the huge array of ch em ica l reactions seem s b ew ild er
ing To m em orize the products of each one by m erely looking at the rea c-tan ts would
be im possible Instead, we g eneralize a great n um ber of reactions into five sim ple types
that allow s us at least to m ake an educated guess as to the p ro du cts To learn a few
sim ple rules is m uch easier than to m em orize each reaction in d e p e n d e n tly . T hus we
m ust:
- Learn to classify reactions into th eir types by c o n sid e rin g the re a ctan ts only.
- Learn w hat p roducts m ight be produced by that type reaction
216
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
- Learn how to pre dict if the expected reaction w ill actually proceed.
M ore co m p lica te d o xid ation-reduction reactions w ill be presented in C ha pter 16,
and o the r co m p le x reactions are covered in more advanced ch em istry courses.
S im ple ch em ica l reactions can be divided into the follow ing classes:
1 C om bination reactions
2. D ecom position reactions
3. S ingle su bstitu tion (or single displacem ent) reactions
4. D ouble su bstitu tion (or double displacem ent) reactions
In addition, m ost e le m e n ts and m any com pounds react with oxygen:
5. C om bu stio n reactions
Combination Reactions
C o m b in atio n re ac tio n s involve the reaction of two (or m ore) reactants to form
one product. P e rha ps the e asiest com bination reaction to recognize is one in w hich
two free e le m e n ts (at lea st one of w hich is a nonm etal) react w ith each other. The
elem ents can do little e xcep t react with each other (or not react at all) For exam ple, if
we treat m agnesium m etal w ith chlorine gas, the elem ents can co m bine to form m ag
nesium chloride:
M g(s) + Cl2(g) -> M gC I2(s)
The form ula for the product of a com bination reaction m ust be w ritten according
to the rules p re sen te d in C h a p te r 5. After the pro du ct has been rep re sen te d by the
p roper form ula, the equation is balanced, as shown in S ection 8.2.
W hen tw o n o n m e ta llic elem ents com bine, the pro du ct form ed often d epends on
the relative q ua n titie s of the reactants present. For exam ple, w hen carbon com bines
with oxygen, e ithe r of tw o p ossible com pounds m ay be p ro du ced — carbon m onoxide
or carbon dioxide. W hen the supply of oxygen is lim ited, carbon m onoxide is produced,
but w hen e xcess o xyge n is available, carbon dioxide results:
2 C (s) + 0 2(g, limited quantity) -► 2 CO(g)
Of course, not e ve ry pair of elem ents w ill react with each other. For exam ple, you
know that the noble gases are quite stable in their elem ental form s.
In a n o th e r typ e of co m b in a tio n reaction, a co m p ou nd m ay be able to co m b in e
with a p a rticu la r free e le m e n t to form another com pound as the only product. This o c
cu rs m o st o fte n w h e n the free e le m e n t is the sam e as one of the e le m e n ts in the
o riginal co m p ou nd An exam ple of such a com bination reaction is
2 C oC I 2(s) + C l 2(g) -► 2 C oC I 3(s)
H ere, the e le m e n t chlo rin e com bines with a com pound of co ba lt and chlorine —
c o b a lt(ll) ch lo rid e — to form a nother co m p ou nd of co b a lt and c h lo rin e — c o b a lt(lll)
chlo rid e — in w hich the co ba lt ion has a d ifferen t positive charge.
217
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
Decomposition Reactions
D eco m p o sitio n reactions have the o pposite e ffe ct from c o m b in a tio n reactions.
In a d eco m p ositio n reaction, a single com pound can d ec o m p o s e to tw o elem ents, to
an ele m e n t and a sim p le r com pound, to tw o sim pler co m p ou nd s, or (ra re ly) to another
com bination of products. T ernary com pounds, com p ou nd s c o n ta in in g th re e elem ents,
do not deco m p ose into th re e uncom bined elem ents. D eco m p o sitio n rea ction s are easy
to identify b ecause th ere is only one reactant. T able 8.1 s u m m a riz e s the m ost com
mon types of d eco m p ositio n reactions.
Input of energy in som e form is usually required to get a com pound to decom pose:
To get co m p ou nd s to d eco m p ose using ele ctricity, ions m ust be p re sen t, and the
sam ple m ust be in som e liquid form . (E lectricity does not pass th ro ug h solid ionic co m
pounds, even though they are com posed of positive and negative ions.) T he ions in a
liquid are free to m ove and thus co nd uct the current. The liquid can be a m o lte n (m elted)
pure ionic su bsta nce or a solution of an ionic su bsta nce in w a te r or a n o th e r liqu id (Fig
ure 8.3). If a solution is used, the com pound that is m ore e asily d e co m p o se d (the ionic
com pound or the w ater, for exam ple) is the one that w ill react.
