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C H A U V A N TRUNG
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HO A HOC
N H A X U A T B A N G I A O T H O N G V A N TAI
T I E N G A P iH C f f l J Y E N N G A N H
KS. C H A U V A N TR U N G
CHUYEN NGANH
&
(Basic English for Chemistry)
N H A X U A T B A N G IA O T H O N G V A N T A I
LUYEN KY NANG DOC HIEU
& DICH
■
THUAT
■
TIENG ANH CHUYEN NGANH
HOA HOC
Chau Van Trung
Chiu track nhiem xuat ban

TS N G U YEN XUAN THUY
Bien tap
NGO THANH LOAN
Sita ban in
THANH LOAN
Bia
LAM VU
NHA XUAT RAlfGIAO THONG VAN TAI
In 700 cuon, kho 16 x 24cm tai Nha in Thanh Nien, 62 Tran Huy
Lieu - Q.PN-TP. HCM - DT : 8440038 - 8445308. Giay phep xuit
ban so 230/XB-QLXB do Cue Xuat ban cap ngay 3/03/2005. Giay
trich ngang so 70/XB ngay 05/9/2005. In xong v& nop luu chieu qui
IV n&m 2005.
LCJl n o i d a u
TrUdc nhufng p h it trien khoa hpc d iin ra h in g ng^y vdi mpt toe dp chdng
m3t tren the gidi, nhu cau n im b it, tim hieu tiep can nhufng thcinh ti/u n iy
la nhu cau cap thiet nhat. Tuy nhien gidi sinh vien hoc sinh cung nhu nhQng
ngifdi lim cong t ic khoa hpc doi luc v ln con bj rao c in ngon ngO che c h in
nhat l i Tieng Anh khoa hpc.
De d ip ufng nhu cau dpc hieu tieng anh khoa hoc cd b in , chung toi bien
soan quyen "Tieng Anh chuyen nganh Hoa hpc" n^y.
Sich gom 20 chu diem trinh bay nhOng k h ii nipm, dinh nghTa djnh
luat c3n b in ve Hoa hoc. Md dau mdi chu diem co phan gidi thipu muc dfch
yeu c iu , phan bo cuc b in g tieng Anh va hudng d in doc hieu b ln g tieng Vipt,
ke tiep la c ic noi dung c3n b in co chufa trong chu diem. De ren ky nSng doc
hieu tieng Anh Hoa hpc, sau m6i npi dung trong diem chung toi co phan chu
g iii tC/ vi/ng va bai dich m lu - cuoi chu diem la phan bai tap thi/c hanh. Cuoi
sich cd phan phu luc danh muc tCf vi/ng tieng Anh Hoa hoc n h im giup ban
dpc hp thong hoa cac thuat ngO chuyen nganh can thiet.
Bi/dc dau, du het sufc cd g in g nhi/ng sich khong kh6i trin h dupe nhufng
sai sdt ngoai y muon; rat mong nhan di/pc nhufng gop y chan tinh cua ban doc.
T a c g ia . v a n h o m CQng ta c
BA5IC CONCEPTS
cAc khAi miCm co bAm
Mgc BICH y £u cAu - O b je ctiv es b6 CUC - L a y o u t
1.1 To classify m a tter into types to 1.1 Classification of Matter

m ake the w e ath o f information
1.2 Properties
about m a tter m anageable
1.3 Matter and Energy
1 .2 To use pro p erties to help identify
substances 1.4 Chemicall Symbols
1 .3 To distingguish b etw een m atter 1.5 The Periodic table

and e n e rg y, as w e ll as am ong
1.6 Laws. Hypotheses, and Theories
m atter, mass, and w e ig h t
1 .4 To w rite sym bols for the im p o r

tant e lem en ts and names o f these
elem en ts from the symbols
1 .5 To begin to classify the elem ents

in a systematic manner. To identifu
periods, groups, and sections of
the p eriodic table by nam es ans
num ber
1 .6 To d is tin g g u is h am ong la w s ,
hypothess, and thearies
Jiudng ddn doc hieu muc dich yeu cau vd bo cuc
1.1 Phdn loqi vat chat thanh tiCng loqi de tqo ra thong tin vat lieu phong phu,
1 .2 D ung tinh chat de giup xdc dinh vdt chdt, 1.3 Phdn biet giUa vdt chdt vd ndng
luqng cung nhu vat chdt, khdi luqng vd trong luqng, 1.4 Viet ky hieu cho nguyen to
quan trong vd ten cua nhitng nguyen to tit cdc ky hieu, 1 .5 Loqi cdc nguyen to trong
m 6 t he thong phdn loqi de xdc dinh chu ky, phdn nhom vd chia nho bang phdn loqi
bai ten vd so, 1 .6 Phdn biet giQa cdc quy ludt, gid thuyet vd ly thuyet.
1.1 Phdn loqi vdt lieu, 1.2 Tinh chat, 1.3 Vat chat vd ndng luqng, 1.4 K y hieu
hoa hoc, 1 .5 Bang he thong tudn hoan cdc nguyen to, 1 .6 Cdc quy ludt, gid thuyet vd
cdc ly thuyet.
7
Topic I: /insic concepts
Introduction to chemistry
C hem istry is the study of m atter and energy M atter includes all the m aterial things
in the universe In S ection 1 1 . you will learn to classify m atter into various ty p e s —
elem ents com pounds, and m ixtures based on com position P ro p e rtie s-th e characteris
tics by w hich sam ples of m atter may be identified are discu ssed in Section 1 2
E nergy m ay be defined as the ability to do work. W e often ca rry out chem ical
reactions for the sole purpose of changing energy from one form to a n o th e r for ex
ample, we pay large sum s of m oney for fuels to burn in our hom es or cars The re la
tionship betw een energy and m atter, an im portant one for ch em ists, is explore d in S e c
tion 1 3
S ym b ols in tro d u ce d in S e ction 1.4, are used to re p re s e n t the e le m e n ts The
perio d ic table, in tro d u ce d in S e ction 1 5, groups e le m e n ts w ith s im ila r p ro p e r ties
C he m ica l sym b o ls and the p erio d ic table are both d e s ig n e d to d e c re a s e the e ffo rt
required to learn a great deal of ch em istry S ection 1 6 p re se n ts s c ie n tific law s h y
potheses. and th e o rie s that g en eralize and explain natural p he n o m e n a
For convenience, ch em istry is often divided into the follow ing five su b -d is c ip lin e s
organic chem istry, inorganic chem istry, analytical chem istry, p hysi-ca l c h e m is try and
b iochem istry O rganic chem istry deals with m ost com pounds of carbon T hese c o m
pounds are introduced syste m a tically in C hapter 19. Inorganic chem istry deals with
all the elem ents and with com pounds that are not defined as o rganic A n alytical c h e m
istry involves finding w hich elem ents or com pounds are p re sen t in a sam ple or how
m uch of each is pre sen t Physical chem istry deals with the p ro pe rtie s e sp e cia lly q u a n
titative (m easurable) pro pe rtie s of substances Biochem istry deals w ith the ch e m istry
of living things
These su bd ivision s of ch em istry are som ew hat arbitrary A ch em ist s p e cia lizin g in
any one of the first four subdivisions uses all of the first four and often b io ch e m istry as
well A b iochem ist uses all five specializations For exam -ple, the m odern o rganic c h e m
ist often uses inorganic com pounds to convert starting m aterials to d e sire d p ro du cts
and then analyzes the products and m ea-sures their p roperties In addition m any o r
ganic chem ists now are investigating com pounds of biological interest
The im portance of science in general and of ch em istry in p articula r in our e v e ry
day lives can hardly be overstated For exam ple, color television, c o m p ute rs and the
modern copy m achines all stem from chem ical advances of the past few d eca de s (Color
TV requires co m p ou nd s that glow intensely in red blue or green w hen b om b a rd e d
with electron beam s The m odern com puter w orks with ch ip s m ade from sp e c ia lly
treated m etalloids. Copy m achines require m aterials that "re m e m b e r’ how m uch light
has fallen on them .) However, today s and tom orrow s chem ists are still faced w ith m o n u
m ental tasks cleaning up the e nviro n m e nt and p roviding su ffic ie n t food for an e v e r
growing w orld population to m ention just two.
Table 1.1 C lassification of M atter
Pure substances
Kl oments
C o mp o un d s Mixtures
Het erogeneous mixtures
Ho mo ge n e o u s mixtures ' soluti ons)
8
Topic 1: Basic concepts
Chu thich tCf - cum t£f va huong dan dpc hieu

- O rganic ch e m istry: hda In7a co - Physical ch em istry: hda ly
- In orga n ic ch e m istry: hda vd co - B iochem istry: hda sinlt
- A n a ly tic a l ch e m is try : hoa phan licit
Nhap mon hoa hoc

Hoa hoc la stf nghien ctfu ve vat chat va ndng htqng. Vat chat bao gom tat cd cdc
vat lieu trong vu tru. Trong muc 1.1 ban se hoc cach phdn loqi vat chat thanh cac dang
khac nhau nhu nguyen to, hap chat, lion hap dtfa tren cdc thanh phan. Tinh chat, dac
tinh cua vat chat co the dtfqc xdc dinh vd lliao luan trong muc 1.2 .
Ndng luqng cd the ditqc xdc dinh bdi Itlid ndng thtfc luen cong. Chung ta thildng
thtfc hieu phdn ling hoa hoc dp (hay doi ndng htqng lit dang nay sang dang khac, vi du.
chung ta trd mot so lien Ian mua nltien lieu de dot trong sinh lioqt gia dinh vd trong xe
hoi. Mdi quan lie giita ndng htqng vd vat chat rat quan trong trong lioa hoc ditqc gidi
thich trong muc 1.3.
Cdc ky hieu ditqc gidi thieu trong muc 1.4 ditqc stf dung de mo ta cdc nguyen to
hoa hoc. Bang phdn loqi ditqc gidi thieu trong muc 1.5. nhom nguyen to vdl cdc tinh
chat titang ling. Cd hat ky liieu lioa hoc vd bang phdn loai ditqc thiet lap de gidm no
hie dtfqc yen can de nghien ciiu mot so htqng Ion hoa chat. Muc 1.6 gidi thieu cdc quy
ludt, gid thiet, ly thuyet khoa hoc de long qudt lioa rd giai tliicli hien htqng til nhien.
De cho tliiidn hen. hoa hoc ditqc cltia thanh ndm nhom: hoa ln?u co. lioa cd ca, lioa
phdn licit, hoa ly i d hoa sinh. Iloa hitu co lien quan den hdu hel cdc hop chat cua car
bon. nhilng hop chat nay se ditqc gidi thieu trong chitong 19. Hoa vd, co hen quan den
phdn Ion cdc nguyen to id cdc hop chat ina Ithong phai Id chat hitu co. Hoa phdn tich Id
tiin cdc nguyen to hay cdc hop chat cd trong mau hoac dinh litqng chung. Hoa ly lien
quan den so tinh chat (do litdng) tinh chat cua cdc chat. Hoa sinh lien quan den hoa hoc
cua sinh vat.
Stf phdn cltia mon hoc nay cd sit ngau nhien. Mot chuyen gia hoa hoc chuyen ve
mot trong bon nganh dau tien cd the dp dung ditqc bon nganh dau tien va cd nganh hoa
sinh. Mot chuyen gia hoa sinh sii dung ndm nganh hoa tren. Vi du, mot nha hoa hu'u co
luen dqi tlutong sit dung cdc hop chat co ca de chuyen hoa cat chat thanh san pham
niong muon vd sau do phdn tich san pham va xdc dinh tinh chat cua chung. Trong sit
cdng them do, bay gio nhieu nha lioa lit?u co lai nghien ciiu cdc hop clidt cua cdc sinh
cat ditqc quan tdm.
Sit quan trong cua khoa hoc noi chung cd ciia hoa hoc noi n en g trong cuoc song
hang ngay kho cd the noi het ditqc. Vi du, ti vi mau. M ay vi tinh vd may sao cliep luen
dqi, tat cd deu xuat phdt tit stf phat tnen cua hoa hoc trong vai thap ky qua. (Ti vi mdu
doi lioi hop chat cd ctfdng do mdu do, xanlt Id hay mdu xanh da trdi khi bdn phd chum
tut electron. May tinh luen dqi lain d ec edi "chip" ditqc lam lit cdc cat hen dqc biet 1a a
kim. May sao chep. dot hoi cat lieu cd the "nha” ditqc bao nhieu anh sang rcri tren chung.
Tuy nhien. cdc nha hoa hoc horn nay vd titang lai can dang dot mat edi nluem vu Ian
do Id lam sach moi trtfdng cd cung cap du tlutc pham cho sit gia tang dan so the gidi '
a
Chu diem 1.1: Classification of Matter________________________________
M atter is defined as anything that has m ass and occupies space All the m ate rials
in the world are com posed of a few more than a hundred elem ents. E lem ents are the
sim p lest form of m atter and cannot be broken dow n ch e m ic a lly into s im p le r stable
substances. They can be thought of as building blocks for everythin g in the universe
The sam e elem ents that m ake up the Earth also m ake up the M oon, as show n by
actual analysis of Moon sam ples. M oreover, indirect evidence obtained from analysis
of light from stars shows that the rest of the universe is com posed of the sam e e le
m ents.
C learly the num ber of d ifferent com binations of elem ents m ust be huge to get all
the varieties of m atter in the universe. But elem ents can com bine in only tw o fu nd a
m entally differen t ways: by physical changes to form m ixtures or by ch em ica l changes
to produce com pounds. C hem ical changes, also called chem ical reactions, change
the com position (or structure) of a substance. Physical changes do not alter the co m
position. The breaking of glass into sm all pieces is an exam ple of a physical change.
The glass still has the sam e com position and the sam e p’roperties as before, but its
external form is changed. The burn-ing of charcoal (m ostly carbon) in air (or in pure
oxygen) to get carbon dioxide, a colorless gas, is an exam ple of a ch em ica l reaction.
Not only the form of the m aterial but also its com position has changed. The gas has
both carbon and oxygen in it, but the charcoal had no oxygen.
If a sam ple of m atter cannot be broken down into sim pler su bsta nce s by ordinary
chem ical m eans, the sam ple is an elem ent. [O rdinary ch em ica l m eans in clu de s any
m ethods except nuclear reactions (C hapter 20).] An elem ent has a definite set of p ro p
erties. A com pound is a c h e m ica l co m b in a tion of e le m e n ts th at has its own set of
properties and a d efin ite com position. For exam ple, pure w ater o btained from any
natural source contains 88.8% oxygen and 11.2% hydrogen by m ass C om pounds can
be separated into their constitu en t elem ents only by chem ical reaction
Snapshot Review - On tap nhanh

*- We classify m atter so that we can learn the general properties of each type to
enable us to a nsw er specific questions about individual sam ples
*■ All substances have definite com positions.
A. Does the com pound hydrogen peroxide have a definite c o m p o sitio n 7
• Chung ta phdn loqi vat chat de cd the nghien ciiu cac tinh chat chung cua tung
loqi nham cung cap cho chung ta cau tra lai nhUng cau lioi ve cdc mau rieng biet
• Tat cd cdc chat cd thanh phdn xac dinh
A. Cd phdi liqp chat hydrogen peroxide cd mot thanh phan xdc dinh khong f
Chu thich tQ - cum to va hifdng dan dpc hieu

- chem ical changes: cdc thay doi hda hoc
- chem ical reactions: cdc phan ting hoa hoc
- physical changes: cdc thay doi vat ly
- compound: hap chat
- d e fin ite com position: cac thanh phdn, cdc hon hap xdc dinh
10
Phan loai vat chat

Vat chat la tat cd cdc vat cd khoi luqng chiem cho trong khdng gian. Tat cd cdc vdt
lieu tren the gidi duac tqo ra ti/ it ham 100 nguyen to. Cdc nguyen to dan gian nhat cua
vdt chat thi khdng the phdn chia thanh cdc nguyen to dan gian lion, chat on dinh. Chung
cd the duac nghi la cdc thanh phdn ca ban tqo nen moi thit trong vu tru. Cdc nguyen to
cung loqi tqo nen trai dal cung tqo nen mat trang, duac cluing minh bai phdn tich thtfc
te cua mau vdt lieu tren mat trang. Ilan the ni2a, bang cluing gian tiep dat duac tit stf
phdn tich anh sang cua cdc ngoi sao cluing minh rang phan con lai cua vu tru dtfqc tqo
ra cung tit cdc nguyen to gidng nhtf d tren.
Ro rang so Itfong cua stf kit hap khac nhau cua cdc nguyen to la rat Idn de tqo nen
stf khac nhau cua vat chat trong vu tru. Nhtfng cdc nguyen to cd the ket hap tlieo hai
cach ca ban sau: bang cdch thay doi vat ly de tqo thanh hon hap hodc thay dot hda hoc
de tqo thdnli hap chat. Stf thay doi hoa hoc dtfqc goi la phdn ting hda hoc, lam thay doi
thanh phdn cau true cua vat chat. Stf thay doi vat ly khdng lam thay doi thanh phdn
hda hoc. Stf va gitang tqo thanh nhtfng mieng nho la mot vl du cua stf thay doi vat ly.
Guang (kinh) van cd tlianh phdn vd tinh chat nhtf tritdc do nhUng hinh dang ben ngoai
bi thay doi. Sit dot chdy than (lidu het la carbon) trong khdng khi (hoac trong oxy tinh
khiet) de tqo nen cacbon dioxit, mot khi khong mdu 1a mot vi du cua mot phdn tfng hda
hoc. No khdng chi lam thay doi vdt chat md con lam thay doi cd thanh phdn. Khi sinh
ra cd cd carbon vd oxy. con than tlii khdng cd oxy.
Neu mot mdu vat chat khdng the vd ra tlianh cdc chat dan gian hon bai cdc phtfang
phdp hda hoc thong thtfdng, mdu la mot nguyen to [phtfang phdp hda hoc thong thtfdng
gom bat ctf phtfang phdp nao ngoqi trit phdn tfng hat nhan (chi/cfng 2 0 )/ Mot nguyen to
cd mot so tinh chat xdc dinh. Mot hop chat la mot stf kit hap hda hoc cua cdc nguyen to
cd cdc tinh chat vd thanh phan xdc dinli. Vi du, ntfdc tinh khiet trong thiin nhien chtfa
88 ,8% oxy va 11,2Vc ve khdi luqng. Hap chat cd the ditqc tach ra thanh cdc nguyen to chi
bdng phtfang phdp hda hoc.
Chu diem 1.2: Properties
Every su bsta nce has a definite set of properties. Properties are the characteris-tics
by w hich we can ide ntify som ething. For exam ple, we know that pure w ater is a co lo r
less, odorless, ta ste le ss substance that is a liquid under the conditions usually found
in an o rdinary room W ater puts out fires, and it dissolves sugar and salt. Liquid w ater
can be changed into a gas (called w ater vapor or steam ) by heating it, or into a solid
(ice) by cooling it. Salt has a d ifferent set of properties than w ater does; sugar has yet
another set
C h em ical p ro perties are the ch a ra cte ristic w ays a su bsta nce can react to p ro
duce o the r su b sta n ce s Physical properties are the ways a su bstance can be id e n ti
fied w ithout ch a n g in g its ch aracte ristic com position. For exam ple, w ater can react with
very active m eta ls to produce hydrogen and a nother com pound. T hat rea ctivity is a
ch em ica l p ro pe rty of w ater. W ater can also freeze to ice at 0°C (equal to 32°F) or it
can e vaporate to w ater vapor, n either of w hich changes it from H20 . T hese are p h y s i
cal pro pe rtie s of w ater.
Som e p ro p e rtie s of a sam ple of a substance depend on the q uantity of the sam ple
These p ro p e rtie s are called extensive properties. For exam ple, the w eight of a solid
sam ple d ep en ds on how m uch of the substance is present. O ther p roperties, such as
II
color and taste, do not depend on how m uch is present These properties are know n
as intensive properties. Intensive properties are m uch m ore u sefu l for ide ntifyin g sub
stances
Som e of the m ost im portant intensive p roperties that ch e m ists use to ide ntify s u b
stances are ones that they m easure: they are called q u a ntita tive p ro p e rtie s T w o such
p ro pe rtie s are the free zing point and the norm al boiling p o in t of a s u b s ta n c e w hich
are the te m p era ture s at w hich a liquid freezes to form a solid and boils to form a gas
under norm al a tm o sph e ric co nditions, respectively. W e w ill d is cu ss q u a n tita tive p ro p e r
ties in m ore detail in C ha pter 2.
W e can d istin gu ish co m p ou nd s from m ixtures because of c o m p o u n d s 's c h a ra c te r
istic properties. M ixtures have p roperties like those of their co n s titu e n ts The m ore of
a given co m p on en t p re sen t in a m ixture, the more the m ixtu re 's p ro p e rtie s w ill resem ble
those of that co m ponent. For exam ple, the m ore sugar we put into a gla ss of w ater,
the sw ee te r is the solution that is produced
An e xp e rim e n t w ill illustrate how properties are used to d is tin g u is h b etw e en a c o m
pound and a m ixture. W e place sm all sam ples of iron filings and p o w de red su lfur on
separate w atch g la sses to in ve stiga te th e ir properties. W e note th a t both are solids
We place the sa m p le s in separate te st tubes and then hold a m ag ne t b eside the first
tube. W e find that the iron is attracted to the m agnet. W hen we hold the m agnet next
to the tube w ith the sulfur, nothing happens; the su lfur is not attracte d by the m agnet
W hen we pour carbon disulfide, a colorless, flam m able liquid, on the sul fur sam ple
the solid sulfur disappears, and the liquid turns yellow. The sulfur has dissolved, form ing
a solution w ith the carbon disu lfide W hen we pour carbon d isu lfide on the iron n o th
ing happens; the iron stays solid, and the liquid stays co lo rle ss If we had large pieces
of each elem ent, we could pound them with a ham m er and find that the su lfu r is brittle
and easily pow dered but that the iron does not easily break into sm all p ieces Iron is
m alleable that is, it can be pounded into various shapes. T able 1.2 lists the p ro pe rtie s
discussed so far of the two elem ents.
N ext we pour som e iron filings and som e pow dered su lfur into a large test tube
and stir them together. The sam ple appears to be a dirty yellow , but if we look closely,
we can see ye llo w sp ecks and black specks. If we hold a m ag ne t next to the test tube,
the black p article s (with som e yellow par-ticles clinging to them ) are a ttracte d by the
m agnet W hen we pour som e carbon d isulfide on the sam ple, the liquid tu rn s yellow
We pour off that liq uid and pour on m ore carbon d is u lfid e u ntil no ye llo w so lid re
m ains in the sam ple W hen we evaporate the carbon disu lfide in a fum e hood we get
a yellow solid again If we place a m agnet next to the black m aterial left in the large
test tube, we find that it is attracted to the m agnet It seem s that m ixing the tw o sa m p le s
Table 1.2 Some Properties of Iron, Sulfur, and an Iron-Sulfur Compound
Iron Sulfur Iron-Sulfur Com pound

S olid S o lid S o lid
S h iny Dull Dull
M agnetic N o t m agnetic Y e llo w
Black N o t m agnetic B lack
M a lle a b le B r ittle B r ittle
Insoluble in carbon Soluble in carbon Insoluble in carbon
d isu lfid e d isu lfid e d is u lfid e
12
of elem ents has not changed their properties. The sulfur is still yellow and still soluble
in carbon d isu lfide ; the iron is still black and still m agnetic. The two ele m e n ts have
retained th eir p ro pe rtie s and their identities; they are still elem ents. This com bination
of the two is a m ixture. A m ixture does not have a d efin ite co m p ositio n, and it has
properties related to the properties of its com ponents.
Now we place two new, carefully m easured sam ples of iron filings and pow dered
sulfur in another large test tube and heat the m ixture strongly with a Bunsen burner.
After a tim e, a red glow appears in the bottom of the tube and gradually spreads th ro ug h
out the sample. This is evidence of a chem ical reaction. Some sulfur escapes into the
gas phase because of the heat and then deposits on the test tube wall. A black solid
results from the chem ical reac tion. W hen we rem ove the solid from the test tube (we
may have to break the tube to get it out), we can pulverize the solid with a ham m er that
is. it is brittle. If we try to dissolve the m aterial in carbon disulfide, it does not dissolve. If
we bring the m agnet close to it, it is not attracted. This m aterial has its own set of prop
erties: a dull black color, brittleness, insolubility in carbon disulfide, lack of attraction to a
magnet. It is a com pound a chem ical com bination of iron and sulfur.

*- E xtensive p ro pe rtie s depend on how m uch sam ple is present; intensive p ro p
erties do not
Intensive pro pe rtie s are useful for identifying substances.
Each su bsta nce has its own characteristic set of properties.
A C on side r the statem ent: “There is 1 liter (L) of colorless soda in the can." W hich
of the two pro pe rtie s is intensive and w hich is extensive?
B. A ce rta in fa m ilia r su bstance freezes at 0°C. Does this pro pe rty help ide ntify
the substa nce ?
• ('dc tinh chat bao quat phu thudc vdo so Itfong mdu (long cd; con cac tinh chat
tang ctfdng thi khong.
• Cac tinh chat tang ctfdng hi'tu dung trong viec nhdn biet cdc clidt.
• Moi chat cd tap hop cdc dqc tinh cua rieng no.
A. Khdo sat rnenh de "Co 1 lit (I) soda khdng mdu trong thung chtfa". Tinh chat
nao trong hai tinh chat Id tinh chat tang ctfdng vd tinh chat nao la tinh chat
bao quat?
B. M ot chat quen thuoc dong dqc tai 0°C. Tinh chat nay cd giup nhdn biet chat do
hay khdng?
Chu thich to - cum to va hUdng dan dpc hieu

heterogeneous m ixtures: hon hop di the - substances: cdc chat
homogeneous m ixtures: lion hop dong the - solutions: cdc dung dich
- physical properties: cac tinh chcit vdt ly - m ixtures: cdc hon hop
- chem ical properties: cdc tinh chat lioa hoc - m alleable: cd the uon cong
- exten sive p roperties: cdc tinh chat long quat - properties: cdc tinh chat
- in te n s iv e properties: cdc tinh chat tang ctfdng - dissolved: hda tan. phdn gidi
- q u a n tita tiv e properties: cdc tinh chat
ve dinh luqng
13
Topic !: Basic concepts
Tinh chat
Moi chat cd moi so tinh chat xdc dinh. Tinh chat la cac dqc tinh ma chung ta cd the
nhdn ra dtfqc. Vi du, chung ta biet ntfdc tinh khiet khdng co mdu, khdng rnui, khdng vi
va d dang long trong dieu kien thtfdng (phdng). Ntfdc dap tdt Ida, no hda tan dtfdng va
muoi. Ntfdc cd the chuyen doi thanh hoi (dtfqc goi la hoi ntfdc) khi cung cap nhiet, hay d
dang rdn (da) khi lam lanh. Muoi cd tinh chat khac ntfdc, dtfdng cung cd tinh chat neng.
Tinh chat hda hoc Id dac tinh ma mot chat cd the phdn ilng de tqo thanh san pham
la mot chat khac. Tinh chat vat ly la cach ma mot chat cd the dtfqc nhdn ra ma khdng
lam thay doi thanh phan dac trtfng cua no. Vi du, ntfdc cd the phan tfng vdi rat nhieu
kim. loai hoqt dong de tqo thanh hydro vd hqp chat khac. Hoat tinh do la mot tinh chat
lioa hoc cua ntfdc. Ntfdc cd the llidrih dd d 0 "C (bang 32"F) hay no cd the bay hot thanh
hoi ntfdc ma khdng lam thay doi thanh phan ntfdc. Day Id tinh chat vdt ly cua ntfdc.
Mot so tinh chat cua mot mau cua mot chat phu thuoc vdo so Itfqrig mdu. Tinh chat
nay dtfqc goi la tinh chat tong quat (chung). Vi du, trong Itfong cua mot mdu chat rdn
phu thuoc vdo so Itfong chat hien dien. Tinh chat khac nhtf mdu, vi khdng phu thuoc vdo
so Itfong chat hien dien. Nhilng tinh chat nay dtfqc xem nhtf 1a tinh clidt rieng Tinh
chat rieng nay thi hQu ich cho viec nhan dang cdc chat.
Mot so tinh chat tang ctfdng quan trong nhat md nhilng nha hda hoc stf dung de
nhan biet cdc chat dd Id dac diem md ho do dtfqc; nhilng dqc diem nay dtfqc goi la cdc
tinh chat dinh Itfong. Hai tinh chat nhtf the la diem dong dqc vd diem soi chuan cua
mot chat, tile la nliiet do tai dd chat long dong dac de tqo thqnh mot chat rdn vd hda hoi
de tqo nen mot chat khi trong cdc dieu kien dp suat binh thtfdng ttfong ling. Chung ta
se thdo luan cdc tinh chat dinh Itfong chi tiet hon trong chtfong 2 .
Cd the phdn biet cdc hop chat vdi cac hon hqp do bdi cdc tinh chat dac trtfng cua
hqp chat. Cdc hon hqp thi cd cdc tinh chat y het nhtf cdc tinh chat cua thtfc the tao nen
chung. Thanh phdn dd dtfqc cho hien dien trong mot hon liqp cang nhieu thi tinh chat
cua hon hqp dong nhat vdi thanh phdn dd cang nhieu. Vi du, cang cd nhieu dtfang trong
mot ly ntfdc thi do ngot dtfqc tqo ra trong dung dich cang Idn.
Mot thi nghiem minh hoa cdch md cdc tinh chat dtfqc dung de phdn biet giUa hop
dial vd lion hop. Chung la dat cdc mdu bot sal nho vd sulfur bot Iren hai ly tdch roi nhau
de ddnh gia dac tinh cua chung. Ltfu y rang cd liai deu d trang that rdn. Dat cdc mau trong
cdc dug nghiem neng biet vd giU mot nam chain ben cqnh ong nghiem ihtf nliat Ta thay
rang sal bi hut ve phia nam chain. Luc giQ nam chain cqnh ong nghiem cd clitfa sulfur thi
khong cd dieu gi xay ra; nhtf vay sulfur khdng bi nam chain hut.
Luc dd disulfide carbon, mot chat long de bat hia vd khong cd mau, vao mot mau
sulfur thi sulfur dqc bien mat, vd chat long chuyen sang mdu vdng. Sulfur dd bi hoa
tan tqo nen mot dung dich vdi disulfide carbon. Luc chung ta do disulfide carbon vao
trong sal thi khdng cd dieu gi xay ra; sat van gal trang thai rdn vd chat long van giii
trang thai khdng mdu. Neu ta cd cdc mieng Idn cua moi nguyen to thi ta cd the gia
chung vdi mot biia ren vd thay rang sulfur cd tinh don vd de bieii thanh bot nhtfng sal
thi khdng de dang bi ngdl thanh nhilng mieng nho. Sat cd tinh deo - cd nghia rang no
cd the dtfqc gia de chuyen thanh cdc hinh dang khac nhau Hang 1.2 het ke cac dac tinh
dtfqc de cap chuyen sdu hon ddnh cho hai nguyen to nay.
Ke tiep chung ta do moi it bot sat vd mot it bot sulfur vdo mot ong nghiem Ion hon
vd khudy deu cluing. Mdu xuat luen cd mdu vdng nhat, nhtfng neu quan sal k\ ta tha\
rang cd cdc quang vdng vd quang den. Neu giu mot nam chain ke ben mot ong nghiem.
thi cdc hat den Ivoi moi so hat cang .rung quanh chung bi hut bdi nam chdm. Luc ta do
14
Topic 1: Basic coticepls
disulfide carbon tren mau thi chat long chuyen sang mau vdng. Ia do ra ngoai chat
long do va dtfa vao them disulfide carbon cho den khi khdng con chat ran mau vang
nao gid lai trong mdu nda. Luc lam hda hai disulfide carbon trong mot ong nung, ta lai
nhan duoc mot chat ran mau vdng. Neu dat mot nam chain ke ben vat lieu mdu den d
ong nghiem Idn hon, ta thay rang no bi hut ve phia nam chain. Dieu do cd nghla rang
hon hqp cua hai man nguyen to khong thay doi tinh chat. Sulfur van gilt mau vdng ra
vat co the duac hda tan trong disulfide carbon; sat van gida mdu den va van mang tit
tinh. Ilai nguyen to nay van gid dac tinh va nhdng dac trUng chuyen biet cua chung;
chung van Id cdc nguyen to. To hop cua liai nguyen to nay la mot hon hop. Mot hon hop
thi khdng cd mot hqp chat xdc dinh, no cd cdc dac tinh co lien quan den cdc dac tinh cua
moi mot thanh phan.
Bay gid chung ta dat hai mdu mdi duac do can than bot sat vd bot sulfur vdo mot
ong nghiem Idn hon, nung ndng hon hqp vdi mot den Bunsen. Sau mot khoang thai
gian, cd mot chat quang dd xuat hien d day cua ong nghiem vd dan dan Ian rong khap
mdu. Day la chdng cd cua phdn ling hoa hoc. Mot so sulfur dd chuyen sang trang thai
khi do bdi sdc ndng roi long dong tren tlianh cua ong nghiem Chat rdn mdu den hinh
tlianh tit ket qua cua phan ling hda hoc. Luc chung ta loai bo chat rdn klioi ong nghiem
(chung la pluii lain be ong nghiem de do no ra ngoai). Ta cd the go chat rdn ra bang
cdch dung moi cai bua cd nglila rang tqo do gtdn cho no. Neu chung ta thd phdn gidi
vdt chat trong moi disulfide carbon, thi no khong phdn giai duqc. Neu chung ta dua mot
nam chain den, no van khdng bi hut. Vat lieu nay cd mot tap hqp cdc dac trUng chuyen
biet cua no, mdu den dam, gion, khdng the hda tan trong disulfide carbon, khdng bi hut
bdi moi nam chdm. Day la mot hon hqp - tdc la mot to' hqp hda hoc cua sat vd sulfua.
Chu diem 1.3: Matter and Energy
M atter is a nyth ing that has m ass and occupies space All the m aterial things in
the u niverse are com posed of matter, including anything you can touch as w ell as the
planets in the solar system and all the stars in the sky.
The mass of an object m easures how much m atter is in the object. M ass is directly
proportional to w eight at any given place in the universe. If you leave the surface of the
Earth, your m ass rem ains the same, but your weight changes An astronaut positioned
between two celestial bodies such that their gravitational attractions pull equally in o p
posite directions is w eightless, but the astronaut's mass rem ains the sam e as it was on
Earth B ecause chem ists ordinarily do their work on the Earth s surface and because
m ass and w eight are directly proportional here, many chem ists use the term s mass and
weight interchangeably, but you should rem em ber that they differ.
Energy is the capacity to do work. You cannot hold a sound or a beam of light in
your hand; they are not form s of m atter but form s of energy. The m any form s of e n
ergy are outlined E nergy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be converted from
one form to a nother This statem ent is known as the law of conservation of energy.
Snapshot Review
M atter has m ass and occupies space.
*- M ass is a m easure of the quantity of m atter in a sam ple (but e nergy also has
a m ass equivalent).
A W hich has a greater m ass a large wooden desk or a sew ing needle?
15
Topic / ; Hasic concepts
• Vat chat co khoi Itfong va chiem gn7 khoang trong trong khong gian
• Khoi Itfong La mot so do ve dqi Itfong vat chat trong mot mdu Inhtfng nang Itfong
cung co mot stf Itfong dtfong vdi khoi Itfong).
A. Phdn nao co khoi Itfong Idn hon mot bdri go Idn hay mot cay kim m ay!
Table 1.3 Form s of Energy
Ile a l
C hcm ical N uclear M echanical
K in e tic (energy o f m otion)
P o te ntia l (energy o f p ositio n )
K le ctrica l
Sound
K le ctro m a g n e tic ( lig h t)
V is ib le lig h t
U ltra v io le t
X -ra ys
G am m a rays
In fra re d
Radio waves
M icrowaves
S o la r”
‘ S olar energy is a co m bination of several

fo rm s o f light
Chu thich tQ - cum tCf va hUcrng dan dpc hieu

m atter: vdt chat - energy: ndng Itfong
mass: khoi luong - w eig ht: trong Itfong
- law o f conservation: dinh ludt bdo toan
Vat chat va nang luong

Vat chat la bat cd thd gi co khoi Itfong vd cliiem clw trong khdng gian Trong tat ca
moi vdt trong vu tru la thanh phdn cua vdt chat, ke cd bat cd dieu gi ma ban cd the so
md cling nhtf cdc hdnh tinh trong thai dtfong lie vd tat cd ngoi sao tren bdu trdi.
Khoi Itfong cua mot vat do do Idn cua vdt chat. Khoi Itfong ty le thudn cat trong
ItfOng o' tai bat cd noi nao trong vu tru. Neu ban dl chuyen be mat cun trdi dot. thi klioi
Itfong cua no rdn gi/T khong doi. nhtfng trong htqng cua no thay doi Mot nha du lianli
vu tru dung glda hai thien the sao cho sdc hut trong trtfong cua chung bang nhau to
theo chieu doi ngliich tin ngtfdi nay a trang thai khong trong Itfong. tu\ nhien khoi hionii
ciiu nha du hanh vu tru do rdn gu 7 khong dol y het nhtf tren mat dot Hoi t i cac nha
hoa hoc thtfc hien cdng viec cua lio mot cdcli binh thtfdng tren be mat trdi dat ca b<ji i i
khoi luqng vd trong Itfong ty le thudn vdi nhau cho nen nhieu nha hoa hoc stf dun h
tliudt ngd khoi Itfong vd trong Itfong mot cach xen ke. nhtfng ban can phdi nha rang
chung khac nhau day
16
Ndng Itfong Id kha nang thtfc hien cong Han khdng the gid dm thanh mot chum
tin nang trong toy dtfqc; cluing khdng phai la mot dang rat chat nhtfng Id mot dang cua
ndng Itfong. Nhieu dang nang Itfong dtfqc trinh bay trong bang 1.3. Nang Itfong khong
the dtfoc tqo ra liodc khong the bi mat di nhtfng no cd the bien doi tit dang nay sang
dang khac. Phat bieu nay dtfqc goi Id dinh ludt bdo toan nang Itfong.
ENRICHMENT: Bai dpc them

In 1905, A lbert E instein (1879-1955) published his theory that the m ass of a sam ple
of m atter is increased as the energy of the sam ple is increased For exam ple, a base
ball in m otion has a ve ry sligh tly greater m ass than the sam e baseball at rest The
difference in m ass is given by the fam ous equation
E = m c?
In this equation. £ is the energy of the ob|ect, m is the mass difference, and c' is a
very large constant the square of the velocity of light
c? = (3001,000 kilom ete rs/seco nd )?
= 90,000,000,000 kilom ete rsV se con d'
= (186,000 m ile s/seco n d)p
= 34,600,000,000 m ilesV second'
For m acroscopic bodies such as a baseball, the increase in m ass because of the added
energy is so sm all that it is not m easurable It was not even discovered un-til the b e
ginning of the tw entieth century. At atom ic and subatom ic levels, how ever, the c o n v e r
sion of a sm all q uantity of m atter into energy is very im portant. It is the energy source
of the Sun and the stars, the atom ic bomb, the hydrogen bom b, and nuclea r pow er
plants.
C hem istry is the study of the interaction of m atter and energy and the changes that
m atter undergoes. (In nuclear reactions, tiny quantities of m atter are actually converted
to relatively large q ua ntitie s of energy. See C hapter 20.)
Chu diem 1.4: Chemical Symbols
Because the e lem ents are the building blocks of all m aterials in the universe, we
need an easy w ay to identify and refer to them For this purpose, each chem ical e le
m ent is identified by an internationally used sym bol consisting of one or tw o letters
The first letter of an ele m e n t's sym bol is alw ays capitalized If the sym bol has a s e c
ond letter, it is a low ercase (small) letter. The sym bol is an abbreviation of the elem ent s
nam e, but som e sym bo ls represent nam es in languages other than E nglish The 10
elem ents w hose sym -b ols and nam es have different first letters are listed in Table 1 4
A list of the nam es and sym bols of the first 109 elem ents, along with som e other in
form ation, is p re sen te d in a table inside the back cover of this book. In that table, the
elem ents are a lp ha be tize d according to their nam es, but d upli-cate entries appear u n
der the initial letter of the sym bols for the elem ents in Table 1.4.
The m ost im p o rta n t sym bols for beginning students to learn are given in Figure
1.5. The nam es of the elem ents indicated and their sym bols m ust be m em orized D on't
bother to m em orize the num bers shown in the boxes with the e lem ents
C he m ists w rite sym bols together in form ulas to identify co m p ou nd s For exam ple
the letters CO re p re se n t a co m pound of carbon and oxygen Be careful to d istin gu ish
the form ula CO from the elm en t cobalt The c a p ita li
't opic 1: liasic concepts
zation of letters is very im portant! Form ulas are som e-tim es w ritten w ith s u b s c rip ts to
tell the relative proportions of the elem ents present. For e xam ple. FÔ re p re se n ts w a
ter, w hich has two atom s of hydrogen for every atom of oxygen p re sen t M ore about
form ulas will be presented in Section 5.1.

*■ The first letter in a sym bol for an elem ent is alw ays ca p ita liz e d the second
letter if any. is sm all (low ercase)
*■ By the end of the first few weeks of this course, you should know the nam es
and sym bols of the elem ents in Figure 1.5.
A How m any d ifferent elem ents are represented in the form ula CO (CO) 7
• Mdu ttf dau tien trong ky lueu dung cho mot nguyen to ludn ludn phai dtfoc n et
hoa; con mau ttf tliit hai neu co thi viet bang chit thtfdng.
• Vao cuoi ludn dau tien cua khoa hoc, ban nen biet ten va ky hieu cua car nguyen
to trong hinh 1.5.
A. Co bao nliieu nguyen to dtfoc trinh bay trong cong thtfc Co /C O I f
Table 1.4 E lem ents W h o se N am es and S ym bols

Begin with D ifferent Letters
N am e S ym bol
A n tim o n y Sb
Gold Au
Iron Fe
Lead I’ b
M ercury Mg
Potassium K
S ilv e r Ag
Sodium Na
T in Sn
T ungsten W
Chu thich tu" - cum tC/ va hifofng dan dpc hieu

- sym bol: ky hieu - form ulas: cong thtfc
Ky hieu hoa hpc

Bdi vi cac nguyen to la cdc khoi cau true cua tat ca cdc rat lieu trong vii tru nen
cluing ta can co mot each thtfc de dang de nlidn biet co tham khuo chung Vi mur du h
nay md moi nguyen to hoa hoc dtfqc nhan biet bdi moi ky hieu dtfoc dung phd Lien tren
the gidi gom mot hoqc hai ky tit. Ky lueu dau tien cua mot nguyen to ludn ludn dtfqc
viet being chi? hoa. Neu ky lueu co hai mdu tit, thi no phai dtfqc viet bring d id thuijng
Ky lueu Id chu a c ! hit cua ten nguyen to, tuy nhien, mot vdi ky lueu phai Lieu th: tin
theo ngon ngd khac vdi tieng Anh. 10 nguyen to co ky hieu vd ten cua no co cd mau ttf
ddu tiin khac nhau dtfac liet ke trong bang 1.4. M ot danh sdch ten vd ky hieu cua 109
nguyen to ddu tien cung vdi mot vdi thong tin khac dtfac trinh bdy trong bang ndm d
cuoi sdch ndy. Trong bang do, cdc nguyen to dtfoc sdp xep theo thii ttf a, b, c bang chit
cat tin cua chung, nhtfng cdc hang muc gap doi thi xuat hien ben dtfdi mdu ttf ban dau
cua ky hieu ddnh cho nguyen to do trong bang 4.
K y hieu quan trong nhat ddnh cho sinh vien mdi bdt ddu se dtfac trinh bdy trong
h in h 1.5 ten cua cdc nguyen to dtfac chi dinh vd ky hieu cua chung cung phai dtfac ghi
nhd. DiCng bdn tdm de nhd tat cd nhilng con so dtfac trinh bdy trong cdc 6 cung vdi cdc
nguyen to.
Cdc nhd hoa hoc viet cdc ky hieu cung vdi cong thilc de nhan biet cdc hap chat. Vi
du cdc mdu ttf CO bieu thi mot hap chat carbon vd oxy. Phai can than de phdn biet
cong thilc CO vdi ky hieu Co, von bieu thi nguyen to cobalt. ChU viet hoa cua cdc mdu
ttf cung rat quan trong. Cdc cong thilc doi khi dtfac viet cung vdi cdc chi so tren de bao
cho biet ty le ttfang doi cua cdc nguyen to dang co. Vi du, H f i bieu thi ntfdc, co hai
nguyen tit hydro ilng vdi moi mot nguyen til oxy. Co nhieu cong thilc dtfac trinh bdy
trong phdn 5.1.
Chu diem 1.5: The Periodic Table
In S ection 1.2, you learned a few of the properties of su lfu r and of iron. Do you
have to learn the p ro pe rtie s of all 100 or so elem ents individually, or are there som e
w ays to ease that burden? For over 150 years, chem ists have arranged the e lem ents
in groups w ith sim ila r chem ical characteristics, w hich m akes it easier to learn th e ir p ro p
erties. This gro up ing of the elem ents has been refined to a high degree, and the m od
ern periodic tab le is the result. A full periodic table is show n inside the fron t co ve r of
this book. The e le m e n ts num bered 104 and up in that table have only rece ntly been
produced and in such infinitely sm all quantities that their chem ical p roperties are un
m easured. T he refo re , we w ill alm ost totally ignore them in the rem ain de r of this book.
W e w ill e xp lo re se ve ra l uses for the p eriodic table in this section, as w ell as a
n um ber of te rm s used w ith it. This table w ill be used e xten sively th ro u g h -o u t the rest
of this course, and in su bse qu en t chem istry courses.
All the e le m e n ts in any horizontal row of the periodic table are said to be in the
sam e period. T he re are seven periods, the first consisting of ju s t two e le -m e nts. The
second and third p erio d s contain 8 elem ents each, and the next tw o contain 18 e le
m ents each. T he sixth period has 32 elem ents (including 14 inner tran sition e lem ents
n um bered 57 th ro u g h 71, located at the bottom of the table), and the last period is
not yet co m plete. The periods are conve ntio na lly num -bered w ith the A rabic num erals
1 through 7.
The e le m e n ts in any ve rtica l colum n in the periodic table are in the sam e group,
or fam ily. T he y have sim ila r chem ical properties, which change g ra du ally from each
one to the one b e lo w it; in som e groups, the elem ents are v e ry s im ila r. T he g ro up s
have been given tw o sets of group num bers. The classical group n um be rs are R om an
num erals follo w ed by a letter A or B. These are more useful for b eg in nin g stu de nts in
learning abo ut a tom ic structure and bonding. The elem ents in tw o g roups having the
sam e n um be r have som e chem ical sim ilarities, especially in the fo rm u la s of som e of
th eir co m p ou nd s. A ch em ica l form ula (Section 5.1) show s the ratio of atom s of each
of its e le m e n ts to e ve ry other elem ent. For exam ple, w ater, H ,0 . has tw o h ydro-gen
19
Topic 1: liasic concepts
atom s for each of its oxygen atom s, and sulfur dioxide. SO . has one su l-fu r atom for
every two atom s of o xygen E xam ples of the p eriodic sim ila ritie s of c o m p o u n d s are
BaS and CdS. w ith barium in group HA and cadm ium in group I IB . as w ell as K M nO ,
and K C 1 0 ,, with m anganese in group VIIB and chlo rin e in g ro up VIIA The m odern
group num bers are given as Arabic num er als The cla ssica l g ro up n u m b e rs w ill be
used throughout this book, with the modern group num bers s o m e tim e s added in p a
rentheses afterw ard.
Five g ro up s have fa m ily nam es The alkali m etals in clu d e all the e le m e n ts of
group IA (1) e xcept hydrogen. The alkaline earth m etals are the e le m e n ts of perio d ic
group IIA (2), and the coinage m etals are those of group IB (11) The halog en s form
group V11A (17), and the noble gases con-stitute group 0 (18)
Be careful Som e periodic tables have hydrogen located above flu orin e as w ell as
above lithium . H ydrogen is neither an alkali m etal nor a halogen
Another m ajor classifica tion of the elem ents in term s of the perio d ic table is show n
Three areas are d efin ed and nam ed the main group e lem e n ts , the tra n s itio n e le
m ents, and the in n er tran s itio n elem ents. The m ain group e le m e n ts are the s im
plest to learn about, and they w ill be studied first The transition ele m e n ts inclu de som e
of the m ost im p o rta n t e le m e n ts in our everyday lives, such as iron, c h ro m iu m and
copper The tran sition ele m e n ts are often divided into four row s of e le m e n ts called
the first, second, third, and fourth transition series. The elem ents of the fourth tra n s i
tion series e xcept for a ctinium (Ac), and those of the m ain group e le m e n ts 113-119,
are artificial; they are not found in nature. The tw o inner tran sition se ries fit into the
p e rio d ic ta b le in p e rio d s 6 and 7. rig h t a fte r la n th a n u m (La ) and a c tin iu m (A c),
respec tively The inner transition elem ents include a few im portant e le m e n ts inclu d-ing
uranium and plutonium The first series of inner transition e lem ents is ca lle d the la n
thanide series, after lanthanum , the elem ent that precedes them ; the second se rie s is
called the actinide series, after actinium , the elem ent that pre ced es them T he se e le
m ents are co n ve n tio n a lly placed below the others so as not to m ake the p e rio d ic table
too w ide N one of the a ctin id e e le m e n ts to the right of u ra n iu m has b ee n fo un d in
nature; all of th ese e le m e n ts are a rtificial All of the e le m e n ts in the a c tin id e se ries
are radioactive.
We can also divide the elem ents into metals and nonm etals because each of these
classes has some distinctive properties comm on to all their m em bers For exam ple m etals
generally have a m etallic luster (a glossy or shiny appearance) and are generally m a l
leable (can be pounded into thin sheets) and d u c -tile (can be draw n into a wire), non-
metals are generally brittle. M etals conduct electricity, m ost nonm etals do not
In the perio d ic table, the m etals are to the left of a s te pp ed line s ta rtin g to the
left of boron (B) and contin uing dow nw ard and to the right, ending to the left of a s ta
tine (At) E xce pt for hydrogen all the nonm etals are to the right of this line As you
can see, the m etallic e lem ents greatly outnum ber the non m e ta llic e le m e n ts The prop
erties of the ele m e n ts vary g radually across the periodic table S everal of the e le m e n ts
near the stepped line have som e pro p-ertie s of m etals and som e p ro p e rtie s of non-
m etals, they are so m e tim e s called m etalloids.
H ydrogen is unique in its properties It is placed on the side of the stepped line
with the m etals because it has m any chem ical p roperties sim ilar to those of m etals In
som e p e rio d ic tables, it is also placed in another p osition , above the h a lo g e n s b e
cause of its non m e ta llic chem ical and physical p roperties It a ctua lly does not fit c o m
fortably in either position because it is neither an alkali m etal nor a halogen To re fiect
its unique p ro pe rtie s it is placed in the center of still other perio d ic tables
20

*- The e lem ents are classified in the periodic table for m uch the sam e reasons
that m atter is classified as described in Section 11
*■ E lem ents in the same periodic group have sim ilar chem ical properties
*■ You m ust learn the nom enclature of the table For exam ple, w hen the in s tru c
tor states that “m ain group elem ents are easiest to understand," you m ust know
w hich elem ents are in the main groups
A. W hat are the atom ic num bers (the integers) of the second transition series of
elem ents?
B W hat naturally occurring elem ent has the largest atom ic num ber?
• Cdc nguyen 16 di/qc phdn loqi trong bung phdn loai ludn hodn sao cho phu hop
vdi vdt chat duqc mo ta trong phan 11.
• Cdc nguyen to trong nhom cd chu ky giong nhau thi cd cdc tinh chat hoa hoc
giong nhau.
• Ban phai hoc vdi tinh chat dqc biet cua bang. Vi due, luc ngi/di hi/dng dan phat
bieu rang “cdc nguyen to trong nhom chinh thi cd the de dang hieu chung". Ban
phai biet loqi nguyen to nao ndm trong nhom chinh.
A. So nguyen tu ciia chuoi chuyen tiep thii hai cua cdc nguyen to Id gi?
B. Nguyen Id nao cd trong tit nhien cd so nguyen til Idn nhat?
Chu thich to - cum to va hifdng dan dpc hieu

- periodic table: bang phdn loqi ludn hodn - ch em istry: hda hoc
- a lk a li m etals: kim loqi kiem, him loqi alkali - period: chu ky
- a lk a lin e e a rth m etals: kim loai dat kiem - group: nhom
- coinage m etals: cdc kim loqi cd ep khuon - fa m ily : ho
- m ain group elem ents: cdc nguyen to nhom chinh - halogens: halogen
- tra n s itio n elem ents: cdc nguyen to chuyen tiep - noble gases: khi tro
- in n e r tra n s itio n elem ents: cdc nguyen - ductile: deo, de keo soi
- to chuyen tiep trong
- nonm etals: phi kim - m etals: kim loai
- m e ta llo id s: cd tinh kim loqi
Bang phan loai tuan hoan