Note in the p revious equations that the form ulas of e le m e n tal h ydrog en and o x y
gen are w ritten as dia to m ic m o le cu le s— H? and 0 2 B efore e qu atio ns are b a la n ce d the
form ulas for all p roducts m ust be w ritten according to the rules given in C h a p te r 5
D ecom position reactions are often used to prepare elem ents. Joseph P nestley (1733-
1804), the d isco ve re r of oxygen, used the d ecom position of m e rc u ry (ll) o xide HgO. to
prepare ele m e n tal oxygen (and free m ercury):
218
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
S tudents often d ecom pose potassium chlorate to produce oxygen in the labora
tory (Figure 8 4). This reaction is usually carried out by heating that com pound in the
p resence of m anganese(IV ) oxide, M n 0 2. The M n 0 2 is a catalyst— a substance that
changes the speed of a chem ical reaction w ithout undergoing a perm a ne nt change in
its own co m p ositio n. A ca talyst is conventionally w ritten above or below the reaction
arrow:
219
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
M etals Nonmetals
‘ H ydrogen is included in the list of m etals because it can be d isp la ce d from aque
ous acids by reactive m etals.
C r(s) + 2 HCI(aq) -> H 2(g) + C rC I 2(aq)
In aqueous solution, neither H2C 0 3 (carbonic acid) nor NH4OH (am m onium hydroxide)
is stable; they decom pose to yield water and either C 0 2 or NH 3. If either H 2C 0 3 or NH4OH is
expected to be a product of a double substitution reaction, C 0 2 plus H 20 , or N H 3 plus H20,
will be produced instead. Other unstable compounds are encountered m uch less frequently.
A ll chlorates BaSO,
A ll acetates M ost oxides
A ll nitrates M ost sulfides
A ll compounds o f alkali metals M ost phosphates
A ll compounds containing
the ammonium ion
A ll chlorides except those listed AgCI. PbCI,. Hg:C lr
in the next column and CuCI
The d rivin g fo rce beh in d dou ble s u b s titu tio n re a ctio n s is the fo rm a tio n of an in
so lu ble ionic co m p ou nd or a co v a le n t co m p ou nd (such as w a te r or a g a s e o u s c o m
pound) from ions in so lu tion . A solid fo rm e d from ions in s o lu tio n is c a lle d a p r e c ip i
ta te . W e can thus p re d ic t that a reaction w ill o ccu r if s o lu b le ion ic c o m p o u n d s yield
270
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
at le a st one in so lu b le
io n ic c o m p o u n d o r
o n e c o v a le n t c o m
p o u n d . Y o u n e e d to
be fa m ilia r w ith th e
s o lu b ilitie s o f so m e
c o m m o n io n ic c o m
pounds in w a te r .
S o m e ty p e s o f io n ic
c o m p o u n d s th a t a re
soluble or in so lu b le in
w a te r a re lis te d in
T a b le 8 .3 . A m o re
com prehensive ta b u la K ey: s = soluble (greater than about 1 g solute/10 0 g of w ater)
tio n o f s o lu b ilitie s is ss = slightly soluble (approxim ately 0.1 — 1 g s olu te/100 g of w ater)
presented in T able 8.4 i = insoluble (less than about 0 1 g solu te/100 g of water)
In addition to learning the so lubility rules, you also m ust be fa m iliar w ith the na
ture of the bonding in co m p ou nd s to be able to predict if double substitution reactions
will proceed as w ritten. You learned in C hapter 5 that co valen t co m p ou nd s have no
m etallic e le m e n ts or the a m m onium ion in them . It m ight be helpful to note that fo r
m ation of a co va le n t com p ou nd includes
(a) Form ation of a gas (All gases at room tem perature are covalent.)
(b) Form ation of w ater
(c) F orm ation of a weak acid or weak base. (W eak acids and bases in solution
are m ore than 95% covalent. They w ill be d iscu ssed in S ection 8.4.) W eak
acids inclu de all acids except HCI, H C I0 3, H C I0 4| HBr, HI, H N 0 3, and H 2S 0 4.
T he se a cid s are strong, that is, they are co m p le te ly ionic in w a te r solution.
The only w ea k base that we w ill discuss is am m onia, NH 3.
221
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
If we add all the reactants and all the products in these equ atio ns and then de
lete the com pounds that appear on both sides, we get the fo llo w in g o ve ra ll equation:
C a C 0 3 + 2 NaCl -> N a 2C 0 3 + C aC I 2
Combustion Reactions
E veryone is fa m ilia r w ith the p rocess called burning B u rning , a lso ca lle d com
b u s tio n , is the rapid reaction of a w ide variety of su bsta nce s w ith o xyg e n gas. Com
bustion reactions of e lem ents can also be classified as co m b in a tio n reactions; the type
of reaction is not as im portant as the products. For exam ple, we can refer to the fol
low ing reactions as co m b in a tion reactions or com bustion reactions:
222
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
Tien doan cac san pham cua cac phan ting hoa hoc
Doi vai nguai mdi bdt ddu mot mang Idn cdc phdn ilng hda hoc cd ve nhu qud rdc
roi. De nhd cdc san pham cua tilng phdn ling chi bdng cdch nhin vdo cdc chat phdn ilng
xay ra deu khdng the duqc. Thay vdo dd chung ta tong quat hda mot so luqng cdc phdn
ilng thanh ndm loqi phdn ilng dan gidn de it nhdt ciing cho phep chiing ta du doan mot
cdch cd he thong han ve cdc san pham. Viec hqc mot sd it cdc quy ludt dan gidn thi de
han nhieu so vdi viec phdi nhd tilng phdn ilng rieng. Do dd ta phdi:
Hqc cdch phdn loai cdc phdn ling thanh cdc loqi phdn ilng bdng cdch chi xem
xet cdc chdt phdn ling md thdi.
Hqc biet dilqc cdc san pham ndo cd the duqc tqo ra til loqi phdn ilng dd.
Hqc biet de tien doan 1a phdn ilng di/qc mong muon trong thilc te cd xay ra hay
kliong?
Nhilng phdn ling oxy hda khii phiic tap han se duqc gidi thieu a chuang 16 vd cdc
phdn Ung phiic tap khdc duqc ban den trong nhilng giao trinh hda hqc ndng cao han.
Cdc phdn ling hoa hqc dan gidn cd the duqc chia thanh cdc nhdm sau ddy:
3. Cdc phdn ling the dcm (hay phdn ling chuyen vi dan)
III
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
Cdng thde cdc san pham cua mot phdn ling ket hqp phdi duqc viet theo nhitng quy
luat duqc gidi thieu trong chtfcfng 5. Sau khi san pham da duqc bieu dien bdi mot cdng
tlidc dung, phuang trinh dilqc cdn bdng nhu trinh bay trong muc 8 .2 .
Khi hai nguyen to phi kim ket hqp vdi nhau, san pham duqc tqo thanh thudng phu
thuoc vdo nhdng luqng tuong ddi cua cdc chdt phdn dng cd mdt. Vi du, khi carbon ket
hqp vdi oxy, mot trong hai hqp chdt cd kha ndng cd the duqc tqo thanh - carbon monox
ide hay carbon dioxide. Khi nguon cung cap oxy cd gidi hqn, carbon monoxide duqc tqo
thanh; nhung khi oxy cd du, carbon dioxide dilqc tqo thanh:
D l nhien la khdng phdi mot cap nguyen to ndo cung phdn dng vdi nhau. Vi du,
ban biet la cdc khi hiem kha ben trong dang nguyen to cua chung.
Trong mot loqi phdn dng ket hqp khdc, mot hqp chdt cd the cd khd ndng ket hqp
vdi mot nguyen to tu do ndo dd de tqo thanh mot hqp chdt khdc nhu Id san pham duy
nhdt. Dieu ndy xay ra thudng xuyen nhdt khi nguyen to til do giong mot trong cdc nguyen
td cua hqp chdt ban ddu. M ot vi du cua phdn dng ket hqp kieu ndy la
0 day nguyen td chlorine ket hqp vdi mot hqp chdt cua
cobalt vd chlorine - cobalt(II) chloride - de tqo thanh mot hqp chdt khdc cua cobalt
vd chlorine - cobalt(III) chloride - trong dd ion cobalt cd mot dien tich duong khdc.
Trong mot kieu phdn dng ket hqp khdc nda, hai hap chat cd chda cung nguyen to
cd the cd khd ndng ket hqp vdi nhau de tqo thanh mot hqp chdt duy nhdt phde tap han.
Nguyen td md cdc chdt phdn dng cd chung rdt thudng Id oxy:
C aO s) + C O /g ) —> C aC O ((s)
M g O s ) + H Ol i ) —> M g iO H ).(s )
224
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
Bang 8.1 NHLlNG KIElu PHAN L/NG PHAN HUY THL/CJNG GAP NHAT
Thudng cdn co mot dang ndng luqng ddu vdo de cho mot hqp chdt phdn huy:
lie cho cdc hqp chat phdn huy bang cdch su: dung dien thi phdi cd cdc ion hien dien
vd mau phdi d mot dang long ndo dd. (Dien khdng di qua cdc hqp chat ion rdn, mac du
chung cung duqc tqo thanh ttf cdc ion duang vd ion dm) cdc ion trong mot chdt long
chuyen dong tu do vd do dd ddn dien. Chat long cd the la mot chdt ion tinh khiet ndng
chay hay mot dung dich cua mot chdt ion trong nude, hay trong mot chdt long khdc
(h in h 8 .3 ).Neu sii dung mot dung dich, thi hqp chdt de bi phdn huy han (vi du hqp chdt ion
hay nUdc) la chdt se phdn ting.
Chu y la trong nhtfng phuang trinh trudc, cac cdng thtfc cua hydro vd oxy nguyen to
da duqc viet nhu cdc phdn tii hai phdn tii - H J vd Or Trudc khi cdc phuang trinh duqc
cdn bdng, cdc cdng thtfc cua tdt cd cac san pliam phai duqc viet tudn theo cdc quy luat
duqc cho trong chuang 5.
Cdc phdn ling phdn huy thudng duqc sii dung de dieu che cdc nguyen td. -Joseph
Priestley (1733 - 1804) Id ngudi phat hien ra oxy, dd stf dung sU phdn huy cua thu\
ngdn (II) oxide, HgO. de dieu che oxy nguyen td (vd thuy ngdn tu do):
225
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
Cdc sinh vien thudng phdn huy potassium chlorate de tqo ra oxy trong phong thi
nghiem (h in h 8.4). Phan ilng ndy thudng duqc tien hdnh bdng viec dun ndng hop chdt
vdi stf hien dien cua mangan(IV) oxide, M nO r M n 0 2 la mot xiic tac - Id mot chdt lam
thay doi van toe cua phdn dng hoa hoc md khong cd stf thay ddi vlnh vien trong thanh
phdn cua no. Chdt xuc tac theo quy Udc duqc viet ben tren hay ben dudi cua mui tin
phdn tfng:
C l 2 + C u B r 2(aq) -» C uC l 2(aq) + B r 2( ( )
chlorine (phi kim) thay the bromine (phi kim)
Trong nhom phdn tfng duqc goi la phdn ilng the dan ndy, cdc nguyen td cua chdt
hoat dong han cd the thay the cdc nguyen td cua chdt it hoat ddng han trong hqp chdt
cua chung, nhung qud trinh nguqc lai khong xay ra.