Trong phdn 1.2, ban da hoc mot vdi tinh chat cua sulfur vd cua sdt. Ban dd hoc
tinh chat cua tren 100 nguyen to. Tren 150 nam qua, cdc nha hda hoc dd sdp xep cdc
nguyen to theo tilng nhom, co cdc dqe tinh hda hoe giong nhau, giup cho ban de dang
hoc tinh chat cua chftng. Cdc nhom nguyen to nay duqc nhan biet vdi mot mile do cao vd
bang phdn loai tuan hodn luen dqi ket qua cua sU sdp xep dd. M ot bang phdn loai tuan
hodn day dii duqc cho trong phan phu luc cua sach. Cdc nguyen to di/qe danh so len den
101 vd danh sdch ndy cd the tiep tuc do bdi cd mot vdi nguyen to vi/a moi di/qe tao ra
vd cac dqi li/qng nhd vd hqn md tinh clidt hda hoc cua chung khong the do duac. Do dd.
chung la se hdu nhu bo qua cluing trong phdn con lai cua sdch.
21
Cluing la se khdm phci moi vdi cong dung cua bang phan loot luiin hoan trong
muc nay . rung nhu cac so cdc hang muc duac dung vai no. Hang nay duac dung phu hien
trong phdn con lai cua sdch nay va trong cac gido trinh hoa hoc co lien quan.
Tat cd cdc nguyen to ndm trong bat ky hang nao cua bang phdn loai tuan hoan
deu dugc goi 1a nguyen to cung chu ky. Co tat cd 7 chu ky, chu ky ddu tien gom co hai
nguyen to, Chu ky thii hai vd thii ba co chtia tain nguyen to va hai chu ky ke tiep moi
chu ky co chtia 18 nguyen to. Chu ky tliii sau co 32 nguyen to (bao gom 1 4 nguyen to
chuyen tiep trong di/oc ddnh so til .57 cho den 71, ndm 6 cuoi bang phdn loqi ludn hoan),
chu ky cuoi cung chi/a hodn chinh. Cdc chu ky di/ac ddnli so bang cdc con so A Rap It/ 1
cho den 7.
Nguyen to ndm trong bat cii cot thing di/ng ndo trong bang phdn loai ludn hoan thuoc
ciing mot nhom lioac cung mot lio. Chung co cdc ddc tinh hda hoc tuong tu nhau. cac dtSc
tilth nay thay doi mot cdch Item hen tit nguyen to ndy sang nguyen to khac ndm duoi no; d
mot vdi nhom, cdc nguyen to rat giong nhau. Cdc nliom cd phdi cd liai tap hop cac so
nhom dugc cho. Nhilng so nhom cd dien 1a cdc so La Md va theo sau hi mot mdu IU A
lioac B. Nliilng so nay hitu dung hon doi vdi cdc smlt vien moi bat ddu hoc ve cau lao
nguyen tit vd lien ket nguyen tit Nhilng nguyen to ndm trong hat nhom co so giong
nhau thi co mot vdi dac tinh hda hoc giong nhau dac biet ve cong thilc cua mot so hop
dial. Mot cong tluic hoa hoc (M uc 5.1) bieu thi ty so giUa nguyen hit cua moi nguyen to
ciiu no vdi moi nguyen to khac. Vi du, nUdc H O thi cd liai nguyen hi hydro ling i at moi
nguyen hi oxy vd dioxide sulfur, SO., cd mot nguyen hi sulfur ling vdt hat nguy en tu oxy.
Cdc vi du ve tinh chat giong nhau cua cdc hop clidt trong bong phdn loai tuan hoan la
BaS vd CdS, vdi barium ndm 6 nhom HA vd cadmium ndm d nhom IIB, cung nhu
KMnO vd KCIOj vdi manganese ndm d nhom V11B va chlorine ndm d nhom VHA. Nhilng
con so nhom luen dqi dugc cho theo nhom A Rap. Cdc so nhom co dien se duoc dung
trong suot sdch ndy, con cdc so nhom hien dqi doi khi dugc duo vdo trong cdc ddu moc
don ndm dang sau.
Ndm nhom co cac ten giong nhau. Do la cdc kim loqi alkali bao gom tai ca nguyen
to cua nhom IA (1) ngoai IrU hydrogen. Cdc kim loqi dot alkaline Id cdc nguyen to cua
nhom tuan hoan HA (2) vd cdc kim loai coinage Id ciia nhom \li(ll). Nhom co dang
halogen V1IA (17) vd kill hiem cau tqo nen nhom 0 (18).
Mot sU phdn loqi khac cua cdc nguyen Id hda hoc llieo cdc thanh phdn trong bang
phdn loqi tuan hodn Ba vung dugc dinh nghia va duoc dat ten Id nguyen to nhom clnnh.
cac nguyen to chuyen tiep. cdc nguyen to chuyen hep trong. Cdc nguyen to nhom chinh
la cdc nguyen to don gian nhat. de hoc vi the chung phdi dugc ngluen ciiu truo< hen
Cdc nguyen to chuyen tiep gom cd mot so cdc nguyen to quan trong nhd I trong doi song
hang ngay cua chung ta chang liqn nhu sat chromium vd dong Cdc nguy en to chuyen
hep thudng dugc phdn chia thanh bon hang nguyen to di/gc goi Id chuoi chuyen tiep thii
nhat, thu hai, tlui ba va thu til. Cac nguyen to cua chuoi chuyen tiep thu tu ngrxii tru
actinium (Ac) vd nhilng nguyen to thuoc cdc nguyen to nhom chinh 113-119. la cac nguyen
to nhdn tqo, chung khdng dugc tim thay trong tu nhien. Chuoi nguyen to chuyen tiep
trong dugc dua vao trong bang phdn loai tuan hodn trong cdc chu ky 6 va 7, nga\ sou
lanthamum (La) vd actinium (Ac) tuong ting. Cdc nguyen Id chuyen tiep trong bac gom
mot so nguyen to quan trong gom co uranium va plutonium Chuoi ddu hen cua cac
nguyen to chuyen hep trong goi la chuoi lanthanide, sau lanthanum, nguyen to hien
trUdc chung; cdc nguyen to thu liai duoc goi la cdc nguyen to actinide, sau actinium,
nguyen to bien trUdc cluing Nhilng nguyen to nay thuong duoc dal ngay ben duoi
11
topic 1: Basic concepts
nguyen to khac de khong lain cho bang plum loai tuan hoan qua rong. Khong co nguyen
to actinide nao ndm phia ben phdi cua uranium duqc tim thay trong tu nhien; tat ca
nguyen to nay deu Id nguyen to nhdn tqo. Hdu het cdc nguyen to trong chuoi actinide
deu Id cdc chat phong xq.
Chu diem 1.6: Laws, Hypotheses, and Theories
So m any facts are available to scientists as they do experim ents and observe n atu
ral phenom ena that the data m ust be classified so that they can be learned and un
derstood W hen a large group of scientific o bservations is gen-e ra lize d into a single
statem ent, that statem ent is called a law. For exam ple, when you drop a pen it falls
dow nw ard W hen you drop a ball, it falls downw ard These and m illions of other such
o bservations are grouped together and generalized as the law of g ravity A law is a
general statem ent about observable facts.
A fter o rganizing observed data into a law, scientists try to explain the law A sta te
m ent that attem pts to explain why a law is true is called a hypothesis. If the h ypo th
esis becom es generally accepted, it becom es a theory. Einstein explained the law of
gravity with his theory of relativity. Laws and theories are necessary because learning
or rem em bering all the data that have been observed over the ages is im possible
One of the m ost im portant laws in chem istry is the law of conservation of mass.
This law states that in any chem ical reaction or physical change the total m ass present
after the change is equal to the total m ass present before the change S ection 3 2 will
present John D alton s explanation of this law. in which he proposed that the particles
that m ake up m atter can rearrange them selves in various w ays but cannot be created
or destroyed That explanation is a theory; it explains the law If the p articles that make
up the m aterials before and after the change are the same, the total m ass m ust also
be the sam e
The way new generalities are accepted by the scientific com m unity as being true
has been loosely codified into a system known as the scientific m ethod. The steps of
this m ethod are
1 State the problem clearly
2. Do fu rth e r expe rim en ts M any scientists test the generality with experim ents,
repeating each other's work and doing other experim ents related to those
3 Interpret the results See if the generality explains all the results, new and old
4 A ccept the law If all the data support the law, it is g enerally accepted by the
scie n tific co m m un ity as true. If later, further e xp e rim e n ts are in c o n flic t with
the law it is m odified or abandoned altogether
An exam ple of how the scientific m ethod w orked is the e stab lish m en t of the law
of constant co m p ositio n of com pounds, also called the law of definite proportions. The
initial statem ent, based on the work on Antoine Lavoisier (17 43 -1 79 4 ). was that every
sam ple of a given com pound is com posed of the same percentage of each of its e le
m ents as any o the r sam ple of the sam e com pound That co n ce p t was su bjected to
m any tests, in w hich other scientists m easured and rem easured the co m p ositio ns of
m any sa m p le s of a w ide range of co m p ou nd s. C lau de Lo uis B e rth o lle t (1 7 4 8 -1 8 2 2 )
show ed that g ase ou s co m binations of carbon and oxygen had co m p o s itio n s ranging
from 27.29°o carbon to 42 88% carbon: and thus the com position was not definite He
therefore stated that the proposed law was incorrect. H ow ever. Joseph Louis Proust
(1754-1826) found that B erthollet's sam ples were mixtures of two co m p ou nd s carbon
23
Topic 1: Hasic concepts
m onoxide and carbon dioxide and that when either com pound was ana lyze d by itself,
it alw ays had the sam e com position. The law of definite p ro po rtio ns w as firm ly e s ta b
lished by his work. An explanation of the law of definite p ro po rtio ns was p ro po sed by
John Dalton in 1803 (Section 3.2). His hypothesis generated a great deal of add itio na l
work, all of w hich supported his ideas, which m ade the h ypo the sis into a theory

G e ne ra lities about em pirical observations are called laws , e xp la n a tio n s of these
laws are called theories
A. Is the law of definite proportions (C hapter 3) an e xplan atio n or a c o lle ctio n of
observations?
• Tinh chat khdi quat ve nhilng dieu quan sal duqc got la dinh ludt: phdn giai
thich dinh ludt d M e goi Id ly thuyet.
A Dinh ludt cdc thanh phdn ty le (cdc tlidnli phdn xdc dinh) (chtftfng 3) co gidi
thich lioac thu thdp nhilng dieu quan sat duqc hay kliongt
Chu thich ttf - cum tQ va hUcmg dan dpc hieu

- hypothesis: gia thuyet - m ixtures: hon hqp
- law o f conse rva tion o f mass: dinh luat bdo - theory: ly thuyet
toan khoi litqng
- scie n tific m ethod: phuang phdp khoa hoc - law : dinli ludt
Cac dmh luat gia thiet va ly thuyet

Nhieu su kien co san khiin cho cdc nha khoa hoc thilc luen thi nghiem va quan sal
hien titcnig tit nhien qua do dil lieu phdi duqc phdn loqi de cd the hoc vd lueu Luc mot
nhom cdc dH lieu quan sat ve link vile khoa hoc ditqc tong quat hoa thanh mot m inh de
thi inenh de dd ditqc goi la dinli luat. Vi du, luc ban tha rai mot cay viet thi no rm
liUo'ng xudng. Luc Ilid mot trdi banh thi no cung roi hudng xuong. Hang tneu quan sal
khac duoc quy tu lai kliai quat hda tlianh dinh luat liap dan van veil M ot dmh ludt la
mot minh de long quat ban ve cdc sit luen quan sat duqc.
Sau khi sdp xep di? lieu thanh mot dinh ludt, cac nhd khoa hoc co gang giai thich
dinh ludt. Mot inenh de thii giai thich tai sao dinh lucit Id dung dilqc goi la mot gid
thiet. Neu gid thiet dilqc chap nhdn chung thi no trd thanh mot ly thuyet Einstein dd
giai thich dinh ludt van vat vd ly thuyet tiiang doi. Dinh ludt vd ly thuyet deu can tluet
bdi vi viec hoc lioac nhd tdt cd dil lieu dd ditqc quan sdl trong hang the ky la dieu
khong the thilc luen duqc.
Mot trong nhilng dinh luat quan trong nhat trong hda hoc do la dinh ludt bao loan
khoi h/qng. Dmh ludt ndy phat bieu rang trong bat cil phdn Ung hda hoc nao hoac sil
thay doi vdt ly nao thi khoi luqng co sau khi thay doi phai bdng tong khoi luang co
trUo'c khi thay doi. P ha n 3.2 se trinh bdy phdn giai thich cua John Dalton ve dm h luat
ndy, qua dd ong ta de nglu rang cac hai cau tqo nen vdi chat do phai duqc sdp xep lui
theo nhieu cdch thilc khac nhau nhilng kliong the duqc tqo ra hoac bi xoa bo. Phdn giai
thicli ndy duqc goi la mot ly thuyet, no giai thich dmh ludt. Neu cac hat lunli tlianh nen
veil dial Inldc vd sau khi thay doi Id giong nhau thi khoi luqng loan phdn cua chung
phdi giong nhau.
24
Stf phat sinh ve cdch thiic dtfqc chap nhan bai tap the cdc nhd khoa hoc vd dtfqc
xem la dung roi di/a vdo he thong dtfqc goi la mot phtfang phdp khoa hoc. Cdc btfdc cua
phtfang phdp ndy la:
1. Phai bieu van de mot cdch ro rang.
2. Thtfc hien cdc thi nghiem chuyen sau hon. Nhieu nhd khoa hoc dd thii nghiem
tinh khdi quat qua nhieu thi nghiem de lap lai moi mot cong viec khac vd thtfc
hien cdc thi nghiem khac co lien quan den chu diem.
3. Dien dich liet qua xem thu! tinh khdi quat co giai thich tat cd cdc ket qua cu vd
mdi hay khong.
4. Chap nhan dinli luat. Neu tat cd dtf lieu deu ho tra cho dinh luat, thi tinh tong
quat dtfac cong dong cac nhd khoa hoc chap nhan la dung. Neu sau do cd nhtfng
thi nghiem chuyen sau lai xung khdc vdi dinh luat, thi no phai dtfac chinh sita
lioac dtfac bo qua hodn toan.
Mot vi du ve cdch hoqt dong cua phtfang phdp khoa hoc do Id xdc lap dinh ludt ve
hap chat khong doi cua cdc thanh phdn dtfac goila dinh luat cdc ty le xdc dinli. Phat
bieu ban ddu dtfa tren cong trinh cua Antoine Lavoisier 11743 1794), do la moi mdu
cua mot hqp chat dd cho deu bao gom ty Ip phdn tram giong nhau cua cdc nguyen to
ciia no y het nhtf bat ctf mdu nao khdc cua cung hqp chat. Khdi mem ndy dd dtfac kiem
cluing qua nhieu thi nghiem trong do cdc nha khoa hoc khdc dd do Itfdng vd do lai cdc
hon hqp cua nhieu mdu cua cdc hqp chat khdc nhau. Claude-Louis Bertholler (1748-
1822) dd cluing minh rang hon hqp khi carbon vd oxy co hqp chat bien thien ttf 27,29c/c
carbon cho den 4 2 ,8 8 % carbon, nhtf the hop chat ndy khong xdc dinh. Do do, ong ta
phat bieu rang dinh ludt dd dtfqc dtfa ra la sai. Tuy nhien, Joseph Louis Proust (1754-
1826) da thay rang cdc mdu ciia Berthollet dd lida trqn hai hqp chat do la carbon m on
oxide vd carbon dioxide vd luc moi mot hqp chat dtfqc phdn tich thi no ludn ludn co cung
mot tlidnli phdn nhtf nhau. Dinh luat ty le xdc dinh da dtfqc khdng dinh bdi cong trinh
ciia ong. Phdn gidi thich ve dinh luat vd ty le xdc dinh do John Dalton dtfa ra vdo ndm
1803 (muc 2.3). Ly thuyet cua ong dd khdi quat hoa mot y ttfdng tuyet vdi ve cong trinh
bd sung, tdt cd deu ho trq cho muc dich y ttfdng vd bien gia thiet thanh ly thuyet.
SELF TUTORIAL PROBLEMS - BAI TAP T tf KIEM TRA
1.1 A ch e m ist in w hich branch of chem istry m ost often deals with the ch em istry of
co m p ou nd s of the noble gases?
12 W ould it be considered unusual for an inorganic ch em ist to analyze a new c o m

pound, even though analysis is considered to be the function of an ana lytica l
chem ist?
13 W h ich of the fo llo w in g are sa m p le s of m atter, and w hich are s a m p le s of e n

erg y7
(a) A h am bu rg er (b) A beam of light
(c) E le ctricity (d) The output of an em pty toaster
14 As seen in Figure 1.1, state which class of m atter is not h om ogeneous
1.5 All b ra n d s of pure a spirin are the sam e com pound. If you need a sp irin how
should you choose a brand to buy?
16 N am e as m any properties of steel as you can think of Indicate w hich ones are
ch e m ica l properties.
25
1 7 Explain the differen ce betw een the results of hitting a piece of ste e l on a hard
surface with a ham m er and sim i-larly hitting a pane of glass Use the w ord brittle
in your explanation
18 W hat property of w ater is m ost often desired to be affected by the p re se n ce in

w ater solution of e thylene glycol, antifreeze?
1.9 W rite the sym bols from the nam es for the follow ing
(a) The first 18 ele m e n ts in the periodic table
(b) The second 18 e lem ents in the periodic table
(c) The rest of the elem ents show n in Figure 1.5
110 W rite the nam es from the sym bols for the follow ing
(a) The first 18 e lem ents in the periodic table
(b) The second 18 elem ents in the periodic table
(c) The rest of the elem ents show n in Figure 1.5
1.11 How m any e lem ents are present in each of the follow ing?
(a) No and NO
(b) HF and Hf
(c) PoC I? and POCI3
(d) Si and SI,
(e) N iC 0 3
(f) N i(C O )4
1.12 Does each m ain group have m ore or fe w er e le m e n ts than a ty p ic a l tran sition
group?
1.13 (a) In w hich group of the p erio d ic table is B r9
(b) In w hich period is Br?
(c) W hat typ e of e le m e n t is Bra m ain group e le m e n t, a tra n s itio n e le m e n t, or

an inner tra n sitio n e le m ent?
1 14 Cm is the ch e m ica l sym bo l for cu rium , nam ed a fte r the fa m o u s s c ie n tis t M arie
C urie W hy w a sn 't the sym bo l C. Cu. or C r used instead?
1.15 W hich cla ssica l tra n sitio n group has the m ost e le m e n ts?
1.16 Are the n on m e ta ls m ain group e lem ents, tra n sitio n e le -m e n ts . or inn er tra n s itio n
e le m e n ts?
1.17 W hich cla ssica l perio d ic group num ber is used for each of the fo llo w in g fa m ilie s 9
(a) A lka li m etals (b) A lkaline earth m etals
(c) H alo ge ns (d) C oinage m etals
(e) N oble gases
118 Do e le m e n ts in the sam e period or ele m e n ts in the sam e g ro up have s im ila r

ch e m ica l p ro p e rtie s '7
1 19 W hy do s cie n tists a cce p t a new la w 9
(a) The g o ve rn m e n t says to accept it
(b) P ro m in e n t scie n tists say to a ccept it
26
Topic I: Kasic concepts
(c) S cie n tific societies a ccept it.
(d) It e xp la in s m ost of the observations
(e) M any scie n tists ch eck the law and find it co rrect
PROBLEMS
1.1 C la ss ifica tion of M atter - Phan loai vat chat
1.20 W hat kind of c h a n g e — ch e m ica l or p h y s ic a l— is the d isso lvin g of solid salt in

(a) cold soup? (b) hot soup?
1 21 W hat kind of ch a n g e — ch em ica l or p hysical— a ccom panies each of the follow ing?
(a) The co n ve rsio n of two elem ents to a com pound
(b) The co m b in a tio n of an elem ent and a com pound into a no the r com pound
(c) The co n ve rsio n of a com pound to an e le m ent and a nother com pound
(d) The co n ve rsio n of two com pounds into a solution
(e) The se p a ra tio n of a m ixture into its com ponents
1.22 In a ce rta in e xp e rim e n t, two separate sam ples of m atter are m ixed, and a great
deal of heat is g en erated . Is this m ore likely to be a c h e m ic a l or a p h ysica l
change?
1.23 (a) W hen pure w ater is cooled below 32°F (0°C), it fre e ze s (so lid ifie s). W hen
the solid is w arm ed above that tem perature, it m elts again. Its com p ositio n
does not ch an ge during the entire process. Are these ch e m ica l or p hysical
changes?
(b) W hen g ase o u s e thylene is treated with a tiny q ua n tity of a certa in other
substance, it solidifies It is dif ficult to cause the solid to reform a gas Is
the so lid ifica tion a chem ical or a physical change?
1 24 C lassify each of the follow ing as a com pound or m ixture If it is im p ossible to

tell, explain why.
(a) A m ate ria l that co n sists of blue particles and red p article s
(b) A m a te ria l conta ining 88 8% oxygen and 11.2% hydrogen
(c) A m a te ria l th a t is e xp lo s iv e and that co nta ins 88.8% o xyg e n and 1 1 2 %

hydrogen
(d) A solid co m b in a tio n of iron and oxygen, no part of w hich is a ttracte d by a

m agnet
(e) A m ate ria l conta ining only hydrogen and oxygen that is a gas under o rdinary
room co nd itio ns.
1 25 C la ssify each of the fo llo w in g as a com pound or a m ixture
(a) S alt w a te r
(b) C a rb o n a te d w ater
77
Topic 1: Kasic concepts
(c) A cola drink
(d) The liquid form ed by a certain co m b in a tion of o xyg e n and h y d ro g e n gases
1.2 Properties - C ac tinh chat
1 26 C lassify each of the fo llo w in g as an elem ent, a co m p o u n d , or a m ixture

(a) Solid iodine (a dark violet solid)
(b) A h om ogeneous co m bination of iodine and alcohol (tinctu re of iodine) w hich
retains a dark color and the liquid state of the alcohol
(c) A h om ogeneous co m bination of potassium and iodine that is a w hite solid
1.27 B ro m ine m elts at - 7 2°C; pota ssium m elts at 62.3°C . A c e rta in c o m b in a tio n of
the tw o m elts at 730°C Is the co m b in a tion a m ixture or a c o m p o u n d 9
1.28 W hich of the fo llo w in g p ro p e rtie s are e x te n s iv e and w h ich are in te n sive ?
(a) C olor (c) Total cost (e) M ass (g) S peed
(b) Length (d) Price per unit (f) V olum e (h) F re e zin g point
1.29 E le ctricity is passed th rough 7.20 gram s (g) of a pure su bsta nce , and 2 83 gram s
of one m aterial and 4.37 gram s of another m aterial are pro du ced . Is the o rig i
nal su bsta nce an ele m e n t or a com pound?
1 30 E lem ental nitrogen and hydrogen are both odorless

(a) W hat is the odor of a m ixture of the two gases?
(b) E xplain w hy am m on ia, a co m p ou nd of n itrogen and h y d ro g e n sm ells so
strongly
1 31 In the iro n s u lfu r e xp e rim e n t d escrib e d in S e ction 1.2, heat w as used to sta rt a
ch e m ica l rea ction , w hich gave off m ore heat. C an you th ink of a n o th e r e xam ple
of a rea ction that is started by heating and then gives off m ore h e a t9
1.32 W hen d in itro g e n te tro xid e , a co lo rle ss liquid, is w arm ed , a brow n gas is fo rm e d
Is this ch a n g e a ch e m ica l change or a p h ysica l chan ge ?
1.33 L is t fo u r or fiv e p ro p e rtie s you c o u ld use to d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n iro n and

a lu m in um S tate w hich one (s) are c h e m ica l p ro p e rtie s
1 34 List fo u r or five p ro p e rtie s that ena ble you to d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n w a te r and

gaso lin e. State w hich one (s) are c h e m ica l p ro pe rtie s.
1 35 A sa m p le of a liqu id is h om og en eo u s. W hen it is co o le d to 10°C p art of the

liquid so lid ifie s The solid part is re-m oved, and the liquid p art is co o le d fu rthe r,
but no o th e r ch an ge takes place Is the original liquid a co m p o u n d or a s o lu tio n 9
1.36 A sa m ple of a solid su b sta n ce is heated under a stream of h yd ro g e n gas and

a solid rem ain s after the tre a tm e n t that has a m ass 75% of that of the o rig in a l
su b sta n ce F urth er tre a tm e n t w ith hydrogen ca use s no fu rth e r ch a n g e Is the
o rig in a l su b sta n ce an e le m e n t or a c o m p o u n d 9
1 37 C lassify each of the fo llo w in g as a ch e m ica l ch an ge or a p h y s ic a l ch a n g e

(a) B re aking a piece of m etal by bending it back and forth
(b) Baking a cake
(c) S prea ding salt on an icy sidew alk to m elt the ice
(d) S triking a m atch
(e) C ooking a hot dog
28
(f) Rubbing your hands together to get them warm

(g) Using a tea bag
1 38 W hen som e su ga r is added to w ater, a solution is form ed. State se veral w ays
in w h ich you can te ll th a t the c o m b in a tio n is a s o lu tio n ra th e r th an a new
co m p ou nd
1 39 If 6 dozen don uts costs $21 00 and 10 dozen donuts costs $35.00. is the price
of don uts in te n sive or e xtensive?
1 40 C lassify the fo llo w in g m aterials as hom ogeneous or h eterogeneous:

(a) M ilk
(b) W hite paint
(c) A m m onia gas dissolved in w ater
(d) A glass of pure w ater containing an ice cube (also pure water)
(e) A teaspoon of sugar in a glass of w arm w ater after having been stirred th o r
oughly
(f) A cola drink with bubbles
(g) A cola drink w ith no bubbles visible
1.3 M atter and Energy - Vat chat va nang li/Ong
141 List as m any kinds of energy as you can think of w ithout consulting the text.
1 42 W hat two changes in energy accom pany the use of a flashlight?
1,43 Nam e a device com m only found on a car that changes:

(a) C hem ical energy to m echanical energy
(b) E le ctrica l energy to m echanical energy
(c) E le ctrica l energy to heat
(d) C he m ica l energy to electrical energy
(e) E le ctrica l energy to sound
(f) M ech an ical energy to heat
(g) E le ctrica l energy to chem ical energy
1 44 N am e one co m m on device, not on a car, that perform s each of the fo llo w in g
conversions:
(a) C he m ica l energy to heat
(b) C he m ica l energy to m echanical energy
(c) E le ctrica l energy to light
(d) E le ctrica l energy to sound
1 45 W hat is the m ass of a 90-kilo gram (kg) astronaut on the su rfa ce of the M oon,
w here g ra vity is 17% that on E a rth 9
1 46 For a g ive n q u a n tity of energy, the e le ctricity p roduced by a b a tte ry is m uch

m ore e xp e n s iv e than that p rovided by the e le ctric co m p a n y W hy do we still
use b a tte rie s?
1 47 E xp lain the a dva nta g es and d isa d va n ta g e s of house c u rre n t ve rs u s b atterie s

for use in a hom e sm oke detector
29
1 48 How m uch energy is created w hen 1.00 kg of charcoal (m ostly ca rb o n ) is burned

in air?
1.4 Chem ical Sym bols - Cac ky hieu hda hoc
1 49 C alcu la te the p ercen ta ge of all e lem ents in the T able of the E le m e n ts (in sid e
back cover) w hose nam es sta rt with the letter T.
1 50 How m any e le m e n ts are pre sen t in each of the fo llo w in g

(a) fSJI, (b) HF (c) OsSO,
(d) Nb (e) BN (f) S c(S C N )3
(g) COCI,
1 51 B e g in n in g stu d e n ts o fte n m ix up the fo llo w in g e le m e n ts G iv e the nam e for
each ele m e n t
(a) K and P (b) Mg and Mn
(c) Cu and Co (d) Na and S
1 52 W rite the sym bo l for each of the follow ing e lem ents
(a) Sodium (b) Iron (c) M ercury (d) Lead
(e) C opper (f) A ntim ony (g) Silver (h) P otassium
(i) Tungsten (j) Gold
1 53 W ith o ut co n su ltin g any tables, w rite the nam es of the fo llo w in g e le m e n ts
(a) F and Fe (b) Na and Ne (c) Ag and Au
(d) P and K (e) Sn and S
1.54 N am e each of the fo llo w in g elem ents:
(a) Pb (b) Ag (c) W (d) K
(e) Cu (f) Fe (g) Na (h) Au
(i) Hg (j) Sb
1.55 W ithout consu ltin g any tables, w rite the sym bols for the fo llo w in g ele m e n ts
(a) S odium and sulfur
(b) C obalt and copper
(c) M agnesium and m anganese
(d) P otassium and phosphorus
(e) C arbon, cadm ium and calcium
(f) Boron, barium , and bism uth
(g) Iron and iodine
1 56 W rite sym bols for each of the follow ing elem ents:
(a) H ydrogen (b) Helium (c) Lithium
(d) C arbon (e) N itrogen (f) O xygen
(g) F luorine (h) N eon (i) S odium m
1.5 The P e rio d ic T a b le - B a n g p h a n lo a i tu a n hoa n
1 57 W hich e le m e n t of periodic group IA is not an alkali m e ta l9
1.58 W hich of the follow ing neighbors of fluorine in the p eriodic table has p ro p e ^ ie s
m ost like those of fluorine oxygen, neon, or c h lo rin e 9
30
1 59 (a) What two elements are in group VI of period 5?

(b) W hat e le m e n t(s) is (are) in group III of period 2?
1 60 State the group num ber and period num ber of each of the follow ing elem ents:
(a) Mg (b) Ar (c) Ni
1 61 Nam e the group and state the group num ber of each of the follow ing elem ents
(a) Ba (b) Xe
(c) Na (d) Ag (e) Br
1 62 Using the table inside the back cover of the text and the periodic table d e te r
m ine
(a) How m any elem ents w hose nam es start with the letter S are transition e le
m e n ts 7
(b) How m any e le m e n ts w hose sym bols sta rt w ith the letter T are tran sition
e le m e n ts?
1 63 Using the table inside the back cover of the text and the periodic table deter
m ine
(a) How m any ele m e n ts w hose nam es start with the letter B are m ain group
e le m ents?
(b) How m any e lem ents whose sym bols start with the letter B are inner tra n s i
tion elem ents?
1 64 W ould you e xpect m anganese or selenium to act more like a typical m etal?
1 65 W hich two e lem ents are m ost like calcium in chem ical p ro p e rtie s7
1 66 How m any ele m e n ts are in the first period of the p eriodic ta b le 7 the second?
the th ird 7 the fo u rth 7
1 67 W hich ele m e n t is in group III of the second transition series?
1 68 The fo rm u la of an oxide of phosphorus is P , 0 K M ake an educated guess as to

w hich one of the fo llo w in g com pounds exists A s?. Ob. Ga,. O s. S,. Os
1.6 Laws, H ypotheses, and Theories - Bjnh luat, gia thiet va ly thuyet
1 69 W ould an a ccep ted gen eralizatio n that explains why a c-tive m etals react with
acids be referred to as a law, hypothesis or theory?
1.70 S u p p o se th a t you are a c o n s u lta n t to the N atio na l Sci ence F o u n d a tio n , an

agency of the U S g overnm ent In a proposal for a S1 m illion grant a claim is
m ade that a m ethod will be developed to make 20 ounces (oz) of gold from 10
oz of gold and no o the r ingredients W ould you recom m end that g o ve rn m e n t
m oney be spent on this proposed research? Explain your reasoning
1 71 S u p p o se th a t you are a c o n s u lta n t to the N ational S cie nce F ou nd a tion In a

pro po sal for a S 1 m illion grant, a claim is made that a m ethod w ill be devel
oped to m ake a m achine that produces tw ice as m uch e ne rg y as it uses up
with no p erm a ne nt changes in m atter W ould you recom m end that gove rn m e nt
m oney be sp en t on this pro-posed re se arch 7 Explain your reasoning.
3!
GENERAL PROBLEMS - BAI TAP TONG QUAT
1.72
(a) C ount the n um ber of each of the follow ing types of e le m e n ts in F igu re 1.5:
m ain group elem ents, transi-tion elem ents, inner tran sition e le m e n ts Now
calcu-late the percentage of each type im portant enough for you to learn of
all the e lem ents in that type. For exam ple, of all the m ain group e le m e n ts,
w hat percentage is im portant for you to learn (from F igure 1 5)?
(b) W hich type of elem ent do you think w ill be m ost im p o rta n t in this course?
W hich w ill be second m ost im p orta nt7
1.73 A n u tritio n ist reco m m en d s m ore iron and less sodium in the d ie t of a patie nt
with a blood problem Does the nu-tritionist advocate e ating iron m eta l but not
sodium m etal? Explain
1.74 W hat kind of e lectrical device has the advantage of p orta b ility like a d ry cell but
better econom y?
1.75
(a) A ch em ist d eve lo ps a p harm aceutical to help p atie nts w ith thyro id pro ble m s
In w hat branch of ch em istry is this ch em ist w orking?
(b) A ch e m ist in w hich branch of ch em istry d ete rm in e s the e le c tric a l c o n d u c tiv
ity of a m etal already prepared by another ch em ist?
(c) A chem ist in w hich branch of chem istry is m ost likely to d ete rm ine the num ber
of parts per m illion of an im purity in a city's d rinkin g w ater?
1.76 A ch e m is t uses a co m p ou nd of carbon, h ydrog en , and o x y g e n to s e p a ra te a
m eta l from the rest of a sa m p le to d e te rm in e the m e ta l's p e rc e n ta g e in the
sam ple W hat branch of ch em istry is the ch em ist p ra cticin g ?
1.77 Ratios are g en erally intensive Explain why
1.78
(a) P redict the color of a solution of a red su bstance d isso lved in a ye llo w s u b
stance
(b) Can you pre dict the color of a com pound of a red su b sta n ce and a yellow
su b sta n ce 7
(c) Explain your answ ers
1.79 Explain the follow ing statem ents som etim es m ade in e ve ryd a y c o n v e rs a tio n
(a) “Oil and w ater do not m ix."
(b) “G asoline and alcohol do not m ix.”
1.80 N a?C r 0 4 is the fo rm u la for a certain chrom ium co m p ou nd W h ich of the fo llo w
ing form ulas is m ost likely to be the form ula for a su lfur c o m p o u n d 7
(a) N a,S O , (b) N a ?SO , (c) NaSO,
32
topic 1: Kasic concepts
S U M M A R Y - TONG KET CHL/ONG_______________

M atter includes every m aterial thing in the universe, and to be able to understand such
a wide variety of item s we m ust classify m atter M atter is divided into pure substances
and m ixtures Pure substances may be elem ents or com pounds M ixtures m ay be e i
ther hete ro g en eo us or hom ogeneous. Elem ents are the fundam ental b uilding blocks
of m atter and cannot be broken down to sim pler substances by chem ical or physical
m eans C om pounds are chem ical com binations of elem ents; they have their own sets
of properties and defi-m te com positions. A physical com bination of substances results
in a m ixture, w hose com ponents retain most of their properties M ixtures do not have
definite com positions H om ogeneous m ixtures, called solutions, look alike throughout,
but som e parts of a h ete ro g e n e o u s m ixture can be seen to be d iffe re n t from other
parts. (Section 1.1)
P roperties are the ch aracte ristics by which we can identify sam ples of m atter. Inten
sive properties, such as color and brittleness, do not depend on the size of the sam ple,
but extensive properties, such as volum e, do Intensive properties are more im portant
in identifying substances W e can determ ine w hether a com bination of substances is a
m ixture or a co m p ou nd by its properties W hen we com bine sam ples of m atter, the
result has m ore m atter present than any of the original sam ples W hen we break down
a sam ple, each of the resulting products is com posed of less m atter than the starting
sam ple (Section 1 2)
M atter is anything that has m ass and occupies space M ass is a m easure of the q u a n
tity of m atter in a sam ple The m ass of an object does not change with its position in
the universe On the surface of the Earth, m ass is d irectly proportional to w eight, and
we deter m ine the m ass of an object by "w eighing it Energy is the ability to do work
and com es in m any form s (Table 1.3) Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it
can be converted from one form to another C hem istry is the study of the interaction
of m atter and energy and the changes that m atter undergoes (Section 1 3 )
Each e le m ent has a chem ical sym bol consisting of one or two letters The first letter
(or the only one) is alw ays w ritten as a capital letter; the second, if present, is always
w ritten as a lo w e rca se (sm all) letter A sso ci-a ting the nam es of the m ost im p orta nt
elem ents (show n in Figure 1 5 ) with their sym bols, and their sym bols with their nam es,
is a nece ssary skill (S ection 1.4)
The p eriodic table is a classification schem e for ele-m ents that is trem e nd ou sly useful
in learning the p ro p-ertie s of the elem ents It consists of seven periods and 16 c la s s i
cal groups, or fa m ilies (18 in a more modern but less useful version) Several of the
groups have nam es w hich beginning students need to learn The elem ents are sepa
rated into m etals and nonm etals on the periodic table They are also su bdivided into
main group e lem ents, transition elem ents, and inner transition elem ents (Section 1 5)
A statem ent that su m m arizes innum erable scientific facts and enables scientists to p re
dict w hat w ill happen in a certain type of situation in the future is called a law. (For
exam ple, the law of gravity enables us to predict that if we drop som ething, it w ill fall
dow nw ard This law resulted from innum erable observations ) One of the m ost im p o r
tant laws in ch e m istry is the law of conser-vation of mass, w hich states that m ass c a n
not be created oi d estroye d in any chem ical reaction or physical change. An e x p la n a
tion that is proposed to explain why a law w orks is called a h ypothesis If the e x p la n a
tion is a ccepted by the scientific com m unity, it is known as a theory. (S ection 1 6)
33
MEASUREMENT
DO LIJdNG
Myc DICH YEU cAu - O b je c tiv e s b 6 CUC - L a y o u t
2 .1 To use the units o f a m easurem ent to 2.1 R eview Clues

help to do calculations involving that
2 .2 Factor Label M eth od
m eas u rem e n t
2 .3 The M etric System
2 .2 To use the basic e lem en ts o f the m etric
system a system o f units and prefixes 2 .4 Exponential Num bers
designed to m ake scientific calculations
2 .5 Significant Digits
as easy as possible
2 .6 Density
2 .3 To use exp o n en tial notation to w ork w ith
very large and very small numbers 2 .7 T em p e ra tu re Scales
2 .4 To use the correct num ber of digits to

indicate the precision o f a m easurem ent
or a calculated result
2 .5 To calculate density, v o lu m e, or mass,

g iven the o th er tw o , and to use density
to id entify substances
2 .6 To distinguish am o ng Fahrenheit, Celsius,

and Kelvin tem p e ratu re scales
Jiic&tig dan doc hieu muc dich yeu cau vd bo cuc
2 .1 Su: dung cdc dan vi cua mot so do de tra giup viec tinh todn lien quan den so
do, 2 .2 Sii dung nhilng thanh phdn ca ban cua he m et - m ot he thong cdc dan vi va
tiep ddu ngU duac thiet ke d i viec thuc hien cdc tinh todn khoa hoc duac de dang
nhat, 2 .3 sii dung cdch ghi so mu de tinh todn vdi nhilng con so rdt lan ho<Jc rat nho,
2 .4 Sil dung dung so chU so co y nghia d i chi ra tinh chinh dc cua m ot so do luang
hay mot ket qua tinh todn, 2 .5 Tinh ty trong, the tich, khdi luang d i nhan dang cac
chat, 2 .6 Phdn biet giUa cdc thang do nhiet do Fahrenheit, Ceisius vd Kelvin.
34
Topic 2 : M easurem ent
A simple do it yourself project will convince you that measuring things quantita
tively tells more than qualitative estimates, especially those made using the human
senses: Fill one beaker with cold water, a second beaker with hot water, and a third
beaker with a mixture of equal amounts of hot and cold water. Place one hand in the
cold water and the other hand in the hot water at the same time. Leave them there for
2 minutes (min). Then place both hands in the mixed water. That water will feel hot to
the hand originally in the cold water but cold to the hand originally in the hot water,
even though both hands are now in the same water!
M easurem ent is the heart of modern science, and even the social sciences are
becoming more quantitative. Measurements make identifications of substances more
precise and enable more scientific generalities to be made. For example, even ancient
peoples knew that when objects were dropped, they fell downward. The law of gravity
was extended by measurements, enabling Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) to determine
that the same laws of gravity that govern the fall of an object here on Earth also gov
ern the motions of the Moon and the planets in the solar system.
There are a wide variety of things to measure in science, and many ways to make
the measurements. For example, the volume of a rectangular box can be calculated
by measuring its length, width, and height, and multiplying them together. The volume
of a sphere can be measured by determining its radius and using the equation V =
firr3. Measuring the radius directly might not be feasible, as for example with a bowling
ball, so we might measure the diameter by placing the ball between two parallel boards
and taking half of the distance between them because the radius is half the diameter.
Alternatively, we might measure the circumference and find r from that, using the
equation c = 2nr. The total volume of a bunch of small pieces of copper can be m ea
sured by measuring the volume of a sample of water, placing the copper in the water,
and measuring the total volume. The difference between the volumes is the volume of
the copper. (This method works only with samples that do not dissolve to form a solu
tion.) Quantities other than volume are measured in a variety of other ways.
Several aspects of measurement will be considered in this chapter. First, Section
2.1 presents the factor label method, which makes calculations with measured quanti
ties easier. This method will be used in the sections that follow and throughout the
book. Section 2.2 introduces the metric system, a system of weights and measures
designed to make calculations as easy as possible. Next, in Section 2.3, we consider
how to calculate with extremely large and extremely small numbers, using exponential
notation. In Section 2.4, we discuss the accuracy and precision of measurements and
how that precision should be reported, using the proper number of significant digits.
The concept of density, considered in Section 2.5, not only is useful in itself, espe
cially for identifying substances, but also enables us to apply the concepts presented
in previous sections. Finally, Section 2.6 discusses temperature scales.
Hiiomg dan dpc hieu

Mot thi nghiem ttf thuc hien se cho ban thay ro la viec do dinh Itfong cdc sit vat cho
ban biet nhieu hem la nhtfng udc Itfong dinh tinh, d$c biet la nhtfng udc Itfong dtfac thuc
hien bdng gidc quan cua con ngudi: Rot ntfdc lanh vdo trong mot edi cdc, vd ntfdc ndng
vdo trong cdc thtf hai vd trong cdc thtf ba la mot hon hap nhtfng luang ntfdc ndng vd
ntfdc lq.nh bdng nhau. D$t mot ban tay trong nude lanh vd m ot ban tay kia trong ntfdc
ndng trong cung mot thai gian Rut hai ban tay ra trong khoang 2 phut roi ddt cd hai
ban tay vdo cdc ntfdc hdn hap. Ban tay luc trUdc ddt trong ntfdc lanh se cam thay ndng
nhtfng ban tay luc trudc ddt trong ntfdc ndng cam thay lanh, mdc du hcu ban tay luc ndy
dQt trong cung mot thtf nude!
35
Topic 2: Measurement
Do luang la trong tain ciia khoa hoc hien dqi, va tlidm chi la nhilng nganh khoa
hoc xa liqi cung dang tra urn co tinh chat dinli luqng hon. Nlirtng pltep do giup ta nhan
dang duqc cdc chat chinh xdc hon cd cho pliep ta thilc hien dilqc nhilng dieu kliai qua!
hoa cd tinh khoa Iwc hon. Vi du, ngay cd nhilng ngi/di xUa cung hiet rang khi cac i’dt
the dilqc tha ra, chung se roi xuong dildi. Dinh ludt hap dan da dtloc md rang bot cdc
phpp do, cho phpp Sir Isaac Npirton t16/12 1727) xdc dinh rang ciing nhilng dinli ludt
hap ddu do chi plidi sit rot cua mot cat the tren trdi ddt ndy. ciing chi phot nhilng chuxen
dong cun mat trong cd cdc hdnh hull trong lie mat trdi.
Co rat nhieu sit cat khdc nhau cd the ditqc do trong khoa hoc ra co nhieu rdrli di-
the hien cdc phpp do. Vi du, the tich ciia mot edi hop hinli chi? nhat cd the duac tinh
loan hang cdch do chieu dill, chieu rang vd chieu caa ciia no va nhdn cac so do nuy Iqi
vdi nhau. The tich cua mot khoi cau co the duqc do bdng cdch xdc dinli ban kinh cua 116
vd sit dung phitang trinh V = - nr1. Viec do trilc tiep ban kinh cd the khong ditac de
dang, vi du nhit doi vdi mot qua bong howling, do do chung ta co the do duong lanh
bdng cdch dat qua bdng vdo gida hai ban song song va lay ban kinh bang nUa khodng
cdch giiia hai ban nay vi ban kinh la nita mot duong kinh.
Chu diem 2.1: Factor Label Method
Use units in reporting all m easurem ents and the results of ca lcu la tio n s using them
Alw ays use full sp ellings or standard abbreviations for all units
Every m ea surem e nt results in a num ber and a unit R eporting the unit is just as
im p o rta n t as re p o rtin g the n u m b e r For e xam ple , it m akes q uite a bit of d iffe re n c e
w hether your pet is 4 inches tall or 4 feet ta ll1 The units are an in te g ra l p art of any
m easurem ent, and from the outset, you m ust get used to stating the units for every
m easured q uantity and for every quantity calculated from m easured data A lw ays use
full sp ellin gs or standard abb re viatio ns for all units In a great m any ca se s you can
use the units as a clue to which operation m ultiplication or division to p erform in ealeu
lations with m easured quantities.
The units of m ea surem e nt can be treated as algebraic q ua ntitie s in ca lcu la tio n s
For exam ple, we can ca lcu late the total w ages of a stu de nt aide w ho has earne d 7
dollars per hour for 25 hours of work, as follow s
Total w ages = (hours w orked )(h ou rly rate)
7 d o lla r s ] , , ,,
2 d Jietfrs , 175 dolla rs
^ 1 lu m r )
The unit hours (h) in the tim e cancels the unit hour in the rate lea ving the unit
dollars in the a nsw er Each unit is treated as a whole, no m attei how m any letters it
contains M oreo ver, for the units to cancel, it does not m atter if the unit is s ing ula r
(such as hour) or plural (such as hours). If we did not know the equation to ca lcu la te
the total w ages, we could have put down the tim e with the unit hours and m ultiplie d
by the rate of pay. w hich has the unit hour in its den om ina tor The units tell us that we
m ust m u ltip ly 1
The previous ca lcu latio n is an exam ple of the use of the facto r label m eth o d , in
which a q ua ntity is m ultiplied by a factor equal to 1 The units in clu d e d in the ’ actor
are the labels In the previous exam ple. S7 is equ iva len t to 1 hour (h), and the c a lc u la
tion changes the n um ber of hours w orked to the equ iva len t n um ber of dollars To use
36
the factor label method, you first put down the given quantity, then multiply by a c o n
version facto r (a rate or ratio) that will change the units given to the units desired for
the answer. The factor may be a constant known to you or a value given to you in the
problem.
To summarize the steps of the factor label method:
1. Put down the quantity given (or, occasionally, a ratio to be converted).
2. Multiply the quantity by one or more factors rates or ratios which will change
the units given to those required for the answer. The conversion factors may
be given in the problems, or they may be constants of known value.
To use the factor label method effectively, you must know the units of all the quan
tities involved.
Small diagrams that show the initial units and the final units connected by the
conversion factor are used in this book to show how to change a quantity from one of
the units to the other. For example, for calculating the student aide’s total wages, we
use the following diagram:
Diagrams like this will accompany many of the solutions to the in-text examples.
When you solve the practice problems and the problems at the end of the chapter,
you may want to make your own diagrams.
Hours j j ^ ! , P o / / a r > j|
7 d o lla rs
25 h o u r = 175 d o lla rs
1 hour
S napshot Review - On tap nhanh

*- In the factor label method, units may be canceled like variables (.v, y) in alge
bra. Placem ent of the units so that they cancel to give the desired units is the
essence of the method.
*■ Some factors are constant, such as the number of cents in a dollar; others are
variable, such as the number of miles traveled by a car per hour, and these
must be given in the statement of a problem.
A. (a) Calculate the number of quarters in $15.50. (b) Calculate the value in dol
lars of 217 quarters.
• Trong phuang phdp he so ghi nhdn, cdc dan vi cd the duac khii vai nhau giong
nhu cdc bien so (x,y) trong dai so. Viec sdp xep cdc dan vi sao cho khii duac vdi
nhau de co duac cdc dan vi mong muon Id mot chinh yeu trong phuang phdp
nay.
• M ot so he so la hang so, vi du nhu so cent trong mot do la, mot so khdc la cd the
thay doi, vi du nhu so d$m mot xe hai di duac tren gia va he so nhu vdy phdi
duac cho trong phdn ddu de cua bdi todn.
A. (a) Tinh so phdn tu do la trong 15,50 do la. (b) Tinh gid tri bdng do la cua 2 17
phdn tu do la.
37
topic 2: Measurement
Chu thich ttf - cum ttf va hiicmg dan dpc hieu

- inches: inch
- feet: feet
- hours: gtf), thai gian
hour: gid
- d ollars: do la
- factor label m ethod: plii/ang phdp ghi chu thita so
- conversion factor: thi/a so hien doi
PhUdng phap he so ghi nhan

Moi phep do deu cho ket qua la mot con so vd mot dan vi. Viec ghi dan vi cung
quail trong nhu viec ghi con so. Vi du, se hodn todn khdc nhau khi noi rang rang con
veil nuoi ciia ban cao 4 inche hay cao 4 feet.' Dan vi Id mot phdn nguyen cua bat ctf so
do ndo, tit ban ddu, bail phdi lam quen vdi viec chi ro dan vi cho nidi dqi litang da ditqc
vd cho moi dqi luqng tinli todn duqc tit cdc so lieu dd do. Luon ludn sit dung each ghi
day du hoac nhilng chit viet tat tieu cliuan cho tat cd cdc dan vi. Trong rat nhieu trUdng
hqp, ban co the sit dung cdc dan vi nliU mot ddu mdc de tlitfc luen phep tinh pliep
nhdn hay phep chia trong nhilng tinh todn vdi cdc dqi Itfqng dd dtfqc do.
Cdc dan vi ditqc do cd the dtfqc xem nhtf dqi Itfqng dqi so trong phep tinh toan Vi
du. ban cd the tinh tong tien cong cua mot sinli vien tra giang kiem duac 7 do la tren
gid sau 25 gid lam viec nhtf sau:
Tong tien cong = (gid lam viecXdinh mite tien cong gid)
7 dollars
25 iioTfrs 175 dolla rs
1 fMJifr
Dan vi gid (h) trong tlidi gian khtf vdi dan vi gid trong dinh mite tien cong. de con
Iqi dan vi do la trong Idi giai. Moi dan vi dtfqc xem xet nhu moi long the , khong ke dan
vi dd bao gom bao nhieu cliil edi. Han nila, doi vdi cdc dan vi dtfqc kliit di, vi dan i i la
so it hay so nhieu ciing khdng anh htfdng gi. Neu ta kliong biet chitang trinh de tinh
tong tien cong, ta cd the ghi tlidi gian vdi dan vi gid vd nhdn vdi dinh mite tien cong,
dinh mtfc ndy ciing co dan vi gid d moi so. Cdc dan vi cho ta biet rang chung ta phdi
nhdn!
Phep tinh vita rdi Id mot vi du cua viec sii’ d u n g phu'ting p h a p h e so g h i nhdn
trong do mot dqi Itfong dtfqc nhdn vdi mot he so bang vdi 1 Cdc dan vi co hen quan
trong lie so Id nhilng nhdn . Trong vi du vita rdi. 7 dd ta titang ditang vdi mot gio 'Ay ra
linli todn lam thay dot so gid dd him viec thanh so do la titang ditang !)■'’ sit dung
phuang phap he so ghi nhdn. tritdc het ban phai ghi dai litang dd cho rdi nhdn i ai mot
he so ch u y en d o i (mot dmh sudt liay mot ty sol phep nhdn nay se lam thus doi cac
dan vi dd cho tlidnli rdi dan vi mong muon trong Idi gidi. lie si) cd the Id mot hd'ig so
md ban dd biet hay mot gid tri dtfac cho trong bai todn cua ban
De tom htqc cdc bitdc trong phtfang phdp he so ghi nhdn:
1. Ghi ra dqi litang dd cho (hay, doi khi khi la mot ty so can dtfac chuyen dot'
2. Nhdn dqi litang ndy vdi mot hay nlueu lie so • cdc dinh mtfc liay cdc ty so
phep nhdn nay se thay doi cdc dan vi dd cho thanh cdc dan vi dd mong muon
38
trong Idi gidi. Cdc h i so chuyen doi co the duac cho trong cdc bdi todn, hay chung
co th i la nhilng h&ng so gid tri dd biet.
D i sic dung phuang phdp he so ghi nhdn mot cdch hieu qua, ban phdi biet cdc dan
vi cua tdt cd cdc dqi luang liin quan.
Nhilng sa do nhd cho thdy cdc dan vi ban ddu vd cdc dan vi sau cung duqc noi vai
nhau bdng h i so chuyen doi duqc sit dung trong sdch ndy d i cho thdy cdch de bien doi
mot dqi luqng til mdt dan vi ndy sang mot dan vi khdc. Vi du, de tinh tong tien cong
cua sinh viin trq gidng, chung ta svC dung sa do sau day:
7 dollars
25 hour = 175 dollars
1 hour
Nhitng sa do nhu vay se di kem vdi cdc Idi gidi trong cdc vi du trong bdi. Khi ban
gidi cdc bdi tap thuc hdnh vd cdc bdi tdp a cuoi chuang, ban co ve rieng nhilng sa do
cua minh.
Chu diem 2.2: The Metric System
The m etric system and its more modern counterpart SI (for System e International
d'Unites) are systems of units designed to make calculations as easy as possible. It
was designed to make every word mean one and only one thing. Its subdivisions and
multiples of units are powers of 10 times a primary unit. Each of its prefixes means
the same thing, no matter what unit it is attached to. The abbreviations for the quanti
ties and prefixes are easy to remember. All these features have been built into the
metric system to make it easy.
Learning the following six words is essential to understanding the metric system:
1. meter 4. centi-
2. gram 5. milli-
3. liter 6. kilo-
(A few more words will be added as we progress.) Meter, gram, and liter are the
units of length, mass, and volume, respectively, in the metric system. Just as the En
glish system has subdivisions of its primary units (12 inches (in.) in a foot, for example),
so does the metric system. But the metric system uses prefixes that mean the same
thing no matter what primary unit they are used with. Centi-, milli-, and kilo- are pre
fixes that indicate certain multiples or divisions of any primary unit. Other less impor
tant prefixes are given along with these in Table 2.1.
The m eter is the primary unit of length in the metric system. Its abbreviation is
m. The m eter is defined in such a way that it can be duplicated precisely in any well-
equipped laboratory in the world. It has been denned as the distance between two
marks on a metal bar kept at the Bureau of Weights and M easures in Paris. (It now
has an even more precise definition.) A m eter is 39.37 in. Long 3 .37 in. longer than
a yard to give you an idea of its length.
39
Table 2.1 Metric Prefixes
Prefix Abbreviation Meaning
G iga- G One b illio n l ,000.000.000
Mega- M One m illio n 1,000.000

K ilo- k One thousand 1000
Deci- d O ne-tenth 0.1
C e n ti- c One-hundredth 0.01
M ill i- m One-thousandth 0.001
M icro- V O n e -m illio n th 0.000001
N ano- n O n e -b illio n th 0.000000001
Pico- P O n e -trillio n th 0 .00 0000000001
T h e m ost im p o rta n t prefixes are given in boldfacc type.
Table 2.2 Primary Metric Units
U n it Sym bol E q u iv a le n c ie s
D istance M ete r m
M ass G ram g
Volum e L ite r L
Volume Cubic m eter mJ 1000 L = 1 m
Volume Cubic ce n tim e te r cm ' 1000 cm-' = 1 L
Table 2.3 E nglish-M etric C on version s
L e n g th M ass V o lu m e
1 m = 39 37 in 1 kg = 2.2045 lb 1 L= 1.059 ()t

2.540 cm = t in 153.6 g = 1 lb (avoirdupois) 29 57 m l. = 1 fl oz
1.609 i 1 m ile 28.35 g = 1 oz (avoirdupois) 3.777 L = 1 US gal
31.103g = 1 o z(tro y)* 0.472 L = 1 US pt
1 m e tric ton = 2204.5 lb
ght is g en erally used for gold and s ilv e r
40
A s ta n d a rd is an agreed upon quantity with which like quantities can be

compared. For exam ple, the meter is the agreed standard of length, to which other
lengths can be com pared. In the measurement of most quantities, the prim ary unit is
also the standard. With mass, however, the standard is different from the unit. The
gram is the primary unit of mass in the metric system. The gram, abbreviated g, is
such a small mass that the kilogram has been chosen as the legal standard of mass
in the United States and as the worldwide standard in S I. M ass is m easured by
comparison with standard masses. The kilogram (kg) is a mass equivalent to about
2.2 pounds (lb).
The cubic m eter (m 3) is the primary unit of volume in SI. A smaller unit, the li
ter, is the primary unit of volume in the metric system. The abbreviation for liter is L.
You need to know both the cubic meter and the liter. Table 2.2 summarizes the pri
mary metric units of distance, mass, and volume.
The prefix centi- means one-hundredth of any primary unit. For example, a centi
meter (cm) is 0.01 m, and a centigram (eg) is 0.01 g.
The prefix milli- means onethousandth. No matter which primary unit it is used
with, it always means 0.001 times that unit. A millimeter (mm) is 0.001 m, a milliliter
(mL) is 0.001 L, and so on.
The prefix kilo- means 1000 times the primary unit, no matter which primary unit it
is used with. For example, a kilogram (kg) is 1000 g, and a kilometer (km) is 1000 m.
To convert a value expressed in a primary metric unit to its equivalent in a subunit,
or vice versa, use a conversion factor with a 1 in front of the subunit and the equivalent
value in front of the main unit. Note that you will have either the prefix abbreviation
or its equivalent in front of the symbol for the primary unit:
Prefix Equivalent value
Kilo 1000
Centi 0.01
Milli 0.001
For exam ple, either of the following conversion factors is correct:
1 centimeter) 0.01 meter

0.01 meter J 1 centimeter
Thus, to convert 239 cm to meters:
^ O . O lm ^
239 cm = 2.39 m
lc m
To convert 4.91 m to centimeters:
^ lcm ^
4.91 m = 491 cm
0.01 m
Some conversions between English and metric system units are presented in Table
2.3. Engineers must know how to do such conversions because they still use some
English system units. However, scientists rarely use English system units, and there
fore, these conversions are less important for them. (The use of a metric unit that is
becoming familiar to the general public is shown. Note that 80 km/h is about 50 mph.)
41
W hen we add or su b tra c t m easured q ua ntitie s, we tre a t the u n its ju s t as we

treat va riab les (such as x. y. and z) in algebraic m a n ip u la tio n s (see A p p e n d ix 1) The
u nits m ust be the sa m e fo r the a d d itio n or s u b tra c tio n of n u m b e rs th a t re p re s e n t
m ea surem e nts A sum or d iffe re n c e w ill have the sam e units as the q u a n titie s being
added or su btracted
Mass
As stated earlier, the p rim ary unit of m ass in the m etric syste m is th e gram Be
cause the gram is so sm all, how ever, the standard m ass in SI and the leg al standard
in the United States is the kilogram .
Volume
V o lu m e can be m easured in two w ays (1) using the ca pa city of a c e rta in c o n
tainer, and (2) using the space defined by a cube of length/on each side The second
m ethod uses the cube of a length (and thus one possible unit for vo lu m e is the cube
of a length unit). The volum e of a rectangular solid is given by
V o lum e = length x w idth x h eight
V = Ix w x h
A cube is a special case for w hich I = w = h. so the vo lu m e of a cube is V = P

The m etric system unit of volum e is the liter (L), o rig in a lly den ne d as the volum e
occupied by a cube e xactly 10 cm on each side. In SI, the cu b ic m e te r is the s ta n
dard. B e cau se the cu bic m e te r is a rather large vo lum e (ab ou t half the c a p a c ity of a
sm all ce m e n t truck), the lite r is favored by ch em ists
1.00 L = (10 c m )3 = 1000 cm 3 = 1000 mL
Thus,
1,0 0 cm 3 = I.OOmL

*- The m etric system is easy because all the co nve rsio ns are p ow ers of 10 all
the p re fixe s m ean the sam e thing no m atter w hat unit they are a tta ch e d to.
and all the sym bols are m eaningful
*■ E n glish -m etric co nve rsio ns are m ost often presented, if at all to g ive you an
idea of the size of the m etric unit They are not used in te n sive ly in th is course
*- Volum e can be presented in liters (or its su b d ivision s) or in the cu be of a unit
of length (such as m ' or c m 3). The centi- in c m 3 does not m ean o n e -h u n d re d th
of 1 m 3 because the 0 01 m ust be cubed
A. C om plete each of the follow ing parts by inserting the c o rre c t m etric unit
(a) V olum e of a can of soda 0.366
(b) H eight of a pro fessio na l basketball player 1 8
(c) V olum e of w ater in a backyard sw im m ing pool 2
(d) M ass of a U S qua rte r (25) 5.7
B, C alculate the n um ber of (a) m eters in 2217 mm (b) liters in 221 7 mL and (c)
gram s in 221 7 mg
C C alculate the n um be r of (a) liters in 0 350 m 3 and (b) liters in 275 c m 5
42
• H i met la d i sit dung vi tdt ca nhitng phep chuyin doi deu la luy thiCa cua 10,
tdt cd cdc tiep ddu ngit co y nghla giong nhau khong ke la chung duac gdn vdo
dan vi nao, vd tdt cd cdc ky hieu deu co y nghla.
• Nhilng phep chuyin doi h i Anh - h i met thitong it duoc gidi thiiu, neu co thi
cung chi de cho ban co mot y niem ve kich thuoc cua dan vi he met. Nhilng hiin
tuong ndy khong duac sit dung nhieu trong giao trinh ndy.
• The tich co the duoc biiu dien bdng lit (hay cdc don vi nho hon) hodc lap phuong
cua mot don vi chieu dai (nhu m3 hay cm3). Chit centi- trong cm3 khong co nghla
Id mot phdn trim cua mot met khoi, vi 0.01 phdi duoc lap phuong lin.
A. Hodn chinh nhitng phdn sau day bdng cdch viit theo don vi met dung:
(a) T h i tich cua mot Ion soda 0 .366_______
(b) Chieu cao cua mot van dong viin bong ro chuyin nghiep 1 .8 _______
(c) The tich nUdc trong ho bcri d sau nhd 2 _______
(d) Khdi luang cua mdt phdn tu do la (25c) 5.7_______
B. Hay tinh so (a) met trong 217 mm, (b) lit trong 2217 mL vd (c) gam trong 2117
mg.
C. Hay tinh so (a) lit trong 0.350 m3 vd (b) lit trong 275 cm3.
Chu thich tCf - cgm tCf va hiiamg dan dpc hieu

- quantity: dai luang - meter: met
- given: duac cho - primary unit: don vi so cap
- required: theo yeu cau - gram: gam
- metric system: he met - cubic meter: met khdi
- SI: he SI - liter: lit
- meter: met - centi: centi
- standard: tieu chudn - milli: mili
H$ met
i /p m e t vd phdn bo sung cua no mdi hon la he SI (viit tdt cho Systeme Interna
tional d ’Unites) la nhitng he don vi duac thiit k i d i lam cho viec tinh todn trd nin de
ddng nhdt. No duac thiet ke sao cho mdi tic duac dung d i chi cho mot vd chi mot sit vat.
Udc so vd boi so cua cdc don vi trong he ndy la 10 Idn hon hay nho hon dan vi so cap.
Moi tiep ddu ngit cua he deu co ciing y nghla, khong k i la tiep ddu ngit duac gdn vdo
vdo. Nhitng chit viet tdt cho dai luong vd cho tiep ddu ngit de nhd. Tdt cd nhitng ddc
diem tren dd duac xdy dung trong he met de cho ngudi dung ngay nay duac de ddng.
Viec hoc thuoc sau tit sau day la dieu thiet yeu d i hiiu duac he met:
1. met 4. centi-
2. gram 5. milli-
3. lit 6. kilo-
(Mot so it tit khdc nda se duoc bo sung them trong qua trinh hoc.) Met, gram vd lit
la nhitng don vj tuong itng cua chieu dai, khdi luong va th i tich trong he met. Cung
giong nhu trong he Anh co cdc Udc so cua cdc don vi set cap vi du 12 inch (in) trong mot
foot), he met cung cd nhitng udc so nhu vdy. Nhung he met sit dung cdc tiep ddu ngd de
chi cung mot y nghla khong k i Id tiep ddu ngit ndy duac sit dung vdi don vi so cap nao.
43
centi-, milli- ua kilo- la nhilng tiep ddu ngU chi ra rang mot dan vi sa cap bat k\ ditac
nlian len hay chia di bao nhieu lan. Nhilng hep dau ngU khac it quan trong hon ditac
lie! ke vai nhilng tiep dau ngil nay trong bang 2 . 1.
M e t Id dan vi cliieu dai sa cap trong lie met. No ditac viet tdt Id >n M et duac
dinli nghla theo mot phitang thilc sao cho no cd the ditac sao chep Iqi mot cdch chinli
xdc trong bat cur phong thi nglnein nao duac trang bi tdt tren the gnu M et duac dmh
nghla nhd khodng cdch giila hai vach tren mot thanh kun loai duac gii7 a ran phong
trong luang vd do litang d Paris. INgay nay met dd cd mot dmh nghla chinh xdc hail).
De cho ban cd mot y niem ve dd dai ciia met. thi mdt met Id .'19.37 in. ddi hon mdt
yard 3.37 in.
Mot tieu cliudin Id mot quy Udc duac thou thudn ve mdt dai lining ma cac dai luang
litang IU cd the ditqc so sanh vdi no. Vi du, met Id lieu chuan quy Udc cua chieu dai. cac
dd dai khdc co the dilqc so sdnh vdi met. Trong viec do litang, phdn Ian cac dqi luang.
dan vi sa cap cung Id lieu chuan. Tuy nhien, vdi khoi luqng, lieu chudin khdc i <n don vi.
drain Id dan vi sa cap cua khoi htqng trong lie met ( Irani viet tdt la g qua nho nen
kilogram dd ditqc chon nhu mot tieu chuan phap dinh cua khdi luang a M y va la lieu
chuan trong he SI tren loan the gidi. Khdi htqng ditqc do bdng cach so sanh vai cac l/hdi
luqng lieu chuan. Kilogram Ikg) la khoi luqng tuong ditang vai khuang 2,2 pound (Ip).
Khoi lugng
Nhu dd noi tit trudc, dan vi sa cap cua klidi luqng trong he met la gam Tuy nhien.
bdi vi gam qua nhd, khdi luqng lieu chuan trong lie SI vd lieu chuan phap dmh a My la
kilogam.
The tich
The tich cd the duqc do then hai cdch: (1) sit dung dung tich cua mot vd! chita nlidl
dinh, vd (2 ) sit dung khodng khdng gian ditac dinh nghla bdi mdt khdi lap phuang cd
chieu ddi I mdi cqnh Phitang phdp thii hai sit dung mdt luii/i klidi tap phuang m nidi
chieu ddi cunh (vd do do co the cd duqc mdt dan vi the tich la mdt khdi lap phuang co
chieu dm dan vi). The tich ciia mdi khdi ran luii/i chu illicit duac cho bai
T h e tic h = c h ie u d a i x c h ie u r p n g x c h ie u cao
V = 1x w x h
Khoi lap phuong la moi IrUdng hqp dac biet trong dd 1 = w = h, do da the tich cua
klidi lap phitang Id V = 1J.
Don vi the tich trong lie met la lit (L), cd nguon goc duqc dinh nghla la the licli
duqc chiem bdi mot khoi lap phuang cd moi cqnh chinh xdc Id 10 cm f xom h in h 2 6 i
Trong he SI met khoi Id tieu chuan. Vi met khdi cd the tich litang ddi 'an <hang
khodng inia site chUa cua xe tai nhd), dan vi lit duac cac nha hoa hoc ua dunu hon
1.00 L = HO cmt' = WOO c m 1 = 1000 ml.

Do do,
1.00 cm ‘ = 1,00 ml.
44
Chu diem 2.3: Exponential Numbers________________

Objects of scientific interest range from incredibly tiny to almost unimaginably large.
The number of iron atoms that would fit side by side on a line 1 cm in length is about
80 million (Section 13.1). The number that could be packed into a volume of 1 cm3 is
80 million cubed abo u t 5 0 0 thousand billion billion! E ach iron atom is alm ost
unimaginably small.
Scientists handle large and small numbers using exp o n en tial notation. A num
ber written in this format has the following parts:
2,25 x
Coefficient
Base Exponent
v_____ ______ /
V
Exponential part
T he c o e ffic ie n t is an ordinary number that may or may not include a decimal

point. It is multiplied by an exponential part, consisting of a base and an exponent.
In scientific work, the base is usually 10, and the exponent is an integer (a whole num
ber). The coefficient is multiplied by the base the number of times given by the expo
nent. That is, the number in the example is 2.55 multiplied three times by 10:
2.55 x 103 = 2.55 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 2550
Table 2.4 lists important exponential parts and their meanings. Thus we can write
1 million in exponential notation as follows:
1,000,000 = 1 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 1 x 106
Scientists generally report numbers in exponential notation with coefficients that
have one and only one integer digit that is not zero. That is, the coefficient is a num
ber that is greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10. Numbers in this format are said
to be written in stan dard exponential form , or scientific notation. A scientific calcu
lator gives exponential numbers in this form, unless “engineering format” is selected.
See Appendix 1 for methods of handling numbers in exponential format with a scien
tific calculator.
Changing the Form of Exponential Numbers

The form of an exponential number may be changed without changing its value.
For example, 4 .56 x 10* can be changed to another number times 103 or a different
number times 102, and so on:
4 .56 x 104 = 4 .56 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
= 4.56 x 10 x (10 x 10 x 10) = 45.6 x 103

= 4.56 x 10 x 10 x (10 x 10) = 456 x 102
= 4.56 x 10 x 10 x 10 x (10) = 4560 x 1 0 ’
= 4 .56 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 4 5,600 x 10° = 4 5,6 00

In the first conversion, we multiplied the coefficient by one of the tens and ended
up with one fewer ten in the exponential portion of the number. The values of all these
numbers are the same; only their formal is different. You may need to change to dif
ferent formats when you add or subtract exponential numbers, unless you use a scien
tific calculator.
45
W e can increase either the coefficient or the exponential part of a num ber by any
factor without changing the number’s overall value if we reduce the other part by the
same factor. A simple working rule allows changing the format of a num ber in expo
nential notation: Move the decimal point in the coefficient to the right n places and
reduce the exponent n units, or move the decimal point in the coefficient to the left n
places and increase the exponent n units.
Multiplication and Division of Exponential Numbers

To multiply numbers in exponential format, we multiply the coefficients and the
exponential parts separately. To multiply exponential parts, the exponents are added.
For example, let's multiply 3.0 x 10* and 2.5 x 103:
(3.0 x 104) x (2.5 x 103) = (3.0 x 2.5) x (10* x 103)
= 7.5 x 104‘ 3 = 7.5 x 107
It’s easy to see that if you multiply four tens by three tens, you get seven tens:
104x 103 = (10 x 10 x 10 x 10) x (10 x 10 x 10)
= 10 x 10 x 1 0 x 1 0 x 10 x 1 0 x 10 = 107
Addition and Subtraction of Exponential Numbers

W hen we add or subtract numbers in exponential notation, the exponents must be
the same. (This rule is related to the rule that requires numbers being added or sub
tracted to have their decimal points aligned.) The answer is then the sum or difference
of the coefficients times the same exponential part as in each number being added or
subtracted. (The calculator does this operation automatically, but you must know what
is happening in order to report the proper number of significant digits.)
Raising an Exponential Number to a Power

To raise an exponential number to a power, we raise both the coefficient and the
exponential part to the power. W e raise an exponential part to a power by multiplying
the exponent by the power.

In addition or subtraction, the units must be the same and the exponents must
be the same to merely add the coefficients for the Chem Skill Builder p ro p er
resu lt.
A. Report the following numbers in standard exponential form: (a) 2003 (b) 200 0 0
and (c) 0.00200.
B. Do the following calculations
(a) 1.27 x 103 cm + 6.5 x 102 cm
(b) (1.25 x 103 cm )(8.40 x 102 cm)
(c) 1.50 x 10-3 cm - 6 .50 x 10‘ * cm
• Trong phep cong hay trit, cdc dan vi phdi giong nhau vd cdc so mu phdi giong
nhau de co the cong mot cdch dan gian cdc he so nhdm co duac ket qua dung.
A. Ghi nhilng con so sau day theo cdch ghi bdng so mu tieu chuan: (a) 2003 fbj
2000,0 vd (c) 0,00200.
46
B. Thilc hikn nhitng phep tinh sau ddy

(a) 1,27 x 103 cm + 6,5 x 102 cm
(b) (1,25 x 103cm)(8,40 x 102cm)
(c) 1,50 x 10-3 cm - 6,50 x 10~2 cm
Table 2.4 Important Exponential Parts and Their Meanings
Exponential Part Value Meaning
10-9 0.000000001 One-billionth

10-6 0.000001 One-millionth
10-3 0.001 One-thousandth
10-2 0.01 One-hundredth
10-1 0.1 One-tenth
10° 1 One
10' 10 Ten
102 100 One hundred
103 1000 One thousand
106 1,000,000 One million
107 1,000,000,000 One billion
Chu thich tu1- cum ttf va htfcmg dan dpc hieu

- coefficient: he so
- base: ca so
- exponent: so mu
- form: dang
- values: gid tri
- format: hinh thitc
- increase: tang
- reduce: gidm
- units: dan vi
- to the left: ve phia trdi
- exponential part: phdn mu
- algebraically: cd tinh chat dai so
- to the right: v i phia phdi
- scientific notation: ky hieu khoa hoc, ghi chu dang khoa hoc
- places and reduce the exponent: dita vao vd gidm so mu
- places and increase the exponent: diia vdo vd tdng so mu
- the exponents must be the same: cdc so mu phdi giong nhau
- standard exponential form: dang s6' mu chudn
47
I'ofiic 2: Measurement
So co so mu
Cdc vdt the ma khoa hoc quan tain nam trong liliodng tit vd cung nho cho den Idn
den mile gdn nhit khdng the titang titang ditqc. So nguyen tit sat xep lien nhau tren mot
dqan thdng ddi 1 cm Id khodng 80 trieu (P han 13.1). So nguyen tit cd the chita day
Irong mot the tich 1 cm ' la 80 trieu lap phitang khodng chifng 5 0 0 ngdn ty ly ' Mdi
nguyen Iif adt nho den mite gdn nhu khdng the lifting 11fang duac
Cdc nhd khoa hoc xi( ly nhitng con so Idn vd nho bdng eac h sit dung c d c h g h i so
m u. Mdt con sd ditac viet theo dinh dang ndy cd cac phdn sau day
2.25 x 10'
lli- so^
Co so So mil
Phan so init
li e so Id mdt con sd binh thudng, sd ndy cd the cd hay khdng co sd le thdp phdn.
No dtfac nhdn vdi p h d n m u, gom mdi cd so vd mdi so m u Trong khoa hoc. ca so
thudng Id 10 vd sd mu Id mdt sd nguyen. lie sd duqc nhdn vdi ca sd tlieo so Idn cho bdi
sd nui. Titc Id, con sd trong vi du Id 2,55 ditqc nhdn vdi 10 ba Idn:
2.55 x 1 0 ’ = 2.55 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 2550

Hang 2.1 Ilet ke nhitng phdn sd mil quan trong vd y nghla cua chung Do dd. cluing
la cd the viet 1 h ieu theo cdch viet sol mu nhit sau:
1 000 000 = 1 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 1 x 10'
Cdc nhd khoa hoc thudng ghi cdc con sd bang cdch giu sd mil vdi cdc h i so co mdi
va chi mdt chit sd nguyen khdc 0. Titc la, he sd Id mat con sd Ian hon hay bdng 1 va nho
hon 10. NIuTng con sd theo dinh dang nay ditqc goi Id duqc ghi theo dang so mu chuan
hay theo cdch ghi khoa hoc. Mot may tinh cam lay cd the cho ghi ra nhitng ion so mil
theo dang nay, Irit klu la ban chon "dinh dang ky tliudt”.
Thay doi dang cua cac so co so mu

D ang cua mdt sd cd sd mu cd the ditqc thay doi mu khong lam thay dot gia In cua
no. Vi du, 4.56 x 10‘ cd the ditqc thay doi thanh moi sd Idn cua 1O' hay mdt so Idn khdc
ciia 10‘ vd i
4,56 x 104 = 4.56 x 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0

= 4,56 x 10 x (10 x 10 x 10) = 45.6 x 102
= 4.56 x 10 x 10 x (10 x 10) = 456 x 102
= 4.56 x 10 x 10 x 10 x (10) = 4560 x 101
= 4.56 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 45 600 x 100 = 45 600

Trong Idn chuyen ddi thu nhdt. chung la dd nhdn he sd vdi nidi Idn mtfnt <a het
thuc vdl mot sd ini/di il lion trong phdn sd mil cua con so Cac gia In cua Idi - a n in u v
con sd deu la nhit nhau: chi co dang cua chung la khac. Ban can phai thay doi nhitng
dmh dang khac nhau klu cong hay Irit cdc sd cd sd mil. Inf Itlii la ban sit dung mdt may
11nil cam lay.
I a co thi' tang ph dn he sd liay plidn mil theo mdt h i sd bill k\ nui khdng h f
ddi gia In ch u n g cua con sd neu ta gidm phdn kia di c u n g nidi lie so Cu m ot / ■. 'i, );
dan gia n ch o viec thay ddi d m h d a n g cua mdt con sd tlieo each g h i bd ng so ,t. u Di
48
chuyin ddu chdm thdp phdn trong phdn h i so sang phdi n vi tri vd giam sd mu di n
dan vi hay di chuyen ddu chdm thdp phdn trong he so sang trdi n vi tri vd tdng so mu
lin n dan v\.
Nhan va chia cac so co so mu

D i nhdn cdc so theo dinh dang so mu, td nhdn phdn he so vd phdn so mu rieng. D i
nhdn phdn so mu, so mu duac cong. Vi du, hay nhdn 3,0 x 10* vd 2,5 x 103:
(3,0 x 104) x (2,5 x 103) = (3,0 x 2,5) x (104 x 103)
= 7,5 x 104+3 = 7,5 x 107
De ddng thdy rang neu ta nhdn bon Idn mildi them ba Ian mUbi nUa, ta se co bdy
Idn mUdi:
10 4 x 1 0 3 = ( 10 x 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 ) x ( 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 )
= 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 = 1 07
CQng va trd cac so co so mu

Khi ta cong hay trie cdc so duqc ghi theo cdch ghi so mu, cdc sd mu phdi giong
nhau.(Quy ludt ndy co lien quan vdi quy ludt Id cdc so cong hay trie phdi co ddu chdm
thdp phdn duac sdp thang hang.) Ket qua khi do la tong hay hieu cua cdc h i sd nhdn
vdi cung mot phdn mu nhu trong moi con sd duac cong hay trit. (May tinh cdm tay thuc
hiin phep todn ndy mot cdch tu dqng, nhung ban phdi biet duac Id dieu gi dien ra
nhanh ghi nhdn ditac so chU so co y nghla thich hop.
Nang mQt so co so mu len mOt luy thCra

D i ndng m ot sd co sd mu len mot luy thiCa, ta ndng cd phdn he sd vd phdn sd mu
lin luy thila. Ta ndng phdn mu lin luy thiCa bdng cdch nhdn sd mu cho sd luy thita.
Chu diem 2.4: Significant Digits_____________________
Scientific measurements are often repeated three or more times. The average value
of the measurem ents is probably closer to the true value than any one of them. The
accuracy is the closeness of the average of a set of measurements to the true value.
The precision is the closeness of all of a set of measured values to one another. A
set of measurem ents may be precise without being accurate or accurate without being
precise (if the m easurer is very lucky), but the best measurements are both accurate
and precise.
No matter how accurate your measuring tool, the accuracy of your measurements
is limited. For example, an automobile odometer has divisions of 0.1 mile (or 0.1 km),
and you can estimate to one-tenth of that smallest scale division, but you cannot m ea
sure 1 in. or even 1 ft with an odometer. Similarly, you cannot measure the thickness
of a piece of paper with a ruler marked off in centimeters.
The precision with which you can measure must be indicated when you report a
measurement. W hen you use a measuring instrument, you should estimate to one digit
beyond the smallest scale division, if possible. For example, see Figure 2.10. If you
m easure the length of the bar with the top ruler, calibrated in centim eters, you can
see that the bar is between 4 and 5 cm long and can estimate that it extends 0.1 cm
past 4 cm, for a reading of 4.1 cm. In contrast, if you use the bottom ruler, calibrated
in tenths of centim eters— that is, millimeters— you can see that the length of the bar
49
Topic 2: M easurem ent
is between 4.0 and 4.1 cm. You can estimate that it is 4 .08 cm. The last digit you use
to report this measurement tells anyone reading the result that you used a ruler with a
millimeter scale.
Suppose that the bar extended exactly to the 4.1 line on the m illim eter ruler. How
would you report the result? You should report 4.10 cm. If you omit the zero, som e
one reading the result will think that you used a ruler calibrated only in centimeters.
The third digit indicates that the result was obtained on a more precise ruler, but just
happened to be a value ending in zero.
Scientists report the precision of their measurem ents every time they write one
down. The number of digits they use consists of the absolutely certain digits plus one
estimated digit. Every digit that reflects the precision of the m easurem ent is called a
significant dig it, or s ig n ifica n t figure. Note that the word significant has a different
meaning here than in everyday conversation, where it means “important.”
Sometimes, zeros are used merely to indicate the magnitude of a num ber (how
big or small the number is). If the purpose of a zero is only to establish the magnitude
of the number, that zero is not significant. Determining which zeros are significant in a
properly reported measurement is important.
The following rules enable chemists to tell whether zeros in a number are signifi
cant or not:
1. Any zeros to the left of all nonzero digits (for example, in 0.00 3) are not sig-
nificant.
2. Any zeros between significant digits (for example, in 107) are significant.
3. Any zeros to the right of all nonzero digits in a number with decimal place dig
its (for example, in 40.00) are significant.
4. Any zeros to the right of all nonzero digits in an integer (for exam ple, in 500)
are uncertain. If they indicate only the magnitude of the m easurem ent, they
are not significant. However, if they also show something about the precision
of the measurement, they are significant. You cannot tell w hether they are sig
nificant merely by looking at the number.
Significant Digits in Calculated Results

In this electronic age, we have come to depend on our electronic calculators for
solving arithmetic problems. However, electronic calculators usually do not give the cor
rect number of significant digits. (A calculator may give the correct num ber of signifi
cant digits just by chance.) You are responsible for making sure that the num ber of
significant digits in a calculated answer is correct.
Not only must your recorded data reflect the precision of the m easurem ents, but
any results calculated from the data must also reflect that precision. Certain rules gov
ern how many significant digits are per
mitted in calculated results and how to
get that many digits. Estimated, digits
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 6.2 cm

In the answers to addition and sub + 9.203 cm
traction problem s, the estim ated digit 15.403 cm
that is farthest to the left is the last digit
that can be retained For example, let’s
The leftmost estimated digit in the ansuer is
add 6.2 cm and 9 203 cm: the last digit that can be retained
50
The d ig it 2 in 6 2 cm is an estim ated digit; it has some uncertainty in it. T h e re

fore. the d igit 4 in the answ er is also uncertain, and 0 and 3 are com pletely unknow n
We cannot rep ort the value 15.403 cm , or the reader w ill believe that 3 is the only
uncertain digit. W e m ust reduce the num ber of digits to leave 4 as the last digit. In
general, we increase the last digit retained if the first digit to be dropped is 5 or greater;
otherw ise we leave that last digit unchanged
Thus, for addition or subtraction, we retain digits in an answ er only as far to the
right as the leftm ost uncertain digit in any of the num bers being added or subtracted
Note that the number of sign ifican t digits does not m atter for addition or subtraction;
w hat m atters is where the last digits lie. In the previous calculation, there are two s ig
nificant digits in the first n um ber and four in the second, but the answ er has three
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

For m ultiplica tion and division, the num ber of sig n ifica n t digits in the fa cto r with
the few est sig n ific a n t digits lim its the num ber of sign ifican t digits in the answ er. For
exam ple, let's m ultiply 11 23 cm by 5.0 cm:
11.23 cm x 5.0 cm = 56 15 c m '
(In co rre ct num ber of sign ifican t digits)
If we ju st leave the a nsw er the way our electronic calculator gives it to us. anyone
could assum e that the m easurem ent had been carried out with a precision of 1 part in
5615, w hich is not true W e m ust reduce the num ber of significant digits in the answ er
to two because the fa cto r with few er significant digits has two Thus, we change the
answ er to 56 cm 2.

The p re cisio n that was used in a m easurem ent is reflected in the n um ber of
sig n ifica n t digits reported
The rules for sign ifican t digits in addition and subtraction are d ifferent from those
in m ultiplica tion and division.
*■ S ig n ifica n t dig its and decim al place digits are not the sam e There is no n e c
e ssary relatio n ship betw een the two
In g eneral, e le ctron ic calculators do not give the proper n um ber of significant
dig its.
•- All the d ig its in the co efficie nt of a n um ber in standard e xpo ne ntia l form are
sig n ifica n t
*- Do yo ur e xpo ne ntia l calculations on the calculator to get the proper m agnitude,

then redo them in your head to get the proper num ber of sig n ifica n t digits.
A How m any sig n ifica n t digits and how m any decim al place digits are p resent in
each of the follow ing?
(a) 0 0122 cm (b) 12 03 cm (c) 10 0 cm (d) 4 50 X 1 0 1 cm
B Do the fo llo w in g ca lcu la tio n s to the proper num bers of s ig n ific a n t dig its (at
1 07 cm - 0 2212 cm (b) (1 07 cm )(0 2212 cm)
C 1 24 X 10s cm - 1 11 X 10'cm
• Tinh chinh xac duqc sU dung trong mot phep do duqc phan anh bai so chu so co
y nghla dlioc bao cao.
51
• Nhilng quy luat ve chU so co y nghla trong phep cong va phep tru khac vdi nhilng
quy luat trong pliep nhdn va phep chia.
• Cdc chQ so co y nghla vd cdc chil so sau ddu chain thdp phdn khdng giong nlinu.
Khdng nhdt thiet phdi cd sU quan he gilla chung.
• Noi chung, cdc may tinh dien til cam tay khdng cho ra sd chtf so cd y nghla
thich hqp.
• Tdt cd cdc chU so trong he sd cua mot con sd viet d dang sd mu chuan deu 1a cd
y nghla.
• Hay tliUc luen cdc phep tinh cd sd mu tren may tinh cam tay de cd diiac do Ida
dung, sau do phdi nham lai trong ddu de cd duqc sd chil sd cd y nghla thich hop.
A. Cd bao nhieu chU sd cd y nghla vd bao nhieu chil sd le sau ddu chdm thdp phdn
trong nhilng sd sau day ?
(a) 0,0122 cm, (b) 12,03 cm, (c) 10,0 cm, Id) 4.50 xlO'crn
B Thitc hien nhilng phep tinh sau day vdi sd chil sd cd y nghla thich hap:
la) 1,07 cm 0,2212 cm. lb) 11,07 cm)<0.2212 cm)
C. 1.24 x 10' cm 1.11 .r 102 cm
Table 2.5 Densities of Some Common Substances
Substancc Dcnsity(g/m L)
A lu m in u m 2.702
C opper 8.92
Gold 19.3
Iron 7.86
Lead 11.3
M agnesium 1.74
M ercury 13.6
P la tin u m 21.45
S ilv e r 10.5
T in 5.75
Octane 0.7025
S a lt ( N a d ) 2.165
Sugar ( sucrose) 1.56
W a te r (a t 4'JC) 1.000
Chu thich ttf - cum ttf va hUcmg dan dpc hieu

- accuracy: chinh xdc - only: chi, duy nhdt
- precision: tinh chinh xdc — num ber: sd
- s ig n ific a n t d ig it: chit sd co nghla - position: vi In
- significant co nghla - italic: in nglueng
- s ig n ific a n t figure: lunh co nghla
52
ChO so co y nghla
Cdc phep do khoa hqc thudng ditac l$p lai ba Idn hay nhieu hon nda. Gid tri trung
binh cua cdc phep do co khd ndng gdn vdi gid tri thuc hon bat ky mot phep do nao
trong sd do. Do chinh xdc Id sU gdn sat gid tri trung binh cua mot tdp hop cdc phep do
cd gid tri thuc. Tinh chinh xdc Id sU gdn sat nhau cua tdp hop cdc gid tri do duqc. Mot
tdp hop cdc phep do co the co tinh chinh xdc nhung khong co do chinh xdc hay co do
chinh xdc nhung khong co tinh chinh xdc (neu ngudi do rat may mdn), nhung nhilng
phep do tdt nhdt phdi vita cd do chinh xdc vita co tinh chinh xdc.
Khong ke Id dung cu do cua ban chinh xdc nhu the nao, do chinh xdc cua nhilng
phep do cua ban phdi co gidi hqn. Vi du, mot dong ho xe hoi cd cdc vach chia 0,1 d$m
(hoQc 0,1 km) vd ban cd the udc luqng den mot phdn mUdi cua phdn chia nho nhdt tren
thang do do, nhung ban khdng the do duqc den 1 in hay thdm chi la 1 ft vdi mot dong
ho do vdn toe. Tuong tu, ban khong the do duqc be day cua mot to gidy bdng mot cay
thudc duqc vach ddu bdng centimet.
Tinh chinh xdc md ban cd the do can phdi duqc chi ra khi ban bao cdo mot phep
do. Khi ban sd dung mot dung cu do, ban phdi Udc luqng den mot chil sd thdp hon phdn
chia nhd nhdt neu cd the duqc. Vi du xem hinh 2.10. Neu ban do do ddi cua mot khuon
ddng nhqc tren ban nhqc bdng cqnh tren cua mot cay thudc duqc vach cd centimet, ban
cd the thdy rdng chieu ddi cua khuon ddng nhqc ndm trong khodng 4 vd 5 cm vd cd the
Udc luqng r in g no ddi hon 4cm vd 0,1 cm, de cd ket qua dqc la 4,1 cm. Nguqc Iqi, neu
ban sit dung thanh day cua cay thudc, duqc vach cd den mot phdn mUdi cua centimet tile
Id millimet - ban cd the thdy rdng do ddi cua khuon nhqc Id d khodng gida 4,0 vd 4,1
cm. Ban cd the Udc luqng rdng dd Id 4,08 cm. Chd sd cuoi cung md ban sii dung de bao
cdo phep do ndy cho bat cd ngudi nao dqc ket qua biet rdng ban dd sd dung cdy thudc
vdi thang do millimet.
Gid sd rdng khuon nhqc ddi chinh xdc den duong vach 4,1 tren thudc do millimet.
Ban se ghi nhan ket qua nhu the nao? Ban se ghi nhan Id 4,10 cm. Neu ban bo sd 0 di
thi mdt ngudi nao dd dqc ket qua se nghi rdng ban dd sd dung cdy thudc chi duqc vach
cd den centimet. Chd sd thd ba, m$c du chi la mot gid tri tdn cung bdng 0 chi ra rdng
ket qua dd thu duqc duqc tren mot cdy thudc chinh xdc hon.
Nhd khoa hqc bao cdo vi tinh chinh xdc cdc sd do cua ho moi Ian ho ghi lai. Sd chd
sd md ho sd dung gom mot sd chd sd chdc chdn tuyet ddi them vdi mot chd sd Udc tinh.
Moi chd sd phdn anh tinh chinh xdc cua sd do duqc goi Id chd sd cd y nghia hay con sd
cd y nghia. Chu y Id td cd y nghla d ddy cd nghla khdc hon trong cdch noi hang ngay,
trong cdch noi hang ngay cd y nghia nghia la “quan trong’ .
Ddi khi, cdc sd 0 duqc sd dung chi de chi ra do Idn cua mot con sd (sd dd Idn hay
nhd nhu the nao). Neu muc dich cua sd 0 chi ra de xdc lap do Ion cua con sd, sd 0 dd la
khdng cd y nghla. Viec xdc dinh nhdng sd 0 nao la cd y nghia trong mot sd do duqc bao
cdo dung cdch la mot dieu quan trong.
Nhdng quy ludt sau ddy giup cho cdc nhd hda hqc biet duqc la cdc sd 0 trong mot
con sd la cd y nghia hay khdng:
1. Bat cd con sd 0 nao d ben trdi tdt cd chd sd khdng phdi Id sd 0 (vi du, trong
0,003) diu khdng cd y nghia.
2. Bat cd nhdng sd 0 nao gida cdc chd sd cd y nghia (vi du trong 107) Id cd y nghla.
3. Bat cd cdc con sd 0 nao d ben phdi cua tdt cd chd sd khdng phdi Id sd 0 trong mot
con sd vdi cdc chd sd sau ddu chdm thdp phdn (vl du, trong 40,00) deu cd y nghia.
4 . licit cd con so 0 nao d ben trdi ciia tdt cd cdc d id so khong phai la so 0 trong
mot sd nguyen (vi du, tro n g 500) deu la khong elide chan. Neu chung chi do Idn
cua so do, thi chung khong cd y nghia. Tuy nhien, neu chung cho biet mot dieu
gi dd ve link chinh xdc cua so do, thi chung la cd y nghla. Ban khong the noi
duqc la chung co y nghia hay khdng chi bdng cdch nhin vdo con so
Cac chO so co y nghla trong cac ket qua tfnh toan

Trong tlidi dai dien td ngdy nay, cluing ta trd nen phu thuoc vdo cdc may tinh cam
tay dien td de giai cdc bai todn so hqc. Tuy nhien, cdc may tinh cam tay thudng khdng
cho cluing ta con so chd so cd y nghia dung. (Mot may tinh cam tay cd the cho sd chi7 sd
cd y nghla dung clii do ngau nhien.) Ban phai cliiu track nhiem kiem tra rdng sd clu? sd
cd y nglila trong ket qua tinh todn la dung.
Khong nhilng ban chi phdi ghi nhan cdc dil lieu plidn anh tinh chinh xdc ciia cdc
pliep do, md bat cd ket qua tinh todn nao til cdc dd lieu ciing phdn anh tinh chinh xdc
dd. Mot so quy luat chi phoi viec cd bao nhieu chd so cd y nghla 1a duqc pliep trong cdc
ket qua tinh todn vd lam the nao de cd duqc cdc chU sd dd.
PHEP C 0N G VA PHEP TRO

Trong dap so ciia cdc bdi todn cong vd toan Irit, chil so Udc tinh d xa nhdt ve ben
trdi Id cliH so cuoi cung cd the duqc giii Iqi. Vi du, hay cong 6,2 cm vd 9.203 cm:
Chil sd 2 trong 6,2 Id mot chil sd Udc tinh; trong sd ndy cd mot sd tinh chut khdng
elide clidn. Do vdy, chil sd 4 trong dap sd cung khdng elide chan, 0 vd 3 la hoan todn
khdng biet. Chung ta khdng the bao cao gia tri 15,403 cm, neu khdng thi nguai dqc se
tudng rdng 3 la chd sd khdng chdc chan duy nhdt. Chung ta phai gidm sd chil sd de con
Iqi sd 4 la chit sd cuoi cung. Noi chung, ta tang chil sd cuoi ciing duqc gid lai neu chil sd
ddu tien phai bo di Id 5 liay Idn hon 5; neu khdng chung ta khdng thay doi chil so cuoi
cung.
Do dd, doi vdi phep cong hay phep trd, chung ta gid Iqi cdc chd sd trong dap so xa
nhdt ve ben phai khdng chdc chan xa nhdt ve ben trdi trong bat cd sd nao duac cong
hay trd. Chu y Id sd cd chd sd co y nghla khong anh Iiddng gi den phep cong hay phep
trd; van de cdc chd sd cuoi ciing ndm d dau. Trong bdi todn vdo roi, cd hai chd sd co y
nghla trong sd thd nhdt vd bon trong so thd hai, nhdng dap sd cd ba chd so cd y nghla.
PHEP NHAN VA PHEP CHIA
Doi vdi phep nhdn vd pliep chia, so chd so co y nghla trong so hang cd it chd so
nhdt gidi hqn sd chd sd cd y nghla trong dap sd. Vi du, hay nhdn 11.23 cm cho 5 .0 cm:
11.23 cm x 5.0 cm = 56.15 cm -
(Sd chd sd cd y nghla khdng dung)
Neu chung ta gid dap sd giong nliU tren may tinh cam tay cho ra, mdt nguai nao do
cd the cho rdng phep do dd duqc tlu/c luen vdi mdc do chinh xdc 1 phdn 5615, dieu ndy
khdng dung. Chung ta phai gidm xuong so chd sd cd v nghla trong dap sd den hai so vi so
hang voi it chd sd cd y nghia hon la 2. Do dd chung ta thay ddi ket qua thanh 56cm
Lam tron so
Viec 1dm gidm sd chd sd cua mdt con sd duqc cho phep cd hen quan den mot quy
Irinli duac goi Id la m tro n so. thudng di/oc goi don gian Id lam tron Thong ihudng
nhdt, quy trinh ndy baa gom viec bo bdt mot liay nhieu chd so d ben phai ddu chain
thdp phdn vd dieu chinh sd cuoi cung con gid Iqi neu can thiet
54
Quy lu$t
1. Neu chQ so xa nhdt phia ben trdi dugc bo di Idn hem hay bdng 5, ta tin g chQ so
cu6i ciing giQ lai them 1 ma khong can de y den ddu cua con sd.
2. N&u chd sd cuoi cung v i ben trdi diiac bo di nho hon 5, thi ta khong thay doi
chU sd cuoi cung duqc giU lai.
Chu diem 2.5: Density_________________________________ ____________
Density is defined as mass per unit volume:
~ mass
Density = -----------
volume
In symbols,
The dimensions (combination of units) of density involve a mass unit divided by a

volume unit, such as grams per milliliter (g/mL) or grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3).
Thus, to get the density of an object, we simply divide the mass of the object by its
volume. Problems involving density usually involve finding one of the variables— d, m,
or V— having been given the other two. Either the equation or the factor label method
can be used to solve density problems. The equation is most often used when mass
and volume are given. The factor label method is perhaps easier when density and
one of the other two variables are given and the third variable is sought.
Densities of some common substances are given in Table 2.5. Note that scientists
generally put the units at the heads of the columns when reporting data in a table. You
should remem ber that the density of liquid water is about 1.00 g/mL = 1.00 g/cm3.
Substances expand when heated, and the resulting change in volume causes some
change in density. Within reasonable temperature ranges, the density of a substance
is relatively constant. For example, water varies from 0.99979 g/mL at 0°C to 1.0000
g/mL at 4°C to 0 .9 5 8 3 8 g/mL at 100°C. W e will usually ignore such slight differences,
especially since we will work most often with densities measured to only three signifi
cant digits.
Density is an intensive property, useful in identifying substances. For example,
gold can be distinguished from iron pyrite by their greatly differing densities— 19.3 g/
cm3 for gold and 5.0 g/cm3 for iron pyrite. Iron pyrite is known as “fool's gold” because
of its striking visual resemblance to gold. Many prospectors in the western United States
in gold-rush days were terribly disappointed when the test in the assay office showed
that they had found iron pyrite rather than gold.
Relative densities determine whether an object will float in a given liquid in which it
does not dissolve. An object will float if its density is less than the density of the liquid.
For example, the density of liquid water is 1.00 g/mL and that of a particular kind of
wood is 0.800 g/mL. The wood will float in water because it has a lower density.
55
Chu th ich tCT - c u m t i/ va hircrng d an d p c hieu
- density: khoi luang rieng

- mass per unit volume: khoi litang tren mot dan vi the tich
- fahrenheit scale: thang chia nhiet do Fahrenheit
- C elsiu s scale: thang chia nhiet do Celsius
2.5 Ty trong
Ty trong duac dinh nghia nhu khoi lupng tren dan vi the tich:
™, khoi li/ang
Ty trong = ------------
chia the tich
Viet bang ky hieu:
d = ™
V
Tliii nguyen (thich hqp cua cac dan vi) cua ty trong bao gom mot dan vi klidi luqng
chia clio mot dan vi the tich, nhu gam tren millilit ( g / mL) hay gam tren centimet khoi
(g /c m 1). Do do, de co ty trong ciia mot vdt the, ta eld can chia khoi luang cua vat the cho
the tich ciia no. Nhitng bai tap cd lien quan den ty trong thudng bao gdm n e e tim mot
Irong hiing bien so d, m hay V - trong dd hai bien sd dd duqc cho trudc. De giai nhitng
bai toan ve ty trong, cd the sit dung phuang trinh hay phuong phdp he sd ghi nhan.
Phuang trinh thudng duqc sit dung khi khoi luqng va the tich dd duqc cho. Phuang phdp
he sd ghi nhdn cd the de hon khi ty trong vd moi trong hai bien khdc duac cho va bien
tint ba la can phai tim.
Ty Irong cua mdt sd chat thong thudng duqc cho bang 2.5. Chu y la cdc nha khoa
hqc thudng dat cdc dan vi d tren ddu cot khi ghi cdc sd lieu trong mot bang. Ban phai
nhd rdng ty trong ciia chat long nUdc la khodng 1,00 g / mL = 1,00 g / cm 3.
Cdc chat gian no khi duqc lam ndng len, ket qua la thay doi the tich vd gay ra moi
sd thay doi ve ty trong. Trong khodng nhiet do vita phdi, ty trong cua mot chat la titang
ddi khdng thay doi. Vi du, nude cd ty trong thay ddi tit 0 ,9 9 97 9 g I m L d 0 ‘C den 1,000
g I mL d 4UC den 0 ,95838 g I mL d 100UC. Chung ta thudng bo qua nhitng sai biet nhd
nhu vdy, dqc biet la vi chung ta thudng xuyen lam viec vdi cdc ty trong duqc do chi vdi
ba chi? sd cd y nghla.
Ty trong Id mot tinh chat cilang tinh, thudng duqc sit dung de nhdn dien cdc chat.
Vi du, vdng cd the duqc phdn biet vdi quang pyrite sat bdi cdc ty trong rat khdc nhau
ciia cluing - 19,3 g / c m 3 doi vdi vdng la 5,0 g / c m 3 vdi pyrite sdt. Pyrite sdt con duac goi
Id “vdng g ia ” vi no cd be ngoai sang giong nliU vang Nhieu ngudi di tim vang d mien
lay nUdc M y trong nhilng thang ngay ciia dot sot tim vdng dd that l ong vd cung khi thi
nghiem trong van phong kiem cluing cho thay rdng ho dd tim ra pyrite sat thay vi la
vdng.
Nhilng ty trong tuong ddi duqc xdc dinh khi mot vdt the khdng tan trong mot chat
long cho trudc noi trong chat long do Mdt vdt the se noi neu ty trong cua no nho han /y
trong ciiu chat long. Vi du. ty trong cua chat long nUdc la 1,00 g / mL va cua mot loai go
nao dd Id 0,800 g / mL. Go se not trong nUdc vi no cd ty trong thdp han
56
Chu di#m 2.6: Temperature Scales_______________ ______________

In the United States, it is necessary for scientists to know three different tem
perature scales. The scale used in everyday American life is the Fah ren h eit scale, on
which the tem perature of freezing water is defined as 32°F, and the temperature of
water boiling under normal conditions is defined as 212°F. Scientists do not use the
Fahrenheit scale (although American engineers sometimes do). Instead, they use the
C elsius scale, the metric scale for temperature, which was formerly called the centi
g rade scale. On the Celsius scale, the temperature of freezing water is defined as
0°C, and the temperature of water boiling under normal conditions is denned as 100°C.
The Celsius scale is used in most other countries of the world for everyday m easure
ments as well as scientific ones. The Kelvin scale for measuring temperatures is im
portant for work with gases (Chapter 12) and in other advanced work. On the Kelvin
scale, the temperature of freezing water is 273 K, and the temperature of water boil
ing under normal conditions is 373 K. The degree sign (°) is not used with the Kelvin
scale, and the units are called kelvins rather than degrees. The three scales are pic
tured.
To convert from degrees Fahrenheit (fF) to degrees Celsius (t), or vice versa, we
5 9
use the following equations: t = g( t F- 32) and tF = j t + 32°
The 32° subtracted is a definition and can be expanded to 32.0°, 32.00°, and so
on. To convert from degrees Celsius to kelvins (T), we use the following equation:
T= t + 273
Chu thich tCf - cgm tti va hudng dan dpc hieu

- centigrade scale: thang chia nhiet do bach phdn
- kelvin scale: thang chia do K, do tuyit doi
Cac thang do nhi#t d$

O My, cdc nhd khoa hoc can biet ba thang do nhiet do khdc nhau. Thang nhiet d6
duoc sit dung trong ddi song hang ngay a My Id thang Fahrenheit, theo do nhiet do cua
nUdc dong bdng duoc xdc dinh Id 32°F vd nhiet do cua nude soi trong nhitng dieu kien
binh thudng duoc xdc dinh d 212°F. Cdc nhd khoa hqc khong sit dung thang Fahrenheit
(m$c du doi khi cdc ky sU My co sU dung). Thay vdo do, ho sit dung thang do Celsius la
thang nhiet do trong he met, ma trudc ddy duqc goi la thang nhiet do bach phdn. Tren
thang Celsius, nhiet do cua nUdc dong bdng duqc dinh nghia la °C vd nhiet do cua nUdc
soi a cdc dieu kien binh thudng duqc dinh nghia la 100°C. Thang nhiet dd Celsius duoc
sit dung trong hau het cdc nUdc tren the gidi trong nhilng phep do hang ngay cung nhu
trong nhitng phep do khoa hqc. Thang nhiet do Kelvin de do nhitng nhiet do quan trong
trong viec nghien cUu chat khi vd trong mot so cong viec khdc. Tren thang nhiet do
Kelvin, nhiet do nUdc dong bdng la 273 K vd nhiet do nude soi trong dieu kien binh
thudng Id 373 K, Ddu hieu do (°) khong duqc sit dung vdi thang Kelvin ua cdc don vi
duqc goi Id kelvin thay cho do. Ba thang nhiet do.
De doi tit do Fahrenheit (t^ sang do Celsius (t) hay nguqc lai, ta sit dung cdc phuong
trinh: t = | (tF - 32) vd tF = 1 1 + 32°
57
32° duac trie di la mot dinh nghia cd the duqc md rdng den 32,OP, 32,00° vd o.v... D i
d6i til dd Celsius sang do kelvin (T), chung ta sit dung phuang trinh sau ddy:
T= f+ 2 7 3
SELF-TUTORIAL PROBLEMS - BAI T ^ P T tf GIAI
2.1
(a) Which is bigger, a cent or a dollar? Which would you need more of to buy
a certain textbook?
(b) Which is bigger, a centimeter or a meter? Which does it take more of to
measure the length of a certain textbook?
2.2 Identify each of the following as a quantity or rate or ratio:
(a) Minimum wage (b) Price of gasoline
(c) Num ber of hours worked (d) Amount of pay
(e) Cost to fill a gas tank
2.3 Which of the following are units of volume?
L Mg m3 mm3 g m kg mg mL
2.4 W hat is the difference between the masses 5 mg and 5 Mg?
2.5 Which is bigger: 1 kg or 1 mg? Which would there be more of in a m easure

ment of your own mass?
2.6 W hat is the exponential equivalent of each of the following metric prefixes?
(a) kilo- (b) centi- (c) milli-
2.7
(a) If you multiply a certain number by 100 and then divide the result by 100,
what is therelationship of the final answer to the original number?
(b) If you multiply the coefficient of an exponential number by 100 and divide
the exponential part by 100, what is the effect?
2.8 W hat is the difference in density, if any, among the following?
12.1 g in 1.00 mL
12.1 g divided by I.OOmL
12.1 grams per milliliter
12.1 g/mL
12.1 g in exactly 1 mL
2.9 W hat factor is used to convert a measurement in grams to milligrams?
2.10
(a) How can you reduce the sweetness of a cup of coffee without taking out
any sugar?
(b) How can a company raise the price of coffee at the superm arket without
charging more for each can?
(c) W hat happens to the average speed for a trip if the time spent traveling
remains unchanged but the distance is decreased?
(d) W hat happens to the density of an object if its volume is increased but its
58
m ass rem ains the sam e?

2.11 Use yo u r e le ctro n ic calculator to find the value o f th is e xpression:
1 X 10° + 0
2 .12 Use yo u r e le ctro n ic ca lcu lato r to do the follow ing calcu latio n to ch eck yo u r c a l
cu la to r pro ced ure:
4x3
6x5
\
2.13 R e fe r to the m ore p re cise ruler in Figure 2.10. C o u n t the n u m b e r o f sm a lle r

scale d ivision s in each 1 cm . How m any would there be in 1 m (100 cm )? W hat
unit rep re sen ts the value of each sm all scale division?
2.14 W hich m etals in T able 2.5 w ill float in m ercury?
2.15 W hich of the fo llo w in g anim als is m ost likely to have a m ass of 25 kg?
(a) E le ph an t (b) C hicken (c) S aint B ernard dog (d) Fly
2.16 W rite each o f the fo llo w in g num bers in e xponential notation:
(a) 3 th ou sa n d th s (c) 250 billion (e) 9 thousand
(b) 9.5 m illion (d) 7.1 m illion (f) 2m illionths
2.17 W hich o f the fo llo w in g num bers have values less than zero? W hich have m agni
tudes less than one? W hich have values less than one?
(a )-7 .7 X 1 0 -3 (c) 7.0 X 107
(b) 9.3 X 10-2 (d) - 8 .2 X 104
2.18
(a) How m any square centim eters are in a square m easuring 3.0 cm along each
edge?
(b) How m any cu b ic ce ntim ete rs are in a cube 3.0 cm on each edge?
2.19 W hich of the fo llo w in g is the m ost probable distance betw een a d o rm ito ry room
and the ch e m is try lecture room?
(a) 1 km (b) 1 m (c) 1 cm (d) 1 mm
2 .20 The a uth or of this text is of average build. Fill in the m etric units in the fo llo w
ing d escrip tio n :
H eight: 172.
M ass: 65.
T otal vo lu m e of blood in his system : 4
2.21 The pop ulatio n of New York C ity is 7 m illion people. A lottery a d ve rtise s a $7
m illion jackp ot. How m any sign ifican t digits are probably in each num ber?
PROBLEMS - BAI TAP
2.1 Factor Label M ethod - PhUdng phap h# so ghi nhan

2.22 A ssu m e th a t d on uts are $6.00 per dozen. Use the fa c to r label m ethod to a n
sw e r each o f the follow ing:
(a) H ow m uch do 3.50 dozen cost?
59
(b) How m any dozens can you buy w ith $27.00?

(c) How m any donuts can you buy w ith $27.00?
2 23 D eterm ine the cost of 900 pencils if the price is $2 25 per dozen
2 24 C alculate the n um ber of m inutes in 7.250 h
2 25 C alculate the n um ber of seconds in 14 40 hours
2 26 C alculate the n um ber of square yards of rug required to co ver a livin g room floor
that is 13.5 ft w ide and 21 0 ft long.
2.27 C alculate the pay earned by a student who w orked 22 h per w eek for 35 weeks
at $11.00 per hour.
2 28 C alculate the pay received for 1.00 h of w ork by a ju n io r e x e c u tiv e w ho works

40 h per w eek and earns $ 69,500 per year for 49 w ee ks of w ork
2 29 There is 60 0% oxygen by m ass in a com pound of su lfur and o xyg e n Percent

by m ass is a ratio of the n um ber of gram s of a p articula r c o m p o n e n t to 100 g of
the total sa m ple H ow m any gram s of su lfur are in a 73 7-g sa m ple of the c o m
pound?
2.2 M etric System - He m et
2.30 (a) How m any m illigram s are in 2.17 g?
(b) How m any ce n tim e te rs are in 2.17 m?
(c) How m any kilog ra m s are in 2.17 g?
2.31 How m any m illigram s are in 12.1 g?
2.32 C onvert
(a) 3.08 m to m illim e te rs
(b) 3.08 L to m illilite rs
(c) 3.08 g to m illigram s
(d) 3.08 w atts to m illiw atts
2.33 C alculate the n um be r of
(a)m illim e ters in 7.27 m
(b) m illiliters in 7.27 L
(c) m illigram s in 7 27 g
2 34 C alculate the n um ber of
(a) feet in 7 27 m iles
(b) E nglish tons (2000 lb per ton) in 7 27 lb
(c) fluid o unces in 7.27 gal
(d) C om pare the d ifficulty of these calculations to those in the p rior p ro ble m
2 35 W hich of the follow ing is the sm allest container that could hold 1 m ; of liq u id '7
(b) S w im m ing pool (d) Soda bottle
(a) D rinking glass (c) Thim ble
2 36 C onvert
(a) 12.7 m to ce ntim ete rs
60
(b) 12 7 m to millimeters
(c) 12.7 m to kilom eters
2 37 C alculate the n um ber of liters in
(a) 0.231 m 3 (b) 581 cm 3(c) 622 mL (d) 1404m m :’
2 38 How m any liters are in 0 0732 m 3?
2 39 How m any cu bic m illim eters are in 6.62 mL?
2 40 W hat is the vo lum e of a rectangular solid that is 0 1290 m long. 2 70 cm

wide, and 0 .00 00 3 30 km thick?
2 41 C alcu la te the n u m b e r of cubic ce ntim ete rs in a re cta n g u la r box 0.1234 m by

7.65 cm by 9 751 mm. Be sure to use the proper units
2.42 C alculate the length of each edge of a cube that has a volum e of 7.26cm-1.
2.3 E xponential N um bers - C ac so co so mu
2 43 C onvert each of the follow ing num bers to standard e xponential notation:
(a) 300.5m m (b) 62.00 mg (c) 0 1276g (d) 0 00133 L
2 44 C onvert each of the follow ing num bers to decim al format:
(a) 2 .2 5 X 1 0 ’ (b) 2 1 8 X 1 0 ' (c) 4.56 X 10 ( d ) 9 26 X 10‘1
2.45 W rite each of the follow ing num bers in scientific notation
(a) 12.79
(b) 0.0333
(c) 6 0 2 ,0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
(d) 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 70
2 46 C onvert
(a) 8.18 X 10 ' kg to m illigram s
(b) 5.85 X 10 4 m-1 to m illiliters, and express the a nsw er in standard e x po ne n
tial notation
2 47 C on vert each of the follow ing num bers to centim eters, and e xpress the answ er
in standard e xpo n e n tia l notation:
(a) 1 78 7m m (b) 127.4m
(c) 603km (d) 9 191 X 10* mm
2 48 C hange 8 11 X 10acm to:

(a) m eters (b) m illim eters (c) kilom eters
2 49 E xpress each of the follow ing answ ers in scientific notation:
(a) (6 0 X 10")/(4 00 X 10J)
(b) (5.0 X 10') + (2.7 X 103)
(c) (2 0 X 10 ') (2 0 X 103)
(d) (7 0 X 10 )(3 0 X 10J)
(e) (7.0 X 10 ’ )(3.5 X 10 ’ )
2 50 S u b tra ct
(7 0 x 10~3 cm ) - (-8 0 x 10‘? cm)
61
2.51 The edge of a cube is 3.000 x 1 0" cm. What is the volume of the cube in cubic
meters?
2.52 Express each of the following measurements as a decimal value:

(a) 9.00 X 1 0 '3 L ( b )9 .0 X 1 0 -3 L (c ^ X IO ^ L
2.53 Calculate the number of liters in 2.55 x 102 m3.
2.4 Significant Digits — ChO so co y nghla

2.54 Underline the significant digits in each of the following m easurem ents. If any
digit is uncertain, place a question mark below it.
(a) 31.00km
(b) 0.0921 kg
(c) 302m
(d) 420 L
2.55 Underline the significant digits in each of the following m easurem ents. If a digit
is uncertain, place a question mark below it.
(a) 4 . 0 x 1 0 2cm
(b) 4.02 x 102 cm
(c) 4.00 x 10 cm
(d) 4 .000 x 10 m
2.56 Convert each of the following values to ordinary (decimal) notation:
(a) 5.000 x 103 cm
(b) 5.00 x 103 cm
(c) 5 . 0 x 1 0 3cm
(d) 5 x 1 03cm
2.57 E xpress each of the follow ing vo lu m e s in m illiliters:
(a) 5.00 x 10-3 L (b) 5.0 x 10 3 L (c) 5 x 10~3 L
2.58 E xpress each of the follow ing m ea surem e nts in liters:
(a) 7.00 x 103 mL (b) 7.0 x 103 mL (c) 7 x 103 mL
2.59 Do the fo llo w in g ca lcu latio ns to the p ro pe r n um be r o f s ig n ific a n t d ig its:
(a) 1.717 cm x 4.71 cm
(b) 6.18cm - 206.7cm
(c) 7 2 .4 g /1 .81 mL
2.60 R ound off each of the follow ing m ea surem e nts to th re e s ig n ific a n t d ig its:
(a) 0 .03 37 4 25 cm
(b) 0 .33 74 2 5cm
(c) 3.37 42 5 cm
(d) 33.7 42 5 cm
(e) 3 37.425 cm
2.61 R ound off each of the follow ing m ea surem e nts to three s ig n ific a n t digits:
(a) 0.01 71 6 cm
(b) 0 .1716cm
(c) 17.16cm
(d) 171.6cm
62
2 62 U nderline the sign ifican t digits in each of the follow ing m easurem ents. If a digit
is uncertain, place a question m ark below it
(a) 2.000m m (c) 2000m
(b) 0 .0020cm (d) 20.00km
2 63 R eport the length of the shaded bar, using each of the rulers shown:
2.64 Add the fo llo w in g qua ntitie s, and report the a nsw ers to the proper n um ber of
sign ifican t digits:
(a) 103 g + 12.71 g
(b) 8 9mL + 0 .1 72m L
(c) 0.0123 mL +2.001 mL
(d) 555 km + 16.02km
2 65 U nderline the sign ifican t digits in each of the follow ing m easurem ents. If a digit
is uncertain, place a question m ark below it
(a) 3200cm (b) 16 30cm (c) 50 00cm (d) 0 00600m (e) 7000m m
2 66 How m any sig n ifica n t digits are present in each of the follow ing m ea su re m e n ts7
How rpany d ecim a l place digits?
(a) 0.1270kg (b) 2 0 .0 0 cm 3 (c) 4.10m L (d) 7 111 m
2.67 How m any s ig n ifica n t digits are present in each of the follow ing m easurem ents?
How m any d ecim a l place digits?
(a) 12.030kg (b) 127cm 3 (c) 16.200 mL (d) 0.010m
2 68 U nderline the sig n ifica n t digits in each of the follow ing m easurem ents If a digit
is uncertain, place a question m ark under it.
(a) 6 .650cm (c) 50.20cm
(b) 0.06 30 0 cm (d) 670cm
2 69 R ound off the follow ing m easurem ents to three sign ifican t digits:
(a) 402 6 mL (b) 4026 mL (c) Are the answ ers the sam e?
2 70 E xp re ss each of the fo llo w in g m ea surem e nts as a d e cim a l value. State how

m any sig n ifica n t digits are in each result. Could you tell just from looking at the
results w itho ut know ing the original v a lu e s9
(a) 2 00 x 103 mL (b) 2.0 x 103 mL (c) 2 x 103mL
2 71 E xpress each of the follow ing lengths in ce ntim ete rs (to the proper n um ber of
sig n ifica n t digits):
(a) 8 x 10 3 m (c) 8.00 x 10 3m
(b) 8 0x10 'm (d) 8 . 0 0 0 x 10 3m
2.72 C on vert each of the follow ing distances to m eters, and e xpress the results as
o rd in a ry n um be rs (not in exponential notation) Be sure to use the proper n u m
ber of sig n ific a n t digits
(a) 1 0 0 x 10 : mm
(b) I 00 x 1 0 Jc m
(c) I 00 x 10 ‘ km
63
2.73 Solve the fo llo w in g problem and state the a nsw er w ith th e p ro p e r n u m b e r of
significant digits:
107.9 r 9 2 .7 3 r
4 2 ,3 3 m L 0 .77 m l-
2 74 C alculate the a nsw er to each of the follow ing pro ble m s to the proper n um be r of
sign ifican t digits
(a) (6.82 x 103cm )(13 .1 cm )
(b) (8.91 x 10 6m )(7.3 x 10‘3mm)
(c) (22.4 kg)/(6.8 X 104mL)
(d) (6 .1 66 g )/(0 .17 6L )
(e) (1.114 x 104m m )(3 94 x 104cm)
(f) (1.93 g ) +(9.443 x 1 0 '4g)
2.75 C alculate the a nsw er to each of the follow ing p ro ble m s to the p ro p e r n um be r of
(a) (8.66 x 10?c m ?)/(43 3cm )
(b) (1 83 x 10 * c m 3)/(9 8 X 10 3cm)
(c) (141 g )/(2 .6x 10?mL)
(d) ( 2 1 1 2g)/(7.73m L)
(e) (1 107 x 105cm ?)(2 7 1 x 10pcm)
(f) (2 .1 1g) + (6.7x 10 ' g)
2.76 Do the follow ing calculations to the proper n um ber of s ig n ific a n t dig its
(a) (3.21 x 1O 'cm )3
(b) 2.29 x 10 3 g - 5 06 x 10 ’ g
(c) 7 032 x 106cm - 4 18 x 104cm
2.77 Add the fo llo w in g qua ntitie s, and report the a nsw ers to the c o rre c t n u m b e r of
(a) 0.123 kg + (8.62 x 10 2 g)
(b) 0.227 kg + (6.96 x 10' g)
(c) 8.20 kg + (177 x 104 g)
(d) (2 00 x 104cm 2) + (7.14 x 104cm )?
2.78 Divide the follow ing q uantities and report the answ ers to the p ro p e r n u m b e r of
(a) (6 47 x 10?g)/(4 101 m 3)
(b) (0.733 cm ?)/(3 85 x 10 ' cm)
(c) (4 11 x 103c m 3)/(40 0cm )
(d) (1 97 x 10* g)/(2 22 x 10' c m )3
2 79 M ultiply the follow ing quantities, and report the a nsw ers to the c o rre c t n um ber
of sig n ifica n t digits
(a) 6 10cm x (1 60 X 10'cm )
(b) 0 022cm x ( 1 7 6 X 10 'em )
(c) (2.505 x 10 'e m ) X 10 00cm
(d) (6 08 x 103cm )(8 15 X 10'cm )
64
2 80 P erform the fo llo w in g additions and explain the results:

(a ) (7.000 x 10 3 mm) + (3.0 x 10 ' cm)
(b) (1.91 x lO ’ g) + 12.1 mg
2 81 In P roblem 2.70, how can you report the proper n um ber of sign ifican t digits in
the results w itho ut using exponential notation?
2 82 Add the fo llo w in g qua ntitie s, and report the a nsw ers to the p ro pe r n um ber of
sig n ifica n t digits:
(a) (4 000 x 10 3 g) + (5 0 x 10’ mg)
(b) (6.00 x 10 ’ g) + (7 77 x 10 4 kg)
2 83 In Problem 2 57. can you tell how m any significant digits are in each m ea sure
m ent as it is given in exponential form in the problem ? Can you tell in decim al
form in the a nsw er?
2.5 Density - Ty trpng
2.84 W hat q ua ntity is obtained in each of the follow ing cases?