De tien doan phdn tfng the dan ndo se xay ra ban cdn biet mot it ve tinh hoat ddng
tuang ddi cua mot sd kim loqi vd phi kim quan trong. Mot sd kim loqi vd mot vai phi kim
duqc liet ke trong bang 8.2 theo thtf ttf tinh gidm ddn. Nhtfng danh sdch hoan chinh han
duqc cho trong cdc gido trinh ndng cao han. hydro duqc bao gom trong danh sdch cua cdc
kim loai bai vi no cd the bi the ttf dung dich ntfdc cua cdc acid bdi cdc kim loai hoat dong
(hinh 8.5) va cd the the cdc kim loqi it hoat dong han ttf cac hqp chdt cua chung
C r(s) + 2 H C l(a q ) —► H ,(g) + C rC l 2<aq)
Dong, bac va vdng - la nhtfng kim loai de due tien dong - dd duqc ddnh gid cao ttf
xUa, do tinh ben cua chung, hay tinh kem hoat dong (h in h 8 .6 ) chung tham chi con xuat
hien a dang khdng ket hap trong ttf nhien. Cdc kim loai hoat dong khdng xuat hien
trong tu nhien a dang cdc nguyen td tu do.
226
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
Bang 8.2. TiNH HOAT BONG TUONG 0 6 l CUA CAC NGUYEN T(5 KH6NG K^T H0P.
*Hydro duqc liet ke trong danh sdch cdc kim loai ri trong dung dich nude cua cdc
acid no co the bi the cho bai cdc kim loai hoat dong
Dong hie ciia cdc phdn Ung the ddi la sii tao thdnh cua mot hqp chdt ion khdng tan
hay mot liqp chdt cong hda triu (nhu nUdc hay mot hqp chdt dang khi), thi cdc ion trong
dung dich. Mot chdt rdn duqc tqo thdnh tU cdc ion trong dung dich duqc goi la ket tua.
Ta cd the tien doan rdng mot phdn Ung xdy ra neu cdc hqp chat ion tan cho ra it nhdt
mot hqp chdt ion khdng tan hay mot hqp chdt cong hda tri. Ban cdn phai lam quen vdi
do tan ciia mot sd hqp chdt ion thdng dung trong nUdc. Mot so loai hqp chdt ion tan hay
khdng tan trong nUdc. duqc het ke trong bang 8.3. M ot bdng ddy du hqn ve tinh tan
duqc gidi thieu d bang 8.4 de tham khdo khdng cdn thiet phai hqc thuoc.
Ngodi viec hoc cac quy luat ve do tan, ban cung phdi 1dm quen vdi ban chdt cua
lien ket trong cdc hqp chdt de cd th i tien doan la cdc phdn ling the ddi cd dien ra nhu
dd duqc viet hay khdng. Ban dd duqc hoc ti/ chifcfng 5 1a trong cdc hqp chdt cong hda tri
khdng cd cdc nguyen td kim loqi hay ion ammonium. Mot die'm cd ich cdn ghi nhan nUa
la sU tqo thdnh cita mot hqp chdt cong hda tri bao gom :
111
Topic & • Chemical reactions
(a) Su tao thdnh mgt chdt khi (tdt cd cdc chdt khi d nhiet dd phong deu Id c$ng
hoa tri).
(b) Su too thdnh nUdc
(c) Su tao thdnh mot acid yeu hay mot base yeu (cdc acid vd base yeu trong dung
dich co den han 95% Id cong hoa tr\. Chung se duac ban den trong doan 8.4).
Cdc acid yeu bao gom tdt cd cdc acid ngoai trit HCI, HClOy HClOf HBr. HI.
HNOj vd HJSOf Nhilng acid ndy la acid manh, tiic la chung phdn ly hodn
todn thdnh ion trong dung dich nUdc. Base yeu duy nhdt md chung ta ban din
Id amoniac, NHr
Bang 8.3. TiNH TAN TRONG NUdC CUA M0T S(5 H0P CH/kT ION TH0NG DUNG.
co32-
s o 32_
CI03~ cr P 0 4J _
N03" B r" Cr042-
c2h 3o2- r so42' b o 33_ S2 - O H - O2-
Pb2 + s ss-i i i i i i
Na+, K +,N H 4+ s s s s s s d
Hg 22 + s i i i i i i
Hg2+ s S -i s i i i i
Ag+ s i ss i i i i
M g2+ s s s s s i i
Ca2* s s i i s S d
Ba2+ s s i i s s d
228
Topic & • Chemical reactions
Neu ta cong tdt cd cdc chdt phdn tfng vd tdt cd cdc san pham trong nhitng phuang
trinh ndy roi xoa di cdc hap chdt xuat hien d cd hai ben, ta se thu duqc phuang trinh
tong quat sau ddy:
Cdc phdn chdy cua cdc hqp chat cd chtfa carbon hydro vd oxy (bao gom cd cdc
carbonhydrate md ta sii dung lam thtfc pham) cung tqo ta carbon monoxide hay carbon
dioxide tuy thuoc vdo luqng tuang doi cua oxy cd the cd.
229
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
ITEM OF INTEREST
M any ind ivid ua l co m p ou nd s that are acids have a dd itio n a l p ro p e rtie s th a t m ake
them dan ge ro us These d angerous com p ou nd s give acids a bad nam e to the general
230
Topic & • Chemical reactions
p ublic. For e xam ple , LSD (lyse rgic acid d ie th yl-a m ide ) is a m in d-a ffe cting h a llu cin o
g en ic agent, but this pro pe rty is in addition to any acid pro pe rtie s o f the com pound.
C o n ce n tra te d su lfu ric acid, used in auto batteries, is a p ow erful o xid izin g agent and
d e h ydratin g agent. A lum p of sugar placed into concentrated su lfuric acid has the e le
m ents o f w a te r pulled from its m olecules, leaving carbon (Figure 8 .8 ):
C o n c e n tra te d
C12H220 „ ( s ) ------^ ------- ►12C(s) + 11 H 20(in H ,SO , solution) + H 20 + heat
N itric acid, e sp e cia lly w hen concentrated but even in d ilute solution, is another
pow erful o xid izin g agent. In contrast, boric acid is such a w eak acid that it is so m e
tim es used in solution to bathe infected eyes.
All h yd rog en -co n tain in g acids are covalent com pounds w hen they are not in so lu
tion; they ionize w hen th ey react w ith w ater:
A strong acid and a strong base react with each other co m p le te ly to form a salt
and w ater:
H C I(aq) + N aO H(aq) N aC I(aq) + H 20 ( ( )
The driving force for double su bstitu tion reactions is form ation of inso lub le ionic
com p ou nd s or co va le n t com p ou nd s from ions in solution. H ow ever, if an equation has
an insoluble co m p ou nd on one side and a co valen t com pound on the other, w hich way
does the reaction go? In m any cases like this, the form ation of co valen t co m p ou nd s is
m ore im p orta nt than the form ation of insoluble ionic com pounds, as show n by the re
action of B a (O H )2 w ith HC1. Acids usually react with insoluble bases to produce salts
and w ater:
B a (O H ) 2(s) + 2 H C I(aq) -» BaC I 2(aq) + 2 H 20 ( t )
231
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
A cids can react w ith m etals m ore active than h ydrog en (see T ab le 8 .2) to pro
duce a salt and h ydrogen gas:
F e(s) + 2 H C I(aq) -> FeC I 2(aq) + H 2(g)
E xtre m e ly active m etals, such as the alkali and a lkaline e arth m etals, can even
react w ith w ater to produce hydrogen gas plus the co rresp on din g m eta l h ydroxide. For
exam ple:
An acidic a nh ydride and a basic anhydride can even react w ith each o the r in a
com bination reaction:
Acid Salts
A cid s c o n ta in in g m ore th an one io n iz a b le h y d ro g e n a tom , s u c h as H .S O and
H 3p 0 4, can be partially neu tra lized if less base is used than is nee de d fo r co m p le te
neutralization. The salt form ed contains ionizable h ydrogen atom s and th e re fo re is still
capable of reacting with bases:
232
t
Topic & Chemical reactions
233
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
ITEMOF INTEREST
C arbon dio xide p re se n t in relatively high co nce ntra tion in w a te r ca n d is so lve in
soluble carbonates to yield soluble acid carbonates:
S n a p s h o t R e v ie w - O n ta p n h a n h
*- M ost acid and base reactions can be included in the sing le and dou ble substi
tution reactions of S ection 8.3.
*■ Acids and bases are so im portant that a sp ecial n om e n cla tu re has grown up
around them .
•- C arbonates, acid salts, and acid and base a n h yd rid e s are s im ila r to acids and
bases in som e of th e ir chem ical properties.
A. W rite a balanced ch em ica l equation for the reaction of H^SO^ and B a(O H )2, as
w ell as the acid or base w ith the a nhydride of the other, and of the tw o anhy
drides th em selve s.
B. W rite a balanced ch em ica l equation for the reaction of N a 3PO , w ith (a) an equal
n um ber of m oles of HCI, (b) tw ice as m any m oles of HCI, (c) th re e tim es as
m any m oles of HCI.
• Phdn Idn cdc phan ting acid ua base cd the duoc bao gom trong cdc phdn ilng
the dan vd doi cua muc 8.3.
• Cdc acid va cdc base quan trong den miic chl m ot thuat ngil hoc rieng dtfoc
phat trien quanh nhilng chdt ndy.
• Cdc carbonate, cdc muoi acid cdc anhydride vd acid anhydride base cd mot so
tinh chdt tuong tu nhu cdc base.
A. Viet vd cdn bdng phuong trinh phdn ilng cua H J$04 vd Ba(OH)2 cung nhu phuong
trinh ciia aicd hay base vai anhydride cua chdt kia vd phuong trinh cua hai anhydride.
B. Viet vd cdn bdng phuang trinh hda hoc phdn ilng cua N ojP 0 4 vai
(a) mdt so moi HCI bdng vdi sd moi cua NaPO.
(b) mot so moi HCI gap doi so moi NaPO
(c) mdt so moi HCI gap ba so moi NaPO,.