(a) D ensity is m ultiplied by volum e.
(b) M ass is divid ed by density.
(c) M ass is d ivid ed by volum e.
2.85 Using the data of Table 2.5, explain why alum inum is preferable to steel (m ostly
iron) for building airplanes. W hat other m etal m ight be useful for this purpose?
2 86 C alculate the d e n sity of an object that has a volum e of 6 92 mL and a m ass of

41 3 g
2 87 C alculate the d en sity of a rectangular 337-g piece of wood 25 0 cm long, 4.50

cm w ide, and 3.02 cm thick.
2 88 C alculate the d en sity of a rectangular solid of m ass 1123 g and dim ensions:
(a) 12.11cm X 4.171 cm X 2.109cm
(b) 0.1211 m X 41.71 mm X 21.09m m
2 89
(a) C alcu la te the vo lum e of a rectangular box 42 6 cm by 4 41 cm by 1.932cm .
(b) C alcu la te the n um ber of kilogram s of m ercury (de nsity = 13.6 g/m L) that
can fit in that box
2 90 C alculate the m ass of m ercury (density = 13.6 g/m L) that fills a rectangular box
36.0 cm by 4.88 cm by 1 892cm .
2 91 C alculate the n um be r of m illiliters of lead (density =11.3 g/m L) having am ass of

7.191 kg
2 92 C alcu la te the m ass of w ater that occupies 9 10 L
2 93 Using the d e n sitie s in Table 2.5, identify the m etal in a 27.42 c m 3 solid of m ass
287 g
2 94 C a lcu la te the n um be r of m illilite rs of m ercury (de nsity = 1 3 6 g/m L) having a

m ass of 0 .908 kg
2 95 Does gold float in m ercury? (Hint: See Table 2 5 if n ecessary )
2 96 E xplain w hy g aso lin e floats on w ater Is w ater good for putting out gasoline fire s 9
65
2 97 C alculate the n um ber of kilogram s of m ercury (de nsity = 1 3 6 g /m L ) o cc u p y in g

617 mL
2 98 An object has a density of 9 13 g/mL C onvert this d en sity to kilo g ra m s per cu

bic m eter
2 99 C alculate the d en sity in gram s per m illilite r of an o b je ct that has a v o lu m e of

12.11 cm J and a m ass of 62 09 g
2.100 C alculate the volum e in cubic centim eters of an object w ith a d e n s ity of 2 55 g/
mL and a m ass of 499 g
2 101 E xpress the den sity 6 16 kg/L in gram s per cubic c e n tim e te r
2.102 C onvert the den sity 1 721 x 103 kg /m 3 to gram s per cu b ic ce n tim e te r
2 6 T em perature Scales
2 103 C alculate the te m perature in degrees C elsius of each of the follow ing.
(a) 32 0LF (b) 2 1 2°F (c) 80°F (d) 98 6°F
(e) 0°F (f) 100°F (g) 50 0°F
2 104 C alculate the te m p era ture in degrees Fahrenheit of each of the fo llo w in g
—k
03
oo
O
(b) 0UC (c) 18 0UC (d) 20GC

o
(e) -1 0 °C (f) -2 2 °C (g) -27 3°C

2 105 C alculate the te m p era ture in kelvins of each of the follow ing:
(a) 66°C (b) 17 0CC (c) - 1 1°C (d) 3 7 ,JC (e) 25 C
2.106 C alculate the te m p era ture in degrees C elsius of each of the fo llo w in g
(a) 298 K (b) 373 K (c) 281 K (d) 0 K
GENERAL PROBLEMS - BAI TAP TONG QDAT
2 107 C alculate the sum of 4 20 x 103 cm and 1.92 x 10 3km
2.108 C alculate the sum of 4 20 x 103 cm and 1 92 x 10 3 cm E xplain yo u r result
2 109 C alculate the a nsw er to each of the follow ing e xpressio ns to the c o rre c t num ber
of sign ifican t digits
(a) (1.66 cm + 7 2 cm ) X 4.00 cm
(b) 2 29 cm X (4 71 cm - 4.231 cm)
(c) (1 91 cm X 1 7 cm ) + 6 02 c m '
(d) (7.13 X 103 cm )-2 13 cm
(e) 1 11 cm X (3 17 X 10 cm)
(f) 5 7 X 10 cm - 7 8 X 10 ; cm
2 110 C alculate the density of a cube with each edge 4.12 cm and m ass 252 g
2 111 C alculate the density of a cube with each edge 0 0412 m and m ass 0 252
kg
2 112 C om pare the sizes m asses and densities of the cubes in P ro blem s 2 110 and
2 111
2 113 C alculate the n um ber of particles of volum e 1 0 X 1 0 ” c m ' that can fit into a
cubic box of edge length 1 00 m
66
2.114 C a lcu la te the d e n sity in gram s per m illilite r of a cu bic unit cell (see E xam ple
2.32) of edge 6.63 X 10 8 cm and m ass 5.09 X 10 ?ikg.
2 115 C alculate the m ass of one unit cell (see Exam ple 2.32) of a substance with density
2.50 g/m L if its cu bic unit cell has an edge 6.63 X 10~* cm.
2.11 6 A u nit ce ll of a su bstance has a m ass of 3.89 X 10 ?2g. One particle of the su b
stance has a m ass of 9.72 X 10 “ g. How m any particles are in each unit cell?
2 117 E xplain how it is possible to calculate an a nsw er having five sign ifican t digits
using tw o m ea surem e nts having three significant digits each and two having four
sign ifican t dig its each.
2 118 A certain atom is sphe rica l with radius 2.0 X 10 ,0m. and its m ass is 6.6 X 10 n
g. C alculate its density.
2.119 Perform the fo llo w in g calculations, and report the results to the proper num ber
of sig n ifica n t digits:
(a) (4.65 cm )(2 .4 8 4 cm )(7.6 cm)
(b) (6.1 2 kg )/(3 .9 5 X 102cm )(40 1 cm )(2.8 cm)
(c) (4.0120 g - 0.084 g )/(4 .6642 cm 3)
2.120 Using the d en sitie s in Table 2.5, identify the m etal in a cube with 3.00-cm edges
and a m ass of 519 g
2 110 A certain road m ap of M aine show s part of C anada. The d istances in Canada
are show n in kilom ete rs, and the legend states: “To co nve rt kilom eters to miles,
m ultiply by 0 .62." W hat is actually being converted?
2 122 C onvert
(a) 7.16km to m illim e te rs
(b) 7.16 L to cu b ic m eters
(c) 7.16 mg to kilogram s
2.123 C onvert
(a) 8 25 cm to m illim eters
(b) 8 25 m J to m illiliters
(c) 8 25 cm J to m illiliters
2 124 C alculate the n um be r of cubic m illim eters in 1.00 L.
2.125 How m any cu b ic m illim e te rs are there in 3.00 mL?
2.126 C on vert
(a) 8.76 X 105 m m to kilom eters
(b) 6 53 X 10 !m :- to liters
(c) 1 35 X 1 0 3L to m illiliters
2.127 C alcu la te the results of the follow ing calculations to the proper n um be r of s ig
nifica nt dig its
(a) 1 06 x 1 0 ’ ’g - 7.17 x 10?:,g
1 .0 6 x 1 0 '^ 7.17 x 10Mg

(b) 7.05 v 10 cm v 5.11 x 10sc n r
67
2.128 C alculate the n um be r of

(a) M illim e te rs in 6.72 x 10 ? m
(b) M illiliters in 5.09 x 10-' m 3
(c) M illigram s in 3.12 x 1 0 '? kg
2 129 C alculate the results of the follow ing calculations to the p ro p e r n u m b e r of sig
n ificant digits:
(a) (2.49 X 10' mg) + (3.36 X 103 g)
(b) (9.99 X 10 3kg)/(7.31 X 10' c m )3
(c) (50.334 g - 49.01 g)/(43.22 c m 3)
2.130 C alculate the n um ber of cubic ce ntim ete rs in a recta ng u la r box
1.21 m by 5.19 cm by 33.7m m
2.131 C alculate the d en sity in gram s per m illilite r of an o b je c t w ith a v o lu m e of 0 3833
L and a m ass of 124.2 g
2 132 How m any 2.60 X 10 ?8 m 3 particles w ill fit into a 3 00-m L v e s s e l7
2 133 C alculate the price of a 2 00-kg bar of gold if the price of gold is S600 per troy
ounce.
2 134 C alculate the price of a bar of gold 110.0 cm by 10 0 cm by 10 0 cm if the price

of gold is $600 per troy ounce
2.135 C alculate the length of each edge of a 21.25-kg cube of gold
2.136 C alculate the sum of 1 .00 m and 0.100 mm. A tte m p t to draw a p ictu re of this
sum to the p ro pe r scale E xplain the effect in term s of sig n ific a n t digits.
2.137 C alculate the d en sity of a 25.0% by m ass sodium c h lo rid e so lu tio n in w ater if
228 g of sodium chloride is used to m ake 765 mL of the solution
2.138 Explain w hy a football referee, after two successive d e fe n sive o ffsid e penalties
on a first dow n, rules without a measurement that a new firs t d ow n has been
achieved but does not do so after a first-dow n running play for no gain follow ed
by tw o offside penalties,
2.139 The den sity of a solution 25.0% by m ass sodium c h lo rid e (table salt) in w ater is
1.19 g/m L. C alculate the m ass of sodium chloride in 755 mL of the solution
2.140 A certain brand of vitam in pill contains 255 0 n g of the vita m in: a n o th e r brand
has 0.2550 mg of the vitam in per pill. W hich is the b etter buy. all o th e r factors
being equal?
2.141 A nurse who is directed to give a patient a pill that has 0 150 eg of active in g re
dients has no pills with ce ntig ra m s as units W hat pill labeled in m illig ra m s should
the nurse a dm inister?
2.142 U nder a certain set of conditions, the density of w ater is 1 00 g/m L and that of
oxygen gas is 1.21 g/L W hich will float on the other?
2 143 C alculate the value of “ 17 3 ks“ in (a) m inutes and (b) hours
2 1 4 4 If a patient has a blood count of 750 w hite co rp uscle s per cu bic m illim e te r w hat
is the n um ber of w hite corp uscle s per cubic centim eter?
68
2.145
(a) D raw a fig u re show ing the addition of the lengths of tw o line segm ents,
10.0cm and 0.10 cm.
(b) C an you do the sam e with 10.0 cm and 0 010 cm ? Explain.
2 146 How m any grains of sand, each with a volum e of 1 0 m m 3, could be held in a
vo lum e a pp ro xim a te ly equal to that of the Earth? (The Earth's radius is 6.4 X
103km. For a sphere, V = 4/3 7i r3; use n = 3.1416 if n is not on your calculator.)
2 147 C alculate the n um be r of liters in

(a) 75.2 mL (b) 0 0 17 4m 3
(c) 9 29 cm 3 (d) 1.73 X 105m m 3
2.148 C alculate the sum of 2.47 X 10ecm + 6 11 X 106mm
2.149 C alculate the result of the follow ing calculation:
1.22 x 10 22g - 7 J 3 x 10 2,g

1.73 x 10 9cm x 8.10 x 10 12c m 2
2.150 C onvert 1.19 X 10 4 kg/m 3 to gram s per m illiliter
2.151 C alculate the a pp ro xim a te height in m eters of the man in the cubic m eter box
(Figure 2.7). Use a ratio of the height of the man to the height of the box in the
figure, w hich is equal to the ratio of the heights in real life.
(a) Use a m etric ruler to m easure the figure.
(b) Use an inch ruler.
(c) State a no the r reason why the m etric system is easier to use than the En
glish syste m of m easurem ent.
2.152 R epeat P roblem 2.151 but estim ate the m an's w idth at his w aist instead of his
h eight.
2 153 C a lcu la te the length of teach side of a cube that has a vo lu m e of 2 90.3 cm .
(Be sure to use the p ro pe r units and the proper n um ber of sig n ifica n t digits.)
2.154 C alculate the te m p e ra tu re in kelvins of each of the follow ing:
(a) 109°F (b) - 1 2°F (c) 56°F (d) 32°F
2 155 C alculate the m ass of gold in a bracelet that contains 66.7% gold by m ass and
that has a vo lu m e of 42 19 mL and a density of 14.9 g/mL.
2.156 C alculate the average density of the Earth, assum ing it to be sphe rica l w ith ra
dius 6400 km and m ass 6.1 x 10?4kg. (V = 4/3 rr r3)
2 157 C alculate the te m p era ture in degrees F ahrenheit of each of the follow ing.
(a) 300 K (b) 0 K (c) 373 K (d) 283 K
2 158 W hich of the fo llo w in g a m ounts of m oney w ould m ore likely be rounded by a
m ercha nt to the nearest S10?
(a) $12 02 22 or (b) S12.22
69
2.159
(a) C alculate the price of an average grain of a certa in type of rice if a pound
of this rice costs $2.12 and there are 3 3 X 10* g rains of rice per pound
(b) How m any sign ifican t digits should be reported in this c a lc u la tio n 7
2 160
(a) A bank usually charges 14 0% interest for a certa in type of loan If the bank
a dve rtise s a sp ecial 10.0% discount for that type of loan w ha t is the actual
rate?
(b) The percen ta ge of a certain ore in the rock from a m ine is 21% . The per
centage of iron in the ore is 63% W hat is the p ercen ta ge of iron in the ro c k 7
2 161 C alculate the length in m eters of each side of a cube that has a v o lu m e of 4 85
X 10' c m 3.
2 162 C alculate the radius of a sphere of volum e 18 00 c m '
2 163 Equal vo lu m e s of w ater (density 1 00 g/m L) and ethyl alco ho l (de nsity 0 789 g/
mL) are co m b in e d If the total volum e is 190% of the vo lu m e of each c o m p o
nent, w hat is the den sity of the solution?
2.164 C alculate the m ass of a sphere of radius 3.38 cm and d en sity 0 382 g /c m 3. (V =
5 irr3)
2.165 C alculate the den sity of a sphere of radius 7.73 cm and m ass 586 g. (V = A irr3,
use i t = 3 1416 if n is not on your c a lc u la to r)
2 166 C alculate the d en sity in gram s per cubic ce ntim ete r of an a verag e c h lo rin e atom,
w hich has a radius of 1 05 X 10 ' “and a m ass of 5.89x 10 “ g (1/ = fw 3)
2 167 Equal volum es of w ater (density 1 00 g/m L) and ethyl a lco ho l (d e n sity 0 789 g/
m L) are com bined. If the density of the resulting solution is 0 .94 2 g /m L w hat is
the volum e of the solution com pared to that of the w ater?
2.168 How m any s ig n ific a n t d ig its are in the value 0°F? (The ze ro is not left of all
o the r digits, right of all other digits, or betw een all o the r d ig its ) H ow m any are
there in its C elsius equivalent?
2 169 C alculate the depth of w ater in ce ntim ete rs in a cubic box (not full) w ith 40 0-
cm edges if the m ass of the contents is 28 0 kg
2 170 C alculate the length of a rectangular solid if its d en sity is 4 02 g /c m 3 its m ass
is 399 g, its w idth is 5.11 cm, and its thickness is 3 03 cm
2.171 A vitam in pill m aker produces pills with a m ass of 1 00 g each If each of the
follow ing indicates the m ass of active ingredient, w hat p e rce n ta g e o f the pill is
active in each case?
(a) 4 00 mg (b) 0 400 mg (c) 400 mg
2 172 W hat is the vo lum e of a cube w hose edge m easures:

(a) 2 27cm (b) 4 52 X 1 0 'rcm
2.173 Using the d en sitie s in Table 2 5, identify the su bsta nce in a sp h e re w ith a 1 50-
cm radius and a m ass of 22 1 g
2.174 C alcu la te the vo lum e of a (sph erical) atom of c h lo rin e w hich has a r a 3 ijs of
1 .0 5 X 1 0 m (V = 4 3 n r 3 use ti = 3 1 4 1 6 if n is not on your c a lc u la to r)
70
2 1 75 C alculate the tem perature in C elsius of each of the follow ing: (a) 16UF, (b) 16.0°F
and (c) 0°F. How m any significant digits should be reported for each?
2 176 C alculate the reduction in volum e after 99 00 g of sul-furic acid is added to 1 00

g of w ater. The d en sity of w ater is 1.00 g/mL. that of sulfuric acid is 1.8305 g/
mL. and that of 99 00% sulfuric acid in w ater is 1 8342 g/mL
2.177 C alculate the den sity of a solution prepared with 54 08 mL of sulfuric acid and
1.00 mL of w ater. The density of w ater is 1.00 g/m L and that of sulfuric acid is
1 8305 g/m L. The volum e of the solution is 54 52 mL.
2 178 C alculate the reduction in volum e after 30 00 g of sulfuric acid is added to 70 00

g of w ater. A ssu m e that the density of w ater is 1 000 g/m L. that of sulfuric acid
is 1.8305 g/m L. and that of 30.00% by m ass su lfuric acid in w ater is 1.2185 g/
mL.
2.179 C alculate the d en sity of a solution prepared with 16 39 mL of sulfuric acid and
70.00 mL of w ater. A ssum e that the density of w ater is 1.000 g/m L and that of
su lfuric acid is 1.8305 g/m L The volum e of the solution is 82.068 mL.
2.180 In light of the a nsw ers to the Problem s 2.176-2 179, state w hy the m ethod of
d ete rm inin g vo lum e of irregularly shaped objects in the introduction to C hapter
2 would not w ork for sugar crystals
S U M M A R Y - TONG KET CHlfdNG

M ea surem e nt is the key to qua ntita tive physical science The results of e very m e a
surem ent m ust include both a num eric value and a unit (or set of units). Be sure to
use standard a bb re via tio n s for all units. The factor label m ethod is used to co nve rt a
quantity from one set of units to another w ithout changing its value The original q u a n
tity is m ultiplied by a factor equal to 1. (The n um erator and d en om ina tor of the factor
are equal to each o the r in value but different in form ) To use the factor label m ethod:
(1) w rite dow n the q u a n tity given, (2) m ultiply by a fa cto r that w ill yield the desired
units, (3) cancel the units. (4) m ultiply all num bers in the num erators and divide by the
num ber(s) in the d e n om ina tor(s) S om etim es, it is necessary to m ultiply by m ore than
one factor. If you do so. you m ay solve for the interm ediate answ ers, but you do not
have to (S ection 2 1)
The m etric system and its new er counterpart. SI, use subunits and m ultiples of units
that are equal to p ow ers of 10, and they also use the sam e prefixes to m ean certain
fractions or m ultiple s, no m atter w hat prim ary unit is being m odified. The m eter is the
p rim ary unit of length; the gram is the prim ary unit of m ass; and the liter (the cubic
m eter in SI) is the p rim ary unit of volum e The prefixes centi- (0.01), milli- (0 001). and
/</7o-(1000) are used w ith any of these or with any other m etric unit C on version s b e
tw een E nglish and m etric units are necessary for A m erican e ngineers and m ay help
you get fa m iliar w ith the relative sizes of the m etric units. To add. subtract, m ultiply,
or d ivid e m ea su re d q u a n titie s of the sam e type, first be sure that they all have the
sam e units as far as possible. (Section 2.2)
E xp o n e n tia l n ota tion e nables easy reporting of e xtre m ely large and e x tre m e ly sm all
n um bers A n u m b e r in scien tific notation consists of a co efficie nt tim es 10 to an integral
pow er, w he re the c o e ffic ie n t is equal to or gre ate r than 1 but less than 10 You m ust
know how to c o n v e rt num be rs from e xpo ne ntia l notation to o rd in a ry d e cim a l values,
and vice ve rsa , and a lso how to use e xpo ne ntia l num bers in c a lc u la tio n s You should
71
be able to use e ffe c tiv e ly an e le c tro n ic c a lc u la to r w ith e x p o n e n tia l c a p a b ility (see

A ppendix 1). (S e ction 2.3)
The n u m b e r of d ig its rep orte d for a m e a s u re m e n t or fo r the re s u lt o f a c a lc u la tio n
involving m e a su re m e n ts is a m eans of show ing how p re c is e ly the m e a s u re m e n t(s )
was (w ere) m ade The last d igit of reported m ea surem e nts is u sually an e s tim a te based
on tenths of the sm a lle st scale division of the m ea suring in s tru m e n t A n y d ig it from 1
th ro ug h 9 in a p ro p e rly rep orte d re su lt is sig n ifica n t. (The w ord significant as used
here refers to the pre cisio n o f the m ea surem e nt and does not m ean “ im p o rta n t.") Zeros
m ay or m ay not be s ig n ific a n t; if th ey m e re ly show the m a g n itu d e o f th e n um be r,
they are not sign ifican t.
W hen m e a su re m e n ts are added or su btracted , the one th a t has s ig n ific a n t d ig its least
far to the rig ht is the one th a t lim its the n u m b e r of s ig n ific a n t d ig its in th e answ er.
W hen m e a s u re m e n ts are m u ltip lie d or d iv id e d , the one w ith the fe w e s t s ig n ific a n t
digits lim its the n um be r of sig n ifica n t digits in the answ er. If too m any d ig its are present
in a ca lcu la te d a nsw er, the a n sw e r is rounded off: S om e d ig its are d ro p p e d if they
occur to the right of the d e cim a l p oint or changed to n o n s ig n ific a n t z e ro s if th ey occur
to the left o f the d e c im a l point. If too few d ig its are p re s e n t, s ig n ific a n t z e ro s are
a d d e d . N ote th a t, a lth o u g h a c a lc u la to r g iv e s th e c o rre c t m a g n itu d e w h e n used
p roperly, you m ust u n d e rsta n d the ca lcu la tio n p ro ce sse s to be able to d e te rm in e the
n u m b e r o f s ig n ific a n t fig u re s to report. A ll d ig its in the c o e ffic ie n ts o f n u m b e rs in
scie n tific notation are sig n ifica n t. (S ection 2.4)
D ensity, an inte n sive p ro pe rty, is defined as m ass per unit vo lu m e . It can be ca lcu late d
by d ivid in g the m ass of a sa m ple by its volum e. If a d e n s ity is give n, it m ay be used
as a fa cto r to solve for m ass or volum e. D ensity, an in te n sive p ro p e rty , m ay be used
to help ide ntify a su bsta nce . S a m ples of low er d e n sity flo a t in liq u id s of h ig h e r density.
(S ection 2.5)
S cie ntists use tw o d iffe re n t te m p e ra tu re scales: C e lsiu s and K e lvin T h e ir re la tio n sh ip

to each o th e r and to the m ore fa m ilia r F a h re n h e it s c a le is sh o w n in F ig u re 2 11
(Section 2.6)
72
ATOMS AND ATOMIC MA55E5
n g u y £ n ti )
via KHO'l LLTOHG NGUYEN TI)
________________ Mgc PlCH YEU cAu - Objectives_________________________
3.1 To calculate some of the quantitiesinvolved in chemical combinations of

elements, using the classical laws known at Dalton’s time
3 .2 To interpret the classical laws of chemical combination using Daltons atomic

theory
3 .3 To use the properties of subatomic particles protons, electrons, and neu

trons to determine atomic structure,
3 .4 To calculate atomic masses the relative masses of atoms two ways: (1)
from the ratios of masses of equal numbers of atoms, as was done
historically, and (2) from masses and abundances of the naturally occurring
mixture of isotopes, the more modern method
3 .5 To repeat the thought processes of Mendeleyev and Meyer in the devel

opment of the periodic table
BO CUC - Layout
3.1 Laws of Chemical Combination
3.2 Daltons Atomic Theory
3.3 Subatomic Particles
3.4 Atomic Mass
3.5 Development of the Periodic Table
73
Topic 3 : Atom s and atimic m asses
Jludng dan doc hieu muc dich yeu cau vd bo cuc
3.1 Tinh mot so dqi luqng co lien quan trong nhilng ket hqp hoa
hoc cua nguyen tS, bdng cdch sit dung nhitng dinh ludt co dien dd duac
biet til thdi Dalton, 3.2 Dien gidi cdc dinh ludt co dien vd ket hqp hoa
hoc bdng cdch sit dung thuyet nguyen tit cua Dalton. 3.3 Sit dung nhitng
tinh chdt cua cdc hat tren nguyin tit - proton, electron vd neutron - de
xdc dinh cdu true nguyen tit, 3.4 Tinh cdc khoi luqng nguyin tit - khoi
luqng nguyin tit tuang ddi - theo hai cdch: (1) Tit cdc tl sd khdi luqng
cua nhitng sd litang nguyin tit bdng nhau nhu da duqc thuc hien tH
trudc ddy vd (2) tic cdc khdi luqng vd do pho biin cua hon hqp dong vi
co trong tu nhiin vd la phuang phdp hien dqi han, 3.5 Ldp Iqi xuyen
suot cdc qua trinh cua Mendeleyev vd Meyer trong viic phat trien ra
bdng phdn loqi tuan hodn.
3.1 Dinh ludt ve tong hqp hoa hqc, 3.2 Ly thuyet nguyen tii cua
Dalton, 3.3 Cdc hat nguyin tit con , 3.4 Khdi litang nguyin td , 3.5
Phat trien cua bdng phdn loqi tuan hodn
74
Topic 3: Atom s and atimic m asses
The th e o ry of the atom has had a long history. The a ncien t G ree ks postulated that
m atter e xists in the form of atom s, but they did not base their theory on experim ents,
nor did th ey use it to develop additional ideas about atom s. In 1803, John Dalton p ro
p osed the first m od ern th e o ry of the atom , w hich w as based on the e xp e rim e n ta lly
d ete rm ine d law s of co nse rva tion of m ass, definite proportions, and m ultiple proportions.
D alton su gg este d for the first tim e that atom s of d ifferent e lem ents are d iffe re n t from
each other. His th eo ry generated a great deal of research activity, w hich brought forth
additional law s and know ledge about atom s, and he is recognized as the father of the
atom ic theory.
Section 3.1 takes up the e xpe rim en tal laws on w hich Dalton based his atom ic theory,
and S ection 3.2 d iscu sse s the theory itself. Som e m odern e xten sion s of the theory,
including su batom ic p article s and isotopes, are presented in Section 3 3 The concept
of the m asses of atom s of the individual elem ents is presented in Section 3.4. and the
deve lo pm e nt of the perio d ic table is traced in Section 3 5. A m uch m ore sophisticated
theory of the atom w ill be presented in C hapter 4.
Chu thich ttf *- cum ttf va htfcfng dan dpc hieu

Thuyet nguyen tii dd co mot licit sd lau dai. Ngudi H y lap co dai khdng dinh la vat
chdt ton tai a dang cdc nguyen td nhilng ly thuyet ciia ho khong duqc dua tren cdc thilc
nghiem ra ho cung khdng sd dung tliuyet do de phat trien them nhdng y titang bo sung ve
cdc nguyen td. Vdo ndm 1803. John Dalton Idn ddu tien dila ra mot ly thuyet hien dqi ve
nguyen td dua tren thilc nghiem da duqc xdc dinh bdi cdc dinh luat bao todn khdi luqng,
dinli ludt ve cdc ti le xdc dinh vd boi so cua cdc ti le. Dalton Ian ddu tien gqi y la cdc
nguyen td cda nhdng nguyen td khdc nhau thi khdc nhau. Thuyet cua ong dd dan den
nhieu hoat dong nghien cdu, bo sung them cho nhdng dinh luat vd kien thdc dd biet ve
cdc nguyen td vd ong da ditqc cong nhan nhit la cha de ciia ly thuyet nguyen td.
Muc 3.1 thilc luen cdc dinh luat thuc nghiem md Dalton dd dat ca sd cho ly thuyet
nguyen td cua minh va muc 3.2 tlido ludn chinh ly thuyet do. Mot vai phdn md rdng ly
thuyet hien dqi bao gom cdc liqt nhd trong nguyen td vd cac chat dong vi cung duqc trinli
bay trong muc 3.3. Kiwi niem ve khoi htqng nguyen td cua cdc nguyen td rieng biet duoc
trinh bdy trong muc 3.4 va sit phat trien ciia bang phdn loai tuan hodn duqc dua ra d muc
3.5. Ly thuyet tinh vi hem ve nguyen td cung ditqc trinh bdy trong chuang 4.
Chu (Jiem 3.1: Laws of Chemical Combination
Antoine L a vo isie r (1743-1794), called the father of m odern chem istry, discovered
the law of co n se rva tio n of m ass (Section 1.6) by show ing that during a ch em ica l rea c
tion. m ass is neither gained nor lost His quantitative work (work involving m e a s u re
m ents) enabled him to co nclude that the m ass of products generated during a c h e m i
cal reaction is the sam e as the m ass of the reactants used up (Figure 3.1). This was
not an easy co n clu sio n because “anyone could see that the ashes left after a large log
burned did not w eigh as m uch as the log itself.” How ever, w hen the oxygen from the
air (also a re a ctan t in the burning of w ood) and the carbon dioxide, w ater va po r, and
o the r p ro du cts form ed (in addition to the ash) were considered, the total m ass of the
reactants and the total m ass of the products w ere found to be equal. L avo isie r's work
led o th e r ch e m ists to m easure their reactants and products to confirm his co nclusio ns
and to see if they could m ake other q uantitative observations
75
Topic 3 : Atoms and atimic m asses
The law of defin ite proportions, or the law of con stan t c o m p o s itio n , em erged
after careful w ork by m any investigators. This law states that any g ive n co m p o u n d is
com posed of d e fin ite p ro p o rtio n s by m ass of its e le m e n ts. For e x a m p le , e v e ry tim e
som eone m akes sodium chloride, there is 1.54 tim es the m ass of c h lo rin e in th e c o m
pound as th ere is sodium . This law was d iffic u lt to prove b eca u se m an y sa m p le s of
com pounds contain im p urities of o the r com pounds that have the sa m e e le m e n ts. For
exam ple, dinitrogen m onoxide (N ?0 ), known as laughing gas. and nitrogen d io xide (NO.,),
an air pollutant, are tw o d iffe re n t com pounds, but each is c o m p o se d of o nly nitrogen
and oxygen The tw o com p ou nd s can form a h om ogeneous m ixture in any proportions.
A nalysis of an im pure sam ple of either gas could lead to a p e rce n ta g e of nitro ge n a ny
w here betw een that in pure din itro g en m onoxide and that in pure nitro ge n dioxide. A
pure sam ple of d in itro g en m onoxide or nitrogen dioxide, not an a rb itra ry m ixture of the
two, is nece ssary to insure a definite p ercen t com position. O nce c h e m is ts isolated and
w orked on pure com p ou nd s, it was a pp aren t that the law of d e fin ite p ro p o rtio n s was
valid (S ection 1.6).
The law of m u ltip le p ro p o rtio n s sta te s th a t fo r tw o (or m o re ) c o m p o u n d s c o m
posed of the sa m e e le m e n ts , fo r a g ive n m ass o f one of th e e le m e n ts , the ratio of
m a sse s of a ny o th e r e le m e n t in th e c o m p o u n d s is a s m a ll, w h o le -n u m b e r ra tio For
e xa m p le , h y d ro g e n p e ro x id e c o n ta in s 1 5.8 72 g of o x y g e n fo r e ach g ra m of h y d ro
gen p re se n t. W a te r c o n ta in s 7 .9 3 6 2 g of o x y g e n fo r e ach g ra m of h y d ro g e n p resent.
For the fixe d m ass of h y d ro g e n (1 g in each c a s e ), the ra tio of m a s s e s o f o x y g e n is
(1 5 .8 7 2 g )/(7 .936 2 g) = 2/1.
S o m e tim e s, the ratio does not a pp e a r to be in te g ra l at first, but it can be co n
verted to an integ ra l ratio w hile keeping the value the sam e by m u ltip ly in g both nu
m erator and d e n o m in a to r by the sam e sm all integer. For e xam ple , a co m p ou nd of co
balt and oxygen co nta ins 3 .6835 g of co ba lt per gram of oxyge n, w hile a second c o m
pound contains 2 .45 56 g of co ba lt per gram of oxygen. Per gram of o xyge n, the ratio
of m asses of co ba lt is (3.6835 g )/(2 .45 56 g) = 1.5000/1. W e can c o n v e rt that ratio to
an integral ratio by m ultiplyin g num erator and d e n om ina tor by 2:
1 .5 0 0 0 x 2 3
1x2 " 2
C onverting ratios to integral ratios is discu ssed fu rthe r in A p p e n d ix 1

The em p irical laws g overning the m asses of rea ctan ts and p ro d u cts of c h e m i
cal reactions form ed the basis for the th eo re tica l d e v e lo p m e n t of c h e m is try
A W hat is the total m ass of the m ercury and oxygen p ro du ced from the d e c o m
position of 10 0 g of H g20 ?
B Barium and oxygen com bine in a ratio of 137.3 g of barium to 16 00 g of o x y

gen W hat is the percen t oxygen in (a) a 5.00-g sa m ple of the c o m p o u n d 7 (b)
a 10.0-g sam ple of the com pound?
C. One co m pound of iron and oxygen contains 3 .4906 g of iron for each gra m of
oxygen. A second co m pound of these ele m e n ts co nta ins 2 .3 2 7 0 g of iron for
each gram of oxygen C alculate the m ass of o xyge n per gram of iron in each
com pound, and show that the m asses obey the law of m u ltip le p ro p o rtio n s
76
• Dinh ludt chi phdi khdi luqng cua cac chdt tham gia phdn ling va cdc san pham
cua cdc phdn ting hda hoc duqc tqo ra va ddt nen mong cho ca so phat trien ly
thuyet ve hda hqc.
A. Khdi luqng loan phdn cua thdy ngan vd oxygen duqc tqo ra tic viec phdn ra lOg
H g ,0 bdng bao nhieu?
li. Barium vd oxygen ket hqp theo mot ti le 137.3g barium chia cho 16.00g oxy
gen. Tim ti le phdn tram cua oxygen trong (a) 5.00g mdu lion hqp! (b) 10.Og
hon hqp?
C. Mot hon hqp sdt vd oxy cd cliiia 3.4906g sdt ling vdi moi gram oxygen. Mot hon
hqp thii hai ciia cdc nguyen td ndy cd chiia 2.3270g sdt ting vdi moi gram oxy
gen. Hay tinh khoi luqng oxygen tren moi gram sdt trong mdi hqp chdt vd chiing
minh rdng cdc khdi luqng ndy tuan theo dinli luat cdc ti le boi so.
Chu thich tCf - cum tCf va hi/ong dan dpc hieu

- law o f definite proportions: dinh luat cdc thanh phdn xdc dinh
- law o f con stan t com position : dinh luat cdc hqp chdt khdng doi
- law o f multiple proportions: dinh luat nhieu thanh phdn
D|nh luat ve tong hop hoa hpc

Antoine Lavoisier (1 7 4 3 -1 7 9 4 ) duqc goi la cha de cua nganh hda hqc liien dqi dd
khdm phd ra dinh luat bao todn Itlidi luqng (xem muc 1.6) bdng cdch chiing minh rdng
trong suot phdn ling hda hqc thi khoi liCqng khdng thu nhan them cung khdng bi mdt di.
Cong trinh dinh luqng ciia ong la (cong trinh bao gom cdc so do) dd dinh luqng duqc
rdng khoi luqng cua cdc san pham duqc tqo ra trong suot phan ling hda hqc thi giong
het nhu khdi luqng ciia cdc chdt phdn iCng duqc dung (hinh 3.1). Ddy khdng phai la ket
ludn de ddng bdi vi “bat cit ai deu cd the thay rdng mot mon do khi bi ddt chay thi cd
trong luqng khdng bdng duqc trong luqng ciia chinh mon do d o”. Tuy nhien, luc khi oxy
tit khdng khi (con ditqc goi la mot chdt tham gia phdn ling trong viec ddt chay go vd
dioxide carbon, hai nUdc vd cdc san pham khdc duqc hinh thanh) duqc khao sdt thi khoi
luqng todn phdn cua cdc chat tham gian phdn ling vd khoi luqng todn phdn cua cdc san
pliam duqc tim deu bdng nhau. Cong trinh cua Lavoisier dd dan ddt cdc nhd khoa hqc
khdc do cdc phdn ling va san pham duqc khdng dinh ket ludn cua ong ta vd de thdy
rdng lio cd the thiic hien cdc viec quan sdt dinh luqng khac.
D in h luijit ve c a c ti I f x d c d in h lioac dinh lu qt ve th a n h p h a n k h o n g doi,

da duqc dao sdu sau khi nhilng nhd khdo sdt dd tliUc luen cong trinh mot cdch can than.
Dinh luat ndy phat bieu rdng bdi ky hon hqp da cho nao deu bao gom cdc thanh phdn
xdc dinh ve cdc khoi luqng nguyen td ciia no. Vi du mdi khi mot ngudi nao do tqo ra
sodium chlorine thi khdi luqng cua chlorine trong hqp chdt bdng 1.54 Ian khoi luqng
ciia sodium. Dinh luat ndy that kho de cluing minh duqc bdi vi cd nhieu mdu hqp chdt
cd chiia cdc tap chdt ciia cdc hon hqp khac cd cung nguyen td giong nhau. Vi du dinitrogen
monoxide (NO,), con duqc got 1a nitrogen dioxide ( N ,0), mot chdt o nlaem trong khdng
khi cd hai deu cd cdc thanh phdn khdc nhau, nhitng mdi chat deu bao gom chi cd nitro
gen vd oxygen. Hai hqp chdt ndy cd the tqo nen mot lion hqp dong the theo bat cii ti le
nao. Viec phdn tich mdt mdu tap chdt cua mdi chdt khi dan den ti le phdn tram khi
nitro ndm guia ti le plidn tram cua khi duutrogen monoxide thudn tuy vd nitrogen diox
ide tliudn tuy. Mot mdu dioxide nitrogen monoxide hoac nitrogen dioxide thudn tuy khdng
phai la mot lion hqp tuy y cua hai hon hqp nay, no can phai bao dam co mdt lion hop ti
77
le phdn tram xdc dinh. M ot khi cdc nha hda hqc da cd lap va dilqc the hien cong trinh
tren cdc hap chat thudn tuy thi ta thay ro rdng rdng dinh luat ve cdc ti le thanh phan
xdc dinh la nghiem dung (muc 1.6).
D inh lu a t c d c ti le bdi sd' Im u ltip le p ro p o rtio n ) phat bieu rang doi vdi liai (hodc
nhieu) hap chdt cd cdc nguyen td giorig nhau, ling vdi mot khdi litqng dd cho ciia mot
Irong so cdc nguyen to, ti so gi da cdc khdi liiqng cua bat ky nguyen td nao trong cdc hqp
chdt la mdt ti so nguyen, nhd. Vi du, hydrogen peroxide cd chiia 15.872 g oxygen tfng
vdi moi gam hydrogen. Ntfdc cd chiia 7.9362 g oxygen tfng vdi khoi Itfong cd dinh cua
hydrogen (lg trong moi trtfdng hqp), thi ti so cac khdi litqng cua oxygen la 115.872 g) /
(7.9362 g) - 2 / 1 .
Ddi luc ti so ndy khdng xuat hien dildi dang 1a mot sd nguyen nhtfng no cd the bien
ddi sang mot ti so nguyen trong khi van gid gid tri cua cdc tU sd lari mdu sd bdi cung
mot sd nguyen nhd. Vi du mot hon hqp cobalt rd oxygen cd chiia 3.6835g cobalt tren lg
oxygen, trong khi mot hon hop thtf hai cd chiia 2 .4556 g cobalt tren lg oxygen. Nhtf vdy
tren lg oxygen, ti le gida khoi Itfqng ciia cobalt Id (3.368 35 g )l(2 .4 5 5 6 g ) = 1 .5 0 0 0 /1 .
Chung ta cd the bien ddi ti sd ndy sang mot ti sd nguyen bdng cdch nhdn ttf va mdu cho
2 bdng 3 /2 .
1 .5 0 0 0 x 2 _ 3
1x2 ~ 2
Nhiet bien doi cdc ti sd sang cdc ti sd nguyen dtfqc tqo bdi mot chuyen sau trong
phu luc 1.
Chu diem 3.2: Dalton’s Atomic Theory
In 1803. John D alton (1766-1844) (Figure 3.3) proposed his atom ic theory, in c lu d
ing the follow ing postulates, to explain the laws of ch em ica l c o m b in a tio n d is c u s s e d in
Section 3.1
1 M atter is m ade up of very tiny, indivisible particles called atom s.
2 The atom s of each elem ent all have the sam e mass, but the m ass of the atom s
of one elem ent is different from the m ass of the atom s of every other e le m ent
3 A tom s com bine to form m olecules. W hen they do so, they c o m b in e in sm all,
w ho le -n u m b e r ratios
4. Atom s of som e pairs of elem ents can com bine with each o the r in d iffe re n t sm all,
whole n um ber ratios to form d ifferen t com pounds
5 If atom s of tw o e lem ents can com bine to form m ore than one c o m p o u n d the
m ost stable com pound has the atom s in a 1 : 1 ratio (This postu late was q uickly
show n to be in c o rr e c t)
The first three postu late s have had to be am ended, and the fifth w as q u ic k ly a b a n
doned a ltog eth e r But the postulates explained the laws of ch e m ica l co m b in a tio n know n
at the tim e, and they caused great activity am ong ch em ists, w hich led to m ore g e n e r
alizations and further advances in chem istry
The p ostulates of D alton's atom ic theory explained the laws of c h e m ic a l c o m b i
nation very readily
1 The law of co nse rva tion of m ass is explained as follow s B e cau se atom s m erely
exchange p a rtn e rs ' during a chem ical reaction and are not created or d estroyed
th eir m ass is also n either created nor destroyed Thus m ass is co n s e rv e d d u r
ing a ch e m ica l reaction
78
2 The law of d efin ite proportions is explained as follow s: B ecause atoms react in
d efin ite integral ratios (postulate 3), and atom s of each e le m ent have a d e fi
nite mass (p o stu la te 2), the mass ratio of one e le m e n t to the o the r(s) m ust
also be d efinite
3. The law of m ultiple proportions is explained as follows: Because atom s combine
in different ratios of sm all whole num bers (postulate 4). for a given num ber of
atom s of one elem ent, the num ber of atoms of the other elem ent is in a small,
w hole-num ber ratio. A given num ber of atom s of the first elem ent im plies a given
m ass of that elem ent, and a small, w hole-num ber ratio for the atom s of the se c
ond elem ent (each of the sam e mass) im plies a small, w hole-num ber ratio of
m asses of the second elem ent. For exam ple, consider w ater (H?0 ) and hydro
gen peroxide (H ?0_,). two com pounds of hydrogen and oxygen. For a given num
ber of hydrogen atom s (2). the num bers of oxygen atom s in the two com pounds
are 1 and 2. Stated another way, for a given m ass of hydrogen (2.016 g). the
ratio of m asses of oxygen in the two com pounds is 15.9994 g to 31.9988 g. a
ratio of 1 to 2— a small, w hole-num ber ratio.
W e w ill discu ss the w ays in w hich the first three of D alton's postulates have had
to be am ended after we learn more about the atom.

*- Dalton's theory explained why the classical laws of chem ical com bination worked,
and pro vid e d the th e o re tica l background for the entire future d eve lo pm e nt of
ch em istry
A If e le m e n ts A and B react in a 1 to 2 atom ratio, yield in g a com p ou nd with
6 24 g of B per gram of A. what is the m ass ratio in a com pound with a ratio
of two atom s of A to three atom s of B?
• Ly thuyet cua Dalton da gidi thich tai sao cdc dinh luat tong hap hoa hoc co
dien da hoat dong ditqc va dd cung cap nen tang ly thuyet trong toan bo stf phat
trien hda hoc.
A. Neu cdc nguyen to A cd B tac dong vdi nhau theo ti le 1 chia 2 nguyen ttf thi
cho ta inot hqp chdt 26.2-1 g B tren 1 gram A, tim so khoi Itfqng trong hqp chat
vdi ti sd cua hai nguyen lit A chia cho ba nguyen lit B ?
Chu thich tu1- cum ttf va hUdrng d a n dpc hieu

- postulates: cdc tien de
- atom s: nguyen ttf
- molecules: cdc phdn tii
- D a lto n ’s a to m ic theory: ly thuyet nguyen tit Dalton
- atom s: nguyen tit
- mass: khdi Itfqng
Ly thuyet nguyen tii cua Dalton

Vao ndm 1803. John Dalton (1 7 6 6 -1 8 4 4) da dtfa ra ly thuyet nguyen tit cua ong
bao gom cac tien de sau day. de gidi thich dinh ludt ve long hqp hoa hoc dd dtfqc trinh
bay o' muc 3.1
79
1. Vat chat dtfoc tqo thanh bdi nhilng hat rat nhd khdng nhin thdy dtfoc goi la
nguyen til.
2. Cdc nguyen III cua moi nguyen to deu cd cung khoi Itfqng. nhtfng khdi Itfqng cua
cdc nguyen ttf cua mot nguyen td khdc vdi khoi Itfqng cua cdc nguyen til cua cac
nguyen td khdc.
3. Cdc nguyen til ket hqp lai de tqo thanh cac phdn til. Khi ket hop nhtf ray chung
ket hqp theo nhilng ti sd cdc sd nguyen nhd.
4. Cdc nguyen til cua mot sd cap nguyen to co the ket hqp vdi nhau theo nhilng ti
so so nguyen nhd de tqo thanh cdc hqp chdt khdc nhau.
5. Neu nguyen tii cua hai nguyen td cd the ket hqp de tqo thanh nhieu hon mot
hqp chdt, thi hqp chdt ben nhdt cd ti so cdc nguyen til la 1:1 (tien de ndy da
nhanh cliong dtfqc chiing minh la khdng dung).
Ba tien de ddu tien dd dtfqc tu chinh vd tien de thiic nam nhanh chong bi bac bo
nhtfng cdc tien de ndy cung gidi thich dtfqc dinh luat ket hqp hda hqc dtfqc biet trong
tlidi lty dd, vd chung da tqo nen nhilng hoat dong tich ctfc giila cdc nhd hda hqc, nhilng
hoot dong nay da dan den viec khdi quat hda vd dtfa den cdc tien bo chuyen sau ve
dinh luat hda hqc.
Cdc tien de ve ly thuyet nguyen til cua Dalton da gidi thich dinli ludt tong hqp lioa
hqc rat nhanh chong.
1. Dinh luat bao todn khoi Itfqng dtfqc giai thich nhtf sau: Bdi vi cdc nguyen ttf chi
trao ddi “ddi tac” trong mot phdn ling hda hqc vd khdng dtfqc tqo ra hay bi hiiy
di, khdi Itfqng ciia cluing ciing khdng dtfqc tqo ra vd cung khdng bi phd hiiy.
Nhtf the khdi Itfqng dtfqc bao todn trong mot phdn ling hda hqc.
2. Dinh luat ve ti le xdc dinh dtfqc gidi thich nhtf sau: vi cdc nguyen til phdn tfng
theo nhilng ti sd sd nguyen xdc dinli (tien de 3), cdc nguyen til cua ttfng nguyen
td cd mot khoi Itfqng xdc dinh (tien de 2), ti sd khdi Itfqng cua mot nguyen td so
vdi nguyen to khdc cung phai la xdc dinh.
3. Dinh luat ve boi sd ti le dtfqc giai thich nhtf sau: vi cac nguyen til ket hqp theo
nhilng ti sd la cdc sd nguyen nhd khdc nhau, (tien de 4), doi vdi mot Itfqng nhat
dinh cdc nguyen tii! cua mot nguyen td, sd nguyen til cua nguyen td kia phdi
theo mot ti sd bdng sd nguyen nhd. Mot sd xac dinli cdc nguyen til cua nguyen td
thii nhdt quy dinh mot khdi Itfqng xdc dinh cua nguyen td dd, vd mot ti sd theo
sd nguyen nho ciia cdc nguyen til nguyen td thii hai (moi nguyen til deu cd cung
khoi Itfqng) xdc dinh mot ti so cho so nguyen nhd khoi Itfqng ciia nguyen td thii
hai (hinh 3.4). Vi du, xet ntfdc (H f ) ) vd hydrogen peroxide ( H ,O j la hai hqp
chdt ciia hydrogen vd oxy. Doi vdi mot sd nguyen til hydro dd cho (2), so nguyen
til oxy trong hai hqp chdt la 1 vd 2. Noi mot cdch khdc, ddi vdi mot khoi Itfqng
dd cho ciia hydro (2.016g) ti sd khoi Itfqng cua oxy trong hai hqp chat la 15.9994g
vd 31.9988g, ti so 1 tren 2 - la ti sd bdng sd nguyen nhd.
Ta se ban ve nhtfng cdch de bo sung ba tien de ddu tien cua Dalton sau khi dd hqc
nhieu han ve nguyen ttf.
Chu diem 3.3: Subatomic Particles
The nucleus does not change during any o rdinary ch e m ica l I reaction
The a tom ic n u m b e r (Z) is equal to the n um be r of p ro ton s (p) in the atom and
d eterm ines its identity
80
M any types of expe rim en ts have been perform ed and m any discoveries made since
D alton proposed his atom ic theory that have led to the inescapable conclusion that the
atom is not indivisib le . E xperim ents with electricity in the 1850s show ed that chem ical
rea ction s can be caused by the passage of ele ctricity (a p rocess called e lectrolysis)
and that e le ctricity can be generated by chem ical reactions (as in batteries). (See S e c
tion 16.5.) The d isco ve ry of radioactivity, in which atom s of an elem ent are changed
into atom s of o the r elem ents, was another source of e vidence (see C hapter 20). The
fact that the p la ce m e n t of three pairs of elem ents in the periodic table is not in order
of atom ic m ass (S e ction s 3.4 and 3.5) throw s doubt on D alton's theory The inte ra c
tion of light w ith m atter gave fu rthe r evidence that the atom is not indivisible. A b so rp
tion of specific w ave len gth s of light, m eaning specific e nergies of light, led to the co n
clusion that atom s have certain energy levels in them (See the follow ing enrichm ent
section.) M any o th e r d isco ve rie s have been made that are beyond the scope of this
text. If atom s are not ind ivisible, then w hat are the particles that constitute them ?
The atom is com p ose d of m any types of subatom ic particles, but only three types
will be im p orta nt in this co urse Protons and neutrons e xist in the atom 's nucleus,
and electrons e xist o utside the nucleus. The nucleus (plural, nuclei) is incredibly sm all,
with a radius about one te n -th ou san dth of the radius of the atom itself. (If the atom
were the size of a car, the nucleus would be about the size of the period at the end of
this sentence.) The n ucleu s does not change during any o rdinary chem ical reaction.
(N uclear reactions are describ e d in C hapter 20.) The protons, neutrons, and electrons
have the pro pe rtie s listed in Table 3.1. These properties are ind ep en d en t of the atom
of w hich the su b a to m ic p article s are a part Thus, the atom is the sm a lle st unit that
has the ch a ra cte ristic co m p ositio n of an elem ent, and in that sense, it is the sm allest
particle of an e le m e n t
An unco m b ine d atom is neither positive nor negative but e le ctrica lly neutral, and
thus the n um ber of protons (p) m ust equal the num ber of electrons:
Num ber o f p roton s = num ber o f electrons (For a neutral atom)
B ecause neu tro n s are neutral (see Table 3.1). the num ber of neutrons (n) does
not affect the charge on the atom The num ber of protons in an atom dete rm ine s the
e le m e n t's id e n tity All a tom s having the sam e n um be r of p ro ton s are atom s of the
sam e e le m e n t A tom s w ith d iffe re n t n um bers of protons are atom s of d iffe re n t e le
m ents The n um ber of protons in an atom is w hat d ifferen tia tes each ele m e n t from all
others It is called the atom ic num ber (Z) of the elem ent
Z = P
The n um ber of neutrons in the nuclei of atom s of the sam e elem ent can d iffer If
two atom s have the sam e n um ber of protons and different num bers of neutrons, they
are atom s of the sam e e le m ent (they have the same atom ic num ber). H ow ever, they
have d iffe re n t m asse s because of the different num bers of neutrons S uch atom s are
said to be isotopes of each other Each isotope of an elem ent is usually identified by
its m ass num ber (A), w hich is defined as the sum of the num ber of protons and the
num ber of neu tro n s in the atom:
A = p + n = Z + n
G e n e ra lly, the m ass n um ber for the isotopes rises as the a tom ic n um be r rises
but the two are not d ire ctly proportional
S ym bols for the ele m e n ts were introduced in C hapter 1. In addition, each of those
sym b o ls can be used to rep re sen t an atom of the elem ent. M oreo ver, an isotope is
identified by the sym bo l of the elem ent, with the m ass num ber added as a s u pe rscript
8 1
Topic 3- Atom s and alimic m asses
on the left side For e xam ple the jso to p e of hydrogen w ith m ass n um be r of 1 is d e s ig
nated as 'H (Its nam e is hydrogen-1.) Note that the n um ber of n eu tro n s is not given,
the m ass n um ber is The n um ber of protons (the atom ic n um be r) m ay be show n as a
subscript on the left, if desired, as in JH How ever, because the e le m e n t s ide ntity d e
term ines the atom ic num ber, and vice versa, giving both the s y m b o l and the atom ic
n um ber is red un da nt — it ide ntifie s the ele m e n t tw ice E xce pt for 'H . the n u m b e r of
neutrons equals or exceeds the n um ber of protons in the n ucleu s of e ve ry isotope

*- The atom is not indivisible, but consists of protons and neutrons w ithin a nucleus
and ele ctron s outside the nucleus.
*• A tom s w ith d ifferen t num bers of neutrons but the sam e n um be r of p rotons are
isotopes of each other
*■ The atom ic n um ber dete rm ine s the elem ent of w hich the atom is a part
A How m any protons are in an atom X that is an isotope of an atom Q that has
47 protons and 60 neutrons?
B W hat are the atom ic n um ber and the m ass n um ber of atom Q of P roblem A?
C. For w hat isotope is the m ass n um ber less than double the a tom ic num ber?
• Nguyen tit kliong the chia thanh tCtng phan nhitng no bao gom cac proton va
neutron ben trong cac hat nlian ua cdc electron ben ngoai hat nhan
• Nguyen tii co so neutron khdc nhau nhitng co sd proton giong nhau duqc goi Id
cdc chdt ddng ui.
Sd nguyen tii xdc dinh nguyen td md nguyen hi dd Id mot phdn
A. Cd bao nhieu proton co ditqc trong nguyen hi X uon la mot chdt dong ui cua mot
nguyen tii Q cd 47 proton ua 60 neutron ?
B Sd nguyen tit vd sd khdi litqng cua nguyen tii Q ciia bdi tap A bdng bao nhieu{
C. Vdi chdt ddng ui nao thi so khoi litqng nhd hon 2 Ian so nguyen hi?
Chu thich tCf - cum tCf va htfong dan dpc hieu