234
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
Cdc phdn dng cua cdc acid vai cdc kim loqi hoat dong dilqc xep vdo nhom phdn
tfng the dan dd ditqc ban trong doan 8.3. Cdc phdn tfng cua cdc acid vdi cdc base la
nhtfng phdn tfng the ddi cung dd dilqc ban trong doan 8.3. Tuy nhien, nhtfng phdn tfng
cua cdc acid vd cdc base quan trong den mtfc chdng co mot thuat ngit hqc dqc biet md
chung ta can biet.
Theo ly thuyet ca ban nhat cd lien quan den cdc acid vd base - thiec Arrhenius -
mot acid la mot hqp chdt cung cdp cdc ion hydro H ' cho mot dung dich ntfdc vd mot
base la mot hqp chdt cung cdp cdc ion hydroxide OH cho mot dung dich ntfdc. Ion hydro
khdng ton tai rieng le nhit dang H\ nhilng ben trong dung dich ntfdc a dang H f l \ vd
thitdng dtfqc bieu dien bdng H'(aq).
Trong quy trinh sa cdp cdc cong thtfc cua cdc aicd (vd khdng cd hqp chdt ndo khdc
ngoai tril nUdc vd hydro peroxide) duqc viet vdi nhtfng nguyen td hydro cd the oxy hda
trudc nhu trong HCI.
235
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
so acid, nhd acid acetic H C f l 30 f chl co nhdng nguyen tii hydro duqc biet trudc la c6
khd ndng bi ion hoa; cdc nguyen tii hydro khdc khong cho ra H ' trong dung dich.
Nhdng phdn dng quan trong nhdt cua cdc acid vd cdc base la phdn dng gida chung
vdi nhau de tao thdnh cdc muoi vd ndac:
M ot muoi la bat cd hap chdt ndo ciia mot cation khdc han H ' vai mot anion khdc
han OH~ hay 0 2~. (Td muoi trong dai song hang ngay co nghla sodium chloride, do chl
la mot vi du cua muoi theo dinh nghia ndy) Nhdng phdn dng nhu vay, thuc te Id nhdng
vi du d&c trUng cua cdc phan dng the doi, ddac goi la cdc phdn dng trung hda (h in h 8.7)
vi chung tao ra nhdng san pham trung tinh han la cdc acid hay cdc base. Trung tinh co
nghia la “khong co tinh acid cung khong co tinh base”.
Nhieu hap chdt rieng biet la cdc acid cd mot sd tinh chdt khdc khien cho chung
nguy hiem. Nhdng hap chdt nguy hiem do khien cho cdc acid cd mot tai tieng khong tdt
ddi vdi cdng chung. Vi du, L SD (lysergic acid diethylamide) la mot tac nhdn dnh hddng
den tdm than gdy ra do giac, nhdng tinh chdt ndy la tinh chdt phu so vdi bdt ky tinh
chdt acid ndo cua hap chdt. Acid sulfuric dam ddc, duac sd dung trong cdc binh dc quy
xe hai, la mot tac nhdn oxy hda manh vd la mot tac nhdn khd nude. M ot nhum dddng
duqc bo vdo trong acid sulfuric dam dac vi nhdng phdn td nUdc duqc keo ra khdi cdc
phdn tii duong, cdn lai la carbon (h in h 8.8):
C12H220 11(s ) — >l 2C( s) + l l H20(trong dung dich H2S 0 4) + H20 * nhi*t
Nitric acid dac biet la khi dam dac nhung ngay cd khi trong dung dich lodng, la
mot tac nhdn oxy hda manh khdc. Trdi lai, boric acid la m ot acid yeu den noi khi no
duqc sd dung trong dung dich de rda mdt bi nhiem khuan.
Tdt cd cdc acid cd chda hydro la nhdng hqp chdt cong hda tri khi chung khdng a
trong dung dich:
236
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
Do vdy nhilng phdn ting the doi se dien ra de tao thdnh cdc acid hay cdc base yeu
la nhilng hqp chdt chu yeu Id cong hoa tri ngay cd khi a trong dung dich ntfdc - nhtfng
nhilng phdn tfng ndy se khong dien ra de tqo thdnh cdc acid hay cdc base manh trong
dung dich nuac.
Cdc base cung cdp cdc ion hydroxide cho dung dich nUdc. Cdc hydroxide kim
loqi tan, bdng nhilng vi du la cdc hydroxide ciia cdc kim loqi kiem vd barium. Cdc
hydroxide kim loqi tan co tinh ion ngay cd khi chiing la nhtfng chdt rdn tinh khiet;
chiing gitf nguyen tinh chdt ion trong nUdc. Khi nhtfng chdt ndy duqc hda tan trong
ntfdc, cdc ion hydroxide tdch rdi hodn todn khdi cdc ion kim loai. M ot hydroxide kim
loqi tan la m ot base manh. M o t base yeu khong bi ion hoa 100%. Amoniac la base
yeu thong d u n g nhdt, no phdn tfng vdi nUdc a mot mtfc do nhd de tqo ra cdc ion
hydroxide:
Vi du neu 1,00 moi N H 3 duqc hda tan trong mot lit nUdc chi cd 0,004 moi N H 4* vd
0,004 moi O H * se cd mat. Phdn idn (0,996 moi) N H 3 cdn lai trong dang phdn til ciia no.