- subatomic particles: cdc hat nhd trong nguyen tit} cdc hat con trong nguyen tii
- Protons: Proton
- neutrons: neutron
- nucleus: hat nhdn
- electrons: electron
- nuclei: hat nhdn
- neutral: trung hda
- a tom ic number: so n guyen tii
- isotopes: cac chdt ddng ui
- mass number: so kh oi luang
82
Topic 3 ‘ Atoms and atimic m asses
Cac hat nguyen tu con trong nguyen tif

Nhieu loqi thi nghiem ditqc tien hdnh rd nhieu kham phd duqc thiic liien ke tie khi
Dalton trinh bdy ly thuyet nguyen tit cua minh, dieu nay dd dan den ket luan rang
nguyen tit khong the thdy ditqc. Cac thi nghiem rdi dien rao thdp men 1850 cho thdy
rdng cdc phdn itng hda hqc cd the ditqc tqo ra bdng cdch truyen ddng dien (mot quy
trinh duqc goi 1a dien phdn) vd rdng dien litc cd the ditqc too ra bdi cdc phdn ling hda
hqc (nhit trong dc quy). (xem muc 16.5) Su kham phd re lioqt tinh qua dd cdc nguyen tii
mot nguyen to ditqc thay doi thanh nguyen tit mdt nguyen td khdc. cung Id mot nguon
chiing cii khdc (xem chuang 20) sit kien cho thdy rdng ba cdc nguyen Id trong bdng
phdn loqi tuan hodn rdi cdc nguyen td kliong ditqc nhin thdy rieng biet trong bdng phdn
loai tuan hodn khdng theo tint tit ciia khdi litqng nguyen td Ixem muc 3.4 ra 3.5) Su
tuong tac ciia anh sang rdi rat chdt cung cap bdng chdng do la nguyen td thi khdng the
cilia nhd duqc, sit hap tliu budc song anh sang dqc biet, nghia Id ndng litqng dac biet
ciia anh sang, cho phep thdo luan rdng nguyen td cd mdc ndng luqng rdng chdc (xem
muc lam gidu sau). Nhieu kham phd khdc dd duqc tim thdy md qua pham vi cua phdn
ndy. Neil nguyen td khdng chia ditqc ray thi cac liqt cau tao nen chiing se nliU the ndo ?
Nguyen td bao gom nlueu loqi liat nho nhitng chi cd ba loai hat Id quan trong
trong bdi hoc ndy. Proton neutron luen dien trong hat nhdn cua nguyen td con electron
luen dien ben ngoai liat nhdn (sd nlueu Id nuclei) cd ban kinh khodng chdng mot phan
ngan ban kinh ciia chinh nguyen td. (Neu Inch thudc ciia nguyen td bdng kich thudc ciia
cliiec xe hm thi kii li thudc ciia liqt nhdn gdn bdng kich thudc ciia mot ddu chdm trong
quyen sdch). Hat nhdn khdng thay ddi trong suot bat ky phdn ling hda hqc binh thudng
nao. (cdc phdn ling hat nhdn ditqc md td chi tiet trong chuang 20). proton, neutron ra
electron cd cdc tinh chdt ditqc Het ke trong bdng bdng 3.1 Nhdng tinh chdt ndy doc lap
rdi nguyen td ma qua do cdc hut nguyen td con ndy Id thanh phdn. Nhu' the nguyen Id
Id mot don ri nhd nhdt rdn cd cdc td hqp dqc tritng ciia mot nguyen td, vd xet theo y
nghia do, no chinh Id hat nhd nhdt cua mot nguyen td. Mot nguyen td khdng ditqc ket
hqp thi khdng ditang ciing khdng dm nhitng d trang thai trung hoa re dien ra nhu the
so cdc proton(p) phai bdng sd electron:
So proton = s o electron (ung vdi mot nguyen tu)
T a b le 3.1 P roperties of S ubatom ic P articles
P a r tic le C h a rg e (c)* M ass ( a m u ) t L o c a tio n in th e A to m
Proton 1+ 1.0073 In the nucleus

N eutron 0 1.0087 In the nucleus
E lectron 1- 0.000549 Outside the nucleus
The charges gircn arc relative charges, based on the charge on the electron, e. as the
fundamental unit of charge 11 e = 1.60 x 10 ' coulombI. The masses are given in atomic
mass unils lamu). described in Section 3.4.
Boi ri cac n eu tron Id trung tinh (xem ba n g 3.1) nen sd cdc neutron in) khdng anh
hitdng d en d ien tich tren nguyen td. S d cdc proton trong mot n guyen td se xdc dinh dac
tinli ciia n g uyen td. Tdt ca cdc nguyen Id cd ciing sd proton g io n g nhau deu Id nguyen td
cua ciing mot n g u y en td. Tdt cd cdc nguyen tif co sd proton kh dc nhau Id cdc n guyen td
c iiu cdc n g uyen td k h a c nhau Sd cac proton trong mdt nguyen td chi d m h cho biet duoc
sit kliac biet cua cac nguy en td. N o ditqc g o i Id sd nguyen td tZ) cua n guyen td:
Z = p
83
Topic j : Atoms and atimic m asses
So cdc neutron trong hat nhan cua nguyen tii cua cung mot nguyen td co the khac
nhau. Neu hai nguyen tii co so proton giong nhau ua so neutron khac nhau thi chung la
cdc nguyen tii cua ciing mot nguyen to (chiing cd cung sd nguyen tii).
ENRICHMENT: Bai doc them

V isible light (in fa ct all portions of the e lectrom agnetic s p e c tru m — m ic ro w a v e s , in fra
red radiation, visib le light, ultra vio let light. X-rays, gam m a rays) can be d e s c rib e d in
term s of w ave m otion. Each w avelength of visible light has a p a rtic u la r color, and a
suitable co m bination of all the w avelengths of visible light p ro du ces w hite light W hite
light can be broken into its spectrum (a rainbow) by passing it through a prism
W hen w hite light is passed th rough a sam ple of gaseous atom s, the a tom s absorb
som e of the w ave len gth s of light A given w avelength im plies a given e n e rg y D iffe r
ent elem ents absorb d ifferen t sets of w avelengths, so an e le m e n t can be ide ntifie d by
the w avelengths of w hite light that it absorbs. Helium was first d isco ve re d in the Sun
because su nligh t has a set of absorbed w avelengths that did not m atch the set of any
elem ent know n on Earth. It was found on Earth shortly afterw ard
Chu diem 3.4: Atomic Mass
Atom s are so tiny that, until recently, the m asses of individual atom s could not be
m easured directly H ow ever, because m ass was so im portant in D alton s th e o ry some
m easure of a tom ic m asses was n ecessary Therefore, a relative s ca le — the atom ic
mass scale— was set up This scale is also called the atom ic w eig h t scale. On this
scale, an average of the m asses of all the atom s of the naturally o c c u rrin g m ixture of
isotopes of a given e le m e n t was m easured relative to the m ass of an atom of a stan
dard. The early p ioneers of chem istry, trying to verify Dalton s a tom ic th e o ry could not
m easure the m ass of ind ivid ua l atom s The best they could do w as to m e a s u re the
m asses of equal num bers of atom s (or other known ratios of atom s) of tw o (or m ore)
elem ents at a tim e, to dete rm ine their relative m asses. They e s ta b lis h e d one e le m ent
as a standard, gave it an arbitrary value of atom ic m ass, and used that value to e s ta b
lish the atom ic m ass scale
The last naturally o ccurrin g m ixture of isotopes that was used as a sta nd ard was
oxygen, d efined as having an atom ic m ass of exactly 16 atom ic m ass units lam u)
That standard was later replaced, see later discu ssion The atom ic m ass unit is tiny, it
takes 6 02 X 1 0 '3 am u to m ake 1 00 g B ecause carbon atom s have an a v e ra g e m ass
only th re e -q u a rte rs th a t of o xyg e n atom s, the a to m ic m ass of c a rb o n is % th a t of
oxygen, or 12 amu. W e can see how atom ic m asses, also ca lle d a to m ic w eig h ts,
were d ete rm ine d h isto rica lly by using the a nalogy p re se n te d in E x a m p le 3 6
The m odern m ethod of dete rm inin g atom ic m ass uses the ,?C isotope as the sta n
dard. w ith a m ass d efin ed as e xa ctly 12 am u (The a tom ic m ass of c a rb o n on this
scale is 12 011 am u and that of o xyge n is 15 9994 am u ) T he a to m ic m ass of an
elem ent is defined as the w e ig h te d a v e ra g e of the m asses of its n atu ra lly o ccurrin g
isotopes (not the m ass num bers of the isotopes), A w eig hte d average is the average
taking into a ccou nt the relative num bers of atom s of each type of isotope The c o n
cept of w eighted average may be understood using an analogy to a situ atio n m e v e ry
day life, presented in E xam ple 3 8
84
A tom ic m asses of naturally occurring elem ents are listed in the p eriodic table. (B e
cause a tom ic m ass is the w eighted average of naturally o ccurrin g isotopes, a rtificial
ele m e n ts by defin itio n do not have atom ic m asses The m ass n um ber of the m ost stable
isotope of each artificial elem ent is placed in parentheses in the box for the elem ent in
the table ) N aturally o ccurrin g sam ples of an elem ent have a lm ost e xactly the sam e
m ixture of isotopes, no m atter w hat the source For exam ple, w ater from the rain fo r
est of the A m azon, from an iceberg in the Arctic Ocean, or from the com bustion of an
oak tree in N ew York contains oxygen that is 99 759% 60 . 0.037% ’ 'O . and 0.204%
,80 Because the relative percen ta ge s of the isotopes in any naturally o ccurrin g e le
m ent are rem arkab ly constant, the average of the isotopic m asses is also co nsta nt (to
four, five, or even six sig n ifica n t digits). Thus, D alton's postulate of a co nsta nt m ass
for the atom s of an e le m e n t explained the laws of chem ical com bination because there
is a constant average m ass.
How could the early ch em ists be sure that th eir sam ples of tw o elem ents had equal
num bers of atom s? They m ade a com pound of the e lem ents in w hich the atom ic ratio
was 1:1. They did not need to know the exact num ber of atom s of each elem ent, only
that the atom s w ere pre sen t in a 1:1 ratio.

*- A tom ic m ass is defined as the w eighted average of the m asses of the n a tu
rally o ccu rrin g m ixture of isotopes of an e le m ent Be ca re ful to d istin gu ish it
from m ass number and the mass of a particular atom.
*- H istorically, atom ic m ass was determ ined from m ass ratios, such as w ere used
to deve lo p the law of definite proportions Now, the m ass and percentage of
each isotope is used
A. In a co m p ou nd co ntaining one atom of X for every atom of oxygen, the ratio
of m asses is 5 48 g X per gram of oxygen. Identify e le m ent X
B. E le m e nt X co n sists of 93.1% of atom s with m ass 38 96 am u and the rest of
the atom s of m ass 41.14 amu. Identify elem ent X.
• Khoi htqng nguyen tit ditqc dinh nghia la trung binh trong luqng cua cdc khoi
litqng ciia hon hqp cdc chat dong vi tit nhien trong mot nguyen to. Phai can than
phdn biet so khdi htqng vd khdi htqng cua mot nguyen tit dac biet.
• Ve mat lich sit thi khoi htqng nguyen tit ditqc xdc dinli tit ti so cac khoi luqng
chdng hqn nhit ly thuyet dd ditqc diuig de phat trien dinh luat cdc ti le xdc dinh.
Ngay nay khoi htqng vd h le phdn tram cua tnni mot chdt dong vi deu ditqc
dung.
A Trong mot hqp chdt co chita cdc nguyen tit X ling vdi moi mot nguyen tit oxy. ti
so giita cac khoi htqng la 5.48g X tren lg oxy. Hay xdc dinh nguyen to X.
R Nguyen to X bao gom 9 3 .10! nguyen tit vdi khoi htqng 38:96 amu vd khoi luqng
nguyen tii la -11.14 amu. Xdc dinh nguyen to X.
Chu thich ttf - cum ttf va htfamg dan dpc hieu

- different: khac nhau
- sa m e m ass num ber: so khoi htqng giong nhau
85
Topic 3 Atoms and atimic m asses
Khoi lupng nguyen tO

Nguyen td nho cho den noi mat vita mdi day, cdc khoi litqng cua nguyen td neng
biet, khong the ditqc do trite tiep. Tuy nhien, bdi vi khoi litqng rat quan trong trang ly
thuyet cua Dalton, cho nen can phai co mot vai pliep do khoi htqng nguyen td Do do mot
thang do tuong doi tdc la thang do klidi litqng nguyen td da ditqc xdc lap. Thang do ndy
con ditqc goi la thang do trong htqng nguyen td. Tren thang do ndy mot so trung binh cdc
lilidi htqng cua tdt cd cdc nguyen td trong tit nhien xay ra ditdi dang hon hap cdc chdt
dong vi cua mot nguyen td dd cho ditqc do de doi chieu vdi khoi htqng cua mot nguyen td
cua mot chat chuan. Nhdng nhd tien phong ddu tien trong linh vi/c hoa hqc dd cd gang
kiem nghiem ly thuyet nguyen td cua Dalton, nhitng ho khdng the do ditqc khoi litqng cua
cdc nguyen td rieng biet. Cdch tot nhdt ho co the lam do la do cdc klidi litang cun cdc so
nguyen Id bdng nhau Ihoac cac ti so nguyen td dd ditqc biet) cua hai nguyen to (lioqc
nhieu nguyen to) tai cung mot thai diem qua do xdc dinh khdi litqng titang doi cua cluing.
Ilo xdc lap mot nguyen to lain chuan vd cho no mot gid tri khoi htqng nguyen td tuy y vd
dd dung gia tri dd de xdc lap thang do khdi htqng nguyen td.
Hon hqp cdc chdt dong vi tit nhien ditqc dung lam tieu chuan chinh Id oxy. ditqc xdc
dinh la cd khoi htqng nguyen td chinh xdc bdng 16 khdi litqng dan vi khoi luang nguyen
td (amu). Tieu chuan ndy sau ndy dd duqc thay the. Dan vi khoi luqng nguyen td citc ky
nho; phdi mat 6.02 x I O'3 amu mdi tqo ra ditqc l,00g. Bdi vi cdc nguyen tu carbon cd
khdi luqng trung binh chi bdng 3 / 4 khoi luqng cua nguyen tii oxy, cho nen khdi luqng
cua nguyen td carbon Id 3 1 4 khdi luqng oxy hay bdng 12 amu. Chung ta cd the thay
cdch md cdc khoi htqng nguyen tit con duqc goi la nguyen td khdi duqc xdc dinh bdng
cdch dung ly luan duqc trinh bdy trong vi du 3.6.
Phuang phdp hien dai de xdc dinh khdi litqng nguyen td dd Id sd dung chdt dong
vi carbon r'C lam chuan vdi mot khdi htqng duqc xdc dinh Id 12 amu. (Khoi litang nguyen
tii cua carbon trong thang chia ndy Id 12.011 amu) va rdng khoi litqng cua oxy Id 15.9994
amu. Khoi htqng nguyen tit cua mot nguyen to duqc dinh nghla la trung binh trong
luqng cua cdc khoi htqng cua cdc chdt ddng vi trong tu nhien (khdng phat la sd khdi
luqng ciia chdt dong vi). M ot trung binh trong luqng la gid tri trung binh duar tinh so
cdc nguyen tii tuong ddi cua mdi mot kieu dong vi. Khdi niem ve trung binh trong luang
cd the ditqc hieu bdng cdch sd dung mot phep tinh tuong tu cho tinh huong trong ddt
song hang ngay d vi du 3.8
Chu diem 3.5: Development of the Periodic Table
M any a tom ic m asses w ere d e te rm in e d as a d ire c t re su lt of D alto n s p o stu la te s

and the w ork that they stim ulated, and scien tists attem pted to relate the a to m ic m asses
of the elem ents to the e le m e n ts' p roperties This w ork cu lm in a te d in the d e v e lo p m e n t
of the p eriodic table by D m itri M endeleyev (1834-1907) (Figure 3.8) and ind e p e n d e n tly
by Lothar M eyer (18 30 -1 89 5 ) B ecause M endeleyev did m ore w ith his p e rio d ic table,
he is often given sole cred it for its deve lo pm e nt
M endeleyev put the elem ents know n in the 1860s in ord er a cco rd in g to th e ir atom ic
m asses (atom ic n um bers had not yet been defined) and noticed that the p ro p e rtie s of
every seventh know n ele m e n t w ere sim ilar He arranged the e le m e n ts in a table with
elem ents having sim ilar pro pe rtie s in the sam e vertica l group At se v e ra l points w here
an ele m e n t did not seem to fit well in the position its a tom ic m ass called for he p o s
tu late d that th ere w as an u n d isco v e re d e le m e n t for that p o sitio n F or e x a m p le the
next know n e le m e n t after zinc (Zn) by atom ic m ass was a rse n ic (As) H o w e v e r b e
86
Topic 3 : Atoms and alimic m asses
ca use a rse n ic's pro pe rtie s w ere m uch more sim ilar to those of phosphorus (P) than to
those of alum inum (Al) or silicon (Si), M endeleyev predicted that two elem ents that fit
the positions under alum inum and silicon in his periodic table had not yet been d is c o v
ered See Figure 3 9. He described th eir expected pro pe rtie s from those of the e le
m ents above and below them in his table. His predictions helped other chem ists d is
co ve r these e lem ents, now known as gallium (Ga) and germ anium (Ge).
S everal o the r ele m e n ts seem ed out of order. For exam ple, th eir atom ic m asses
placed iodine (I) before tellurium (Te), but their chem ical properties required the oppo
site order. M en de leye v concluded that the atom ic m asses m ust have been determ ined
incorrectly and put these tw o elem ents in positions reflecting th eir properties. W e now
know that the perio d ic pro pe rtie s of the elem ents are based on their atom ic num bers,
not their atom ic m asses, w hich explains M en de leye v’s difficulty with the p lacem ent of
certain elem ents.
An entire group of e le m e n ts— the noble gases— was discovered after the periodic
table was first fo rm u la te d These elem ents are colorless, odorless gases and alm ost
totally inert. T h e ir lack of co m b in in g ca pacity m eans that th ey are not found in any
naturally o ccurrin g com pound. If som e com pound had had a percen ta ge of its m ass
u na ccounted for, ch e m ists w ould have known to look for the m issing e lem ents, but
because the noble gases do not com bine spontaneously with substances that they come
into contact w ith in nature, there was no clue to their existence.
That each e le m e n t fits properly into place in a ve rtica l colum n proves the fu nd a
m ental co rrectne ss of arran gin g the elem ents according to th eir atom ic num bers and
chem ical p roperties. H enry M oseley (1887-1915) discovered a q uantitative relationship
betw een the w a ve le n g th of X-rays em itted by an elem ent and the atom ic num ber of
the elem ent. E very atom ic n um ber betw een 1 and 92 was accounted for, w hich m eans
that there are no m ore "u nd iscove re d " elem ents except p ossibly a rtificial elem ents with
very high a tom ic n um be rs yet to be synthesized
A tom ic n u m b e rs and atom ic m asses are usually included in the boxes w ith the
ch em ica l s ym b o ls in the p erio d ic table. The atom ic n um ber is the integer. (A m ass
num ber, w hich is also an integer, is given in parentheses for the m ost stable isotope
of the syn the tic e le m e n ts.)
The perio d ic table is a trem endous source of inform ation for students w ho learn
to use it well. In C h a p te r 4, you w ill learn to use the periodic table to pre dict the e le c
tronic co nfig uratio n of each of the elem ents, and in C hapter 5. you w ill use it to pre
dict o u te rm o st e le ctro n sh ell occupancy. The ta b le ’s num eric data are used in later
ch ap ters on fo rm u la ca lcu la tio n s and sto ichiom e try, and its in fo rm a tio n on ch em ica l
trends is applied in the ch ap ters on bonding and m olecular structure.

*- The p erio d ic table was originally developed using atom ic m asses and chem ical
and p h ysica l p ro pe rtie s of the elem ents, but it is now know n that the atom ic
n um be r is the real basis of the periodic table.
A How did M en de leye v know to leave spaces in his periodic table for gallium and
g e rm a n iu m 7
• Bang tuan hoan cdc nguyen to ban ddu duqc phat trien bdng cdch sii dung khoi
luorng nguyen td ra hoa va cdc tinh chdt hda ly cua nguyen to nhung ngdx nay
nguai ta biet rdng sd nguyen tii mdi chinh la ca sd thuc te cua bdng plian loai
tuan hodn.
87
Topic 3: Atoms and atimic m asses
A. Bdng cdch nao Mendeleyev biet de du trit cdc cho trong trong bang phdn loai
tuan hodn ddnh cho gallium vd germanium?
Chu thich tCf - cum ttf va htfcimg dan dpc hieu

re la tiv e scale: thang dinh ty le tuang doi
atom ic mass scale: thang do khoi litqng nguyen tii
atom ic w e ig h t scale: thang do trong luqng nguyen tii
standard: tieu chuan
atom ic mass u n its : dan vi khoi luqng nguyen tii
atom ic masses: khoi luqng nguyen tii
w e ig h t average: trong luqng trung binh
average: trung binh
Sif phat trien cua bang phan loai

Nhieu khoi luqng nguyen tii duqc xdc dinh nhu la ket qua true tiep cua cac tien de
Dalton, vd nhieu nhd khoa hqc da thii neu moi quan he giUa cdc klidi luqng nguyen tii
ciia nguyen to vdi cdc tinh chat ciia nguyen to. Cong trinh ndy da dilqc thu thdp trong
viec phat trien bdng phdn loqi tuan hodn do bdi nhd khoa hqc Dmitri Mendeleyev (1834
1907) (hinh 3.8) vd bdi Lothar Meyer nghien ciiu doc lap (1830-1895). Bai vi Mendeleyev
dd thuc luen nhieu cong trinh trong bdng phan loqi tuan hodn nen ong duqc cho la
nguai phat trien ra bdng nay.
Mendeleyev da dat cdc nguyen to duqc biet vdo thdp men 1860 theo thu tu khoi
luqng nguyen tii cua chung (nguyen tii khoi chUa duqc dinh nghia) vd dd luu y rdng cdc
tinh chdt ciia moi mot nguyen to dd duqc biet thii bdy deu giong nhau. O ng ta dd sdp
xep cdc nguyen to trong mot bang vdi cdc nguyen to co cdc tinh chat giong nhau nam
trong cung mot nhom thdng diing. Tai mot vai diem nai md cdc nguyen to duong nhu
khong phu hqp vdi khdi luqng nguyen tii cua no. Ong ta di/ doan rdng cd mot nguyen to
chUa duqc kham phd ddnh cho vi tri do. Vi du nguyen to duqc biet sau nay ndm sau
Zinc (Zn) tinh theo khdi luqng nguyen tii chinh Id nguyen to arsenic (As). Tuy nhien, bdi
vi cdc tinh chdt cua arsenic giong rat nhieu so vdi phosphor (P), thay vi giong vai alumi
num (Ah hoac silicon (Si), nen Mendeleyev dd du doan rang hai nguyen to phu hqp cho
cdc vi tri ndm ben dudi aluminum vd silicon trong bdng phdn loqi tuan hoan cua ong
von cliUa duac kham phd. Xem hinh 3.9 ong ta dd mo td cdc tinh chdt mong dqi cua
chiing tit cdc tinh chdt ciia nguyen td ndm ben tren va ben dudi chung trong bang phdn
loai tuan hodn. Du doan cua ong ta da giiip cho cdc nhd hda hqc kham phd ra cdc
nguyen td nay duqc goi la gallium (Ga) vd germanium (Ge).
Nhieu nguyen td khdc dudng nhu ndm ngoai trat tu. Vi du khoi luqng nguyen tii ciia
chiing dd dat iodide (I) trudc tellurium (Te), nhung cdc tinh chdt hda hoc ciia chung la yeu
cau tii' tii ddo nguqc Mendeleyev ket ludn rdng khdi luqng nguyen tii da duac xac dinh
khong d in g nen dd ddt hai nguyen td ndy d vi tri phan anh tinh chdt cua chung Ngay
nay chiing ta biet rdng cdc tinh chat tuan hodn ciia cdc nguyen to nay la ca sa tren so
nguyen tii cua chiing chi/ khdng dat ca sd tren khoi luqng nguyen tii, dieu nay da giai
thich sU kho khan ciia Mendeleyev trong viec ddt cdc nguyen td vao cdc vi tri nhat dmh
Mot nhom toan bo cdc nguyen tii, cdc khi hiem vd cdc khi tra dd duqc kham phd
sau khi bdng phdn loqi tuan hodn duac thanh lap Ian ddu tien. Nhilng nguyen to nay la
88
cdc chat khi khong mdu, khong mui, stf khiem khuyet ve khd nang ket hqp co nghla
rang chung khdng di/qc tim thay trong cac hqp chdt ttf nhien. Neu mot vai hqp chdt cd
mot tt le phdn tram khoi li/qng cua no khdng ditqc tinh den, thi cdc nha lioa hqc biet
plidi tim kiem car nguyen to bi khiem khuyet nhitng bdi vi cdc khi tra khdng ket hqp
ddng that vdi cdc chdt ma chung tiep xiic trong tit nhien cho nen khong cd ddu mdi de
chi/ng td cluing liien dien.
Stf kien mdi nguyen to cd tinh chdt phu hqp dtfqc dtfa vao trong mot cot thang
ditng, chiing minh dtfqc tinh dung dan ve mat can ban cua viec sap xep cdc nguyen td
theo sd nguyen tilt vd tinh chdt hda hqc ciia cluing. Henry Moseley (1887 19151 dd kham
phd moi quan he dinh Itfqng giila btfdc song ciia cdc tia X ditqc phat ra bai mot nguyen
td vd sd nguyen tii’ ciia nguyen td do. Mdi sd nguyen tii ndm giQa 1 va 92 deu dtfqc tinh
den cd nghla rang khdng con nguyen to nao chtfa dtfqc kham phd ngoai trit cdc nguyen
td nhdn tqo cd sd nguyen tut rdt cao chtfa dtfqc tong hqp.
Sd nguyen tit vd khdi Itfqng nguyen tit thtfdng dtfqc dtfa vdo trong khung vdi ky
hieu ciia hda hoc ndm trong bang phdn loqi tuan hodn So nguyen ttf la mot sd nguyen
(sd khoi Itfqng A, cung Id mot sd nguyen, no dtfqc dtfa vdo trong cdc ddu ngoac dan dung
cho hdu het chdt ddng vi on dinh cua cac nguyen to tong hqp).
Hang phdn loai tuan hodn 1a mot nguon thong tin ctfc ky quy gia ddnh cho hqc
vien hqc de sit dung no. Trong clitfong 4 chiing ta se hqc cdch sit dung bdng phdn loai
tuan hodn cdc nguyen td de dtf doan cau hinh nguyen ttf ciia mot nguyen td vd trong
clitfong 5 chung ta se sit dung no de dtf doan electron ciia tang ngodi cung. Di7 lieu sd
ciia bdng phdn loqi tuan hodn dtfqc dung trong cdc chtfang ve sau dp dung trong cdc
phep tinh vd thong tin ciia no ve hda hqc dtfqc dp dung trong cdc chtfang ban ve lien ket
vd cau true phdn tit.
SELF-TUTORIAL PROBLEMS - BAI TAP T tf KIEM TRA
3 1 Tw o co m p o u n d s are each com posed of elem ents A and B The first contains
4 22 g of B for every gram of A Of the follow ing p ossibilities, w hich ones could
be the co rre ct n um ber of gram s of B per gram of A in the second co m p o u n d 9
(a) 4.15g ( c ) 2 .1 1 g
(b) 8 44 g (d) 4.22 g
3.2 At a racetrack, the w inning horse paid “7 to 2." How m uch does a g am bler win
for each d o lla r bet on that horse? Is that ratio an integral ratio?
3 3 W hich of the follow ing are synonym s?

(a) a tom ic m ass
(b) atom ic n u m b e r
(c) m ass n um be r
(d) atom ic w eig ht
(e) m ass of an atom
3 4 W hat is the w eig hte d average of two m asses of 7.80 kg, six m asses of 7 42 kg
and three m asse s of 7.57 kg?
3.5 On w hat sta nd ard are all atom ic m asses presently based?
89
Topic J: Atoms and atimic m asses ___________________________________________________ ____ ______
3 6
(a) W hat is the a tom ic n um ber of m ag ne sium 7
(b) How m any protons are in a m agnesium atom ?
(c) W hat is the n um ber of positive charges on a m ag ne sium n u c le u s 7
3.7 W hich of the three fo llo w in g num bers, each of w hich a p p e a rs on the p eriodic
table inside the front cover, is an atom ic num ber, w hich is an a tom ic m ass and
w hich is a m ass num ber?
(a) 2 8.086 (b) (243) (c) 52
3.8
(a) W hat is the unit of atom ic m ass?
(b) W hat is the unit of e lectric charge used at the atom ic le v e l7
3.9 Of atom ic num ber, atom ic m ass, and m ass num ber, w hich tw o a pp e a r w ith most
of the sym bols for the e lem ents in the periodic table?
3.10 W hat is the d ifferen ce betw een the sym bol for an e le m e n t and the s y m b o l for
an isotope of that elem ent?
3.11 W hich tw o types of su ba tom ic particles m ust be p re sen t in equ al n u m b e rs for

an atom to be neutral?
3.12
(a) W hich ele m e n t has atom ic num ber 16?
(b) W hich e le m e n t has an atom ic m ass of 16.00 am u (to fo ur s ig n ific a n t fig
ures)?
(c) Locate the ele m e n ts of part (a) and part (b) on the p erio d ic table
3.13 W hat is the d ifferen ce betw een the m ass of an atom and the m ass n u m b e r of
the atom ?
3.14 In the p e rio d ic table (in side front cover), locate five e le m e n ts fo r w h ich m ass
num be rs rather than atom ic m asses are given.
3 15 W hat ch a ra cte ristic of an atom did Dalton think was the m ost im p o rta n t7
3 16 S odium and b ro m in e react to form one co m p ou nd only In a c e rta in reaction,

50 0 g of sodium reacts co m p le te ly with 174 g of b ro m in e to p ro d u c e sodium
b rom ide
(a) How m uch sodium brom ide is produced?
(b) How m uch brom ine would react with 25 0 g of s o d iu m 7
(c) How m uch brom ine would react with 42 7 g of sodium ?
(d) W hat law allow s you to a nsw er each prior part of this p ro b le m 7
3.17 A 16.12-g sa m p le of ca lciu m was burned, y ie ld in g 22 57 g of c a lc iu m oxide

How m any gram s of oxygen was taken up in the reaction?
3.18 A 75 0-g sam ple of a certain com pound contains 79 8 c a rb on and 20 11 % h y

drogen
(a) How m uch carbon is in a 14.1-g portion of this sam ple?
(b) How m uch carbon is in 14 1 g of a d iffe re n t sa m ple of this c o m p o u n d 7
3 19 A 16 4-g sa m p le of e le m e n t A c o m b in e s c o m p le te ly w ith a 17 2-g s a m p le of
e le m e n t B W hat is the total m ass of the product?
90
3 20 A 31 2-g sa m ple of an ele m e n t com bines co m p le te ly w ith a nother e le m ent to

m ake 96 6 g of a com pound. W hat m ass of the second e le m ent reacted?
3 21
(a) W hat is the average of a 2 0.0-g m ass and a 30 0-g m ass?
(b) W h a t is th e w e ig h te d a ve ra g e of e ig h t 20 0-g m a sse s and tw o 30 0-g
m asses?
(c) W hat is the w eighted average mass of three chlorine atom s with m ass 35 0
am u each and one chlorine atom with m ass 37.0 amu?
3 22 W hy did M en de leye v not use atom ic num bers instead of atom ic m asses as the
basis for his perio d ic table?
PROBLEMS - BAI TAP
3.1 Law s of C h em ica l C om b in atio n - Djnh luat ve tong hqfp hoa hoc
3.23 A 15.11 -g sa m p le of m e rcu ry(ll) oxide was decom posed into m ercury and o x y
gen, yielding 13.99 g of m ercury.
(a) W hat m ass of oxygen was obtained?
(b) W hat fractio n of the com pound was oxygen?
(c) W hat p ercen ta ge of the com pound was oxygen?
3 24 S odium and ch lo rin e react to form one com p ou nd only In a certa in reaction.
2.017 g of sodium reacts com pletely with 3 109 g of chlorine to produce sodium
chloride
(a) How m uch chlo rin e would react with 7.212 g of sodium ?
(b) How m uch chlo rin e would react with 0.2221 g of sodium ?
3.25 Tw o co m p o u n d s are each com posed of elem ents A and B. The first contains
2.222 g of B for e very gram of A. Of the follow ing p ossibilities, w hich ones could
be the co rre ct n um be r of gram s of B per gram of A in the second com pound?
(a) 1.111 g
(c) 3 333 g
(b) 2 .222 g
(d) 2 011 g
3 26 If 28 7 mg of a com pound containing only carbon and hydrogen is burned c o m
pletely in o xyge n and yields 90.2 mg of carbon dioxide and 36 9 mg of water,
how m uch o xyge n is used up?
3 27 A co m p ou nd is form ed betw een elem ents A and B in w hich three atom s of B

co m b in e w ith each atom of A Each atom of B has a m ass of 79 9 am u, and
each atom of A has a m ass of 27 0 amu
(a) C alcu la te the m ass ratio
(b) W hich ratio is integral, the ratio of atom s or m asses or both?
3 28 The ratio of m asses of sulfur and oxygen in sulfur dioxide is 1.0 g to 1.0 g Is
this fact a p ro of of the law of m ultiple proportions?
3.29 The ratio of the m ass of carbon to the m ass of oxygen in carbon m onoxide is
about 3 g to 4 g Does this fact confirm the law of m ultiple p ro portions?
91
3 30 W hen 7.02 mg of a com pound containing only carbon and h yd ro g e n w as burned

co m p le te ly in 2 5.5 mg of oxygen, 21.0 mg of carbon d io xide and som e w ater
were form ed C alculate the m ass of the w ater
3 31 A 16.7-g sa m p le of a co m pound contains 39.35% so dium and 60 6 5% c h lo rin e

(a) C alculate the m ass of chlorine present.
(b) C alculate the m ass of chlorine p resent in a 10 0-g sa m ple of the sam e c o m
pound.
3.32 Show that each of the follow ing sets of data obeys the law of m u ltip le p ro p o r
tions:
(a) First S econd
C om pound C o m po u nd
E le m e n t 1 78.65% 71 06%
E lem ent 2 21.35% 28 94%
(b) E le m e n t 1 E le m e n t 2
F irst co m pound 78.65% 21 35%
Second co m pound 71.06% 28 94%
3.33 Show that the fo llo w in g data obey the law of m ultiple p ro po rtio ns
C om po u nd 1 C om pound 2
E le m e n t X 92.83 g 8 6.6 2 g
E le m e n t Y 7 17g 13 38 g
3.34 Solve E xam ple 3.3 again, this tim e using 1 g of oxygen in each c o m p o u n d Is
the law of m ultiple p roportions still valid?
3.35 A sam ple of a com pound com posed of only carbon and hydrogen co nta ins 85 63%
carbon Show that this com pound and the one in P roblem 3 18 obey the law of
m ultiple p ro po rtio ns
3 36 S odium and ch lo rin e react to form one co m p ou nd only. In a c e rta in reaction,

10 0 g of sodium and 15 4 g of chlo rin e react co m p le te ly How m uch chlorine
w ould rem ain unreacted if 10 0 g of sodium and 20.0 g of c h lo rin e w ere allowed
to react?
3.2 D alto n ’s Atom ic Theory - Ly thu yet nguyen tif cua Dalton
3.37
(a) What happens to a scientific hypothesis if experim ents show it to be incorrect7
(b) To w hich of D alton's postulates did this first happen?
3.38 A cco rd in g to D alto n's a tom ic theory, all atom s of the sa m e e le m e n t have the
sam e m ass If an atom of titanium has a m ass of 48 am u and an atom of o x y
gen has a m ass of 16 amu:
(a) W hat is the m ass ratio of one atom of oxygen to one atom of tita n iu m 9
(b) W hat is the total m ass of 100 atom s of o xygen? W hat is the total mass of
100 atom s of titanium ?
(c) W hat is the ratio of m asses of 100 atom s of oxygen to 100 atom s of tita
nium ?
92
(d) C hoose an arbitrary, large num ber of atom s of oxygen. Then calculate the
m ass of that num ber and the mass of an equal n um ber of titanium atom s
C alculate the ratio of the total masses.
(e) W hat can you conclude about the ratio of m asses of equal num bers of o x y
gen and titanium atom s?
3 39 W ould it m ake any difference in Problem 3 38 if average m asses had been used?
E xplain.
3 40 The form ula for w ater is H.,0, signifying that there are two atom s of hydrogen
for every atom of oxygen. If D alton's fifth postulate had been true, w hat would
the form ula for w ater have been?
3 41 The atom s of e le m e n t Z each have about one third the m ass of a " A I atom
A n othe r e lem ent, X, has atom s whose m ass is about seven tim es the m ass of
Z atom s A third elem ent. Q, has atom s with half the m ass of X atom s
(a) M ake a table of relative atom ic m asses based on ?,AI as 27 amu.
(b) Identify the ele m e n ts Z. X, and Q.
3 42 Sulfur dioxide (SO ,) has two atoms of oxygen per atom of sulfur, and sulfur triox-
ide (SO^) has three atom s of oxygen per atom of sulfur The m ass ratio of sulfur
to oxygen in SO , is 1 0 1 0 W hat is the mass ratio of sulfur to oxygen in S O (9
3 43 Draw a figure like that of Figure 3 4 for sodium oxide. NaÔ. and sodium p e ro x
ide, N a ,0 , For a given num ber of oxygen atom s, w hat is the ratio of sodium
atom s in the tw o com pounds?
3 44 A com p ou nd is form ed betw een elem ents A, B, and C in w hich two atom s of A
co m bine w ith each atom of B and four atom s of C Each atom of A has a m ass
of 39 1 units, each atom of B has a m ass of 32 0 units, and each atom of C
has a m ass of 16 0 units
(a) Is there a d efinite ratio of m asses of one elem ent to the other?
(b) C alculate the m ass ratio of A to B and of C to B
3 45 Plot the m ass n um ber versus the atom ic num ber for the last seven actinide e le
m ents C an you see any relationship betw een these q u a n titie s for th ese e le
m ents that have ve ry sim ilar atom ic num bers?
3 46 All n a tu ra lly o ccu rrin g sam ples of m agnesium fluoride, w hen p urifie d , contain
the sam e p ercen ta ge of m agnesium and the sam e percentage of fluorine N atu
rally o ccu rrin g flu orin e consists of only one isotope W hat do the co nsta nt p e r
ce nta ge s say about the three naturally occurring isotopes of m a g n e s iu m 9
3 47 N aturally o ccurrin g silicon consists of 92 21% ' 8Si. w hich has a m ass of 27 97693
amu, 4 70% "’“Si. w hich has a m ass of 28 97649 amu. and 3.09% of ,0Si. w hich
has a m ass of 29 97376 amu C alculate the atom ic m ass of silicon
3.3 Subatom ic Particles - Cac hat nguyen tif con
3.48 R estate D alton s first three postulates in am ended form , based on m odern in
fo rm a tio n
3 49 Identify the only stable isotope that contains no neutrons
3 50 W hich tw o inner transition isotopes w hose m ass num bers are given in the p e ri
odic table on the inside front cover of the text have the g re ate st n um be r of n e u
tro n s 9
93
3.51 Identify by a tom ic n um be r the elem ents in the perio d ic table that are not n a tu
rally occurring.
3 52 Isotopes of w hich ele m e n t have:

(a) The sm allest m ass num ber
(b) The sm allest atom ic num ber
(c) The largest n um ber of protons in the nuclei
3 53 C om plete the follow ing table for neutral atom s of specific isotopes
Isotopic A to m ic M ass No of No of No of
S ym b ol N um ber N um ber Protons N eutrons E le ctron s
(a) 60Co _____ 178 _____ 72 ---------
(b ) 54 132 _____ _____ 122
(c ) 52 128 _____ 66 49
(d ) _____ _____ 60 84 ---------
(e)*— -------- -------- -------- --------
( f ) _____ 22 _____ 26
(g)--------- --------- 116 50 --------
3.54 In the table in P roblem 3.53, two pieces of q uantitative inform a tion are given in
each part
(a) W hat tw o pieces of inform ation are given in Problem 3 5 3 (a )7
(b) W hy w ould the atom ic num ber and the num ber of protons not be sufficient
to co m p le te any part?
(c) W hy w ould the n um ber of protons and the n um ber of e le ctron s not be s u f
ficien t to co m p le te any p art7
3.55 C om plete the fo llo w in g table, concerning uncom bined atom s

S ym b ol N um ber N um ber Protons E lectrons N eutrons
_____ _____ 178 _____ 72 _____
_____ 81 _____ _____ _____ 122
_____ 52 128 _____ _____ _____
103 45
3 56 C om plete the follow ing table for neutral atom s of sp ecific isotopes
S ym b ol N um ber N um ber Protons N eu tron s E le ctron s
(a) acSe _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
(b ) 44 100 _____ _____ _____
( c ) --------- --------- 138 _____ 82
(d ) --------- --------- --------- 104 70

(e ) 48 _____ _____ 64 ___
( f ) --------- --------- 126 _____ _____ 52

( g ) --------- 14 _____ _____ 14 ___
3 57 W rite the sym bo l for an isotope:
(a) For w hich the atom ic num ber is 1 and there is one neutron
(b) For w hich the atom ic n u m b e r s 1 and the m ass n um be r is 1
94
(c) W ith a m ass num ber of 3 and containing one neutron

(d) W ith a m ass num ber of 3 and containing two neutrons
(e) C onta in ing one proton and two neutrons
3 58 D euterium (sym bol: 2D) is a special name for a certain isotope It contains one
proton and one neutron.
(a) Of w hat ele m e n t is deuterium a part?
(b) W rite the m ore fam iliar sym bol for this isotope
3 59 W hich isotope w hose m ass num ber is given in the periodic table on the inside
front co ver of the text has the
(a) S m a lle st m ass num ber
(b) S m allest n um be r of neutrons
(c) Largest m ass n um ber
(d) Large st n um be r of neutrons
3.4 A to m ic M ass - K h o i li/o n g n g u y e n t i i
3 60 W hich e le m e n t has atom s with average m ass about 10 tim es those of the a v e r
age nitrogen atom ?
3 61 W hich e le m e n t has atom s with average m ass about 20 tim es those of the a v e r
age helium a to m 7
3 62 A co m pound co nta ins alm ost equal m asses of fluorine and selenium . Using their
atom ic m asses, d ete rm ine the form ula of the com pound
3 63 A com p ou nd co nta ins 2.00 tim es as m uch m ass of iodine as of copper Using
their atom ic m asses, determ ine the form ula of the com pound
3 64
(a) If 11 07% of the people in a W eight W atchers graduating class w eigh 141.9
pounds each and the rest w eigh 139 9 pounds each, w hat is the average
m ass of the class?
(b) If 11 07% of n a tu ra lly o ccu rrin g ce siu m atom s have an a to m ic m ass of
141 9090 am u and the rest have an atom ic m ass of 139 9053 amu. what
is the a tom ic m ass of cesium ?
3 65 C alculate the atom ic m ass of copper if 69 09% of naturally occurring copper a t
om s have a m ass of 62 9298 and 30 91% have a m ass of 64 9278 amu
3 66 W hich of the follow ing represent the m ass of one atom (to three sign ifican t fig
ures)?
(a) 12.0 g
(b) 0 500 amu
(c) 2 1 1 x 1 03amu
(e) 74 9 am u
(d) 6 02 x 102;' amu
3 67 A fter a ca lcu latio n, a student reported the atom ic m ass of an e le m e n t as 6 5 X

10 J am u T he stu de nt later changed the value to 6.5 X 104j amu W hich value
if either, is m ore probably correct?
3 68 R ound off the a to m ic m asses of the first 18 e le m e n ts to tw o d e c im a l places

each
95
Topic 3 ' Atoms and atimic m asses
3 69 80Br does not occur naturally. Explain how brom ine gets its atom ic m ass of 79 909
am u.
3.70 l08Ag does not o ccu r naturally. Explain how silver gets its a tom ic m ass of 107.87
am u.
3.71 You can guess the m ass num ber of the p re do m in an t isotope for m any ele m e n ts
from the atom ic m ass of the elem ent, but not in all ca ses The m ass num bers
of the isotop es of se le n iu m are 74, 76, 77, 78. 80. and 82 E x p la in w hy the
atom ic m ass is so close to 79 amu.
3.5 D evelopm ent of the Periodic Table - Phat trien cua ban g p han loai tu a n hoan
3.72 The follow ing are the form ulas for some oxides of seven th ird -p e rio d e le m e n ts
N a?0 M gO A l?0 3 SiO ? P?0 3 SO. C l?0
P redict the form ula for an oxide of each of the e le m e n ts d ire c tly below these in
the p eriodic table.
3 73 The follow ing are the form ulas for certain fluorides of th ird -p e rio d e le m e n ts:
NaF M gF , A1F, S iF 4 PF3 SF? GIF
P redict the form ula for a fluoride of each of the e le m e n ts d ire c tly b elow these
in the perio d ic table
3.74 How im p orta nt was it to the w ork of M endeleyev that a tom ic m ass and atom ic
n um ber rise so m e w h a t proportionally? Explain
3.75 C ould you use the average n um ber of neutrons, instead of a tom ic n um be r, to
build a perio d ic table as good as that of M endeleyev?
3 76 From the fo llo w in g pro pe rtie s of chlorine and iodine, p re dict the c o rresp on din g
p ro pe rtie s of brom ine:
C h lo rin e Io d in e B ro m in e
Gas under Solid under ______
norm al co nditions
Light yellow Deep violet ______
R eacts with m etals R eacts with m etals ______
R eacts w ith oxygen R eacts with oxygen ______
Does not Does not co nd uct ______
conduct e le ctricity electricity
GENERAL PROBLEMS - BAI T A P TONG QUAT
3.77 Is there any p ossibility that the sulfur in the head of a m atch can c o m b in e with
all the o xyge n in the a tm o sp h e re of the Earth to form a c o m p o u n d 7 E xplain,
using a law studied in this chapter
3.78 In a certain co m pound 7 10 g of elem ent A is com bined with 12 6 g of e le m e n t

B In a nother com p ou nd of A and B. 7 10 g of A can be co m b in e d w ith w hich
ones of the fo llo w in g 7
(a) 6.30 g (d) 25.2 g
96
(b) 4.20 g (e) 37.8 g

(c) 8.40 g
3 79 W hat factors lim it the num ber of significant digits in the atom ic m ass of an ele
m ent w ith tw o naturally occurring isotopes?
3 80 At a racetrack, the w inning horse paid $2 75 for each dollar bet. W hat odds were
posted?
3 81 A 52 6 g sam ple of e le m ent A reacts incom pletely with a 19.7-g sam ple of e le
m ent B W hat is the total m ass of the product plus the portion of A that did not
react?
3 82 Two co m p ou nd s of carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur have the follow ing percent c o m
positions Show that these com pounds obey the law of m ultiple proportions
(a) 38 66% C. 9.734% H. 51.60% S
(b) 47.31% C. 10 59% H. 42 10% S
3.83 The radius of an a ve ra g e nucleus is one te n -th o u s a n d th of the radius of the
atom as a w hole
(a) W hat is the ratio of the volume of the atom as a w hole to the volum e of
the n u c le u s 7 (V = 4/3 n r:))
3 84 Explain w hy M en de leye v could predict the existence of germ anium but m issed
the entire group of noble gases
3 85 A typical atom has a radius of about 10 10 m Estim ate the radius of a typical
nucleus
3.86
(a) C alcu la te the m ass of oxygen in a 25 0-g sam ple of nitrogen dioxide, using
the a n sw e r to E xam ple 3.2
(b) How m uch oxygen should be com bined with the sam e m ass of nitrogen as
in E xa m ple 3 2 to form the com pound nitrogen m onoxide a ssum in g that
there is tw ice the m ass of oxygen per gram of nitrogen in nitrogen dioxide
as there is in nitrogen m on oxid e 9
(c) W hat is the percent com position of nitrogen m o n o xid e 9
3 87 The atom ic m ass of nickel is 58 71 amu Does any atom of any isotope of nickel
have a m ass of 58 71 am u? Explain.
3 88
(a) Plot m ass n um be r versus atom ic n um ber for 'H, ’60 . s6Fe %Mo. 08Ba ” "A u
and ?MU
(b) Are a tom ic n um ber and m ass num ber d irectly proportional?
(c) W hat can you say about the relationship of these two q u a n titie s 9
3 89 The m asses of the atom s of the only two stable isotopes of co pp er are 62 9298
amu and 64 9278 amu and its atom ic mass is 63 546 amu. C alculate the p e r
ce ntage of each isotope [Hint Let x equal the fraction of one of the isotopes
and (I - x) equal the fraction of the other ]
3.90 The law of m ultiple proportions applies to two or more co m p ou nd s of the sam e
two or m ore e le m e n ts Show that the follow ing data also su pp ort the law
97
t opic j : Atoms and atim ic m asses
3 92 C alculate the atom ic m ass of iridium from the fo llo w in g data

%H %CI %o
C om pound 1 2.765 97.235
C om pound 2 1 003 35 29 63 71
C om pound 3 1.193 41.98 56 83
3 91 The law of m ultiple p roportions applies to two or m ore c o m p o u n d s of the same

two or m ore ele m e n ts Show that the follow ing data also s u p p o rt th e law
%C %H %0
C om pound 1 64 81 13 60 21 59
C om pound 2 92 26 7 74
3 92 C alculate the atom ic m ass of iridium from the follow ing data
Isotope Natural A bundance (% ) R elative M ass (am u)
,a,lr 37 4 190 9609
,93lr 62.6 192.9633
3 93 Sodium and b rom ine react to form one co m pound o nly In a c e rta in reaction.
10 00 g of sodium and 34 74 g of brom ine react c o m p le te ly
(a) How m uch sodium brom ide is produced?
(b) How m uch bro m in e would react if 10 00 g of sodium and 50 00 g of bro
m ine w ere allow ed to react?
(c) How m uch sodium brom ine w ould be produced?
(d) W hat law allow ed you to a nsw er each of the prior parts of th is problem ?
3 94 N aturally o ccurrin g neon consists of 90 92% ?0Ne, w hich has a m ass of 19 99244
amu. 0 257% 2lNe. w hich has a m ass of 20 99395 am u, and 8 82% ??Ne. which
has a m ass of 21 99138 am u C alculate the atom ic m ass of neon
3 95 N aturally o ccu rrin g su lfur consists of 95 0% :v'S w hich has a m ass of 31 97207
am u. 0 76% ” S, w hich has a m ass of 32 971 46 am u and 4 22% “ S which
has a m ass of 33 96786 amu C alculate the atom ic m ass of s u lfu r How many
sig n ifica n t dig its are there in the final value?
3 96 C alculate the a tom ic m ass of selenium from the fo llo w in g data:

Isotope N atural A bundance (%) R elative M ass (am
/4Se 0 87 73 9205
,6Se 9 02 75 9192
Se 7.58 76 9195
?BSe 23 52 77 91 73
' Se 49 82 79 9165
“ Se 9 19 81 5167
98
S U M M A R Y - TONG KET CHLfONG_______________

L avoisier d iscovered the law of conservation of matter, which states that m atter c a n
not be created or d estroye d during chem ical reactions or p hysical changes This g e n e r
alization increased ch e m ists' efforts to m easure the m asses of elem ents in com pounds
and resulted in two m ore laws The law of definite proportions states that the p e rce n t
age of each e le m e n t in any sam ple of a pure com pound is alw ays the sam e A c c o rd
ing to the law of m u ltip le p ro p o rtio n s, if the m ass of one of the e le m e n ts in tw o or
m ore co m p ou nd s of the sam e e lem ents is held co nsta nt the m asses of each other
elem ent form a sm all, w ho le-nu m b e r ratio. (Section 3.1)
Dalton su gg este d th a t the e le m e n ts are com posed of ind ivisib le atom s and that the
atom s of each e le m e n t have a ch aracte ristic mass, d ifferen t from the m ass of any other
elem ent He stated that the atom s com bine to form m olecules w hen the elem ents c o m
bine to form co m p ou nd s. These postulates explained the laws of chem ical c o m b in a
tion know n at that tim e, but m ost of them have been am ended in light of later d is c o v
eries. H ow ever, the atom is still considered to be the fundam ental particle of an e le
ment. (S ection 3.2)
In the past 150 years, num erous experim ents have show n that the atom is not in d iv is
ible but is co m posed of electrons plus a nucleus containing protons and neutrons The
nucleus does not ch an ge in any chem ical reaction. The ch aracte ristics of the subatom ic
particles (Table 3.1) are im portant The num ber of protons, called the atom ic num ber,
governs the n um be r of e le ctron s in
the neutral atom The sum of the num bers of protons and neutrons is called the m ass
n um ber All atom s of a given ele m e n t have the sam e a tom ic n um be r w hich differs
from the a tom ic n um be rs of other elem ents D ifferent atom s of the sam e ele m e n t may
have d iffe re n t n um be rs of neutrons and thus different m ass num bers Such atom s are
called isotopes of each other An isotope is identified by the sym bol of the elem ent
with the m ass n um ber as a superscript to the left (Section 3.3)
The naturally occurring m ixture of isotopes of any sample of a given elem ent has almost
exactly the sam e percentage of each isotope. Therefore, the average m ass of all the at
oms in any sam ple of the elem ent is constant (to four or more significant digits). That
weighted average is called the atomic mass (which is not the same as the m ass number
or the m ass of an atom ) Atom ic masses are reported on a relative scale, with an atom of
the '2C isotope being defined as having a mass of exactly 12 amu (Section 3 4)
W hen arranged in o rd e r of increasing atom ic mass, the various elem ents with few e x
ceptions. have p erio d ica lly recurring properties M endeleyev produced a p eriodic table
based on this o rd ering Later, it was learned that the atom ic n um ber is the basis for
the ch em ica l p ro p e rtie s of an elem ent, so the m odern periodic table arranges the e le
m ents in ord er of increa sing atom ic num ber, with elem ents having sim ilar p roperties
arranged in ve rtica l groups The periodic table has m any uses in the study of c h e m is
try (S ection 3 5)
99
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
OF THE ATOM
Cftu HlMH a e C T R O N CO a NGUYEN TIT
Myc DICH YEU cAu - O bjectives
4.1 To understand the dual nature of 4.5 To write electronic configurations Ina
light and the relationships among shorter notation, using the concepts
its energy, frequency, and wave of shells, subshells, and orbitals
length
4.6 To draw the most common orbitals
4 .2 To use the Bohr theory of energy and to understand their spatial ori
levels in atoms to explain light entation and the uncertain nature of
emission and absorption by at locating the electron in the atom
oms
4 .7 To represent pictorially the ener
4.3 To use quantum numbers to write gies of subshells in atoms and of
the electronic structures of the the electrons that occupy the
atoms in their most stable states subshells
4.4 To write detailed electronic configu 4 .8 To relate each element’s posi
rations for the elements, using the tion in the periodic table to the
permitted values for the individual electronic configuration of its at
quantum numbers, the n + (. rule, oms, and to deduce electronic
and the Pauli exclusion principle structures using the periodic table
BO CUC - Layout
4.1 A Brief Exploration o f Light
4.2 Bohr Theory
4.3 Q uantum Numbers
4.4 Relative Energies o f Electrons
4.5 Shells. Subshells, and Orbitals
4.6 Shapes o f Orbitals
4.7 Energy Level Diagrams
4 .8 Periodic V ariation o f Electronic C o n figuratio n
100
Jiuang dan doc hieu muc dich yeu cau vd bo cuc
4.1 Hieu duac ban chdt litdng tinh cua anh sang va cdc quan he
gitfa ndng Itfong, tan sd va btfdc song cua anh sang, 4.2 Sd dung thuyet
Bohr vi cdc btfdc ndng Itfong trong nguyen tii de gidi thich stf phat xa vd
stf hdp thu anh sang bdi cdc nguyen tit, 4.3 Sd dung cdc sd litang tit de
viet cdu true electron cua cdc nguyen tit trong trang thdi bin nhdt cua
chung, 4.4 Viet cdc cdu hinh electron chi tiet cho cdc nguyen to, sit dung
nhitng gid tri dtfac phep ddi vdi tilng sd litang tit rieng, quy ludt n+l vd
nguyen ly loai trd Pauli, 4.5 Viet cdc cdu hinh electron theo mot cdch
ghi ngdn gon, sd dung nhitng khdi niem vi cdc lap vd, cdc lap vd con vd
cdc orbital, 4.6 Ve nhitng orbital thong dung nhdt vd hieu ditac stf dinh
htfdng khong gian cua chung vd ban chdt khong xdc dinh cua viec dinh
vi electron trong nguyen td, 4.7 Dien td bdng hinh anh cdc mile ndng
litang cua cdc lap vd con trong nguyen td vd cdc electron chiem cho trong
cdc lap vd con, 4.8 Lien he vi tri cua tilng electron trong bang phdn loai
tuan hodn vdi cdu hinh electron cua cdc nguyen tit nguyen td dd vd suy
ra dtfac cdu true electron bdng cdch sd dung bdng phdn loai tuan hodn.
4.1 Mot khao sdt ngdn gon ve anh sang , 4.2 Thuyet Borh, 4.3 Cdc
sd litang td, 4.4 Ndng litang titang ddi cua cdc electron, 4.5 Cdc lap vd,
cdc lap vd con vd cdc ocbital, 4.6 Hinh dang cua cdc orbital, 4.7 Gian do
mdc nang litang, 4.8 Stf bien ddi tudn hodn vi cdu hinh electron
101
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f the atom
In C hapter 3. you learned that atom s owe their ch a ra cte ristics to th e ir su b a to m ic p a r

ticles— protons, neutrons, and electrons. Electrons occur in regions of space outside
the nucleus, and the ele ctron ic structure is responsible for all of the atom s ch e m ica l
properties and m any of its physical properties. The n um be r of e le c tro n s in a neutral
atom is equal to the n um be r of protons in the nucleus. T h a t s im p le d e s c rip tio n e n
ables us to deduce m uch about atom s, espe cia lly co n c e rn in g th e ir in te ra c tio n s with
one another (C hapter 5). H ow ever, a more detailed m odel of the atom e n a b le s even
fuller explanations, including the reason for the d ifferen ce s b etw e en m ain group e le
m ents and ele m e n ts of the transition and inner transition series
M any details p resented in this ch ap ter are based on m ath em a tics b eyo nd the scope
of this course, so som e postu late s m ust be accepted as “ rules of the gam e " When
the rules are follow ed, the e xplanations that result m atch the actua l p ro p e rtie s of the
elem ents, w hich is a ssuran ce that the postulates are valid.
Section 4.1 b rie fly d e scrib e s som e of the p hysical p ro p e rtie s of light, e s p e c ia lly the
relationship of its w ave len gth to its energy. S ection 4.2 d e s crib e s how N iels B ohr d e
duced that e le ctron s o ccu r in shells having d istin ct ene rg ies. His th e o ry w as a m ile
stone, but it does not e xplain the p ro pe rtie s of atom s o th e r th an h yd ro g e n . Section
4.3 introduces the q ua ntu m num bers, w hich provide a m ore s a tis fa c to ry p icture of elec
tronic structure fo r atom s w ith m ore than one electron. The d e p e n d e n c e of the energy
of an electron on its quantum num bers is discussed in Section 4.4. and shells, subshells,
and orbitals are covered in S ection 4.5. The shapes of o rbitals are d e s c rib e d in S ec
tion 4.6, and d ia gra m s dep ictin g the energy levels of su bsh ells are p re se n te d in S ec
tion 4,7. The e le ctro n ic config uratio n of the atom is resp on sible for the ch e m ic a l and
p hysical p ro p e rtie s of an e lem ent. The relatio n ship b etw e e n e le c tro n ic c o nfig uratio n
and position on the perio d ic table is developed in S ection 4.8.
Hifdng dan dpc hieu

Trong chuang 3, ban da duac hoc la cdc nguyen tii co cdc dqc trung la do cac hat
nguyen tU, ptoton, neutron vd electron. Cdc electron xuat luen trong nhdng uung khong
gian ben ngoai hat nhdn vd cdu true electron chiu trach nhiein ve tdt ca cdc tinh chdt
hoa hoc cua tinh chdt vat ly cua nguyen tit. So electron trong mot nguyen td trung lioa
bang vdi so proton trong nhdn. Cdch mo td dan gian ndy giiip ta suy ra duac nhieu dieu
ve nguyen tii, dac biet la nhdng dieu co lien quan den tuong tac cua mot nguyen td vdi
mot nguyen tii khac (chi/cfng 5). Tuy nhien, mot mo hinh chi tiet han ve nguyen td con
cho phep ta co nhdng giai thich ddy du han nda, ve nguyen nhdn cua nhdng khac biet
gida cdc nhom nguyen to chinh, cdc nguyen to chuyen tiep vd cdc ddy chuyen tiep ben
trong. Nhieu chi tiet duqc gidi thieu trong chuang ndy duqc dUa tren nhdng kien tlidc
toan hoc ndm ngoai pham vi cua giao trinh ndy, do do mot so tien de phai duac chap
nhan nhu cac luat chcn khi tuan theo nhdng luat chcn ndy, nhdng giai thich cho ra ket
qua phu hap vdi cdc tinh chdt thuc te cua cdc nguyen to la mot dam bao bdng cdc tien
de noi tren co hieu luc.
M uc 4.1 mo td ngdn gon ve mot so tinh chdt vat ly cua anh sang, dac biet la quan
he gida buac song vd ndng luang cua no Muc 4.2 mo td ve viec Niel Bohr da rut ra ket
luan rdng cdc electron xuat hien trong cdc lap vd cd cdc ndng khac nhau nhu the nao.
Thuyet ciia Niel Bohr la mot diem, moc quan trong. nhung no khdng giai thich duac
tinh chat cua cdc nguyen td khdc han la hydro. M uc 4.3 gidi thieu cdc sd luang tu. rihung
con sd ndy cung cap cho chung ta mot hinh anh thoa ddng han ve cdu true dieu tu cua
cac nguyen td cd nhieu han mot electron Sit phu thuoc ve ndng luqng cua mot electron
102
vdo cdc s6 luang tii cua no dupe ban trong muc 4.4, vd cdc lap vd, cdc lap vd con vd cdc
orbital dupe ban den trong muc 4.5. Hinh dang cua orbital duac mo td a trong muc 4.6
i»a cdc gian do cho thdy cdc mile ndng luang cua nhilng lap vd con duac trinh bdy trong
muc 4.7. Cdu hinh electron cua mot nguyen tii chiu trdch nhiem ve cdc tinh chdt hoa hoc
vd vat ly cua nguyen to. Quan he gida cdu hinh electron vd vi tri trong bdng phdn loai
tuan hodn duac trinh bdy trong muc 4.8.
Chu diem 4.1: A Brief Exploration of Light
W e saw in C h a p te r 3 that light from the Sun was broken into a spectrum and that
a new e le m ent— helium — w as discovered, identified by the dark lines in that spectrum .
It is e sse n tia l to learn at le a st a little a bo ut the p h ysica l natu re of lig h t in o rd e r to
understand how the lines in the spectrum can tell us about energy levels in the atom s.
V isible ligh t is a tin y fractio n of the electromagnetic spectrum, w hich includes
gam m a rays, X -rays, u ltra vio let light, visible light, infrared light, m icrow aves, and radio
w aves. The w ord light is som etim es used to m ean only visible light (the portion of the
e lectrom agnetic sp ectrum d etectable by the hum an eye) and som e tim e s to m ean the
entire e le ctrom ag ne tic spectrum . In this text, light w ill be used to m ean the entire e le c
trom agnetic sp ectrum , and w hen visible light is m eant, the word visible w ill be included.
Light can be d escrib e d as a wave m otion because it can be refracted by a prism
and diffracted by a grating. These phenom ena can be explained only by light p o sse ss
ing wave properties. The wavelength (X) is the distance betw een tw o successive crests.
The am plitude (A) is the m axim um displacem ent from the m ean position. The frequency
(v) is the n um be r of cre sts that pass any point, such as point X, p er second. H ow ever,
light also has a p article nature it can best be described as a stream of p articles called
photons. The p ro pe rtie s of lights em itted by glow ing (red hot) objects and the p hoto
e lectric effect can be e xplained only with light as a stream of particles.
The energy of the photons (E) is related to the freq ue n cy of the w aves. T he fre
quency of a w ave (re prese n ted by v, G reek nu) is given by the equation
E = hv
w here h is a co n sta n t know n as Planck's constant with a value of 6.63 X 10-34 J/s. The
freq ue n cy of any w ave is inve rse ly proportional to its w avelength (A.). In the case of
light, the p ro p o rtio n a lity co n sta n t is the ve lo city of light (c), equ al to 3 .00 X I08 m/s.
(That value is equal to 186,000 miles per second)
Note that E and v are directly proportional, and both are inversely proportional to X .
O nce any of th ese va lu e s is known for light, the other tw o can be ca lculated.