Cdc acid yeu vd cdc base yeu phdn tfng vdi ntfdc d mot mtfc do nhd nhung chiing
phdn tfng vdi cdc acid hay cdc base manh, hau nhu la hodn todn:
Cdc acid cd the phdn tfng vdi cdc kim loqi hoat dong han hydro (xem bang 8.2) de
tqo ra mot muoi vd khi hydro:
Vi du:
237
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
Cdc anhydrite cd tinh acid cd the phdn ilng trtic tiep vdi cdc base, cdc anhydrite co
tinh base co the phdn ilng true tiep vai cdc acid. Cung mot thii muoi duac tqo ra nhu
phdn ilng giUa acid vd base.
Cdc anhydrite cd tinh acid vd cdc anhydrite cd tinh base tham chi con cd the phdn
ilng vdi nhau trong mot phdn ilng ket hqp:
238
Topic & - Chemical reactions
M ot chdt nhu vdy duqc goi Id mot muoi acid. Ten cua hqp chdt bao gom ttf hydro
de chl ra thuc te la co mot hay nhieu nguyen tii hydro co the oxy hoa vdn cdn lai. Tiep
ddu ngd mono- hay di- co the duqc sii dung khi cdn thiet de chl ra la co bao nhieu
nguyen tii hydro dang hien dien:
Trong he thong danh sdch cu, tit acid dd ditqc sii dung de chi mot muoi acid. Tiep
ddu ngU di- dd duqc sii dung cho mot acid nila trung hda md nguyen Id co chiia hai
nguyen tii hydro co the ion hoa. Theo do sodium bicarbonate vd sodium acid carbonate
la nhilng ten goi khdc dd dtfqc sii dung cho NaHCOr
Trong anion ciia mot muoi acid, so nguyen ttf hydro cong vdi do Idn cua dien tich
tren ion bdng do Idn ciia dien tich tren oxoanion vd cung bdng vdi sd nguyen til hydro
trong acid:
H P 0 4 ~ mot nguyen tii hydro cong vdi hai dien tich dm bdng 3.
H 2P 0 4 hai nguyen ttf hydro cong vdi mot dien tich dm bdng 3
Cdc carbonate cd phdn tfng the doi vdi cdc acid de tqo thdnh carbon dioxide vd
ntfdc hay carbonate acid tuy vdo luqng tuong doi cua acid duqc them vdo.
Carbon dioxide la mot anhydride co tinh acid, cd the phdn tfng vdi mot base de tqo
thdnh mot carbnonate hay mot carbonate acid.
239
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
Do vdy nude nhiiu giot xuong tU tran cua mot thach ddng cd the Idng ddng them
C a C 0 3 nhu mot hat rdt nho, vd qua mot thdi dai cd the tao thanh nhilng thach nhu vd
nhilng mang dd (hinh 8.9b).
Cdc carbonate acid cd phdn Ung the ddi vdi cdc acid hay cdc base, lam trung hda
chung.
NaHC0 3 (aq) + HCl(aq) - » NaCl(aq) + H2CX t ) + C 0 2 (g)
NaHCOj(aq) + NaOH(aq) - » Na 2 C 0 3 (aq) + H2CX f )
Nhilng kieu phdn Ung ndy duqc tdm tdt trong hinh 8.10.
8.1 Assign the following types to one of the five classes of reactions presented in
Section 8.3:
Reactants Products
8.3 Which, if any, of the common acids exist completely in the form of ions (a) in
aqueous solution and (b) as a pure compound?
8.4 Explain how to recognize that 0 2 and ZnO will not react with each other in a
single substitution reaction.
8.5 Are oxides of reactive metals or oxides of unreactive metals more likely to de
compose into their two elements when heated?
8.6 Which table in this chapter should be used when working with single substitu
tion reaction, and which ones with double substitution reactions?
8.9 What type of reaction is the following? What are the products 7
240
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
8.13 Write a balanced chemical equation for each of the following reactions:
(a) S 0 2(g) + Cl2(g) S 0 2CI2( t )
(b) S 0 2(g) + P C ls(s) - * SO CI2( c ) + POCI3( r )
8.16 Give two reasons why the following reaction produces products:
8.17 Consider the reaction of aqueous chlorine with aqueous calcium iodide.
(a) Identify the reaction type.
(b) Write correct formulas for all reactants and products.
(c) Write a balanced equation.
8.18 Do the classes of reactions described in Section 8.3 include all possible types
of chemical reactions?
8.19 Can a single substitution reaction occur between an element and a compound
of that same element?
8.20 Can a double substitution reaction occur between two compounds containing one
ion in common?
8.21 ist the number of atoms of each element in the given number of formula units:
(a) 4KN 03 (b) 5 P 40 6
(c) 2 S r(C I0 4)2 (d) 5 C u S 0 4-5H 20
(e) 3 (N H 4) 2S 0 4
241
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
8.25 (a) If one molecule of P 4 reacts with fluorine gas according to the following
equation, how many molecules of PFS will be produced?
P 4(s) + 10 F 2(g )-> 4 PF 5(g)
(b) If 1.00 moi of P 4 reacts with fluorine gas according to the equation, how
many moles of P F 5 will be produced?