*- Light has both wave and particle properties. Its wavelength (X) is inversely propor
tional to its frequency (v) and also to the energy of its photons: E = hv = h c /t .
A. C alcu la te the e ne rg y of a photon of light if X = 3.00 X 10-* m.
B. If the fre q u e n c y of light increases from red light to vio le t light, w ha t happens
to the (a) e n e rg y of the photons? (b) w avelength?
103
Topic 4: Electronic configuratitm o f the atom
• Anh sang cd cd hai tinh chdt song va hat. Budc song ( X ) ciia no t l le nghich vai
tan so (\) cua no vd cung ti le nghich vai nang luang cua cdc photon: £ = h v = h c / X
A. Tinh nang litqng ciia mot photon anh sang neu X = 3 .00 x 10'm .
B. Neu tan sd cua anil sang tang len tU anh sang do sang drill sang tim, dieu gi
xay ra cho (a) ndng litang ciia cdc photon ? <h) btfdc song ?
Chu thich ttf - cum ttf va htforng dan dpc hieu

- electromagnetic spectrum: phd dien tit - frequency: tan sd
- light: anh sang - photons: photon, quang tii
- wavelength: budc song
Met khao sat ngan gon ve anh sang

Ta da thdy trong chuang 3 rdng anli sang tit mdt trdi bi phdn tdch thanh mot phd
vd mot nguyen td mdi - heli - dd duqc phat hien ra, heli duqc nhan dang bang nhUng
vach toi trong quang phd. Dieu ca ban la phdi hqc duqc toi thieu la mot it ve ban chdt
vat ly cua anh sang nhdm hieu duqc cdc vach trong quang phd cd the cho ta biet ve cdc
mite ndng luqng trong nguyen tit nhit the nao.
Anh sang kha kien la mot phdn rat nhd trong phd dien tit, phd nay bao gom cdc
tia gamma, tia x, anh sang ci/c tim, anh sang klia kien, anh sang hong ngoai, cdc song
cUc ngdn vd cdc song vo tuyen. Tit anh sang doi khi duqc sd dung de chi rieng anli sang
lilia kien (Id phdn cua phd dien tU duqc phat luen bdi mat ngudi) vd doi khi de chi toon
bo phd dien tit. Trong bdi ndy anli sang se ditqc sit dung de chi loan bo phd dien tit vd
khi noi den anh sang kha kien thi tit kha kien se ditqc neu ra.
Anh sang cd the duqc md td nhu mot song chuyen dong vi no co the bi khiic xa bdi
mot lang kinh vd nhieu xq bdi mot cdch td vd nhitng hien tuang ndy chi cd the duac giai
thich bdng nhilng tinh chdt song ciia anli sang. Budc song ( ( ) Id khodng cdch gida hai
dinh song lien tiep bien do (A) la sit dich chuyen toi da tU vi tri trung binh. Tan sd (v) la
sd dinh song di qua mot diem bat ky, vi du nhu mot diem X, tinh tren giay. Tuy nhien,
anh sang cung cd ban chdt hat - anh sang cd the ditqc md td nhu mot dong cdc hat goi Id
photon. Cdc tinh chdt ciia anh sang phat xq bdi cdc vat cliay sang (ndng do) va hieu ling
quang dien chi cd the duac gidi thich khi xem anh sang la mot ddng cdc hat.
Ndng htqng cua photon CE) la cd lien quan vdi tan so cua cdc song. Tan so cua mot
song (bieu dien bdng chit v tieng Hy Lap nuj duqc cho bdi phuang trinh:
E = hv
Trong dd h la mot hang sd duac goi Id hang so Planck cd gia tri 6.63 * 10 J s.
Tan sd cua mot song bat ky ti le nghich vdi bitdc song ciia no (}.). Trong trUang hop
anh sang, hang sd ti le la van toe anh sang (c) bdng 3 .0 0 x 10' in / s <gia tri na\ bdng
186.000 dam /giay!).
c
Chu v rdng E vd v ti le thudn vdi nhau vd cd hai deu ti le nghich vdt ). Klti dd
biet mot trong hai gid tri nay cua anh sang, thi gia tri thu hai con lai co the duac tinh.
104
i
Topic 4: Electronic configuratitm o f the atom
Chu diem 4.2: Bohr Theory_________________________________________
W hen gaseous atom s of a given elem ent are heated, they em it light of only sp e
cific ene rg ies. W hen gaseous atom s of that same elem ent absorb light, they absorb
those sam e ene rg ies (see Figure 3 6) To explain these phenom ena of light emission
and light absorption, N iels Bohr (1885-1962) (Figure 4 3) postulated that the e le c
trons in atom s are arranged in orbits, each with a definite energy The Bohr theory
was the first to inclu de the explanation that electrons in atom s have discrete energy
levels; that is. e le ctron s m ay be found only in orbits with sp ecific energies.
W hen an atom abso rb s energy, an electron is "prom oted'' to a higher energy level.
B ecause each o rb it has a discrete energy level, the difference in energy betw een the
orbits is also d efinite. A fter an electron has been prom oted to a higher energy level, it
falls back to a low er e nergy level W hen it falls back, light of energy equal to the d if
ference in e ne rg y b etw een the orbits is em itted from the atom In a d ifferent e x p e ri
m ent, w hen light is absorbed by the atom, the electron is raised from one orbit to a n
other one. B ecause there is the sam e energy difference betw een the orbits, the same
energy of light is abso rb ed . An exam ple of these effects is show n. Som e of the p o s
sible electron tran sition s in a hydrogen atom are diagram m ed
B ohr postulated circu la r orbits for the electrons in an atom and developed a m ath
em atical m odel to re p re se n t the energies of the orbits, as well as their distances from
the a to m 's n ucleu s. His m odel w orked very w ell for the hydrog en atom . It could be
used to calculate the e ne rg y of the em itted and absorbed light, as w ell as the radius
of the atom H ow ever, the inten sity of the various w ave len gth s of light involved was
not e xp la in e d w ell M ore o ve r, no other atom was e xplain ed w ell at all It has since
been rep la ce d by a q ua ntu m m echanical m odel, but B ohr's theory w as a m ilestone
because Bohr w as the first to postulate energy levels in atom s

B ohr p o stu la te d that the e lectrons in an atom revolved about the nucleus in
circu la r o rb its and absorbed or em itted light when they changed from one orbit
to another.
*- B o hr's postu late that electrons have d istinct energy levels in atom s was a m ile
stone in the u nd ersta nd in g of the nature of the atom
A If B o hr's th e o ry app lie s only to the hydrogen atom and it d oe sn't explain the
inten sitie s of the spectral lines well, why is it im portant enough for us to study?
B How m any d iffe re n t paths can the electron use to go from the fourth orbit to
the first?
• Bohr dd khdng dinh rdng cdc electron trong mot nguyen til quay quanh nhdn
tren nhilng quy dqo hinh trdn ra hap thu hay phat xa anh sang khi chung thay
doi tii mot quy dqo nay sang mot quy dqo khdc.
• Tien de ciia Bohr cho rdng cdc electron trong nguyen til cd cdc mile ndng luqng
khdc nhau Id mdt diem mdc quan trong de hieu duqc ban chat cua nguyen til.
A. Neu thuyet Bohr chi dp dung dung cho nguyen til hydro cd ong khdng giai thich
tot re a long do cua cdc rqch phd, tai sao no rdn kha quan trong de chiing ta
phai tim hieuf
B. Co bao nhieu Id trinli khac nhau md electron cd the sil dung de di til qu\ dao
tlui til sang quy dao thii nhdt?
105
Chu thich ta - cum ttf va htfong dan dpc hieu

- light emission: phat sang - Bohr theory: ly thuyet Bohr
- light absorption: hap thu anli sang - orbits; quy dau
- difference: hieu so
- discrete energy levels: mUc nang litang rdi rac
Thuyet Borh
Klu cdc nguyen tii khi ciia mot nguyen to dd cho diloc nung ndng. chiing phat xq
anh sang clil theo nhilng ndng luqng ddc thu. Khi cdc nguyen tvt dang khi ciia cung
nguyen to dd hap thu anh sang, chiing hap thu ciing nhilng ndng litqng dd (xem hinh
3.6). De gidi thich nhilng hien titqng ndy ciia sit phat xq vd sU hap thu anh sang. Niels
Bohr (1 885-1962) (hinh 4.3) khdng dinh rdng cdc electron trong cdc nguyen tii duoc sdp
xep tren quy dqo, mdi quy dqo cd mot ndng luqng xdc dinh. Thuyet Bohr la thuyet ddu
tien gidi thich rdng cdc electron trong nguyen tit cd nhilng miic ndng htqng rieng biet;
hie la, cdc electron cd the dilqc tim thdy chi tren nhilng quy dqo vdi cdc miic ndng htqng
dqc thu.
Khi mot nguyen tii hap thu ndng htqng, mot electron ditqc “ndng cap ’ len mdt mUc
ndng luqng cao han. Vi mdi quy dqo cd mot miic ndng luqng rieng, chenh lech ndng
luqng giUa nhilng quy dqo dd ciing xdc dinh. Sau khi mot electron dd duoc ndng len
mot mUc nang luqng cao han, no rat trd Iqi miic ndng htqng thdp han. Klu electron rai
trd lai, anh sang ciia ndng htqng bdng vdt chenh lech ndng htqng giUa cdc quy dqo duqc
phat xq ra til nguyen tit. Trong mot thi nghiem khdc khi anli sang duqc hap thu bdi
nguyen hi, electron duqc ndng len tit mot quy dqo sang mot quy dqo khdc, vi giUa cdc
quy dqo cd ciing mot chenh lech ndng luqng, cd cung mot ndng luang anh sang duqc
hop thu. Mot vi du ciia nhilng lueu Ung ndy ditqc trinh bdy tren. M ot so dich chuyen
electron cd the cd trong mot nguyen tii hydro.
Bohr thila nhan nhilng quy dqo hinh tron cho pliep electron trong mdt nguyen tii vd
dd phat trien mot md hinh todn hqc de the luen ndng luqng ciia cdc quy dao cung nhu
khodng cdch cua chiing tinh tit nhdn nguyen tit. Md hinh ciia ong dp dung rat dung cho
nguyen til hydro. No cd the ditqc sit dung de tinh todn ndng htqng cua anli sang phat xa
vd hap thu, cung nhu ban kinh ciia nguyen tii. Tuy nliien cudng dd cua cdc budc song
anh sang khdc nhau cd lien quan khdng duqc gidi thich tdt. Ngoai ra, mo hinh ndy
khdng gidi thich tdt cho mot nguyen tii nao khdc nUa. Md lunh nay sau dd duqc thay the
bdi mot md hinh ca hqc litqng tii nhung thuyet Bohr van la mot diem moc quan trong vi
Bohr 1a ngudi ddu tien khdng dinh cdc mite ndng luqng trong cac nguyen tii.
Chu diem 4.3: Quantum Numbers
Each electron in an atom is associated with a set of fo u r q uantum nu m b ers. The

nam es of the qua ntu m num bers, along with th eir sym b o ls and p e rm itte d va lu es are
given in Table 4 1
The p rin cip al quantum num ber (n) can have any p ositive in te g ra l va lu e but the
ele ctron s in atom s in th eir m ost stable sta te s have p rin c ip a l q u a n tu m n u m b e rs with
values from 1 th rough 7 only The m ost stable e le ctron ic state of an atom is ca lle d its
ground state. Any higher energy state is called an excited state. (U nless "e xcited state"
106
Topic /i: Electronic configuration o f the atom
Table 4.1 The Quantum Numbers

Name Symbol Permitted Values Examples
Principal n Any positive integer 1,2,3,...

quantum num ber
A ngular m o m entum ( Any integer from 0, .... (n- 1)

quantum num ber zero to (n — 1 )
M a g n etic in Any integer 0,
quantum number from - f to + i
l l i i
Spin quantum num ber in 2’ ’ 2
2 ° r -2
is specified in later discu ssion , ground state is usually im plied.) The p rincipal quantum
n um ber has the large st role in d eterm ining the energy of the electron, and it is also
the m ain factor in d ete rm inin g how far the electron is. on average, from the nucleus.
Thus, it is the m ost im p orta nt quantum num ber.
For each value of n. the angular m om entum quantum num ber ( / ) for an e le c
tron can have integral values from zero to (n - 1) but cannot be as large as n The
a ng ular m om en tu m q u a n tu m n um be r has a sm all role in d e te rm in in g the e ne rg y of
the electron, and it d ete rm in e s the shape of the volum e of space that the electron can
occupy (see S ection 4 6)
For each va lu e of the a ng ular m om entum quantum n um be r ( f ), the m agnetic

quantum num ber (m j has values ranging from - through zero to + in integral steps.
The value of me does not o rdinarily affect the energy of an electron, but it does d e te r
mine the o rien ta tion in space of the volum e that can contain the electron (Section 4 6).
The spin q u an tu m num ber ( ms) m ay have a value of - 1 /2 or +1/2 only. The
value of ms does not dep en d on the value of any o the r quantum n um be r The spin
value gives the o rien ta tion of the m agnetic field associated with the electron.
A n o th e r im p o rta n t lim ita tio n on the quantum num be rs of e le c tro n s in atom s, in
addition to those listed in Table 4.1, is the Paul! exclusion p rinciple. This principle
states that no two e le ctron s in an atom can have the sam e set of four quantum n u m
bers. This is like the b usine ss law that states that no two tickets to a rock co nce rt can
have the sam e set of date and section, row. and seat num bers (Figure 4.7). The row
num ber m ay dep en d on the section num ber, and the seat n um ber may depend on the
row num ber, but the date does not depend on any of the o the r three. S im ila rly, the
spin quantum n u m b e r is ind ep en d en t of the other three quantum num bers.
T o g e th e r w ith the n + ( rule, d iscussed in the next section, the Pauli exclusion
principle d e te rm in e s the n um ber of electrons in each of the shells in an atom

*- Each e le ctron in an atom has four quantum num bers, w hich govern its energy
and d istan ce from the nucleus, am ong other things. The p erm itted values for
the qua ntu m num bers are critical
A W hat are the perm itted values for the principal quantum n um be r n9
B How m any d iffe re n t values of me ( are perm itted for an e lectron w ith an value
of 2?
107
Topic 4: Electronic configuratioti o f the atom
• Moi electron trong mot nguyen tii co 4 so luong tU, 4 so nay chi phdi nang luang
va khodng cdch tU nhdn cua electron, cung vdi nhilng thu khac niia. Car gia tri
duqc phep cua cdc sd luqng tu la rat quan trong.
A. Cdc gia tri duqc phep ciia sd luqng tu chinh n la g i?
B Cd bao nhieu gid tri khdc nhau ciia m la duqc phep dot vai mot electron cd gia
tri t bdng 2?
Chu thich ttf - cum ttf va htfcmg dan dpc hieu

- quantum numbers: cdc sd luqng til
- principal quantum number: sd luqng tU chinh
- excited state: trang thai bi kich thich
- angular m o m entum quantum number: sd luqng tii dong luqng goc
Cac so luong tur

Moi electron trong mot nguyen tit cd lien quan vdi mot bo 4 sd luqng tU, ten got cun
cac sd luang til cung vdi nhUng ky lueu vd nhilng gid tri duqc phep cua chung duqc cho
trong b a n g 4.1.
So luqng tii chinh In) cd the cd bat cU mot gid tri nguyen dua rig nao. nliUng cdc
electron trong cdc nguyen til d trcing thai on dinh nhdt ciia cluing chi cd cdc sd luang til
chinh cd gid tri tu 1 den 7 ma thoi. Trang thai electron ben nhdt cua mot nguyen til
dilqc goi la mot trang thai co ban. Bat cU mdt trang thai ndng luqng nao cao hon cung
duqc goi Id mot trang tlidi kich thich. ItrU khi "trang thai kich thich’' dilqc noi rd trong
phdn sau, trang thai ndng liiqng thudng la de clii trang thai co ban) So luqng tii chinh
cd mot vai trd Idn trong viec xdc dinh ndng luqng ciia electron, vd no cung la mdt yeu td
chinh trong viec xdc dinh khodng cdch trung binh ciia electron ddi vdi nhdn. do do no la
sd hfqng til quan trong nhdt.
Doi vdi mdi gid tri ciia n, sd luqng tii ddng luqng goc fl) ciia mot electron cd the cd
cdc gid tri nguyen tii 0 den In - 1) nhung khdng the Idn bdng n. Sd luqng tu dong luqng
goc cd moi vai tro nhd han trong viec xdc dinh nang luqng cua electron, va no xdc dinli
hinh dang ciia the tich khdng gian ma electron cd the chodng cho (xem muc 4.6).
Hai ve cua ciing mot nhd liat khdng the cd ciing mot khu vUc, sd hang, so ghe va
ngay tlidng.
Sd luqng tii spin f m j chi cd the cd mot gid tri - \ hay + ‘ . Gid tri cua m khdng phu
thuoc vao gid tri ciia bat cii mdt sd luong tii nao khdc. Gid tri spin cho biet su dmh
huong ciia IU Irudng cd lien quan vdi electron.
Mot gidi hqn quan trong nila ve cdc sd luqng III cua cdc electron trong nguyen tu
ngoai nhilng dieu dd duoc het ke Irong bang 1.1, la nguyen ly loqi tru Pauli \gu\en U
nay phat bieu rang kliong co hai electron trong cung mot nguyen tU cd the co cung mdt
bo 4 sd luong tii. Dieu nay cung luong tu nhu mot doanh ngluep ludt phat bieu rang
khdng cd hai ve xem nhqc rock cd the cd cung mot bo ngay thang. vd khu vUc. hang ghe
vd sd ghe ngoi. Sd hang cd the phu thudc vdo sd khu vUc vd sd glie phai phu thudc i no
sd hang, nhung ngay lliang kliong phu thudc vdo bat cii so ndo trong ba sd ndi tren
Tuong tit, sd luong tU spin la dqc lap voi 3 sd luqng tU khdc.
Ciing vdi quy luat n + 1 duoc ban den trong doan tiep theo, nguyen ly loai tru Pauli
xdc dinh sd electron trong mdt lop vd trong nguyen tii.
108
Chu diem 4.4: Relative Energies of Electrons

The energies of the electrons in an atom are of param ount importance to the
atom's properties. Electrons increase in energy as the sum n + ( increases. W e call
this the n + ( rule. Thus, we can make a list of sets of quantum numbers in order of
their increasing energies by ordering the electrons according to increasing values of n
+ . As a corollary, if two electrons have the same value of n + 1 , then the one with
the lower n value is lower in energy. If the two n values are the same and the two ,
values are the same, then the electrons are equal in energy. In an atom, electrons
with the same energy are said to be degenerate.
Let’s determine sets of four quantum numbers for the electrons of the ground states
of the atoms of the first 10 elements. Hydrogen has only one electron. For that elec
tron to be in its lowest energy state, it needs the lowest possible sum of n and , so we
will choose the lowest value of n: n = 1. Then, referring to Table 4.1, we determine
values for the other three quantum numbers:
With n = 1, the only permitted value of is 0.
With = 0, the only permitted value of m# is 0.
The value of ms can be eith er-1/2 or +1/2.
The set of quantum numbers for hydrogen in its ground state can therefore be
either of these:
n = 1 or n = 1
( = 0 ( = 0
m, = 0 m = , 0
m $ = - 1 /2 m t = +1/2
Since the n values and the ( values are the same in these two sets of quantum
numbers, these possible configurations represent the same energy. Thus, either set of
quantum numbers could represent the electron of hydrogen.
A helium atom has two electrons, so we need two sets of quantum numbers. To
represent the atom in its lowest energy state, we want each electron to have the low
est energy possible. If we let the first electron have the value of 1 for its principal quan
tum number, the set of quantum numbers for it will be the same as that given previ
ously for the one electron of hydrogen. The other electron of helium can then have the
other set of quantum numbers.
First electron Second electron
of helium of helium
n = 1 n = 1
( = 0 ( = 0
m, = 0 m( = 0
ms = -1/2 m s = +1/2
Both of these electrons have the same energy because they have the same n value
and the same ( value Either one could have been chosen as the “first” electron.
A lithium atom has three electrons. The first two of these can have the same sets
of quantum numbers as the two electrons of helium. What should the set of quantum
numbers for the third electron be? W e cannot choose the lowest permitted value for n.
109
which is 1 because t and m would then both be 0. If we choose - 1 /2 as the value of

ms, the third electron would have a set of quantum numbers exactly the same as that
of the first electron, and if we choose the value mt = +1/2, the third electron would
have the same set of quantum numbers as the second electron. Because neither of
these situations is permitted by the Pauli principle, n cannot be 1 for the third elec
tron. W e must choose the next higher value, n * 2. With n = 2, the permitted values of
are 0 and 1. Because C = 0 will give a lower value for the sum n + , we choose that
value for /. With I = 0, m ( must be 0, and we can choose either - 1 /2 or + 1/2 for m§.
The quantum numbers for the electrons of the lithium atom can thus be as follows:
First electron Second electron Third electron
of lithium of lithium of lithium
n = 1 n = 1 n = 2
( = 0 ( = 0 ( = 0
m, = 0 m , = 0 m ,= 0
ms = -1/2 ms = +1/2 m$ = -1/2 (+1/2
With ms - 1/2 for its third electron, the fourth electron of beryllium (Be) will have n
= 2,» (. = 0, me = 0 , and ms = +1/2. For the fifth electron of boron (B), we cannot use the
combination n = 2 and = 0 because of the Pauli principle, so we use n = 2 and ( - 1.
There are three possible values for mt with ( = 1, and together with the two possible
values for ms, they yield six combinations of quantum numbers with n = 2 and I = 1.
The configurations of the first 10 electrons in a multielectron atom are shown in
Table 4.2. It must be emphasized that the value of and the sign of the mt value
are arbitrary in some cases but not in others (see Problem 4.11 at the end of the chapter).
W e can continue in this manner, building up the configuration of each elem ent by
adding a set of quantum numbers for one “last" electron to the configuration of the
element before it. This process of adding one electron to those of the preceding ele
ment is called the buildup principle.
The sets are shown in Table 4.3. Note that the combination n = 3. ( = 1 has the
same sum of n and as n = 4, ( = 0 . Because the sum is the sam e, the combination
with the lower n value is used for the thirteenth through eighteenth electrons because
it is lower in energy.
When we try to add the nineteenth electron to write the configuration for potas
sium (K), we encounter a new situation. The combination with the next lowest sum of
n and is n = 4, ( = 0 . The combination n = 3, t - 2 is higher in energy. The nine
teenth through twenty-first electrons can have the following sets of quantum numbers:
Quantum Nineteenth Twentieth Twenty-first
number electron electron electron
n 4 4 3
1 0 0 2
m, 0 0 -2
m5 _ i
+ ‘ _ 1
2 2 2
n + 1 4 4 5
I 10
T ab le 4 .2 Possible Sets of Quantum Numbers

for the Ten Electrons of Neon
Q uantum num ber n I m ,

1
F i r s t e le c t r o n 1 0 0 2
S e co n d electron 1 0 0 + i
1
T h ird electron 2 0 0 2
Fourth electron 2 0 0
1
F if t h e l e c t r o n 2 1 - 1
~ 2
S ixth electron 2 1 0 + -;
i
S e v e n th electron 2 1 +1 2
1
E i g h t h e le c t r o n 2 1 - 1
+ 2
1
N in th electron 2 1 0
Tenth electron 2 1 + 1 + .1
T ab le 4 .3 Possible Sets of Quantum Numbers

or the Last Eight Electrons of Argon
Quantum number n i in , in
Eleventh electron 1
3 0 0 2
T w elfth electron 3 0 0
i
T hirteen th electron 3 1 -1 2
Fourteenth electron 3 1 1
0
Fifteenth electron _ 1
3 1 +1 2
S ixte en th electron 3 1 -1
S e v en te en th electron 3 1 0 + '
E ighteenth electron 3 1 +1 + '
I I I
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f Ibe atom
The fact that e le ctron s having quantum num ber values n = 4 and < - 0 are low er
in energy than electrons w ith n = 3 and ( = 2 is of extrem e im p orta nce , it e x p la in s the
existence and position on the p eriodic table of the tran sition m etals T his p o in t w ill be
explained later

The n + ' rule, the Pauli exclusion principle, and the p e rm itte d v a lu e s of the
quantum n um bers enable us to d eterm ine the ord er of the e le c tro n s in an atom
in increasing energy
A tom s in th eir ground states have e lectrons w ith the lo w e s t p o ssib le values of
n + I .
* - If two e le ctron s have the sam e sum n + i but have d iffe re n t n values, the one
with the low er n value is lower in energy
A In each set. d ete rm in e w hich electron labeled X or Y. has the low er energy
(a) X n = 4. i = 2 Y n = 4. ' = 1
(b) X: n = 3. t = 1 Y: n = 4. i = 0
(c) X: n = 5. I = 0 Y: n = 4, t = 2
• Quy luat n + 1, nguyen ly loai tru Pauli vd cdc gia tri cho phep cua cdc sd luqng
tii chi giup chung ta xdc dinli duqc thii tit cua cdc electron trong mot nguyen tii
theo ndng luqng tang dan.
• Cac nguyen tii trong trang thai co ban cd cdc electron vdi nhdng gia tri n + I
nhd nhdt cd the cd.
• Neu hai electron co cung tong n + I nhitng cd cdc gid tri n khdc nhau, tin elec
tron nao co gid tri n thdp hon thi co ndng luqng thdp hon.
A. Theo tiing cap. xdc dinh electron nao, duoc ddnh ddu la X hay Y co ndng luong
thdp hon
fa) X : n = 4, i = 2 Y: n = 4, i = 1
(b) X: n = 3. ( = 1 Y n = 4. t = 0
(c) X: n = 5.' i = 0 Y n = 4. i = 2
Chu thich tCf - cum ttf va hUcmg dan dpc hieu

- spin quantum num ber: sd luong tii spin
- Pauli exclusion p rin c ip le : nguyen ly loai trii Pauli
- buildup p rin c ip le : nguyen ly cdu tqo
Nang lupng tuong doi cua cac electron

Ndng luong cua cuc electron trong mot nguyen tii la het site quan trong doi rdi cdc
tinh chi'it cua nguyen tu Cm electron gia tang l e ndng luong klu tong n + tang Ta
got dieu do la quy luat n + Dtj i d\ ta co the tlntc luen mot bang het ke car v; / sr;
luqng tit theo thii tu ndng luong tang dan bdng cdch sdp xep cac electron theo j r gm
I 12
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f tbe atom
tri tang dan cua n + ( . Mot he qua neu liai electron co ciing gid tri n + ( , thi electron
nao co gid tri n thdp lian se co nang luqng thdp han, neu hai gia tri n la bdng nhau va
hai gid tri 1 cung bdng nhau thi cac electron co nang luqng bdng nhau. Trung mot
nguyen tut cdc electron vai cung ndng luqng duqc goi la thoai bien (degenerate)
Hay xdc dinh nhilng bo 4 so luqng tii cho cdc electron trong cdc nguyen tii a trang
thai ca ban ciia 10 nguyen td dau tien. Hydro cd mot electron duy nhdt.
De cho electron ndy d trang thdi ndng luqng tliap nhdt, no can phdi co tong n vd 1
nhd nhdt co the co, do dd cluing ta chon gia tri thap nhat ciia n. n = 1. Sau do xem bang
4.1, ta xdc dinh cdc gid tri cho ba sd luqng tii khdc.
Vdi n = 1 chi cd mot gid tri dupe phep ciia ( la 0.
Vdi ( = 0 chi cd mot gia tri duqc phep ciia m | la 0
Gid tri cua m s cd the la 1 /2 hay + 1 /2
Bo 4 sd luang tii dot vdi nguyen tii hydro d trang thai ca ban do dd cd the la mot
trong cdc truang hqp sau ddy:
n = 1 hay
c
• = 0 II
( = 0
m( = 0 m! = 0
ma= +
Vi cdc gia tri n vd cdc gid tri ( la nhu nhau trong hai bo sd luqng tii, nhilng cdu
inh cd the cd nay the hien cung mot ndng luqng. Do vdy bat cii bo sd luqng tii nao trong
hai bo sd noi tren deu cd the bieu dien cho electron cua hydro.
Nguyen tii helium co hai electron, vd do dd cluing ta can hai bo cdc sd luqng tii.
De bieu dien nguyen tii trong trang thdi ndng luqng thdp nhdt ciia no. M ot electron
can plidi cd ndng luqng thdp nhdt co the diiqc. Neu ta cho electron tlui nhdt cd gia tri
sd luqng tii chinh la mot. thi bo cdc sd luqng tii cho electron dd se giong nhu ddi vdi
electron cua hydro viia cho trudc dd. Electron cua helium cd the cd mot bo cdc sd IUqng
tii khdc
Eletron thu n h it Eletron thd hai
cua helium cua helium
n= 1 n= 1
i =0 1=0
m =0 m. = 0
mS = - 2
mS = + 2'-
Ca hai electron nay cd cung ndng liiong vi cluing cd cung gia tri n la cung gia tri ' .
Bat cii electron nao trong hai electron ndy cung cd the ditqc chon nhii electron "tlui nhdt”
Mot nguyen tii lithium co ba electron, hai electron ddu co the cd cdc bo sd litqng tii
nhu nhau nhu hai electron cua helium. Bo sd luqng tii cua electron tlui ba phai nhit the
nao? Ta khdng the chon gia tri thong nhdt duqc phep cua n la ( vd I vd m klu do
phai bdng 0. Neu ta chon - la gia tri cua thi electron tlui ba pliai cd bo cdc sd luqng
tii chinh xdc giong nhu cua electron thu nhdt, vd neu ta chon gia tri m = + 1 /2 , thi
electron thu ba phai cd cung bo so luqng tii nhu electron tlui hai. Vi ca hai tinh huong
tren deu khdng duqc cho phep bdi nguyen ly Pauli, n khdng the bdng 1 ddi vdi electron
tlui ba. Ta phdi chon gia tri cao han ke tiep n = 2. Vdi n = 2 cdc gid tri duqc phep ciia
< Id 0 vd 1. Vi ( - 0 se cho ra mot gia tri thdp han cua tong n + ( , ta chon gia tri do
1 13
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f tbe atom
cho I. Vdi < = 0, m, phai bdng 0, va chung ta chon m < = - 1 / 2 hay + 1 /2 , cac so luang til
cho cac electron cua nguyen til lithi do do co the la nhu sau:
electron thd nhdt electron thd hat electron thd ba

cua lithi cua lithi cua lithi
n = l n = l n= 2
1=0 ( =0 ( = 0
m, = 0 mt = 0 m, = 0
m = -\ m, = + l ,n . = ~2 (h a y + ) )
Vdi m = - ' cho electron thd ba, electron thd Id cua berylli (Be) se cd n = 2, 1 = 0
m / = 0 va m = + ' . Ddi vdi electron thd nam ciia boron (B), ta khong the sd dung to
hap n = 2 va ( = 0 vi vi pham nguyen ly Pauli, do do ta sd dung n = 2 va 1 - 1 Co ba
gia tri cd the cd cho m/ vdi 1 = 1 vd cung vdi hai gid tri cd the cd cho m chung cho ra 6
td hap cdc sd luqng td vdi n = 2 vd 1 = 1.
Cdc cdu hinh cho 10 electron dau tien trong mot nguyen td nhieu electron duqc
trinh bdy trong bang 4.2. Can phai nhdn manh rdng gia tri cua mlS va ddu cua gia tri
m la tuy y trong mot sd trUdng hap nhilng khong duqc trong cdc trudng hap khdc (xem
bai ta p 4.11 a cuoi chuang)
Ta cd the tiep tuc theo cdch ndy de xay dung cdu hinh cho tdng nguyen td bdng cdch
them mot bo cac sd luang td cho electron (cuoi cung) vdo cau hinh cua nguyen td trudc.
Qua trinh them mot electron vdo nguyen td ddng trUac duac goi la nguyen ly tich luy.
Khi chung ta thd them electron thd 19 vdo de viet cdu hinh cho Kali <K), ta gdp
moi tinh huong mdi. Td hqp vdi tdng ke tiep nhd nhdt ciia n va < la n = 4 va 1 = 0. To
hqp n = 3, ( = 2 cao han ve ndng luqng. Cdc electron thd 19 den 21 cd the cd cdc bo so
luqng td sau ddy.
Sd luqng td electron 19 electron 2 0 electron 21
n 4 4 3
( 0 0 2
in 0 0 -2
n + ( 4 4 5
Tht/c te la cdc electron cd cdc gia tri sd luqng td n = 4 vd i = 0 thdp han ve ndng
luqng so vdi cdc electron cd n = 3 vd >. = 2 la cilc ky quan trong; no gidi thich cho sit
luen dien vdo vi tri tren bdng tuan hodn cua cdc kim loai chuyen tiep. Dieu nay se di/qc
giai thich d phdn sau.
Chu diem 4.5: Shells, Subshells, and Orbitals
A shell is defined as a group of e lectrons in an atom all h aving the sam e principal
quantum n um ber A s u b s h e ll is defined as a group of e le ctro n s in an atom all having
the sam e princip al quantum n um ber and also the sam e a ng ular m om en tu m quantum
num ber If two e le ctro n s in an atom have the sam e p rin c ip a l q u a n tu m n u m b e r the
sam e a n g u la r m om en tu m qua ntu m num ber, and the sam e m a g n e tic q u a n tu m n u m
ber. the ele ctron s are said to be in the sam e o rb ita l.
I 14
Even though the m , and ms values do not affect the energy of the electron, it is
s till im p o rta n t to learn about them . The n um ber of co m b in a tion s of perm itted values
of these q ua ntu m num be rs determ ines the m axim um n um ber of e lectrons in a given
type of subshell. For exam ple, in a subshell for w hich i = 1, mc can have three d iffe r
ent values (-1 , 0. and +1). and ms can have two d ifferen t values (-1 /2 and +1/2). The
six d ifferent com binations of m , and msallow a m axim um of six electrons in any subshell
for w hich / = 1.
W riting out each quantum n um ber value for every electron in an atom is very tim e-
consum ing. A m ore e fficie n t m ethod is to group all the electrons in a given subshell.
In this m ethod, the fo llo w in g four low ercase letters represent the possible PI values:
V alue of Letter
0 s
1 P
2 d
3 1
B ecause only n and < values affect the energies of electrons, the electrons with
the sam e n value and the sam e < value all have the sam e energy. In other w ords all
the electrons in a given subsh ell are degenerate Each subshell is denoted by its p rin
cipal quantum n um ber and the letter designation for For exam ple, for neon, w ith atom ic
num ber 10, the sets of quantum num bers for the 10 electrons are listed in Table 4 2
We can group them as follow s:
Number of Subshell
Value of n Value of electrons designation
1 0 2 Is
2 0 2 2s
2 1 6 Ip
W e w rite the e le c tro n ic c o n fig u ra tio n by listing each subshell in order of increasing
energy, w ith a su p e rscrip t giving the num ber of electrons in that sub-shell. That is, the
detailed e le ctron ic co n fig u ra tio n for a neon atom is
Ne Number of electrons in each subshell
Principal quantum - Letter designation for

number subshell based on
angular momentum
quantum number
This co n fig u ra tio n is read aloud as follow s "one ess two, two ess two. tw o pee
six " (The su p e rscrip ts are not exponents, so w ords such as square are not used ) The
sum of the su p e rscrip ts is the total num ber of electrons in the atom

*- E le c tro n s in a g ive n sh ell all have the sam e n va lu e : e le c tro n s in a g ive n
su bsh ell all have the sam e n value and the sam e C value: e le ctron s in a given
o rbital all have the sam e n value, the sam e value, and the sam e m value
I I5
*- D etailed e le ctron ic configurations of elem ents give the su b s h e lls in increa sing
o rder of ene rg ies w ith the n um ber of e le ctron s o cc u p y in g that s u b s h e ll as a
right superscript.
A G ive the d eta ile d e le ctro n ic co nfig uratio n of (a) Be, (b) M g B G iv e the de
tailed e le ctron ic co nfiguration of Ar.
• Cdc electron trong mot lap vd da cho tat cd deu cd cung gid tri n; cdc electron
trong mot lap vd con dd cho tdt cd deu cd cung gia tri n vd cung gia tri 1; cdc
electron trong mot orbital dd cho tdt cd deu cd cung gid tri n, cung gid tri 1 va
cung gid tri m r
• Cdu hinh electron chi tiet ciia cdc nguyen td duqc cho biet cdc lap vd con theo
trat tU tdng dan ndng luqng vdi so electron chtia trong lap vd con do diiqc ghi
bdng ti so nho d tren ben phai.
A. Viet cdu hinh electron chi tiet cua (a) Be (b) Mg.
B. Viet cau hinh electron chi tiet ciia Ar
Chu thich tCf - cum til va hi/ong dan dpc hieu

- electronic config uratio n: cdu hinh dien tii - subshell: vd con
- square: vuong, binh phuang - o rb ita l: quy dqo
Cac Idp vo, cac Idp vo con va cac orbital

Mot Idp vd duqc dinh nghla la mot nhom electron trong mot nguyen tii, tdt cd deu
cd cung sd luqng tii chinh. M ot lap vd con duqc dinh nghla nhu mot nhom cdc electron
trong mot nguyen tii, tdt cd deu cd cung so luqng tii chinh vd cung cd cung so luqng tii
dong luqng goc, neu hai electron trong mot nguyen tii cd cung so luqng tii chinh. sd luqng
tii dong liiqng goc vd sd luqng tii til cdc electron do diiqc got la d tren cung mot orbital.
Mac du cdc gia tri m va m khong anh huong den nang luqng cua electron, chung
van quan trong de phdi hqc. So luqng to hqp cdc gia tri duqc phep ciia nhilng so luqng
tii noi tren xdc dinh so luqng toi da ciia cdc electron mot kieu lap vd con cho trudc. Vi
du, trong lap vd con cd I = 1, m l cd the cd ba gia tri khdc nhau (-1 , 0 va +1) vd m cd
the cd lioi gid tri khdc nhau ( - 1 12va +112) Cd 6 td hqp cua m, vd m cho phep toi da cd
6 electron trong bat cii mot lap vd con nao cd t = 1.
Viet tilng gia tri sd luqng tii cho mdi electron trong mot nguyen tii Id mdt viec rat
mat thdi gian. M ot phuang phdp hieu qua han la nhom tdt cd cdc electron d trong mdt
lap vd con dd cho. Trong phuang phdp ndy, 4 chd nhd ghi ben dudi sau day bieu dien
cho 4 gid tri cd the cd ciia < :
i cua Chi7
0 s
1 P
2 d
J f
Vi chi co cac gia tri n va I anh huang den ndng luang cua cac electron, t ac elec
tron cd cung mot gid tri n va cung gia tri I deu cd cung ndng liiqng. S ot cach khac. tdt
cd cdc electron trong mdt lap vd con dd cho deu la tlioai bien. Mdi lap vo con duar chi ra
bdi sd luang tii chinh ra chd edi quy dinh cho <. Vi du, ddi rdi neon cd sd lueu ngu\en tii
1 16
10, cdc bo so luang tii clio 10 electron duoc liet ke trong bdng 4.2. Chung ta cd the nhom
chiing lai nhu sau:
Gid tri ciia n Gid tri ciia I So electron Chi dinh

lap vd con
1 0 2 Is
2 0 2 2s
2 1 6 2p
Ta viet cau hinh dien tii bang cdch liet ke tiing lap vo con trong theo thii ti/ ndng
luang tang dan, vai mot chi7 so ghi ben tren de chi so electron trong lap vd con do. Titc
la cdu hinh electron chi tiet doi vdi mot nguyen tii neon la:
Ne So electron trong moi lap cu
So luang tii chinh o electron trong moi lap vo
Cho chi dinh cho Idp vd con dila Iren so luong tu ddng luong got
Cau hinh ndy ditac dqc len nhit sau "moi ess hai. hai ess hai, hai pee sdu" (chU so
ghi tren khong phai Id sd md. do do cdc tit nhit binh phuang khdng duac sii dung). Tdng
ciia cdc chH so ghi tren Id tdng so electron trong nguyen tii.
Chu diem 4.6: Shapes of Orbitals
An orbital is an allow ed energy state in an atom Each orbital is designated by the

three quantum num bers n, ( , and m ( . Because ms is not specified, either value of
can be used, and a m axim um of two electrons can occupy any given orbital in an atom.
Know ing e xactly both the location and the m om entum of an electron in an atom
at the sam e tim e is im p o ssib le This fact is know n as the H eise n b e rg u ncertainty
principle. T he refo re , scien tists describe the probable locations of electrons. These lo
cations d e scrib e the orbital shapes, w hich are im portant w hen the atom form s bonds
with other atom s, b eca use the orbital shapes are the basis of the geom etry of the re
sulting m olecule
It is equally pro ba ble that s orbital electrons will be located in any direction about
the nucleus. W e say that an s orbital is spherically sym m etrical. The 1s orbital is p ic
tured B ecause an e le ctron with ( = 1 has three possible m values, any p su bshell
has three o rb itals Each one lies along one of the coordinate axes - x , y, or z Each p
orbital co nsists of tw o 3-d im e nsion a l lobes centered on one of the axes. An atom has
five 3d orbitals, co rre sp o n d in g to the five possible m i values (-2. - 1 , 0. +1. and +2) for
a subsh ell w ith ( = 2.

* - The i orbitals are spherically sym m etrical. Do not m istake the individual lobes of
the p and d orbitals as separate orbitals.
• Cdc orbital s doi xiing can. Ditng nliarn Idn titng thin ciia cdc orbital p i d <1
nhu nhilng orbital neng biet.
I I7
Topic 4: Electronic cotifiguration o f the atom
Chu thich ttf - cum t il va htfcrng dan dpc hieu

- Heisenberg uncertainty principle: nguyen ly khong on dinh cda Heisenberg
- probable: cd le, xdc suat
- orbital shapes: hinh dang quy dqo
lobes: lobes
Hinh dang cua cac orbital

MoI orbital la mot trang thai nang luqng duqc phep trong mot nguyen til. Moi or
bital duqc chi dinli bdi ba so luqng td n, 1 va m,. Vi mi khong duqc chi ro. gia tri nao
ciia m cung co the duqc sd dung ua co toi da hai electron trong bat cd mot orbital cho
trudc nao cda mot nguyen td.
Viec biet chinh xdc cung luc cd ui tri vd dong luqng cda mot electron trung mot
nguyen td la dieu khong the duqc. Thilc te ndy duqc goi la nguyen ly bat dinh Heisenberg,
cdc nhd khoa hqc mo td nhdng vi tri xdc xuat cda cdc electron. Nhdng vi tri nay mo td
cdc hinh dang cdc orbital, la dieu quan trong klu nguyen td tqo thanh hen ket vdi cdc
nguyen td khdc, ui cdc dang orbital la nen tdng cho hinh dang hinh hqc cda phdn td
duqc tqo thanli.
Cdc electron orbital s co xdc suat de duqc tim thdy Id bang nhau theo bat cd hitdng
nao tinh td nhdn. Ta noi rang mot orbital s co tinh ddi xdng cdu, orbital Is ri mot
electron vdi n = 1 co ba gid tri m, cd the cd bat cd lap uo con p nao cung cd ba orbital.
Moi Idp uo con ndm tren mot true tqa do x, y hay l. Moi orbital p gum 2 thdy ba chieu
hitdng tdm, moi thuy ndm tren mot true. Mut nguyen Id cu 5 orbital p, tuong dug idi 5
gid tri co the co cda m t (-2 , 0, +1 ua +2) cho mot lap uo con vdi 1 = 2.
Chu diem 4.7: Energy Level Diagrams ___________________
Energy level diagrams are models for portraying electrons' occupancy of an atom's
orbitals. They help chemists predict how many electrons are in each orbital of a subshell.
Electron occupancy of the individual orbitals is important in determining an atom s mag
netic properties A line or a box or a circle is used to represent each orbital An energy
level diagram that could hold the electrons of any known atom is shown in Figure 4 9.
The energy level diagram is like a graph in one dimension: The higher a subshell is
placed, the higher the energy of that subshell. The lines are spaced horizontally from
left to right only to prevent crowding so that the diagram is easy to read
The low est line on the energy level diagram represents the o rb ital in the Is subsh ell
of the atom M uch higher in the diagram , indicating a m uch h ig he r e ne rg y lines for the
orbitals of the 2p subshell. The third shell lies at an even hig he r e ne rg y and consists
of an s su bshell a p subshell, and a d subshell. Note that the 3d s u b s h e ll lies at a
slightly higher energy than the 4s subshell The order of energy in the d ia gra m is the
same as that given by the n + i rule
W e w ill o fte n fo c u s o u r a tte n tio n on th e p o rtio n o f th e e n e rg y le v e l d ia
gra m c o n ta in in g the la s t e le c tro n a d d e d , in w h ic h w e a re m o s t in te re s te d T he
orbitals that lie above that portion are assum ed to be em pty, and any o rb ita ls Delow
those pictured are a lm ost alw ays com p le te ly filled w hen the atom is in its gro un d state
We rep re sen t each electron with an arrow D ifferent e le ctron sp in s R v a l u e of -
1/2 or +1/2) are indicated by arrow s pointing dow nw ard or upw ard B e cau se each line
1 18
represents one orbital, each line may hold a maximum of two arrows. If two arrows
are present, they must be pointing in opposite directions. The energy level diagram
representing the neon atom is shown in Figure 4.10.
Hund's rule states that the electrons wi t hi n a gi ven subshel l remain as unpai r ed
as possible. Moreover, if there is more than one unpaired electron in a given subshell,
they all must occupy different orbitals and have the same electron spin (all arrows rep
resenting unpaired electrons in a subshell point up or all point down) The energy level
diagrams for the carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms illustrate these rules:
In the carbon atom, the lowest two subshells are filled: all electrons are paired in
III II I I
~ 2p ~ 2p~ 2p ~
n u u
2s 2s 2s
n u n
1s 1s Is
Carbon atom Nitrogen atom Oxygen atom
filled subshells. The 2p subshell has two electrons in the three orbitals, so each elec
tron occupies a separate orbital. Moreover, both electrons have the same spin— both
arrows point upward (alternatively, both could point downward). In the nitrogen atom,
the 2p subshell is half filled. Each electron occupies a different orbital, and all arrows
point in the same direction. In the oxygen atom, the 2p subshell is again partially filled.
To get four electrons into the three orbitals requires the pairing of electrons in one
orbital. In the other two. the electrons are unpaired and have the same spin: they are
said to have parallel spin.
The magnetic properties of atoms enable us to tell if all the electrons in an atom
are paired or, if not. how many electrons are unpaired Atoms with all their electrons
paired are repelled slightly from a magnetic field, and are said to be diamagnetic. If at
least one electron per atom in a sample is unpaired, the sample tends to be drawn
into a magnetic field, and are said to be paramagnetic. The greater the number of un
paired electrons, the greater the attraction into the magnetic field (In elemental iron,
cobalt, and nickel, the unpaired electrons in adjacent atoms reinforce one another, and
a very much stronger attraction into a magnetic field results).

*■ An energy level diagram shows the individual orbitals graphically with increas
ing energy toward the top. Because only two electrons fit into any orbital (on
any line), the electronic configuration of the atom can be deduced using such
a diagram.
Electrons in a given subshell occupy the orbitals singly with their spins aligned
until the subshell is half full, after which they start to pair up
A. How many unpaired electrons are present in the ground state of a sulfur atom 7
I 19
• Mot gian do miic ndng luqng trinh bdy bdng hinh anh ti/ng orbital rieng le vdi
nang liiqng tdng dan ve phia tren. Vi chi co hai electron duqc gdn von mot or
bital bat ky (tren bat cii doan th in g ndo), cdu hinh electron ciia nguyen td co
the duac suy ra til mot gidn do nhu vdy.
• Cdc electron trong mot lap vo phu da cho phdn bo tilng electron m ot vao cdc
orbital vdi spin cua chung cung chieu cho den khi lap vo con dd ddy mot ntia,
sau do chung bdi ddu ghep dot.
A. Co bao nlueu electron khong ghep dot co trong mot nguyen tii tuu huynh d trang
thai ca ban?
Chu thich ttf - cum ttf va htfong dan dpc hieu

- energy level diagrams: cdc do thi miic ndng luqng
- Hund’s rule: quy tdc Hund
- within a given subshell: ben trong vo con dd cho
- unpaired: khong duqc ket cap
- magnetic properties: cdc tinh chdt til
- diamagnetic: chdt nghich til
- paramagnetic: chdt thudn tU
Gian do mQc nang luong

C a c g id n d o m iic n d n g liicfng la nhilng mo hinh md td sU choang cho cua cdc
electron tren orbital riin mdt nguyen tl? Giiip rhn nhn hon hnr tirn rfndn duar rn hnn
nhieu electron a trong moi orbital cua mot lap vd con. Sii choang ddy electron ciia tdng
orbital rieng re la dieu quan trong de xdc dinh cdc tinh chat til cua mot nguyen tii. Mot
doan thdng hinh vuong hay mot liinh tron cd the sii dung de bieu dien tilng orbital. Mot
gidn do miic ndng luqng cd the chiia cdc electron cua bat cii nguyen tii dd biet ndo: Gidn
do miic nang luang giong nhu mot gidn dd mot chieu: lap vd con cang duac ddt a tren
cao thi ndng luang cua lap vd con dd cang cao. Cdc doan thdng duac ve cdch khodng tU
trdi sang phdi chi nhdm de cho hinh ve khdng qud chat sao cho gian dd cd the duac dqc
de dang.
Doan thdng thdp nhdt tren gidn do mile ndng luang bieu dien cho orbital trong lap
vd con Is cua nguyen tic.
Ndm cao han tren gian dd. de chi mot ndng luqng cao han la doan thdng ciia or
bital 2s. Cao han nUa la 3 doan thdng ciia orbital ciia Idp vd con 2 p. l^dp vo thu ba ndm
d mot ndng luqng con cao han nUa vd gom mot lap vo con s, mot lap vd con p va mdt Idp
vd con d. Chu y la lop vd con 3d ndm d mot ndng luqng hai cao han nang luang ciia lap
vo con 4s. Trat tu ndng luqng trong gian dd cung giong nhu trdi tu duac cho bdi quy
luat n + I .
Chung ta se tap trung chit y vao phdn ciia gian dd nang luqng co chua electron
cuoi cung duqc them vdo, do la phdn ma ta quan tain nlueu nhdt. Cdc orbital nam tren
phdn nay duqc xem nhu la con trong. va bat cii orbital nao ndm dudi phan na > run liinh
ve gdn nhu ludn ludn du duqc lap ddy klu nguyen tu o Iruug hung ihui cu bon luu no.
Ta bieu dien tilng electron bdng mot mui ten. Spin khac nhau cua electron ^m gid
tri m s bdng hay + ;) duqc chi ra bdi chieu mui ten hudng xuong dudi hay huang len
tren. Vi moi doan thdng bieu dien cho mot orbital, moi doan nay chi co the cd chua toi
120
da la hai mui ten. Neu co hai mui ten thi chung phdi chi theo cdc hudng nguqc nhau.
Gian do mdc ndng luqng bieu dien trong nguyen td neon.
Quy tdc Hund phat bieu rdng cdc electron ben trong mot lap vo con cho trUdc se
phdn bo sao cho so electron khong ghep doi Id nhieu nhat. Ngoai ra, neu co nhieu han
mot electron khong ghep ddi trong mot lap vo phu dd cho, tdt cd cdc electron ndy phdi
cliodng cho ciia nhdng orbital khac nhau vd phai co rung spin (tdt rd car mdi ten bieu
dien cho cdc electron khong ghep doi trong mot lap vo con deu hudng xuong hay hitdng
len) Cdc gidn do mdc ndng luqng cua cdc nguyen td carbon, nita vd oxy minh hoa cho
nhdng quy luat ndy:
t T t t t
2p
n t t
2p 2p
u u u
2s 2s 2s
u n u
1s 1s 1s
Nguyen tU carbon Nguyen tu Nitrogen Nguyen tu oxygen
Trong nguyen td carbon, hai lap vo phu thdp nhdt dd diiqc lam ddy, vd tdt cd cdc
electron deu dilqc ghep ddi trong nhdng lap vo phu da day. Lap vo phu 2 p cd hai electron
trong ba orbital, do dd mdi electron phai choang chd mot orbital neng biet. Ngoai ra cd
hai electron cd ciing spin - cd hai mui ten deu hudng len (hoac cd hai mui ten cd the
hudng xuong). Trong nguyen td nitrogen. Idp vo con 2 p dilqc lam ddy mdt nda. Moi elec
tron choang chd mot orbital khdc nhau vd tdt cd cdc mui ten hudng theo cung mot chieu.
Trong nguyen td oxy lap vd con 2 p cung duqc lam ddy mot phdn. De cd 4 electron trong
ba orbital thi can cd sit ghep doi cdc electron trong mot orbital. Trong hai orbital kia, cdc
electron la khdng ghep dot vd co cung spin. Chung duqc goi la cd spin song song.
Cdc tinh chdt td ciia cdc nguyen td giup chung ta biet duqc la tdt cd cdc electron
trong mot nguyen td cd ditqc ghep ddi hay khdng, neu khdng thi cd bao nhieu electron
khdng ditqc ghep doi. Cdc nguyen td cd tdt cd cdc electron deu dilqc ghep ddi bi gay nhe
khdi mot td tritdng rd ditqc goi 1a nghich td. Neu cd it nhdt mot electron tren moi nguyen
td trong mot man Id khdng duqc ghep ddi. mdu ndy cd khuynh hudng bi hiit vdo mdt td
tritdng, vd ditqc goi Id thudn td.
So electron khdng duqc ghep ddi cang nhiiu thi lilc hut vdo td trudng cang Idn
(trong sdt) cobalt vd nickel nguyen td cdc electron khdng ghep doi trung cuc nguyen td
Idn can cung cd cho nhau vd tqo ra mot litc hut ve phia td trudng mqnh han nhieu).
Chu diem 4.8: Periodic Variation of Electronic Configuration
The elements display a periodicity of electronic configuration. For example, if

we examine the detailed electronic configurations of the alkali metals, we find that the
outermost shell (specifically, the s subshell) of electrons contains only a single elec
tron in each case The alkaline earth metals have two outermost s electrons. The e le
ments within each other group of the periodic table also have similarities in their out
ermost electronic configurations. W e deduce that the outermost part of the electronic
configuration is the main factor that determines the chemical properties of the ele-
121
Topic 4: Electronic cotifiguralion o f the atom
ments because the periodic table was constructed from data about the properties of
the elements
We can use the periodic table to help us write electronic configurations of the at
oms of the elements. The periodic table can be divided into blocks corresponding to
the type of subshell occupied by the last electron added (Figure 4 11). The two groups
at the left of the periodic table— the alkali metals and the alkaline earth m etals— con
stitute the s block because their last electrons occupy s subshells Hydrogen and he
lium also are in this block, and we have to remember to shift helium to a place beside
hydrogen for this purpose The six periodic groups at the right of the table constitute
the p block; their last electrons go into p subshells. The transition metals belong to the
d block, and the / block consists of the inner transition metals
Note the similarity between the number of elements in each period in a particular
block and the maxim um num ber of electrons permitted in the corresponding type
subshell:
Type of subshell Maximum number Number o l elements
or block of electrons in subshell in each period
in a particular block
s 2 2
p 6 6
d 10 10
f 14 14
After each noble gas, a new shell of electrons is started, as is a new period of the
periodic table It turns out that electronic structure is the basis for the periodic behav
ior of the elements.
The four transition metal series arise because, for each of these elem ents, an
electron has been added to the next-to-outermost shell Addition of 10 electrons to the
3d subshell after the completion of the 4s subshell causes 10 elements to occur after
calcium to be the first elements in their periodic groups The second and third transi
tion series occur because the 4d and 5d subshells fill after the start of the fifth and
sixth shells, respectively. The inner transition elements stem from the addition of elec
trons to I subshells two shells lower than the outermost shell of their atoms
Because the periodic table reflects the electronic structures of the atoms we can
use it to deduce the configuration of any atom. W e use the periodic table with its s. p.
d, and /blocks, as shown in Figure 4.11 W e imagine helium to be next to hydrogen in
the Is block. To determine the electronic configuration of an elem ent, we start at hy
drogen — element 1 — and continue in order ol atomic numbers until we get to the
element in question The subshells come from the blocks in the periodic table and the
numbers of electrons (the superscripts in the configuration) are the numbers of e le
ments in the blocks Thus, we determine the electronic configuration of silicon to be
1s2 2sJ 2p6 3s2 3pJ
W e are most interested in the outermost shell and the inner subshells having nearly
the same energies We can therefore write the detailed electronic configuration for just
that shell and those subshells of the atom and use the symbol of the preceding noble
gas in square brackets to represent all the other electrons For exam ple the electronic
configuration of Cs is denoted
Ba [Xe] 6s7
122
Using the periodic table as a mnemonic device has several advantages over rely
ing on the n *■ t
rule and other rules: The periodic table is generally available for reference during
examinations The order of subshells is given "automatically." The maximum number
of electrons in each subshell matches the number of elements in each block. To write
a shortened notation for an element, you can start at the alkali metal in the same
period
No matter which “rule" or memory device we use to write configurations, some
transition metals and inner transition metals have configurations different from our ex
pected configurations. Some of these occur because of the added stability associated
with half-filled or fully filled subshells. For example, chromium and copper have actual
configurations with two such outermost sub-shells instead of only the fully filled 4s
subshell and 3d subshell neither half nor fully filled, as expected
Actual configuration Expected configuration
Cr: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s' 3db 1s2 2 s ’ 2p6 3s2 3p“ 4s2 3d4
Cu: 1 s2 2s2 2p6 3s? 3p6 4s' 3 d ’° 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d9
Most, but not all, cations formed from atoms of these elements have the same
configuration predicted by our “rules" or predicted from their actual configurations, and
the compounds containing these cations are of more interest to chemists than the
uncombined atoms of these elements anyway. (Section 5 2)

*■ The periodic table results from the electronic configurations of the atoms, and
so it can be used as a memory device to deduce these configurations.
*■ Atoms in a given periodic group have similar outermost electronic configura
tions.
A. Deduce the outermost electronic configuration of Ra without bothering to as
sign the inner 86 electrons to subshells.
• Being phdn loqi tuan hodn dtfoc tqo ra tit cdc cdu hinh electron ciia cdc nguyen
tii vd do do no cd the dtfqc sii dung nhtf mot cong cu gqi nhd de suy ra nhdng
cdu liinh ndy.
• Cdc nguyen tii trong mot nhdm tuan hodn da cho cd cdc cau hinh electron ngoai
cung ttfong ttf nhau.
A. Suy ra cdu hinh electron lap ngoai cung ciia Ra md khong xet den viec gdn 86
electron ben trong vao cac lop vo pliu.
Chu thich ttf - cum ttf va htfamg dan dpc hieu

- periodicity o f electronic configuration: tinh tuan hodn ciia cau true dien tii
- after the co m p le tio n o f the 4s subshell: sau khi hodn thanh lap vd con 4s
- in ord e r o f ato m ic numbers: bde so nguyen ttf
Sif bien doi tuan hoan ve cau hinh electron

Cdc electron the hien mot tinh chdt tuan hoan ve cau hinh electron. Vi du. neu ta
xem xet cdc cdu hinh electron chi tiet ciia cdc kim loai kiem. ta tliay rdng lap vo ngoai
123
cung (dac biet la lap vo con s) cua cdc electron chi cd chiia mot electron rieng le trung
moi trtfang liap. Cdc kim loai kiem tho co hai electron s nguai cung Nhdng nguyen to
trong moi nhdm noi Iren cda bdng phdn loqi tuan liodn cung co stf ttfang tu trong cdu
hinh electron ngoai cung. Ta suy ra rang plian ngoai cung cua cdu hinh electron la yeu
to chinh xdc dinh cac tinh chdt hda hqc ciia cac nguyen to vi bdng phdn loai tuan hodn
dd dtfqc xay dtfng td nhdng sd lieu ve cdc tinh chat cua cdc nguyen td.
Ta cd the sd dung bdng phdn loqi tuan hodn de giup ta trong viec viet cdc cdu
hinh electron nguyen td cua cdc nguyen td. Bdng tuan hodn cd the dtfqc chia thanh nhdng
khoi ttfang dng vdi loqi lap vd con dtfqc choang ddy bdi electron cuoi cung them vdo
(hinh 4.11) Hal nhdm a ben trdi cua bdng phdn loai tuan hoan - cac kirn loai kiem va
cdc kim loqi kiem tlio tqo tlianh khoi s vi electron cuoi cung cua chung choang cdc lap
vd phu s. Hydro vd heli cung d trong khoi ndy vd ta phdi nhd dich chuyen heli sang vi
tri ke ben hydro vi muc dich nay. 6 nhdm a ben phai ciia bdng phdn loqi tuan hodn tqo
thanh khoi p; cdc electron cuoi cung cua chung di vdo trong cdc lap vd phu p Cdc kun
loqi chuyen tiep thuoc ve khoi d va khoi f gom cdc kim loqi chuyen tiep ben trong
Chu y stf ttfang ttf gida sd Idqng cdc nguyen to cua moi chu ky trong mdt khoi ndo
dd vd so electron toi da dtfqc phep cd trong loai Idp vd con ttfang dng:
Loai lap vd hay khoi Sd electron Idn nhdt So nguyen td trong mdi
trong Idp vd phu trong mdt khdi dtic biet
s 2 2
p 6 6
d 10 10
f 14 14
Loai lap vd con hay khoi sd electron toi da trong lap vd con sd nguyen td cua chu ky
trong mot khdi sau moi khi hiem, mot lap vd electron mdi ddqc bdt ddu, cung nhtf mot
chu ky mdi trong bdng phdn loai tuan hodn. Rd rdng la cdu true electron deu to ban
trong tinh chdt cd tinh tuan hodn cua cdc nguyen to.
4 day kim loai chuyen tiep xuat hien vi ddi vdi moi nguyen td ndy. mdt electron dd
dtfqc them vdo trong lap vd ke vdi lap vd ngoai cung. Stf bo sung cua 10 electron la lap
vd con 3d, sau khi Idp vd con 4s dd hodn tdt khien cho 10 nguyen td xuat hien sau canxi
Id nhdng nguyen td dau tien trong cdc nhdm tuan hodn ciia chung. Cdc ddy chuyen tiep
thd hai vd thd ba xuat luen vi cdc Idp vd con 4 d vd 5 p dtfqc Idp ddy mot cach'ttfang tfng
sau khi cdc lap vd thd 5 vd thd 6 bdt ddu. Cac nguyen td chuyen tiep trong xuat hien do
stf bo sung cac electron vdo cdc lap vd con f cua hai Idp vd thdp han lap vd ngoai cung
trong cdc nguyen ttf cua chung.
Vi bdng phdn loai tuan hoan phan anli cau electron cua cdc nguyen ttf. ta co the stf
dung bdng ndy de suy ra cdu hinh cua mot nguyen td bdt ky. Ta stf dung bang phdn
loqi tuan hodn vdi cdc klioi s, p, d vd f nhtf trinh bdy trong hinh 4.11, ta ttfang ttfang la
heli ddng ke ben hydro trong khoi If. De xdc dinh cdu hinh electron cua mot nguyen td.
ta bat ddu o hydro - nguyen td 1 va tiep tuc theo thtf ttf sd hieu nguyen td cho den klu
den nguyen td dang xet. Cdc lap vd con cd dtfqc td cdc khoi trong bdng tuan hoan va sd
electron chd sd nhd ghi tren trong cdu hinh la nhdng con sd ciia cdc khdi trong cac nguyen
td. Theo dd ta xdc dinh cdu hinh electron cua silicon Id
Is- 2s- 2p'J 3s- 3pJ
Mot cdch giu gon han dot klu dtfqc sd dung de gidm bdt cong suat trong i iec t let
cdc cdu hinh electron ddi, trong klu van gid dtfqc hau nhtf todn bo thdng tin
124
Ta quan tdm nhieu nhdt d in Idp vd ngodi cung vd nhilng Idp vd con ben trong cd
gdn nhu cung cdc ndng luang. Theo do ta co th i viit cdu hinh electron chi tiit de chi cho
lap vd vd cdc Idp vd con dd cua nguyen tit vd sii dung ky hieu cua khi hiim dvlng trUdc
trong mgt ddu mdc vudng d i bieu dien tdt cd cdc electron khdc. Vi du, cdu hinh nguyen
tii cua Ba dugc viit:
Ba: [Xe] 6s2
Sd dung bdng phdn loai tudn hodn nhu m$t cong cu ggi nhd cd nhieu Uu diim so
vdi viec dua vdo quy ludt n + 1 vd cdc ky thudt khdc: bang phdn loai tudn hodn thudng
dugc cho phep tham khdo trong cdc ky thi. Tha tu cua cdc Idp vd con dugc cho *mot cdch
tu dong’ . Sd electron toi da trong moi Idp vd con phu hgp vdi so nguyen td trong moi
khdi. D i viet theo cdch ghi rut ggn cho mgt nguyen td, ban cd th i bdt ddu tU kim loai
kiem trong cung mot chu ky.
Khong k i Id ta sd dung “quy ludt" hay cdng cu ggi nhd ndo d i viit cdc cdu hinh;
mot sd kim loai chuyin tiip vd cdc kim loai chuyin tiip ben trong cd cdc cdu hinh khdc
vdi cdc cdu hinh md ta trong dgi. Mot sd khdc biet ndy xay ra vi tinh ben tdng them cd
lien quan din cdc Idp vd con ddy mot nda hay ddy hodn todn. Vi du choromium vd dong
cd cdc cdu hinh thuc te vdi hai Idp vd con ngodi cung nhu vdy, thay vi chi cd mot Idp vd
con 4s dugc Idp ddy vd Idp vd con 3d khong duac lap ddy mot nda hay Idp ddy hodn
todn nhu duac trong dai:
Cdu hinh thuc t i Cdu hinh trong dgi
Cr: Is2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3pe 4s' 3d 5 Is2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3pe 4s2 3d4
Cu: Is 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3ps 4s1 3d10 Is 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3pe 4s2 3d9
Phdn Idn nhung khdng phdi tdt cd cdc cation dugc too thanh tic cdc nguyen td cua
cdc nguyen td ndy cd cung cdu hinh dugc tien doan bdi cdc “quy luat” cua chung ta hay
duac tien doan tU cdc cdu hinh thuc te cua chung, vd nhilng hgp chdt cd chUa cdc cation
ndy dugc cdc nhd hda hoc quan tdm han nhitng nguyen td khdng k it hgp cua nhting
nguyen to ndy (muc 5.2)
SELF-TUTORIAL PROBLEMS - BAI T * P T tf GIAI
4.1 W hat difference is there, if any, when your instructor states ‘T h e first line in the
visible spectrum of hydrogen has a definite (a) wavelength." (b) frequency.” (c)
energy of its photons.”
4.2 If you run around a track eight times in an hour, what is your frequency (includ
ing the unit)?
4.3 For what elem ent is the Bohr theory most useful?
4.4 Multiply the wavelength and frequency values at any point in Figure 4.1. W hat
value do you get? Repeat the procedure for a second point. Do you get the
same or a different value? Explain your results.
(a) If you drop six marbles into an empty ice cream cone, how many will have
the lowest position?
(b) If the cone is held steady, how many will have the lowest position possible
under the circumstances?
125
(c) If you place six electrons in a carbon atom in its ground state, will all six
electrons have the same energy?
(d) Will all six have the lowest energy possible under the circumstances?
4.6 W hat values are possible for the principal quantum number n for electrons in
the ground state of an atom of Lr, element 103?
4.7
(a) What is the difference between an s subshell and an s orbital?
(b) What is the difference between a p subshell and a p orbital?
4.8
(a) Can two tickets to a concert have the same section, the sam e row, the
same seat, and the same date?
(b) How many of these must be different to avoid seating problems?
(c) Can two electrons in the same atom have the same n value, the same value,
the same m t value, and the same ms value?
(d) How many of these must be different to have a permissible situation?
4.9 W hat principles or rules affect the energies of electrons in an atom?
4.10 Add the energies for the change of the electron in the hydrogen atom from the
third orbit to the second plus that from the second orbit to the first (see Ex
ample 4.3 and Practice Problem 4.3 for data). Compare your answer to the en
ergy for the change from the third orbit to the first, and explain your result.
4.11 For the electrons of Table 4.2, is the sign of the ms value arbitrary for (a) the
first electron, (b) the second electron, (c) the fourth electron, (d) the tenth elec
tron?
4.12 Explain why helium, with two outermost electrons, has the same inertness char
acteristic of neon and argon, each with eight outermost electrons.
PROBLEMS - BAI TAP
4.1 A B rief E x p lo ra tio n of L ig h t - K hdo sat n g ln gon ve a n h san g
4.13 Use the equation £ = heA with E in joules, c in meters per second, and ). in meters
to determine the units of h
4.14 C alculate the frequency of a photon of light of w avelength 4 .3 4 0 X 10*7 m,

corresponding to a line in the visible spectrum of hydrogen.
4.15 C a lc u la te the e n e rg y of a photon of light of w a v e le n g th 6 .5 6 3 X 1 0 *7 m,

4.16 C a lc u la te the w a v e le n g th of a photon of light of e n e rg y 4 .8 5 X 1 0 - ’* J,

4.17 Calculate the frequency and wavelength of a 4.09 X 10-19 J photon, corresponding
to a line in the visible spectrum of hydrogen.
126
Topic 4: Electronic configuration o f tb e atom
4 .19 The frequency of a certain beam of light is 2.50 X 1016/s. Calculate the wavelength
and the energy of its photons. Determine in what portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum the beam lies.
4.2 B o hr T h eo ry - T h u yet Bohr
4 .20 List the possible series of electron transitions for an electron descending from
the fifth shell to the second in a hydrogen atom.
4.21 How m any different wavelengths of light would be emitted if many identical
atoms underwent the changes described in the prior problem?
4.22 Describe qualitatively the relationship between energy and the electron transitions
occurring in the neon gas in a neon sign.
4.3 Q uantum N u m b ers - C ac so IU<?ng tur
4 .23 W hat values of are permitted for an electron with n = 4?
4.24 W hat values of mt are permitted for an electron with ( = 3?
4.25 W hat values of ms are permitted for an electron with n = 4, ( = 2,and m ( = +2?
4.26 Make a chart showing all possible values o f , m / , and mt for an electron with n
= 2 and another with n = 3.
4.27 Which of the following sets of quantum numbers is (are) not permitted?
(a) n = 2, ( = 0, m t = +1 ,ms = -1/2

(b) n = 2, ( = 1, m , = -1,m t= -1
(c) n = 3. ( = -1, m t = 0, ms = +1/2
(d) n = 4, ( = 4, m , = -2, m5 = +1/2
4.4 R elative E n ergies of Electrons - Ndng IU<?ng tUOng doi cua cac electron
4.28 Arrange the following electrons in order of increasing energy:
(a) n = 4, e = 2, m / = -1, ms = +1/2

(b) n = 4, ( = 2, m ( = 0, ms = +1/2
(c) n = 4, C = 2, m / = 0, ms = -1/2
(d) n = 4, C = 2, m t = +1, m( = -1/2
4.29
(a) W hat values of m ( are permitted for an electron with = 4?
(b) How many different values of m t are permitted for an electron with = 4?
4.30 Compare the energies of the following electrons, identified by their quantum num
bers only:
(a) n = 3. ( = 1. m , = 1, ms = +1/2
(b) n = 3. ( = 1, m t = -1, ms = -1/2
(c) n = 3, ( = 1, m t = 0, ms = -1/2
4.31 Arrange the following four electrons in order of increasing energy:
(a) n = 4, ( = 0, m f = 0, ms = -12
(b) n = 3, ( = 1, m , = +1, ms = -1/2
127
(c) n = 3. ( = 2, m = -1, m t = -1/2

(d) n = 4, C = 1, m l = 1,m s=-1/2
4.32 A rrange the fo llo w in g electrons in order of increasing e nergy
(a) n = 4, ( = 3
(b) n = 5. l = 2
(c) n = 5. ( = 1
(d) n = 4, ( = 2
4.33 A rrange the fo llo w in g e lectrons, identified only by th eir n and i q ua ntu m num
bers, in o rd er of increa sing energy from low est to highest.
(a) n = 5, ( = 3 (b) n = 5, I = 2 (c) n = 4, ( = 3 (d) n = 4. I = 2
4.5 Shells, S u bshells, and Orbitals - C ac Idp v 6, cac Idp vo con va c ac orbital
4 34 W hat does the n um be r of values perm itted for a given n value have to do with
the n um ber of su bsh ells in a shell?
4.35 W hat does the n um be r of m t values perm itted for a g ive n v a lu e have to do
w ith the n um ber of orbitals in a sub-shell?
4.36 How m any e le ctron s are present in each of the fo llo w in g atom s? A ssu m in g that
each is a neutral atom , identify the elem ent.
(a) 1s2 2s22p63s'
(b) 1 s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
(c) 1 s22s22p63 s23p64s23 d ’ °4p3
4.37 How m any ele ctron s are perm itted (a) in a d orbital and (b) in a d subsh ell?
4.38
(a) How m any o rbitals are in the 2p subshell?
(b) How m any orbitals are in the 3p subshell?
(c) How m any o rbitals are in the 4p subshell?
(d) W hat is the m axim um n um ber of e le ctron s p erm itted in a 5p s u b s h e ll9
4.39 Explain w hy the helium atom is stable w ith only tw o e le ctron s in its outerm ost
shell, but m ag ne sium is not.
4.40 In a given atom , w hat is the m axim um n um ber of e le ctro n s th a t can have the
follow ing quantum num bers?
(a) n = 5, ( = 3
(b) n = 4, i = 2
(c) n = 2. I = 0
(d) n = 3. i = 2. and m = -2
4 41
(a) W hat is the letter d esign atio n for t = 2?

(b) How m any d iffe re n t m values are possible for an e le ctron in a su b s h e ll for
w hich i = 2 9
128
(c) How m any different orbitals are in an < = 2 su b s h e ll7

(d) W hat is the m axim um num ber of electrons in an < = 2 subshell?
4.42
(a) How m any 3p orbitals are present in any a tom 9
(b) W hat is the m axim um num ber of electrons in the 3p subshell?
(c) How m any e lectrons are present in the 3p subshell of a chlorine a tom 9
(d) E xplain w hy the subshell is not full in the chlorine atom
4.43 W rite detailed e le ctro n ic configurations for Be, N, and Na
4.6 Shapes of O rbitals - Hinh dang cua cac orbital
4.44
(a) How m any of the p orbitals pictured in Figure 4.8(b) are oriented along an
axis?
(b) How m any of the d orbitals pictured in Figure 4.8(c) are oriented along axes?
4.45 A cco rding to Figure 4.8(c), w hich two 3d orbitals cannot have an electron in the
xz-plane?
4.46 A ccording to Figure 4 8(b), which 2p orbital cannot have an electron in the xz-
p la n e 9
4 47 How m any d o rb itals are pictured in Figure 4 8 9
4.7 Energy Level D iagram s - Cac gian do mdc nang lupng
4 48 Draw an e ne rg y level diagram , and determ ine the num ber of unpaired electrons
in an atom of each of the follow ing:
(a) C (b) N (c) Na (d) P
4.49 W hat is the m axim um num ber of unpaired electrons in (a) an s subshell, (b) a p
subshell, (c) a d subshell, and (d) an/subshell?
4 50 How m any unpaired electrons are present in the ground state of an atom if six
e le ctron s are p re sen t in each of the follow ing subshells? There are no other un
paired e le ctron s
(a) 4p subsh ell
(b) 4d subshell
(c) 5f subsh ell
4 51 How m any unpaired electrons are in an atom in the ground state, assum ing that
all o the r su b sh e lls are either com pletely full or em pty, if its o ute rm o st p subshell
co nta ins (a) three electrons, (b) five electrons, (c) four electrons?
4 52 Draw an e ne rg y level diagram for the nickel atom
4 53 How m any unpaired electrons are in an atom in the ground state, assum in g that
all o the r su b sh e lls are either com pletely full or em pty, if its o ute rm o st d subshell
contains (a) four electrons, (b) seven electrons, (c) six electrons?
4 54 W hich of the follow ing configurations represents the outerm ost shell of the ground
state of p ho sp h o ru s?
129
(a) I I _L _L (b) T 1 T
3D _LL 3p
3s
(c) 1 1 T (d) T ti
fj 3p _LL 1 /T
3s 3j
(e) TI I (0 J ____ L _L
JJ_ ~3p tI 3p
3j 35
4.8 Periodic Variation of Electronic C onfiguration

SU bien th ien tuan hoan ve cau hinh electron
4 55 Locate in the p eriodic table (a) the elem ent that has the first 3p e le ctro n and (b)
the e le m ent that is the first to com plete its 2p su bshell
4.56 Use the p e rio d ic ta b le to d e d u c e how m any e le c tro n s can fit into any (a) s
subshell, (b) p subshell, (c) d subshell, a nd (d )/sub she ll
4.57
(a) How m any e le ctron s are added to an atom in the b uildu p p ro ce ss before
the start of the second shell? How m any ele m e n ts are in the p eriodic table
before the start of the second period?
(b) How m any ele ctron s are added to an atom in the b uildu p p ro cess before
the sta rt of the third shell? How m any e le m e n ts are in the p e rio d ic table
before the start of the third period?
(c) How m any ele ctron s are added to an atom in the b uildu p p ro ce ss before
the sta rt of the fourth shell? How m any ele m e n ts are in the p erio d ic table
before the start of the fourth period?
4 58 W rite detailed e le ctro n ic co nfig uratio ns for (a) F. (b) Cl, (c) Br and (d) I
4.59 W rite detailed e le ctro n ic co nfig uratio ns for each of the fo llo w in g
(a)Se (b) Si (c) S (d) Co (e) Ca
4 60 W rite detailed e le ctron ic co nfig uratio ns for each of the fo llo w in g
(a) Sb (b) V (c) O (d) Ne (e) Ca
4.61 W rite deta ile d e le ctro n ic co n fig u ra tio n s for Li, Na, K, and Rb. and ded uce the
oute rm o st co n fig u ra tio n s for Cs and Fr.
4 62 Use the p eriodic table to w rite the outer e lectronic c o n fig u ra tio n for each of the
follow ing e lem ents:
(a)Pb (b) Ba (c) Lu
4.63 Use the p e rio d ic table to w rite o ute r e le ctro n ic c o n fig u ra tio n s for e ach of the
follow ing ele m e n ts
(a) Sn (b) La (c) Gd (d) Ac
I 30
4.64 Use the p erio d ic table to w rite o ute r e le ctron ic c o n fig u ra tio n s for each of the
fo llo w in g elem ents:
(a) Pt (b) Bi (c) Re
4 65 W rite o ute r e lectronic configurations for each of the follow ing:
(a) TI (b) Hg (c) Po
GENERAL PROBLEMS - BAI TA P TONG QOAT
4.66 How m any unpaired electrons are present in the ground state of an atom if there
are fo u r e le ctro n s in each of the follow ing su bsh ells? There are no other un
paired electrons.
(a) 3p su bsh ell (b) 3d subshell (c) 4/subshell
4.67 W hat is w rong w ith each of the follow ing ground state configurations?
(a) 1s'2s22p4 (b) 1s?1p62s?2p3
(c) 1s2 2 s2 2 p 4 3 s2 3p6 (d) 1s22p63d ,04 f14
(e) 1s2 2s2 2 p 6 3 s2 3p6 4 s2 3 d ’4 (f) [Xe] 6s25 d °4 f'5

(g) 1s2 2 s2 2p6 2 d m (h) 1s2 2 s 4 2p6 3s2
(i) 1s2 2s2 2 p 6 3 s2 3 p 6 4s2 4 d '° 4p3
4 68 Does an e le ctron gain or lose energy in each of the follow ing transitions?
.(a) From a 4 fsu b sh e ll to a 3d subshell
(b) From a 4s su b sh e ll to a 3p subshell
(c) From a 5p su bsh ell to a 4d subshell
4.69 W hat is the m axim um num ber of unpaired electrons in (a) the 5d su bshell of an
atom and (b) the 5d subshell of an atom ?
4.70 Identify the e le m e n t from each of the follow ing partial co nfig uratio ns of neutral
atom s:
(a) 4 s? 3d-1 (b) ... 5 s? 4 d ’° 5p3
(c) 6p‘
(d) ... 5 s '
(e) ...3 d ’0 p4
(f) 6 s25 d '° 4 f’4
4.71 The e n e rg y of each of the first six shells of hydrogen is given in F igure 4 6
C alcu la te the ene rg ies em itted when the electrons in m any hydrogen atom s de
scend from the fifth shell to the second (Hint: See Problem 4 20.)
4 72 C alculate the energy of the first line of the hydrogen sp ectrum Its w avelength
(I) is 410 nm
4 73 Figure 4 11 show s that the periodic table is based on the e le ctro n ic structure of
the atom s E xplain how M endeleyev was able to create the perio d ic table w ith
out know ing abo ut the electron at all
4.74 W hat is the m axim um num ber of unpaired electrons in the ground state of an
atom in w hich only the 1s. 2s. 2p. and 3s subshells have any e le c tro n s 9
131
4.75 Is the Bohr theory or the quantum mechanical theory better to describe the elec
tronic a rran ge m en t of
(a) Neon (b) Boron (c) Oxygen
4.76
(a) Draw an energy level diagram for xenon
(b) Can you use this diagram for the electronic structure of s o d iu m 9
(c) Explain w hy one large energy level diagram is su fficie n t for all the elem ents
4.77 The Bohr th eo ry has been essentially replaced. E xplain w hy any th eo ry is ever
rejected.
4.78 W hich one(s) of the follow ing sets of quantum n um bers is (are) not p e rm itte d 7
(a) n = 2, < = 1, m, = 1, m s = -1/2

(b) n = 2, t = 2. m = 1, m s= +1/2
(c) n = 3, ( = 2. m ( = 0, m s = -1
(d) n = 4, ( = 3, m i = 2, m s = -1/2
(e) n = 4, ( = 2, m r = -3, m s = +1/2
4.79 W h ich m etal in each of the fo llo w in g sets w ill be d ra w n into a m a g n e tic field
the m ost?
(a) Cu Ni Hg
(b) Ca Co Cd
(c) Sc Mn V
(d) Ti Fe Ga
4.80 C an you ide ntify the fo llo w in g e le m e n t from its inn er e le c tro n ic co nfiguration?
Js* 2 s ? 2p6 ... Explain
4 81 In answ ering the question, “W hat is the m axim um value for ( for any electron
in the gro un d state of Lr. e le m e n t 103?" s e ve ra l s tu d e n ts gave the follow ing
a nsw ers and reasoning W hich one is correct?
(a) The m axim um / = 6 because the oute rm o st shell has n = 1 and cannot
be m ore than n — 1
(b) The m axim um i = 3 because th e/sub she ll has an i value of 3 and there
is no subsh ell w ith a big ge r value in Lr
(c) The m axim um t = 1 because the oute rm o st shell ca n n o t have m ore than
8 electrons, and > = 1 is the m axim um t for a filled octet
4.82 W hich one(s) of the follow ing co nfigurations are not perm itted for an atom in its
ground state?
(a) 1s22s?2 p ' (b) 1s62 s62p6 (c )1 s 22s? (d )1 s 2 s '
4 83 The orange line in the hydrogen spectrum is the ch a n g e of the e le c tro n from
the third orbit to the second: the green line is the ch an ge from the fo urth orbit
tothe second; the tw o violet lines are the changes from the fifth and sixth orbits
to the second, resp ective ly W hich color represents the m ost e n e rg y and which
represents the le a st9 Is w avelength d irectly p ro po rtio na l to e n e rg y 9
132
4 84 D educe the e xpected electronic configuration of (a) Co (b) Ge. and (c) Hg
4 85 W hat type (s. p. d. f) electron was the last electron added in the buildup process
to
(a) A nonm etal
(b) A transition elem ent
(c) An inner transition elem ent
S U M M A R Y - TONG KET CHlfONG

The chem ical p ro pe rtie s of atom s depend on their electronic structures. The num ber
of electrons in a neutral atom is equal to the num ber of protons in the nucleus— the
atom ic n um ber of the elem ent.
Light is e le ctrom ag ne tic radiation that has properties of both w ave m otion and a stream
of particles (photons) The w avelength of light (as a w ave) is inversely proportional to
the energy of its photons (particles). (Section 4.1)
Bohr first proposed the co nce pt that electrons are arranged in discrete energy levels in
the atom , w hich e xplain ed the em ission of specific energies of light w hen gaseous a t
oms are heated A lth ou g h B ohr's theory could not explain m any other details of the
behavior of atom s, it was a m ilestone in relating electronic structure and properties of
atom s. (Section 4.2)
The m odern theory of e le ctron ic structure is based on the assig nm e nt of four quantum
num bers to each e le ctron in an atom The principal quantum num ber, n. governs the
energy of the e le ctron and also its probable distance from the nucleus The angular
m om entum quantum num ber, i . also has an effect on the energy and d eterm ines the
shape of the vo lu m e of space that the electron can occupy The m agnetic quantum
num ber, m . d ete rm in e s the orientation in space of the volum e occupied by the e le c
tron. and the spin q ua ntu m num ber. m; , indicates the spin of the electron on its axis.
The lim its on the q ua ntu m num bers (Table 4 1) m ust be m em orized The Pauli e x c lu
sion principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have the sam e set of four
quantum n um bers (S ection 4.3)
The n + / rule g overns the ord er of increasing energy of the electrons in the atom
S ubshells are filled w ith e lectrons in the order of increasing n +. with due regard for
the lim itations on the quantum num bers and for the Pauli exclusion principle In each
case, the "last'' e lectron can be added to the configuration of the ele m e n t before, us
ing a pro ced ure know n as the buildup principle (Section 4 4)
E lectrons in a given shell of an atom all have the sam e n value E lectrons in a given
su bshell of an atom all have the sam e n value and the same t value. E lectrons in a
given orbital of an atom all have the sam e n value, the sam e i value, and the same
m value By co nve ntio n, subshells are designated using low ercase letters that c o rre
spond to the various ' values, and the electronic configuration of an atom is w ritten
using su p e rscrip ts for the num bers of electrons occupying the su bsh ells (for exam ple.
Is*’ indicates that tw o e le ctron s occupy the Is subshell) (Section 4.5)
Electrons in the various orbitals occupy portions of space having specified shapes. (These
are important when the shapes of molecules are considered in Section 13.4.) (Section 4.6)
E nergy level d ia g ra m s portray ele ctron s' occupation of the orbitals in an atom Such
d ia g ra m s are u se fu l fo r u n d e rsta n d in g Hund s rule and atom s m a g n e tic p ro p e rtie s
133
H und's rule states that in p artially filled subshells, the e le ctron s o ccup y o rb itals singly
and have the sam e sp in s as far as possible. If all the e le c tro n s in a s u b s ta n c e are
paired (two electrons in each occupied orbital), the su bstance w ill be repelled slightly
from a m ag ne tic field H ow ever, if at least one e le ctron in each fo rm u la u nit is u n
paired, the su bstance w ill be drawn into a m agnetic field. (S ection 4 7)
The p roperties of the elem ents stem from their ele ctron ic co nfig u ra tio n s, and the prop
erties place them in th eir locations in the periodic table. In each group, the elem ents
have a ch a ra cte ristic o u te rm o st e le ctron ic config uratio n. The e xiste n ce of the tra n s i
tion and in n e r tra n sitio n e le m e n ts stem s from adding e le c tro n s to in n e r s h e lls after
outer shells have been started. B ecause the p eriodic table reflects the e le ctro n ic stru c
tures of the atom s, it can be used as a m nem onic device w hen w riting e le ctro n ic con
figurations. The a bility to w rite and understand such co nfig uratio ns is a ve ry im portant
skill (Section 4 8)
134
CHEMICAL BONDING
li£m k £ 't hoa hqc
Myc DICH YEU cAu - Objectives BO CUC - Layout
5 .1 To interp ret and w rite chemical 5.1 Chemical Formulas

form ulas
5.2 Ionic Bonding
5 .2 To write octet rule electronic struc
5.3 Lewis Electron D ot Diagrams
tures for the formation of ionic
com pounds and to deduce the 5.4 Formulas for Ionic Compounds
formulas o f com pounds of main
5.5 Covalent Bonding
group m etals w ith nonmetals
5 .3 To w rite electron d ot diagrams

for keeping track o f the valence
electrons in compounds, especially
those o f main group elem ents
5 .4 To learn h o w to ded uce the for

mulas o f com p o u n d s o f main
group metals w ith nonmetals and
the formulas o f any m etal and
nonm etal ion com bination if w e
know the charges on the ions
5 .5 To w rite electron d o t diagram s

for the com pounds o f tw o or
m o re n o n m etals bonded w ith
shared electron pairs, and also
for p o lyatom ic ions
Jiucntg cifin doc hieu muc dich yeu cdu va bo cuc
5 .1 Dien gidi vd viet cdc cdng thiic hda hoc, 5.2 Viet quy ludt bo tdm ve cdu true
electron cho stf hinh thanh cua cdc hap chdt ion vd suy ra cong thiic cua cdc hap chdt cua
cdc kim loai nhom chinh vdi cdc phi kim, 5.3 Viet gian do electron dang chdm de theo
ddi cdc electron hda tri trong hap chdt, d$c biet la nhilng hap chdt cua cdc nguyin td
nhom chinh, 5 .4 Hqc biet cdch suy ra cong thilc cdc hap chdt cdc kim loai nhom chinh
vdi cdc phi kim vd cdng thiic cua mot ket hqp ion kim loai vd phi kim bdt ky, neu ta
135
Topic 5 : C hem ical bonding
biet ditqc cdc dien tich cua cdc ion, 5.5 Viit cdc gidn do electron dang chdm cho cac hgp
chdt cua hai hay nhieu phi kim lien ket vdi cdc c$p electron sd dung chung vd cung cho
cdc ion nhieu nguyen tii.
5.1 Cdng thiic hoa hqc, 5.2 Lien kit ion, 5.3 Cdc gidn do electron dang chdm Lewis,
5.4 Cong thiic cua cdc hqp chdt ion, 5.5 Lien kit cong hoa tri.
T he electro n ic structure of an uncom bined atom , d is cu s se d in Chapter 4,
deter-mines the ability of that atom to combine with other atoms to produce molecules
or ionic compounds. In this chapter, the fundamentals of chemical bonding are cov
ered. To discuss compounds, chemical formulas are required. Moreover, when sym
bols for atoms are combined in a chemical formula, some type of bonding is implied.
Therefore, chemical formulas are introduced first, in Section 5.1. (More information about
chemical formulas will be presented in Chapter 7.) Ionic bonding, which occurs when
electrons are transferred from one atom to another, is treated in Section 5.2. A conve
nient way to picture atoms with their outermost electrons the electron dot diagram is
presented in Section 5.3. The number of electrons transferred from one atom to an
other, or the charges on the resulting ions, enable us to deduce the formulas for bi
nary ionic compounds (Section 5.4). Atoms held together solely by covalent bonds form
units called molecules (or much larger units called macromolecules). Covalent bond
ing, in which the sharing of electrons is the primary method of bonding, is introduced
in Section 5.5, which also discusses combinations of ionic and covalent bonding.
Hudng dan dpc hieu

Cau true electron cua mot nguyen til khong ket hqp dd ban trong chuang 4, xdc
dinh kha. ndng cda nguyen td do de ket hqp vdi cdc nguyen td khdc tqo ra cdc phdn td
hay cdc hqp chdt ion. Trong chuang ndy nhdng dieu ca ban cua lien ket hoa hqc duqc
xet den. Nhdng dieu ca ban ndy la can thiet khi noi ve cdc hqp chdt, cdc cong thde hoa
hqc. Ngodi ra khi nhdng ky hieu cua cdc nguyen td duqc ket hqp trong m ot cong thde
hoa hoc, mot so loqi lien ket cung duqc the hien. Do vdy cdc cong thde hoa hqc duqc gidi
thieu trUdc trong muc 5.1 (thong tin chi tiet ve cdc cong thde hoa hqc se duqc gidi thieu
trong chuang chuang 7). Ion xay ra khi cdc electron duqc chuyen giao trd mot nguyen td
sang mot nguyen td khdc duqc ban den trong muc 5.2. M ot phuang phdp thudn tien de
the hien hinh anh cdc nguyen td vdi cdc electron ngodi cung cua chung Id gian do elec
tron dang chdm - duqc trinh bdy trong muc 5.3. Sd electron duqc chuyen td mot nguyen
to sang nguyen to khdc hay cdc dien tich duqc tqo thanh tren cdc ion giup chung ta co
the suy ra dtfqc cong thde cua cdc hqp chdt ion hai chdt (muc 5.4). Cdc nguyen td duqc
gid vai nhau chi bdng cdc lien ket cong hoa tri tqo thanh nhdng dan vi duqc goi la phdn
td hay nhdng dan vi Idn han nhieu goi la dqi phdn td). Lien ket cong hoa tri, trong dd
cd sii chia se cdc electron Id phtfang phdp lien ket ca ban dtfqc gidi thieu trong muc 5.5,
muc ndy cung ban den nhdng to hqp cua cdc lien ket cong hda tri vdo lien ket ion.
Chu diem 5.1: Chemical Formulas
Just as a symbol identifies an element, a formula is a combination of symbols that

identifies a compound, an ion, or a molecule of an element. However, chem-ical formulas
do much more. A formula also indicates the relative quantities of the elements contained
in the compound or ion and implies some kind of chem-ical bonding between the atoms.
136
Molecules of Elements
Seven elements occur as diatomic molecules when they are not combined with
other elements.
Form ulas are also used to identify m olecules of free elem ents. A molecule
con-tains two or more nonmetallic atoms bonded together. Many free (uncombined)
nonmetallic elements exist as molecules, such as H2, N 2. 0 2, F?, C 12, Br2, and l2. as
well as P4 and S8. The formula Se indicates eight sulfur atoms bonded together. This
formula does not represent a compound, because only one kind of atom is present.
Elemental sulfur in its lowest energy form occurs in such molecules.
Seven elements occur as diatomic molecules (molecules with two atoms) when
they are not combined with other elements. Fortunately, these elements are easy to
remem ber because, except for hydrogen, they form a shape like a seven in the peri
odic table, starting at the element with atomic number 7.
Hydrogen molecules (H 2) are so much more stable than separated hydrogen at
oms that the reaction of the atoms to form molecules produces a lot of heat:
2 H —> H2 + heat
Production of a given number of H2 molecules from hydrogen atoms produces more

heat than the production of the same number of C 0 2 molecules from burn-ing carbon
(charcoal) in oxygen. Construction workers take advantage of the reaction of atomic
hydrogen to weld steel pieces together in the absence of oxygen. That condition is
desirable because oxygen might make the steel rust.
W h ere do the hydrogen atoms come from? They are produced by electrical
dis-charge in a welding torch, such as is diagrammed.
In addition to its stable elementary form, 0 2, oxygen can also exist as 03 mol
ecules, a form called ozone. Ozone can be formed when an electrical discharge passes
through oxygen gas. and it is also formed in the upper atmosphere the ozone layer
when highenergy rays from outer space bombard 0 2 molecules The ozone molecules
in the upper atm osphere are important because they absorb harmful ultraviolet light
from the Sun. This prevents some of that light from reaching the Earth's surface, where
it could injure humans and other animals. The 0 3 molecule is more reactive than 0 2
and slowly decom-poses spontaneously:
2 0 3 -> 3 0 2
Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent. In the atmosphere near the surface of the
Earth, it is irritating and injurious in concentrations greater than two parts per million.
It can be used as a disinfectant and a bleach.
Some other free (uncombined) elements also occur in different forms. Different
forms of the sam e elem ent are called allotropes of each other. Except for oxygen,
the elements that form diatomic molecules when uncombined do not form allotropes,
but many other nonmetals do. The allotropes of carbon diamond and graphite are per
haps best known to the general public. Sulfur and phosphorus are also notable for form
ing allotropes.
BINARY COMPOUNDS
Atoms of two or more different nonmetals can bond together to form molecules
of a compound. H?0 C H 4, and C H 40 are examples.
I 37
In the formula for a binary compound (a compound containing only two elem ents),
the element that attracts electrons less is usually written first. The elem ents are as
signed an electronegativity that reflects their affinity for electrons in chemical bonds.
The elements that attract electrons most are said to have the highest electronegativi
ties or to be the most electronegative. Fluorine, the most electronegative elem ent, is
assigned an electronegativity of 4.0, and the other elements have values relative to
that of fluorine. The elements that attract electrons least are said to have the lowest
electronegativities or to be the most electropositive.
Values for the electronegativities of the main group elements are presented. Ex
cept for those of the noble gases, the electronegativities of the elements increase to
ward the right and toward the top of the-periodic table. Fluorine has the highest elec
tronegativity of any element, and oxygen has the second highest value. The most elec
tropositive element is francium (Fr). The metals are more electropositive than the non-
metals. Thus, in the formula of a binary compound, the metal, if one is present, is
written first. If no metal is present, the nonmetal closer to the m etal portion of the
periodic table is written first. Some examples of binary compounds of nonmetals are
CO, H ,0 . S 0 2, and S i0 2.
Formulas for binary compounds of hydrogen do not follow the rule just dis-cussed.
Hydrogen is written first in the formula if the compound is an acid (Chapter 8) and
written later if the compound is not an acid. For example, HCI is hydrochloric acid, and
NH3 is ammonia. The position of the H in these formulas indicates that HCI is an acid
and N H 3 is not. H20 and H20 2 are excep-tions to this rule.
Formula Units
The collection of atoms represented by a formula is called a formula unit. A chem i
cal formula consists of symbols of element(s), often with subscripts that tell how many
atoms of each element are present per formula unit. The subscript follows the symbol
of the element it multiplies. Parentheses may be used in a formula to group bonded
atoms together, and a subscript after the closing parenthesis tells how m any of that
group are present per formula unit. The following formulas illustrate the meanings of
subscripts in formulas:
CO One carbon atom and one oxygen atom are bonded in one formula unit.
C 02 One carbon atom and two oxygen atoms are bonded in one
formula unit.
(N H J 3P 0 4 Three N H 4 groups, each containing one nitrogen atom and four hydro
gen atoms, and one phosphorus atom and four oxygen atoms are present
in one formula unit. The atoms in the N H 4 groups are bonded in some
way, as'is the compound as a whole (Section 5.5).
Br2 Two atoms of bromine are bonded in one formula unit.
H20 T wo atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen are bonded in one
formula unit This formula unit represents one molecule of water

*■ The chem ical form ula for a substance tells you (a) that the e lem en ts in it
are all bonded in som e way and (b) the relative num bers of atoms of each
elem en t.
138
A. How many atoms of hydrogen are present per atom of sulfur in (N H 4)2S 0 4?
B. Which element in SCI2 is more electronegative?
C. What is the formula for elemental chlorine?
• Cdng thilc hoa hqc cua mot chdt cho ban biet (a) tdt cd cdc nguyen to deu duac
lien ket theo mot hinh thiic ndo do vd (b) sd luong nguyen tie tuang ddi ciia tUng
nguyen to.
A. Co bao nhieu nguyen tic hydro hien dien tinh tren nguyen ttf oxy trong (NHJJSOJ
B Nguyen td ndo trong SCl2 co do dm dien Ian han ?
C. Cong thiic cua chlorine nguyen td la gi?
Chu thich tCf - cum tCf va htfdng dan dpc hieu

- form ula: cdng thUc
- molecule: phan tic
- elem ental: thuoc nguyen td
- d ia to m ic m olecules: hai phdn tii
- o zo n e : ozone
- allotropes: the thu hinh
- w hen th e y are n o t com bined w ith o the r elements: k /11 chiing khong ket hqp vai
cdc nguyen td khdc
- b in a ry compound: hqp chdt hai thanh phdn
- e le c tro n e g a tiv ity : do dm dien
- form ula u n it: cong thUc dan vi
- subscripts: chi sd dilai
Cong thufc hoa hpc

Ciing giong nhtf mot ky hieu de chi ra mot nguyen td, mot cong thUc la mot ket
hqp cdc ky hieu de chi ra mot hqp chdt, mot ion hay mot phdn tii ciia mot nguyen td.
Tuy nhien, cdc cong thiic hoa hqc con cd nhieu y nghia ntfa. Cong thiic cung chi ra Itfong
tuang ddi cua cdc nguyen td cd chiia trong hqp chdt hay ion vd bieu hien mot sd loai lien
ket hda hqc giUa cdc nguyen tii.
Phan tO cua cac nguyen to

Cac cong thUc cung duqc sii dung de nhdn dien cdc phdn til cua cdc nguyen td tii
do. M ot nguyen til cd chUa hai hay nhieu nguyen til phi kim duqc lien ket vai nhau.
Nhieu nguyen td phi kim tu do (khong ket hqp) ton tai a dang cdc phdn tii nhu H ? N
0 ^ Fp Cl2 vd I? cung nhtf PA vd S^. Cdng thiic S chi ra la 8 nguyen til luu huynh duqc
lien ket vai nhau. Cdng thUc ndy khdng bieu dien cho mot hqp chdt vi chi cd mot loai
nguyen tii hien dien. Ltfu huynh nguyen td a dang ndng Itfqng thdp nhdt trong nhdng
phdn til nhtf vav. 7 nguyen td cd a dang cdc phdn til hai nguyen til (phdn til vdi hai
nguyen til) khi chiing khdng ket hqp vdi cdc nguyen td khdc. M ay mdn thay la nhilng
nguyen to ndy de nhd vi ngoai tril hydro chiing tqo thanh mot dang giong nhtf mot sd 7
trong bdng tudn hodn. bdt ddu til nguyen to vdi sd hieu nguyen tic Id sd 7 phdn til hydro
(HJ ben han nhieu so vdi cdc nguyen til hydro rieng le; phdn tfng cua cdc nguyen til
hydro de tqo thanh phdn tii hydro tqo ra nhieu nhiet:
139
Topic 5: Chemical bonding
2 H -> H 2 + nhiet
Stf tqo thanh mot Itfqng nhat dinh cdc phdn td H 2 td cdc nguyen td hydro iao ra
nhieu nhiet hon so vdi stf tqo thanh cung mot Itfqng phdn td C 0 2 ttf viec dot chay carbon
(than dd) trong oxy. Cong nhdn xay dtfng da Iqi dung tfu diem ndy cua phdn dng hydro
nguyen td de han cdc tdm thep lai vdi nhau ma khdng cd stf hien dien cua oxy. Dieu
kien ndy ddng dtfqc mong muon vi oxy cd the lam thep ri.
Cdc nguyen td hydro den td ddu? Chung dtfqc tqo ra bdng cdch cho phong dien
trong mot md han, nhtf dtfqc ve trong so do.
Ngoai dang ben co ban la 0 ? oxy cd the hien dien nhtf cdc phdn td O r dtfqc goi Id
ozone. Ozone cd the dtfqc tqo thanh khi cd stf phong dien qua khi oxy, vd no dtfqc tqo
thanh d thtfqng tdng khi quyen - tan ozone khi cdc tia ndng Itfqng cao ttf khdng gian
ben ngodi bdn phd cdc phdn td Oy cdc phdn td ozone trong thtfqng tdng khi quyen la
quan trong vi chung hap thu anh sang ctfc tim cd hai td mdt trdi. Dieu nay ngdn cho
mot phdn cua thd anh sang dd khdng den dtfqc be mdt trdi ddt la noi cd the gay hai cho
con ngtfdi vd cdc dong vat khdc. Phdn td 0 3 hoat dong vd bi phdn huy ttf phdt chdm.
2 0 3 -> 3 0 2
Ozone la mot tac nhdn oxy hda manh; trong khi quyen gdn be mdt trdi ddt, no gdy
kich dng vd gdy hai vdi cdc nong do Idn hon hai phdn trieu. No cd the dtfoc sd dung nhtf
mot chdt khd trung vd mot chdt tay trang.
Mot so nguyen to ttf do (khdng ket hqp) khdc cung cd d nhieu dang khdc nhau.
Nhdng dang khdc nhau cua cung mot nguyen to dtfqc goi Id cdc dang thu hinh. Ngoai
trd oxy, cdc nguyen to tqo thanh cdc phdn td hai nguyen td khi khdng ket hop khdng tqo
thanh cdc thu hinh, nhtfng nhieu phi kim cd tqo thanh cdc thu hinh. Cdc thu hinh cua
carbon la kim ctfong vd graphic la nhdng vi du dtfqc nhieu ngtfdi biet nhdt. Ltfu huynh
vd phosphor cung dtfqc ghi nhan la cd tqo thanh cdc thu hinh.
Cac hdp chat hai chat

Nguyen td cua hai hay nhieu phi kim khdc nhau cd the lien ket vdi nhau de tqo
thanh cdc phdn td cua hqp chdt. H20 , CH 4 vd C H f i Id nhdng vi du.
Trong cdng thde cua mot hqp chdt hai chdt (mot hqp chdt chi cd chtfa hai nguyen
to), nguyen to thu hut electron kem hon thtfdng dtfqc viet trtfde. Cdc nguyen to dtfqc gdn
cho mot do dm dien de phdn anh electron cua chung trong lien ket hda hqc. Cdc nguyen
td thu hut electron manh nhdt dtfqc goi la cd do dm dien cao nhdt hay dm dien nhdt.
Fluorine la nguyen to dm dien nhdt, dtfqc gdn cho mot do dm dien la 4 0, va cdc nguyen
td khdc cd cdc gia tri ttfang doi so vdi fluorine; thu hut electron kem nhdt dtfqc goi la cd
cdc do dm dien thdp nhdt hay dtfong dien nhdt. Cdc gid tri do dm dien cua nhdng nguyen
td nhdm chinh dtfqc gidi thieu trong hinh 5.4.
Ngoai trd do dm dien cua cdc khi hiem, do dm dien cua cdc nguyen to tdng theo
chieu sang phdi vd theo chieu di len tren trong ban phdn loai tudn hodn. Flourine cd do
dm dien cao hon bdt cd nguyen td ndo vd oxy cd do dm dien cao thd nhi. Nguyen td
dtfong dien nhdt Id francium (Fr). Cdc kim loai dtfong dien hon cdc phi kim. Do dd,
trong cdng thde cua mot hqp chdt hai chdt, kim loai, neu cd, dtfqc viet trudc Neu khdng
cd kim loai thi khong kim loqi gdn vdi phdn kim loai cua bdng tudn hoan duoc viet
trtfde. Mot sd vi du ve cdc hop chdt hai chdt cua kim loqi Id CO, H f i , S O r i d S iO .
Cdng thde cdc hqp chdt hai chdt cua hydro khdng tudn theo quy ludt noi tren. H y
dro dtfqc viet trtfde trong cdng thde neu hqp chdt la mot acid (chtfang 8) vd dtfoc n e t sau
neu hqp chdt khdng phai la mot aicd. Vi du HCI acid hydrochloric vd N H , la amonia.
Vi tri cua H trong nhdng cdng thtfc ndy chi ra rdng HCI la mot acid vd N H , khcng phdi
la acid. H ,0 vd H .O la nhdng ngoai le cua quy ludt ndy.
140
Don v| cong thOc