242
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
8 29 B alance the equ atio n for each of the follow ing reactions:
(a) Li(s) + 0 2(g) -► Li20 (s )
Oxide
(b) Na(s) + 0 2(g) Na 20 2(s)
Peroxide
(c) K(s) + 0 2(g) -► KO?(s)
Superoxide
8.30 W rite a b alan ced e q u atio n for the reaction of aqu eo us c o p p e r(ll) nitrate with
aqu eo us sodium iodide to produce solid co p p e r(l) iodide plus aqueous iodine
plus aqu eo us so dium nitrate.
8.31 W rite a b alan ced ch e m ica l equation for each of the fo llo w in g reactions:
(a) A queous lithium hydroxide plus phosphoric acid yields lithium phosphate plus
w ater.
(b) A queous a m m onium sulfate plus barium brom ate yields barium sulfate plus
am m on ium brom ate.
(c) Solid su lfu r plus fluorine gas yields liquid su lfur hexafluoride.
(d) A queous m agnesium hydrogen carbonate plus h ydrochloric acid yields m ag
nesium chlo rid e plus cca rb o n dioxide plus w ater.
8.32 B alance the e q u atio n for each of the follow ing reactions:
(a) Sodium m etal plus oxygen gas produces sodium peroxide.
(b) Potassium m etal plus oxygen produces potassium superoxide.
(c) M agnesium m etal plus oxygen produces m agnesium oxide
8 33 W rite a b alan ced ch e m ica l equation for each of the follow ing reactions:
(a) Lithium m etal w hen heated with nitrogen gas reacts to produce solid lithium
nitride.
(b) W ater reacts w ith potassium m etal to produce aqueous potassium h yd ro x
ide and hydrogen gas. (Caution: This reaction is potentially explosive.)
(c) A queous p otassium hydroxide reacts with gaseous carbon dioxide to pro
duce aqu eo us potassium hydrogen carbonate.
(d) Solid m ag ne sium sulfite decom poses on heating to produce solid m agne
sium oxide and su lfu r dioxide gas.
(e) Butane gas (C 4H10) bum s in excess oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and
w ater.
8.34 B a lan ce the e q u atio n for each of the follow ing reactions:
(a) N 0 2(g) — — — » N 20 4 ( f )
243
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
BaC I 2 + N a 2C 0 3 -» B a C 0 3 + 2 N aC l
8.36 W rite a b alan ced e q u atio n fo r the reaction o f (a) c o b a lt w ith H C I(aq) to form a
c o b a lt(ll) co m p ou nd and (b) co b a lt w ith ch lo rin e to form a c o b a lt(lll) com pound.
8.37 C om ple te and b alan ce each of the fo llo w in g equ atio ns:
8.39 W rite tw o b alan ced e qu atio ns fo r the possible rea ction s of H 2S 0 3 w ith NaOH.
8.40 T able 8.3 sta te s th a t m ost s u lfid e s are in so lu b le in w ater. W h ic h su lfides are
so lu ble ?
8.41 C om p le te and balan ce a ch e m ica l equ atio n fo r each of the fo llo w in g reactions:
8.42 C om ple te and balan ce an equ atio n fo r each of the fo llo w in g c h e m ic a l reactions:
(a) P roduction of co p p e r(l) chloride from its e lem ents
(b) P roduction of co p p e r(l) oxide from its elem ents
(c) Ethane (C 2H6) plus lim ited oxygen
(d) C alcium chlo rid e plus silver nitrate
(e) C hloric acid plus barium hydroxide
8.43 W rite a b alan ced equ atio n for the reaction of b ro m in e w ith (a) an a lka li metal
and (b) an a lka lin e earth m etal.
244
Topic & Chemical reactions
8.49 W rite tw o b alan ced e qu atio ns for the possible rea ction s o f toluene, C 7H8, with
o xygen.
245
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
8.58 C om ple te and balance each of the follow ing equ atio ns:
(a) S 0 3(g) + N a 20 (s )
(b) S 0 2(g) + N aO H (aq) ->
(c) S 0 2(g) + Na 20 (s ) -►
8.60 W rite balanced e qu atio ns for two p ossible rea ction s of o xalic a cid (H 2C 20 4) with
pota ssium h ydroxid e (lim ited and excess).
8.61 State four d iffe re n t w ays that Z nC I 2 can be pre pa re d, sta rtin g w ith H C I(aq) plus
o the r reagents.
8.65 Solid C a C 0 3 "d isso lve s" in e xcess H C I(aq). W rite an e q u a tio n fo r the reaction.
D escribe w ha t you w ould e xpe ct to see durin g th is reaction.
246
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
8.73 N e ith e r CO nor N 20 reacts w ith w ater under norm al cond itio ns. W h a t is unusual
a bo ut that lack of rea ctivity?
247
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
8 77 W hat p ro du cts are expe cted from the reaction of a m m o n iu m c h lo rid e and barium
hydroxid e? W rite an equation fo r the reaction.
8.78 C om ple te and balance each of the fo llo w in g equ atio ns.
(a) F eB r 3(s) + C l 2(g) -►
(b) FeC I 2(s) + C l 2(g) ->
(c) F eB r 2(s) + C l 2(g, excess) -►
8.80 E xplain w hy the S o lvay pro cess is used instead of the fo llo w in g reaction:
C a C 0 3 + 2 N aC l -► C aC I 2 + N a 2C 0 3
248
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
249