Tap hqp cdc nguyen td dtfqc bieu dien bai mot cong thiic dtfqc goi la mot dan vi
cong thiic. M ot cong thiic hoa hqc g om ky hieu ciia cdc nguyen to, thtfdng co cdc so
nho ghi a dtfdi de cho biet cd bao nhieu nguyen td cua moi nguyin to hien dien tren
mot dan vi cong thde. Chd so nho ghi dtfdi tiep theo ky hieu cua nguyin to la boi so
cua nguyen to ndy. Cdc dau ngoac co the dtfqc sd dung trong mot cong thde de nhdm
cdc ngu yin td dtfqc lien ket vdi nhau, vd mot chd so nho ben dtfdi sau khi ddng
ngoac cho ta biet la cd bao nhiiu nhom nhtf vay hien dien trin mot dan vi cdng
thde. Cdc cong thde sau ddy minh hoa y nghla cua nhdng chd so nhd ghi dtfdi trong
cdc cdng thde.
CO mot nguyin td carbon vd mot nguyin td oxy dtfqc liin kit trong mot
dan vi cong thiic.
C 02 mot nguyin td carbon vd hai nguyin td oxy dtfqc lien ket trong mot
dan vi cdng thde.
(NHJjPO^ ba nhdm N H f moi nhom cd chda mot nguyen td nitrogen vd 4 nguyin
td hydro vd mot nguyen td phosphor ua 4 nguyin td oxy hien dien trong
mot dan vi cdng thde. Cdc nguyen td trong cdc nhdm N H 4dtfqc lien ket
ve mdt ndo dd giong nhtf trong mot hqp chdt (muc 5.5)
Br2 hai nguyin td bromine dtfqc liin ket vdi nhau trong mot dan vi cdng
thde.
H 20 hai nguyin td hydro vd mot nguyin td oxy dtfqc lien ket trong mot dcm
vi cdng thde. Cdng thde ndy bieu dien cho mot phdn td ntfdc.
Chu diem 5.2: Ionic Bonding
The electrons in atoms are arranged in groups, those in each group having nearly
the same energies. These energy levels are often referred to as shells. The first shell
of any atom can hold a maximum of 2 electrons; the second shell can hold a maxi
mum of 8 electrons; and the other shells can hold a maximum of 8 electrons when
they are the outermost shell, but a greater number when they are not (Table 5.1). The
outermost shell is the last shell that contains electrons.
Table 5.1 Maximum Electron Occupancy of Shells

Shell N um ber M axim um Occupancy M axim um Occupancy
as the Outermost shell as an Inner Shell
1 2 2
2 8 8
3 8 18
4 8 32
5 8 5 0*
6 8 72*
7 8*
00
Y:
* M ore than the num ber o f electrons available in any atom
141
Electrons can be transferred from metal atoms to nonmetal atoms to achieve a

more stable, lower energy state. The noble gases are composed of stable atoms; no
reactions of the first three (He, Ne, Ar) have been discovered, and the others (Kr. Xe,
Rn) are almost completely unreactive. The stability of the noble gases is due to the 8
electrons in the outermost shell of each atom (2 electrons in the case of helium). In
fact, 8 electrons in the outermost shell is a stable configuration for most main group
atoms Atoms other than those of the noble gases tend to form ionic or covalent bonds
(or both) with other atoms to achieve this electronic configuration The 8 electrons in
the outermost shell are called an octet. The tendency of atoms to be stable with 8
electrons in the outermost shell is called the octet rule. In some compounds, one (or
more) of the atoms does not obey the octet rule. Some exceptions to the octet rule
will be mentioned briefly in Section 5.5.
Because the maximum number of electrons in the first shell of an atom is 2, he
lium is stable with 2 electrons in its only occupied shell. The other very light elements—
hydrogen, lithium, and beryllium— tend to form stable states by achieving the 2-elec
tron configuration of helium. Having 2 electrons in the first shell, when that is the only
shell and therefore the outerm ost shell, is a stable state, and the 2 electrons are some
times called a duet. W hen there is only one shell, 2 elec-trons in that shell act like 8
electrons in any other outermost shell. Therefore, an atom with 2 electrons in its out
ermost first shell is often said to obey the octet rule, although “duet rule" would be
more precise.
The valence shell of electrons in an atom is the outermost shell of electrons of
the uncom bined atom. The electrons in that shell are called valence electrons. If all
the electrons are removed from that shell, the next inner shell becomes the new outer
most shell. For example, the sodium atom has 2 electrons in its first shell, 8 electrons
in its second shell (the maximum), and its last electron in its third shell. The valence
shell is the third shell. If the 1 electron is removed from the third shell, the second
shell becomes the outermost shell, containing 8 electrons. The valence shell is still the
(now empty) third shell. The number of electrons in the valence shell of an uncombined
main group atom is equal to the classical periodic group number of the element. The
exceptions to this rule are that helium has 2 valence electrons and the other noble
gases have 8 valence electrons.
A ll m etals react with nonm etals to form ionic com pounds Main group metals tend
to transfer their valence electrons to nonmetals, and nonmetals tend to accept enough
electrons from these metals to achieve their octets. For example, a sodium atom has
1 electron in its valence shell, and a chlorine atom has 7 elec-trons in its valence shell
When they react, the sodium atom transfers that 1 electron to the chlorine atom, forming
two charged species called ions. Both ions have 8 electrons in their outermost shells.
(The sodium ion has 8 electrons in its second shell, now its outermost shell.) The elec
tronic configurations o f both ions are those of noble gas atom s (the sodium ion has that
of a neon atom, and the chlorine ion that of argon). The atoms have not been changed
into noble gas atoms, however, because their nuclei have not changed
The sodium ion has a single positive charge because the neutral atom has do
nated one negatively charged electron. The sodium ion is written as N a - The ion formed
from the chlorine atom has a single negative charge, resulting from the gam of the
electron by the neutral chlorine atom This ion is written as Cl Oppositely charged
bodies attract each other, so Na* ions and Ch ions attract each other This kind of
attraction is called an electrostatic attraction. In general, the transfer of electrons from
one atom to another produces oppositely charged ions, which attract each otner The
formula for the compound of sodium and chlorine is NaCI. which shows that one N a -
ion is present for each C l' ion
I 42
All ionic compounds have an overall net charge of zero because the electrons are
transferred but do not disappear. The electrons that some atoms accept to form nega
tive ions are donated by other atoms, which become positive ions. Positively charged
ions are called cations (pronounced “cat'-ions"), and negatively charged ions are called
anions (pronounced “an'-ions”). The sodium ion is positive; it is a cation. The ion pro
duced by the chlorine atom accepting an extra electron is negative; it is an anion. If an
anion is a monatomic ion (hav-ing only one atom), its name ends in -ide, so C l' is
called the chloride ion.
Metallic and nonmetallic elements can react with each other to form compounds
by transferring electrons from the metal atoms to the nonmetal atoms. The ions formed
attract each other because of their opposite charges, and these attractions are called
ionic bonds. However, in a solid ionic compound, a single pair of ions does not bond
together; instead, an almost inconceivably huge number of both types of ions forms a
lattice that extends in three dimensions. The three-dimensional nature of the sodium
chloride structure is typical of ionic solids.
The ionic nature of these compounds (the fact that charged particles are present)
can be shown by experiments in which the ions are made to carry an electric current.
Pure water does not conduct electricity well. However, if a compound that consists of
ions is dissolved in water and the solution is placed between electrodes in an appara
tus like that shown in Figure 5.10, the solution will conduct electricity when the elec
trodes are connected to the terminals of a battery. Each type of ion moves toward the
electrode that has the opposite charge of that of the ion. That is, cations migrate to
the negative electrode, called the cathode, and anions migrate to the positive elec
trode, called the anode. (The names cation and anion were derived from the words
cathode and anode.) For electricity to be conducted, the ions must be free to move. In
the solid state, an ionic compound will not conduct because the ions are trapped in
the lattice. H owever, if the compound is heated until it melts or if it is dissolved in
water, the liquid compound or solution will conduct electricity because the ions are free
to move.
Detailed Electronic Configurations of Anions (Optional)

The detailed electronic structures of monatomic ions may be deduced starting from
the structures of the corresponding neutral atoms (presented in Chapter 4). Monatomic
anions have simply added sufficient electrons to the outermost p subshell to complete
that subshell. The n + ( rule can be used to deduce the structure of the ion as well as
that of the neutral atom. For example, the elec-tronic configuration of the oxide ion
(the anion of oxygen) is deduced, starting with the configuration of oxygen:
O atom: 1s2 2 s2 2p4
The oxide ion has a double negative charge, obtained by gaining two extra
elec-trons. These electrons go into the 2p subshell:
O2_ion:1s2 2s2 2p6
This e le c tro n ic co n fig u ratio n is the sam e as that of neon. An ion with a
con-figuration like that of a noble gas is said to have a noble gas configuration.
Detailed Electronic Configurations of Cations (Optional)

To form monatomic cations, metals lose electrons from the valence shell first. Some
main group metals have more than one subshell of the valence shell occupied by elec
143
trons, in which case the electrons in the highest subshell of the valence shell are lost
first. For example, the tin atom loses its 5p* electrons to form Sn2* The configuration
is thus.
Snîon: [Kr] 5si 4 cf°

The outermost shell of electrons in an uncombined atom of most main group
elements contains a number of electrons equal to the group number.
* - W hen a metal loses electrons, its valence shell is very often left with no elec
trons, so the next inner shell becomes the “outermost shell" of the resulting
ion.
*■ In Chapter 3, the number of electrons in an atom was equal to the number of
protons because the atoms were uncharged. It does not matter that they were
isotopes or a mixture of isotopes of the same element. In an ion the number
of electrons is not equal to the number of protons, so the ions have charges.
A. How many electrons are in the valence shell and in the outermost shell of
(a) K? (b) K*?
B. Compare the number of protons and electrons in each of the following:
(a) 35CI, (b) Cl, and (c) Cl-
• Lap vd ngoai cung cua cdc electron trong mot nguyen tii khong ket hap cua phdn
lan cdc nguyen to nhom chinh co chiia mot so electron bdng vai so nhom.
• Khi mot kim loai mdt cdc electron, lap vo hoa tri cua no rat thudng khong con
electron, do do lap vo ke tiep ben trong trd thanh “lap vo ngoai cung’ cua ion
duqc tqo thanh.
• Trong chuang 3, so electron trong mot nguyen tii bang so proton vi nguyen tii Id
khong co dien tich. Neu do Id cdc dong vi hay mot hon hap cdc dong vi cua mot
nguyen to thi cung khdng anh hudng gi. Trong mot ion, so electron khdng bdng
so proton, do dd ion cd dien tich
A. Cd bao nhieu electron trong lap vd hda tri vd trong lap vd ngoai cung cua (a) cd
K ? (b) K 'l
B. So sanh so proton vd electron trong nhilng trudng hqp sau day: (a) uCl, (b) Cl
vd (Cl)
Chu thich ttf - cum ta va hacmg dan dpc hieu

- ou term ost shell: lap vd ngoai cung
- octet: bdt tii
- oatet rule: quy tdc bdt tii
- uncom bined: khdng ket hqp
- valence: gia tri
- electrons: cdc electron
- all m etals react w ith n o n m e ta ls form ionic com punds: tdt cd cd c kim loai phdn
Ung vdi phi kim loai hqp chdt ion
- the electro n ic con figu rations o f both ions are those o f noble gas a to m s c d c cdu
hinh electron cua cd hai ion la cdu hinh cua khi tra
144
- electrostatic attraction: hut tinh dien

- cations: cdc cation
- anions: cdc anion
- monatomic ion: ion dan nguyen tii
- ionic bonds: lien ket ion
- sodium chloride structure: cdu true clorua natri
- electrodes: cdc dien ctfc
- opposite: ddi dien
- cathode: cathode
Lien ket ion

Cac electron trong nguyen td duqc sdp xep thanh tdng nhom, nhdng nhom ndy gdn
nhu co cung ndng luqng. Cac mdc nang luqng thtfdng dtfqc goi la cdc lap vd. Lap vd thd
nhdt cua mot nguyen to bdt ky co the chda toi da 2 electron; lap vo thd hai co the chda
toi da 8 electron va cdc lap vo khdc cd the chda toi da 8 electron khi chung Id lap vd
ngodi cung, nhtfng cd sd electron Idn han khi chung khdng phai la lap ngodi cung (bdng
5.1). Lap vd ngodi cung la lap vd cuoi cung cd chda electron. Cdc electron cd the dtfqc
chuyen ddi td nhdng nguyen td kim loai sang nhdng nguyen td phi kim de dat mot
trang thai ndng luqng thdp han, ben han. Cdc khi hiem duqc tqo thanh td cdc nguyen td
ben, ngudi ta chua phat hien duqc nhdng phdn dng cua ba khi hiem ddu tien (He, Ne,
Ar) vd khi hiem khdc (Kr, Xe, Rn) gdn nhtf hodn todn khdng phdn dng. Tinh on dinh
cua cdc khi hiem la do 8 electron trong lap vd ngoai cung cua tdng nguyen td (2 elec
tron trong trudng hqp helium).
Trong thtfc te, 8 electron trong lap vd ngodi cung la cdu hinh ben ddi vdi hdu het
cdc nguyen td cua nhdm chinh. Cdc nguyen td khac ngoai nhdng khi hiem ndy cd khuynh
htfdng tqo thanh nhdng lien ket ion hay cong hda tri (hay cd hai) vdi cdc nguyen td khdc
de dat dtfqc cdu hinh electron ndy. 8 electron trong lap vd ngodi cung dtfqc goi la mot bo
8. Khuynh htfdng cua cdc nguyen td trd nen ben vdi 8 electron trong lap vd ngodi cung
dtfqc goi la quy ludt bo 8. Trong mot so hqp chdt, mot (hay nhieu) nguyen td khdng tudn
theo quy luat bo 8. Mot so ngoai le cua quy luat bo 8 se dtfqc noi qua trong muc 5.5.
Vi so electron toi da trong lap vd thd nhdt cua mot nguyen td la 2, hay la ben vdi
hai electron choang ddy lap vd duy nhdt cua no. Nhdng nguyen td rat nhe khdc - hydro -
lithi vd berylh - cd khuynh hudng hinh thanh nhdng trang thdi ben bdng cdch dat den
cdu hinh 2 electron cua helium. Viec cd 2 electron trong lap vd thd nhdt, khi lap vd ndy
1a lap vd duy nhdt cd do dd la lap vd ngodi cung, la mot trang thai ben vd 2 electron
ddi khi dtfqc got Id mot bo doi. Khi chi cd duy nhdt mot lap vd, 2 electron trong lap vd
dd cd tac dung nhtf 8 electron trong bdt cd mot lap vd ngoai cung ndo khdc. Do vdy mot
nguyen td vdi 2 electron trong lap vd ngoai cung ddu tien thtfdng dtfqc goi la tudn theo
quy ludt bo 8, mac du noi la "quy luat bo doi” se chinh xdc han.
Lap vd hoa tri cua cdc electron trong mot nguyen td la lap vd ngodi cung cua cdc
electron cua nguyen td khdng ket hqp. Cdc electron trong lap vd ndy dtfqc goi la cdc elec
tron hda tri. Neu tdt cd cdc electron bi loqi bo khdi lap vd ndy, thi lap vd ke tiep ben trong
se thanh lap vd ngoai cung mdi. Vi du, nguyen td natri cd hai 2 electron trong lap vd thtf
nhdt cua no, 8 electron trong lap vd thd hai (toi da) vd electron cuoi cung trong lap vd thd
ba. Lap vd hda tri la lap vd thd ba. Neu mot electron bi loqi khdi lap vd thd ba thi lap vd
thtf hai trd thanh lap vo ngoai cung cd chda 8 electron. Lap vd hda tri c d n con la lap vd
145
thd ba due nay trong) so electron trong lap vd hoa tri cua mot nguyen to nhom chinh khong
ket hqp bang so nhom trong bdng tuan hoan co dien cua nguyen to do. Nhilng ngoai la
heli co hai electron hoa tri vd cdc khi hiem khdc cd 8 electron hda tri.
Tat cd cdc kim loqi phdn ling vdi phi kim de tqo thanh cdc hqp chat ion. Nhilng
kim loqi nhdm chinh cd khuynh htfdng chuyen cdc electron hda tri cua chung cho cdc phi
kim vd cdc phi kim cd khuynh htfdng nhdn du cdc electron til nhilng kim loqi ndy de
dat dtfqc cdc bo 8 cua chung. Mot vi du la nguyen til natri cd mot electron trong lap vo
hda tri ciia no, vd nguyen tii chlorine cd 7 electron trong lap vd hda tri ciia no. Khi chiing
phdn ling, nguyen tii natri chuyen 1 electron ndy cho nguyen tii chlorine, tqo thanh hai
thtfc the cd dien tich goi la ion. Cd hai ion deu cd 8 electron trong lap vd ngoai cung cua
chung. (Ion natri cd 8 electron trong lap vd thii hai la lap vd ngodi ciing). Cdu hinh
electron ciia cd hai ion la cdu hinh cua nhilng nguyen tii khi hiem (ion natri cd cdu hinh
cua nguyen tii neon vd ion chlorine cd cdu hinh cua nguyen argon). Tuy nhien, nhitng
nguyen tii ndy khong bi bien doi thanh nhilng nguyen tii khi hiem vi nhdn cua chiing
khong thay doi.
Ion natri cd dien tich ditang 1 vi nguyen tii trung hda dd cho di m ot electron cd
dien tich dm. Ion natri dtfqc viet la Na*. Cdc dan vi cdng thilc cua H e F } the hien nhilng
nguyen td dan vd nhilng phdn td hay nguyen td cd ttfang dng. Khdng nhtf phdn td Ff
trong dd mot nguyen td fluorine dtfqc lien ket vdi mot nguyen td fluorine ddc thu khdc,
trong hqp chdt ion NaCl mot ion Na* dtfqc lien ket vdi 6 ion Cl Ian can vcri no (cdc ion thd
5 vd thd 6 ndm trong nhdng lap a trtfde vd sau lap dtfqc trinh bdy trong hinh ndy); (xem
hinh 5.9) TI so cua cdc ion Na* vdi cdc ion Cl theo dd la 1:1. Bdt cd mot cdp ion Na* vd
Cl ndo nhtf cdp ditqc khoanh tron mdu dd hay cdp dtfqc khoanh tron mdu xanh luc, deu la
mot dan vi cdng thde.
Cdc thtfc the cd dien tich trdi ddu hut nhau, do dd cdc ion Na* vd cdc ion Cl hut
nhau. Kieu Itfc hut ndy dtfqc goi la Itfc hut tinh dien. Tong quat thi stf chuyen cdc elec
tron td mot nguyen td sang mot nguyen td khdc tqo ra nhdng ion cd dien tich trdi ddu.
Nhdng ion ndy hut Ian nhau. Cdng thde ddi vdi hqp chdt cua natri vd chlorine la NaCl,
cdng thde ndy cho thdy rdng ddi vdi mot electron Cl thi cd mot ion Na*.
Tdt cd cdc hqp chdt ion cd mot dien tich tong bdng 0 vi cdc electron dtfqc chuyen
dai nhtfng khdng bien mdt. Cdc electron md mot so nguyen td nhan de tqo thanh nhdng
ion dm dtfqc cho bai cdc nguyen td khdc, nhdng nguyen td ndy trd thanh cdc ion ditang.
Cdc ion cd ditqc dien tich ditang dtfqc goi la cdc cation (dqc la cation), cdc ion cd dien
tich dm dtfqc goi la anion (dqc la “anion”), ion natri ditang dd la mot cation. Ion dtfqc
tqo ra bdi nguyen td chlorine bdng cdch nhan them mot electron la dm no la mot anion.
Neu mot anion la mot ion dan nguyen td (chi cd mot nguyen td), ten cua no dtfqc tan
cung bdng -ide, do dd Cl dtfqc goi la ion chloride.
Cdc nguyen td kim loqi vd phi kim cd the phdn dng vdi nhau de tqo thanh nhdng
hqp chdt bdng cdch chuyen di cdc electron ttf cdc kim loqi sang nhdng nguyen to khdng
kim loqi. Nhdng ion ndy dtfqc tqo thanh ndy hut Ian nhau vi chung cd dien tich trdi dau
vd nhdng Itfc hut ndy dtfqc goi la nhdng lien ket ion. Tuy nhien, trong mot hap chdt ion
rdn, cap ion rieng re khong tqo hen ket vdi nhau, thay vdo do mot sd htqng vo cung Idn
cdc ion cua cd hai loqi tqo thanh mot mang Itfdi md rong theo ba chieu. Ban chdt ba
chieu cua cdu true natri chlorine Id tieu bieu cho cdc chdt ran ion.
Ban chdt ion cua nhdng hqp chdt ndy (co mdt cdc hat cd dien tich) co the dtfac
chdng minh bdng nhdng thtfc nghiem trong do cd cdc ion dtfqc lam cho mang dcng dien.
Ntfdc tinh khiet khong dan dien tot. Tuy nhien neu mot hqp chdt cho cdc ion ditac hda
tan trong ntfdc vd dung dich dtfqc ddt gida hai dien ctfc trong mot thiet bi g icn g nhtf
146
trong h in h 5.10, dung dich se d&n dien khi cdc dien ctfc dtfac noi vai cdc dau cua mot bo
pin. M oi loqi ion di chuyen ve phia dien ctfc co dien tich trdi ddu vai ion do, tile la cdc
cation di chuyen ve dien ctfc dm, goi la catot; vd cdc anion di chuyen ve dien ctfc dtfong
goi la anot. Ten goi cation vd anion bdt nguon tie nhdng tit catot vd anot). De dan dien,
cdc ion phdi chuyen dong ttf do. Trong trang thdi rdn mot hap chdt ion se khong dan
dien vi cdc ion bi gid trong mang Itfdi. Tuy nhien, neu hap chdt dtfoc dot ndng cho den
khi no ndng chay ho$c dtfac hda tan trong ntfdc, hap chdt long hay dung dich se dan
dien vi cdc ion chuyen dong ttf do.
Doi vdi cac electron chi tiet cua cac anion d$t them (tuy chon)
Doi vdi cdc electron chi tiet cua cdc ion, mot nguyen tii cd the dtfac suy ra bdt ddu
tit cdu true cua nguyen tii trung hda ttfang dng (dtfac gidi thieu trong chtfang 4). Cdc
anion mot nguyen tit dan gidn la dd dtfac cong them du cdc electron vdo lap vo con
ngodi cung p se hodn chinh lap vd trong dd. Quy luat n+ I da dtfac sit dung de suy ra
cdu true cua ion cung nhtf cua nguyen tii trung hda dd. Vi du cdu hinh electron cua ion
oxide (anion cua oxy) dtfac suy ra bdt ddu tit cau hinh cua oxy:
Nguyen td O: Is2 2s2 2p4
Ion oxide cd dien tich dm 2, dien tich ndy cd dtfoc bdng cdch nhan them 2 electron.
Nhitng electron ndy di vdo trong lap vd con 2p.
ion O2: Is 2 2s2 2p6
Cdu hinh electron ndy giong nhtf cdu hinh cua neon. M ot ion vai mot cdu hinh giong
nhtf mot khi hiem dtfoc goi la cd cdu hinh khi hiem.
Cau hinh electron chi tiet cua cac cation d$t them (tuy chon)
De tqo thanh cdc cation dan nguyen td, cdc kim loqi bi mdt electron di tit lap vd
hda tri thd nhdt. M ot so kim loqi nhdm chinh cd nhieu han mot lap vd con cua lap vd
hda tri bi chodng chd bai cdc electron, trong tritdng hqp dd cdc electron trong Idp vd con
cao nhdt cua lap vd hda tri mdt di trtfde. Vi du nguyen td thiec mdt cdc electron 5P2 cua
no de tqo thanh Sn2\ Cdu hinh do dd Id:
ion Sn2t : [Kr] 5s2 4d 10
Chu diem 5.3: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
The discussion in Section 5.2 showed that the transfer of valence electrons is very
important in ionic bonding. Section 5.5 will show that their sharing is very important in
covalent bonding. The Lew is electron dot diagram is a way to picture the transfer or
sharing of valence electrons that aids in understanding both processes. Keep in mind,
however, that electron dot diagrams are simplified representations of atoms and not
true pictures.
In an electron dot diagram, the symbol of the element represents the nucleus of
the atom plus its inner shells of electrons, and dots around the symbol stand for the
valence electrons. The dots are placed arbitrarily to the left or right or above or below
the symbol. In unbonded atoms, two dots, at most, are located in each position. For
example, atoms of the second period elements may be rep-resented as follows:
Li Be B: C: N: 0: F: Ne:
147
S napshot Review - 6 n t$p nhanh

*■ Electron dot diagrams for uncombined atoms have the valence electrons in
four possible, equivalent positions (top, bottom, sides) with at most two elec
trons in each position.
A. Draw an electron dot diagram for the sulfur atom.
• Cdc gidn dS electron dang chdm ciia cdc nguyin til khdng ket hap co the co 4 vj
tri tuang duong nhau co cdc electron hoa tri (trin dudi, hai bin), moi vi tri co t6i
da 2 electron.
A. Ve mot gidn do electron dang chdm cho nguyin til lUu huynh
Chu thich tCf - cym tCf va hudng dan dpc hieu

- L ew is e lectron d ot d ia gra m : bieu do chdm electron cua Lewis
Cac gian dc electron dang cham Lewis

Phan ban ludn d muc 5.2 dd cho thdy la sU chuyen dai cdc electron hoa tri rdt quan
trqng trong mot liin ket ion. M uc 5.5 se cho thdy sit chia se chung cdc electron Id rdt
quan trong trong liin ket cong hoa tri. Gidn do electron dang chdm Lew is Id mot cdch
de the hien bdng hinh dnh sU chuyin ddi hay chia se cdc electron hoa tri, giup chung ta
hieu duac cd hai qud trinh. Tuy nhiin, cdn nhd la cdc gidn do electron dang chdm la
nhilng cdch th i hien dan gidn hoa cua cdc nguyin til khong phdi Id cdc hinh dnh thuc.
Trong mot gidn do electron dang chdm ky hieu cua nguyin to dqi dien cho cdc hat
nhdn cua nguyen til cong vdi cdc lap vd bin trong cua cdc electron, vd cdc chdm bao
quanh ky hieu the' hien cdc electron hoa tri. Nhdng chdm ndy cung duac ddt mot cdch
tuy y vdo bin trdi, bin phdi ho$c a trin hay a dudi cua ky hieu. Trong nhilng nguyin td
khong lien ket, cd toi da la 2 chdm deu ddt a moi vi tri. Vi du nguyin til cua cdc nguyen
to chu ky thU hai co th i duqc bieu dien nhu sau:
Li Be B: C: N: 0: F: N e:
Chu diem 5.4: Formulas for Ionic Compounds_________
Let's consider the ionic compound formed by the reaction of sodium and sulfur.
The sodium atom has 1 electron in its valence shell. (Sodium is in periodic group IA
[1].) W hen the atom donates this electron to a nonmetal atom, the positive ion formed
has an octet like that of neon. However, the sulfur atom, with 6 valence electrons,
needs 2 additional electrons. Therefore, it takes two sodium atoms to provide the 2
electrons for one sulfur atom; so the formula for sodium sulfide is N a2S.
The reaction of sodium and sulfur to form N a2S can be visualized easily with elec
tron dot diagrams:
N a- N a- Na+
+ :S : — :S : - + [: S :] 2”
N a- N a- N a+
148
Electrons from two sodium atoms are needed to allow one sulfur atom to attain
its octet. W e can write the reaction more simply as follows:
2Na- + :S: - 2N a+ + [:_S:]2"
or 2Na + S —* Na2 S
Similarly, the formula of aluminum chloride is AICI3 because the aluminum atom
has 3 valence electrons that it can donate to form the 3 + ion.
W e can predict the charges on the ions of some elements but not others. In com
pounds, the metals of periodic groups IA and IIA (1 and 2), as well as zinc, cadmium,
aluminum, and silver, always form ions with positive charges equal to the elem ent’s
classical periodic group number. The charge on every monatomic anion (except H~) is
equal to the classical group number of the elem ent minus 8. The number of added
electrons is the absolute value of that difference. (Not all nonmetals form monatomic
anions, however.) Hydrogen can react with very active metals to form the hydride ion,
H-, which has the 2-electron configuration of helium. The maximum positive charge on
a monatomic cation is 4+; the maximum negative charge on a monatomic anion is 3.
Charges on the most common monatomic ions are presented in Figure 5.11. In addi
tion to the generalities just presented, note that all the elements of the first transition
series except scandium form an ion with a 2+ charge, and most of them also form an
ion having another charge. (The transition metals form ions having different charges
by donating varying numbers— from 0 to 2— of their inner electrons to nonmetals.)
Because the overall charge on any ionic compound is zero, we can deter-mine
the formula of an ionic compound by balancing the charges on the cations and anions.
That is,
Number of positive charges = Number of negative charges
The compound of Pb4* and O2’ is thus P b 0 2 because there are four negative charges
on two O2_ions to balance the four positive charges on one Pb4* ion. W e can even
write formulas for compounds whose ions are totally unfamiliar to us, as long as we
know their charges. For example, the compound of
AB42* and X Z 23'is (AB4)3(X Z2)2 and that for AB42* and X Y is AB4X Y 3

+- The charge on the formula of a complete compound must be zero, so the total
of the positive and negative charges must be equal. The smallest integral num
bers of cations and anions are used to achieve charge neutrality.
Most main group cations and all monatomic anions have characteristic charges
that are easy to learn, so in their compounds with other ions, the charges on
the other ions are easy to deduce.
A. Write the formula for the compound of Lu3+ and S2.
B. Write the formulas of the ions in each of the following compounds: (a) V 0
and (b) P b 0 2. 2 3
• Dien tich trong cong thiic cua mot hop chdt hoan chinh phdi bdng 0, vi tong cdc
dien tich dtfcmg vd dm phdi bdng nhau. Sd nguyen nhd nhdt cua cdc cation vd
cdc anion dtfoc sii dung de cdn bdng dien tich.
• Hau het cdc cation nhom chinh vd tat cd cdc anion mot nguyen til co nhilng dien
tich dQc trUng de thuoc, do do trong cdc hqp chdt cua chung vai cdc ion khdc, ta
cd the de ddng suy doan ra diin tich cua cdc ion khdc.
A. Viet cong thiic cho hap chdt cua Lu3' vd S 2
B. Viet cong thilc cho cdc ion trong moi hap chdt sau ddy:(a) V20 } vd (b) P b 0 2
Hudng dan doc hieu
Cong thtfc cua cac hop chat ion

Cac hqp chat ion duqc tqo thanh bdi phdn ilng cua natri vd luu huynh. Nguyen ti2
natri co 1 electron trong lap vo hoa tri cua no. (Natri d nhom IA [1] trong bdng tudn
hodn.) khi nguyen tit cho electron ndy cho mot nguyen tit phi kim, ion duang dvtqc tqo
thanh co mot bo 8 giong nhu bo 8 cua neon. Tuy nhien, nguyen til Itfu huynh co 6 elec
tron hoa tri, cdn cd them 2 electron. Do do cdn co 2 nguyen til natri de cung cdp 2 elec
tron cho mot nguyen til Itfu huynh; do do cong thilc cua sodium sulfide Id NojS.
Phdn ilng cua natri vd Itfu huynh de tqo thanh NajS co the dtfqc the h iin bdng
hinh dnh vai nhilng gidn do electron dang chdm:
Na- Na- Na+
+ =S= - : S : —* + [:S :]2"
Na- Na- Na+
Cdc electron tit hai nguyen til natri la cdn thiet de cho mot nguyen tit Itfu huynh
dat dtfqc bo 8 cua no. Ta co the viet phdn ilng ndy mot cdch dan gidn han nhtf sau:
2 Na • + :S : — 2 Na+ + [:S=]2'
hodc 2Na + S —► Na2 S
Ttfang ttf, cong thilc cua aluminum chloride la A lC l3 v i nguyen til nhom cd 3 elec
tron hda tri, no cd the cho di de tqo thanh ion 3+.
Ta cd the tien doan dien tich tren ion cua mot sd nguyen to nhtfng cdc nguyen td
khdc thi khdng. Trong cdc hqp chdt, nhilng kim loqi nhdm 1A vd HA trong bdng tuan
hoan(l vd 2) nhtf kem, cadnium, nhdm, vd bqc ludn ludn tqo thanh cdc ion vdi dien tich
ditang bdng vdi so nhdm cua nguyen to trong bdng phdn loqi tudn hodn co dien. Dien
tich tren mdi anion mot nguyen til (H~) bdng vdi sd nhdm trong ban tudn hodn cd dien
cua nguyen td trit di 8 sd electron dtfqc them vdo Id mot gid tri tuyet ddi cua tri sd ndy.
(Tuy nhien, khdng phdi tdt cd cdc phi kim deu tqo thanh cdc anion nguyen tit). Hydro cd
the phdn ilng vdi nhitng kim'loai rdt hoqt dong de tqo thanh ion hydride, H-, ion ndy cd
cau hinh 2 electron cua heli. Dien tich ditang Idn nhdt tren 1 cation m ot nguyen til Id
4+; dien tich dm Idn nhdt tren mot anion tren mot nguyen til la 3 - . Dien tich tren hau
het cdc ion m ot nguyen til thdng dung dtfqc gidi thieu trong hinh 5.11. Ngoai nhilng
dieu khdi quat vita dtfqc gidi thieu, chu y Id tdt cd cdc nguyen td cua nhilng ddi chuyen
tiep thd nhdt, trie scandium tqo thanh mot ion vdi dien tich 2 + vd hau het con too thanh
mot ion cd mot dien tich khdc nila. Cdc kim loai chuyen tiep tqo thanh vac ion cd nhilng
dien tich khdc nhau bdng cdch cho di mot sd khdc nhau cdc electron cua lap i d ben
trong - til 0 den 2 - cho cdc kim loai).
150
Vi dien tich chung cua bdt cd hgp chdt ion ndo cung bdng 0, ta co the xdc dinh
cong thiic cua mgt hgp chdt ion bdng cdch cdn bdng cdc dien tich tren cdc cation vd cdc
anion. Tile la
Sd diin tich dtfong = So dien tich dm
Hgp chdt cua Pb4* vd O2 do do phdi la P b 0 2 vi co 4 dien tich dm trin hai ion O2
cdn bdng vdi diin tich dtfong trin mot ion Pb4'.
Ta tham chi co the viet nhdng cong thde cho cdc hap chdt md cdc ion la hodn todn
khong quen thuoc vdi chung ta, mien la ta biet dtfac cdc dien tich cua chung. Vi du hap
chdt cua A B 2t vd X Z 3 la ( A B J / X Z ^ vd cua A B 2' vd X Y 2 la A B 4X Y r
Chu diem 5.5: Covalent Bonding_____________________________
The formula unit of a covalently bonded group of atoms is called a molecule.

Metal atoms can donate electrons to nonmetal atoms, but nonmetal atoms would
have to donate too many valence electrons to form octets and therefore do not form
monatomic positive ions. (Single nonmetal atoms do not donate electrons at all, but
some groups of nonmetal atoms can. This will be discussed later in this section.) Non-
metal atoms can accept electrons from metal atoms if such atoms are present; other
wise, they can attain an octet by electron sharing. A covalent bond consists of shared
electrons. One pair of electrons shared between two atoms constitutes a single cova
lent bond, generally referred to as a single bond. An unshared pair of valence elec
trons is called a lone pair. Elements or compounds bonded only by covalent bonds
form molecules.
Consider the hydrogen molecule, H2. Each atom of hydrogen has one electron
and would be more stable with two electrons (the helium configuration). There is no
reason why one hydrogen atom would donate its electron and the other accept it. In
stead, the two hydrogen atoms can share their electrons:
H +
Electrons shared between hydrogen atoms are counted toward the duets of both
atoms. In the hydrogen molecule, each hydrogen atom has a total of two electrons in
its first shell and, thus, a stable configuration. Electrons shared between other non-
metal atoms are counted toward the octets of both.
Systematic Method for Drawing Electron Dot Diagrams

Drawing electron dot diagrams for some compounds or ions can get complicated.
If you cannot obtain a diagram in which each atom has an octet by using only single
bonds, you may move pairs of unshared electrons to positions between atoms, form
ing double or triple bonds. However, for compounds or ions that obey the octet rule,
you may wish to use a more systematic approach. We will use C O C I2, in which the
carbon atom is the central atom, as an example.
Steps
Step 1: Determine the arrangement of the atoms.
Step 2: Determine the total number of valence elec-trons available from all the
atoms in the for-mula unit.
I 51
Step 3: Determine the total number of electrons required to get 8 electrons around
each nonmetal atom except hydrogen and 2 electrons around each hy
drogen atom.
Step 4: Subtract the number of electrons available from the number required to
determ ine the number of shared electrons. (The shared electrons are
counted for each atom; that is, they are counted twice to obtain the total
number of electrons needed.)
Step 5: Distribute the shared pairs between adjacent atoms.
Step 6: Distribute the rest of the electrons to positions other than betw een at
oms, making sure that the number of electrons required for each atom
(step 3) is now present.
Polyatomic Ions
A great many compounds contain polyatom ic ions (“many-atom" ions). There are
many polyatomic anions but relatively few polyatomic cations. T he most important
polyatomic cation is the ammonium ion, N H 4* (compare with ammonia, NH.,). Some of
the most important polyatomic anions are listed in T ab le 5.2, the first seven of which
are also presented in Figure 5.13.
The atoms within a polyatomic ion are bonded together with covalent bonds, but
polyatomic ions as a whole are bonded to oppositely charged ions by the attraction of
the opposite charges by ionic bonding. For example, potassium chlorate, K C I0 3, con
tains potassium ions, K*. and chlorate ions, C I0 3*. The K* ions are attracted to the
C I0 3 ions by their opposite charges. The chlorine and oxygen atoms within each C I0 3~
ion are covalently bonded. The electron dot diagram for potassium chlorate is simply a
combination of that for the potassium ion and that for the chlorate ion. The represen
tation can be determined by the systematic process described pre-viously. Note that
the potassium ion is bonded ionically and that it shares no electrons with other atoms.
For that reason, no electrons are allotted for its valence shell.
The number of electrons to be shared is 32 - 26 = 6. The structure, with only the
shared electrons:
K 0 ;C1;0
(Incomplete)
o
The rest of the electrons are added:
K+ 0 ;C1;0 :
" :Q: "
The structure of the chlorate ion is the same as when the ion was in potassium
chlorate. In that case, the potassium atom donated its electron to the chlorate ion. In
this case, you do not know where the extra electron came from, but it does not m at
ter. The total number of valence electrons is still 25, and the number of electrons to
be shared is still 6. the chlorate ion does not exist in isolation, even though we som e
times write it alone.
152
Nonoctet Structures
Not all atoms in molecules or polyatomic ions obey the octet rule; those that do
not are said to have nonoctet structures. For example, boron, which is in the second
period of the periodic table, is apt to have fewer than 8 electrons in the valence shell
of its atoms. Thus, the boron atom in BF3 is represented as having only 6 electrons in
its valence shell:
:F :B :F :
:F ;
If the central elem ent in a molecule or polyatomic ion is in the third period or
higher and does not obey the octet rule, it is apt to expand its valence shell beyond 8
electrons. The phosphorus atom in PF5 has 10 electrons around it:
. f ’; ;' f ‘;
Nonoctet structures are discussed more extensively in more advanced texts.
S napshot Review - 6 n tap nhanh

*■ Polyatomic ions are discussed in the section on covalent bonding because the
bonding within these ions is covalent.
Electron dot diagrams for covalently bonded atoms may have four or fewer po
sitions for electrons around an atom, with up to 6 electrons in any one position.
*■ For species that follow the octet rule, the number of electrons around non-
metal atoms other than hydrogen is 8.
A. Draw electron dot diagrams for (a) C H 5N and (b) C 2H4.
B. Draw electron dot diagrams for (a) NCS~ and (b) C H 40.
• Cdc ion nhieu nguyen ti2 dtfoc noi den trong phdn ve lien ket cong hda tri vi lien
ket gida nhilng ion ndy Id cong hoa tri.
• Cdc gidn do electron dang chdm cho nhilng nguyen til lien ket cong hoa tri co
the co bon vi tri hay it han cho cdc electron quanh mot nguyen til, cd the cd den
6 electron trong bdt cii vi tri ndo.
• Ddi vdi cdc thtfc the hoa hoc d$c trtfng theo quy luat bo tdm, so electron quanh
nhdng nguyen td phi kim khi cdc hydro Id 8.
A. Ve gidn do electron dang chdm cho (a) CHJV vd (b) C2Hf
B. Ve gidn do electron dang chdm cho (a) NCS vd (b) CHjO
Chu thich ttf - cum ttf va hifdmg dan dpc hieu

- electron sharing: chia se electron
- covalent bond: lien ket cong hoa tri
- single: dan
153
- single bond; lien ket dan

- unshared pair: cdp khdng phdn chia
- lone pair: cdp dan
- share: phdn chia
- structured formula: cong thiic cdu true
- triple bond: lien ket ba
- double bond: lien ket doi
- macromolecles: macromolecules
- polyatomic ions: ion da nguyen til
- resonanse structures: cdu true cdng htfdng
- nonoctet structures: cdu true khong bdt tii
- only when these alements are uncombined with other elements: chi khi nhdng
nguyen to ndy khong dtfqc ket hqp vdi nhilng nguyen to khdc
- their compounds: hqp chdt cua chung
- odd: le, le cdp
- even: deu
- compound: hqp chdt
- chloride ion and chloride: sodium, ion clorua vd natri clorua
- elemenlts: cdc nguyen to
- diatomic: hai nguyen til
- valence shell: vo hoa tri
- optional: tuy chon
- within nonoctet structures: trong cdu true khong bdt til
Lien ket cQng hoa tn

Cac kim loqi nguyen til co the cho cdc electron sang cdc nguyen til phi kim, nhtfng
cdc nguyen tii phi kim khong the cho qud nhieu electron hoa tri de tqo thanh nhilng bo
8 vd do do khong tqo thanh cdc ion dtfong mot nguyen td. (Cdc nguyen td phi kim rieng
le khong he cho electron nhtf mot so nhom khdc nguyen td phi kim co the cho. Dieu ndy
se dtfqc ban a muc sau). Cdc nguyen td phi kim co the nhan electron td cdc nguyen td
kim loqi neu nhdng nguyen td ndy cd mdt; neu khong, chung co the dat dtfqc mot bo 8
bdng cdch sd dung chung electron. M ot lien ket cong hoa tri gom cdc electron dtfqc sd
dung chung. M ot cdp electron dtfqc sd dung chung gida hai nguyen td tqo thanh m$t
lien ket cong hoa tri dan, thtfdng dtfqc goi la lien ket dan. M ot cdp electron hoa tri khong
dtfqc sd dung chung dtfqc goi la cdp dan le. Cdc nguyen td hay cdc hqp chdt chi lien kit
bdng lien ket cdng hda tri d i tqo thanh cdc phdn td.
X et phdn td hydro H T Mdi nguyen td hydro cd mot electron vd se la ben han vdi 2
electron (cdu hinh heli). Khong cd ly do gi d i cho mot nguyen td hydro se cho electron
cua no va mot nguyen td khdc se nhdn. Thay vdo dd hai nguyen td hydro cd t h i sd dung
chung cac electron cua chung:
H .+ .H -> H .H
Cdc electron dtfqc sd dung chung gida cdc nguyen td hydro vd dtfqc tinh vao bo ddi
cua cd hai nguyen td. Trong phdn td hydro, moi nguyen td hydro cd tong cong hai nguyen
td eletron trong lap vo thd nhdt cua no, do vdy la mot cdu hinh bin. Cdc electron dtfqc
154
sd dung chung giUa cdc nguyen til khong phi kim khdc dtfoc tinh vdo trong cdc bo tdm
ciia hai nguyen tii.
Phuong phap co h$ thong de ve cac gian do electron dang cham

Viec ve gidn do electron dang chdm cho mot so hop chdt hay ion co the Id phiic tap.
Neu ban khong cd dtfoc mot gidn do trong do moi nguyen tii co mot bo tdm bdng cdch
chl sii dung cdc lien ket don, ban cd the di chuyen nhdng c$p electron khong dtfoc dung
chung den cdc vi tri gida cdc nguyen td, de tqo thanh nhdng lien ket ddi hay lien ket
ba. Tuy nhien, ddi vdi nhdng hop chdt hay ion tudn theo quy luat bo tdm, ban nin sd
dung mot cdch tiep cdn cd h i thong hon.Ta se sd dung ClCl2 trong dd nguyen td carbon
la nguyen td trung tdm Id mot vi du.
C d c b iid c
Btfdc 1 : Xdc dinh cdc sdp xep cua cdc nguyen td.
Btfdc 2: Xdc dinh tong sd gid tri electron cd the cd td tdt cd cdc nguyen td trong
don vi cong thde.
Btfdc 3: Xdc dinh tong so electron cdn thiet de cd dtfoc 8 eletron xung quanh cdc
nguyen td phi kim trd hydro vd 2 electron quanh moi nguyen td hydro.
Btfdc 4: Ngoai trd so electron co the co cho sd electron cdn thiet de xdc dinh sd eletron
sd dung chung. (Cdc electron sd dung chung dd dtfoc tinh cho tdng nguyen
td, tdc la chung dtfoc tinh hai Idn de cd dtfoc tdng sd electron cdn thiet.)
Btfdc 5: Phdn bo cdc doi eletron sd dung chung gida cdc nguyen td Idn can.
Btfdc 6: Phdn bo cdc electron con Iqi vdo nhdng vi tri ngodi nhdng vi tri gida cdc
nguyen td, dam bao la luc ndy co du cdc electron cdn thiet cho moi nguyen
td (btfdc 3).
Cac ion nhieu nguyen tir

M ot sd Idn cdc hqp chdt cd chda nhieu ion cd nhieu nguyen td (ion da nguyen td).
Cd nhieu anion nhieu nguyen td nhtfng ttfang ddi cd it cdc cation nhieu nguyen td. Cat
ion nhieu nguyen td quan trong nhdt la ion ammonium N H 4" (so sanh vdi ammonia,
NHJ. M ot sd anion nhieu nguyen td quan trong nhdt dtfqc liet ke trong bdng 5.2, cdc
anion ddu tien cung dtfqc giai thieu trong hinh 5.13.
Nhdng nguyen td trong mot ion nhieu nguyen td dtfqc lien ket vdi nhau bdng cdc
lien ket cong hda tri, nhtfng cdc ion nhieu nguyen td xet chung dtfqc lien ket vdi cdc ion
cd dien tich trdi ddu bai Itfc hut cua dien tich trdi dau - bdng lien ket ion. Vi du kali
chlorate, K C 1 0 3 cd chda cdc ion kali, K * ua cdc ion chlorate CIO3. Cdc ion K + bi hut ve
cdc ion CIO3 bdi nhdng dien tich trdi ddu cua chung. Cdc nguyen td clo vd oxy trong
moi ion CIO3 cong hda tri vdi nhau. Gidn dd electron dang chdm cho potassium chlorate
dan gidn la mot ket hqp gida gidn do cua ion potassium vd gidn do cua ion chlorate.
Cdc bieu dien cd the dtfqc xdc dinh bdng quy trinh cd he thdng dd dtfqc md td a phdn
trtfde. Chu y la ion kali dtfqc lien ket ion vd no khong sd dung chung vdi cdc electron vdi
cdc nguyen td khdc. Vi ly do dd, khong cd electron ndo dtfqc phdn phdi vdo lap vo hda tri
cua no.
S d electron dtfqc sd dung chung la 32 - 2 6 = 6. Cdu tqo chl cd cacl electron sd

dung chung Id:
K 0:C1:0 (chtfa hodn thanh)
O
155
Cdc electron con Iqi ditac them vdo:
K + :0 :C I:0 :
" :6 = "
Phai dam bao co viet dien tich tren moi ion bdi vi dien tich la mot phdn khdng the
thieu cua cdng thiic. Vi du, cd mot stf khdc biet lan gifia ClO} I’d CIO1
De ve mot gidn do electron dang chdm cho mot ion nhieu nguyen til rieng biet, bqn
phdi xet den dien tich cua no khi dem so electron cd the cd. Cd them mot electron doi vdi
moi dien tich dm vd cd it hem 1 electron doi vdi moi dien tich duong.
Cac cau tao khdng co bQ tam

Khong phdi tdt cd cdc nguyen til trong phdn til hay trong cdc ion nhieu nguyen tii
deu tudn theo quy ludt bo tdm; nhilng phdn tic hai ion khdng tudn theo quy ludt dtfqc
goi Id cd cdu tao khdng phdi bo tdm. Vi du, boron, d chu ky 2 trong bdng phdn loai
tudn hodn, la thich ilng vdi 8 electron trong vd hda tri cua cdc nguyen til ciia no. Nhtf
vdy, nguyen til boron trong B F } dtfac bieu dien khi chl cd 6 electron trong lap vd hda tri:
• F 'B 'F '
Neu nguyen to trung tdm trong mot phdn til hay mot ion nhieu nguyen til d trong
chu ky ba hay chu ky cao han vd khdng tudn theo quy ludt bo tdm, thi no thich ilng vdi
viec md rdng cdc lap vd hda tri cua no ra ngodi 8 electron. Nguyen til phosphorus trong
PFS cd 10 electron xung quanh no.
:>■; ; V :
. F • f ■' f ' .
F
Nhitng cdu tao khdng phdi bo tdm dtfqc ban ky hem trong cdc gido trinh ndng cao.
T ab le 5.2 Som e important Polyatomic Anions
N am e F o rm u la
Chlorate ion cio3-

Bromate ion B r0 3"
lodate ion IOa-
Nitrate ion NO 3 -
Sulfate ion so42-
Carbonate ion C 0 32-
Phosphate ion PO,3-
Hydroxide ion OH-
Cyanide ion CN-
Acetate ion c 2 h 3 o 2-
Chromate ion CrO,2-
Dichromate ion Cr 2 0 T2-
Permanganate ion M nO /
SELF-TUTOHIAL PROBLEMS - BAI T $ P T tf KIEM TBA

5.1 Which of the following have ionic bonds, and which have covalent bonds?
(a) N i0 2 (b) SO , (c) 0 2
5.2 (a) W hat is the difference between group IA metals and group IA elements?
(b) Which of the following statements is correct?
Group IA metals form ions with a 1+ charge only. Group IA elements form ions
with a 1 + charge only,
(c) Does the same problem exist for group IIA?
5.3 W hat is the difference in bonding between CoCI2 and COCI2?
5.4 (a) Distinguish between diatomic and binary.
(b) Distinguish between valence shell and outermost shell.
5.5 (a) W hat is the charge on a zinc atom?
(b) W hat is the charge on a zinc ion?
(c) What is the charge on a zinc nucleus?
5.6 What is the charge on barium in each of the following?

(a) BaCI2 (b) BaCr20 7 (c) Ba
(d) BaO (e) Ba3( P 0 4)2
5.7 How many electrons are “available" to draw the electron dot diagram of S 2~?
W here do they come from?
5.8 Write the formula of the compound of

(a) VO 2* and A s 0 4J-
(b) (M O y)2* and (XO z)3_, where M and X are some metal and nonmetal and y
and z are variables
(c) (A Xy )2* and (BZz)3'
(d) Does it matter what symbols are in the parentheses?
5.9 W hat is the difference between S e 0 3 and S e 0 32-?
5.10 Determine the formula of each of the following compounds:

(a) The compound of calcium and sulfur
(b) The compound of C a2* and S2~
(c) The product of the reaction of calcium and sulfur
(d) Calcium sulfide
5.11 Rules for writing diatomic molecules and for deducing the charges on alkali
m etal ions w e re introduced in this chapter. W hich of these refers only to
uncombined elem ents and which refers only to elements in compounds?
5.12 (a) Write the formula of the compound of Mg2* and F'.
(b) Identify the ions present in M gCI2.
(c) Write the formula of the compound of Pb2* and o2-.
(d) Identify the ions in CrO.
157
Topic 5 : Chemical bonding________________________________________________
5.13 (a) Is the electron dot diagram of H* like that of any noble gas?
(b) Is that of H"?
5.14 (a) Which metals form ions of only one charge?
(b) Which metals form ions of 1 + charge?
5.15 Write the formulas for ammonia and for the ammonium ion.
5.16 What is the charge on (a) the barium ion, (b) the cadmium ion, (c) the nitride
ion, and (d) the fluoride ion?
5.17 W hat is a valid generalization about the charges on monatomic anions? What is
a valid generalization about the charges on polyatomic anions containing oxy
gen and another element?
5.18 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following. Because the species all
have the same number of electrons, explain why the diagrams are not all the
same.
(a) H- (b) He (c) Li* (d) Be2*
5.19 In which classical periodic groups are the atom's valence electrons equal in num
ber to the group number?
5.20 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following:

(a) Mg (b) M g2* (c) S (d) S2~
5.21 Identify the type of bonding in each of the following:
(a) ICI (b) l2 (c) Nal
5.22 (a) How many valence electrons, if any, are in a lithium ion?
(b) How many electrons, if any, should a lithium atom share in its compounds?
5.23 Draw electron dot diagrams for (a) NaH and (b) M gH 2.
5.24 (a) Write the formula of the compound of Ag*and S'.
(b) Identify the ions present in Ag20 .
5.25 Explain why a hydrogen atom cannot form

(a) an H2* ion
(b) an H ion
PROBLEMS - BAI T /IP

5.1 C hem ical Form ulas
5.26 How many atoms of each elem ent are present in one formula unit of each of
the following?
(a) (N H 4)2S 0 3 (b) M g3N2 (c) Zn(C 2H30 2)2
5.27 How many atoms of each element are present in one for-mula unit of each of
the following?
(a) V 0 ( N 0 3)2 (b )M g 2P20 7 (c) (NH 4)2Cr20 7 (d) K H C 0 3-M g C 0 34 H 20
5.28 What is the difference between (a) 2 O and 0 2? (b) N20 4and 2 N O ?7
5.29 W hat is implied about bonding in the mercury (I) ion, Hg22*?
I 58
5 .30 W hat information (from Section 5.1) is conveyed by the formula Ba3(P 0 4)2?
5 .2 Ionic Bonding
5.31 Complete the following table:
Atomic No. of No. of Net

Symbol Number Protons Electrons Charge
(a) S‘-
(b) 10
(c) 20 18
(d) 24 3+
(e) ---------- 46 2+

(a) C a2*
(b) 48 2+
(c) 10 2+
(d) 33 3-
(e) --------- 57 54
5.33 (a) Which metals form ions with 1 + charge?
(b) Which metals form ions with 1 + charge only?
5.34 W hat difference, if any, is there between Sr2*©2' and SrO?
5.35 (optional) Write a detailed electronic configuration for each of the following ions:
(a) O2- (b) F- (c) N3-
(a) K* (b) C a2* (c) G a3*
(a) Cu2 (b) Co3* (c) Cd2*
5.3 Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
5.38 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following ions:
(a) N3-
(b) s 2-
(c) Br
5.39 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following ions:
(a) K* (b) Sr2* (c) Al3* (d) Pb2*
5.40 Draw electron dot diagrams for atoms of the following elem ents and the ions
they produce when they com-bine:
(a) Mg and N (b) Ca and Cl (c) Al and S
5.41 Draw electron dot diagrams for atoms of the following elem ents and the ions
they produce when they combine:
(a) Li and H (b) Be and H (c) Al and H
159
5.4 Form ulas for Ionic Com pounds
5.42 Write the formula for the compound formed between each of the following pairs
of ions:
(a) N3- and M g2*
(b) Cu* and O2-
(c) Al3* and O2-
5.43 Write the formula for the ion formed by each of the following metals in all of its
compounds:
(a) Potassium (b) Barium (c) Cadmium (d) Lithium (e) Silver
5.44 Cobalt forms ions of 2+ and 3+ charges. Write formulas for (a) two chlorides of
cobalt and (b) two oxides of cobalt.
5.45 Write the formula for the compound formed between each of the following:
(a) Li and H
(b) Be and H
5.46 Complete the following table by writing the formula of the compound formed by
the cation on the left and the anion at the top:
S 2- N3- Cl-
Li* _______________________________ _______
Mg2* _______________________________ _______
Al3* _______________________________ _______
5.47 Com plete the following table by writing the formula of the com pound formed
by the cation at the top and the anion on the left.
Ni2 Co3* NH4*
CIO4- _______ _______ _______
s o 2- _____ ____ ____
P 0 43- _______ ______ _______
P A 4- ------ ------ ------
5.48 For each of the following compounds, identify the individual ions, and indicate
how many of each are present per formula unit.
(a) Ni(C2H302)2 (b) Co2(C03)3 (c) M g S 0 4 (d) KOH
5.49 Identify the individual ions in each of the following compounds:
(a) CaCI2 ( b ) K 2S 0 4 (c) Ba3(P 0 4)2 (d) AI2(S 0 4)3
(e) Na202 (f) B a(C N )2 (g )S n (C 1 0 2)2
the metal at the left and the nonmetal at the top:
Nitrogen Sulfur Bromine
Cadmium _______________ _______ ________________
Silver _______________ _______ ________________
Aluminum _______________ _______ ________________
5.51 Write the formula for the compound formed by each of the following pairs of elements:
(a) Mg and N (b) Mg and S (c) Ca and P
(d) Al and S (e) Na and P (f) Al and I
(g) Li and N (h) Mg and Cl (i) Zn and Br
160
5.52 Write the formula for the compound formed by each of the following pairs of
elements:
(a) Zinc and bromine (b) Lithium and oxygen
(c) Barium and fluorine (d) Silver and bromine
(e) Oxygen and aluminum (f) Fluorine and sodium
5.53 Identify the individual ions in each of the following compounds:
(a) NaH (b) ZnCI2 (c) K20 2 (d) NaCIO,
(e) B a (C I0 3)2 (f) Ho2(C I0 3)2 (g) (N H 4)3P04
5.54 How many valence electrons does a Sn2* ion have?
5.55 W hat individual ions are present in (a) Cu2S and (b) CuS?
5.56 Identify the anion and both cations in each of the following pairs of compounds:
(a) NiO and N i0 2
(b) Co20 3and CoO
(c) F e S 0 4 and Fe2( S 0 4)3
5.56 Covalent Bonding
5.57 Explain why a hydrogen atom cannot be bonded with a double bond or two single
bonds.
5.58 Which of the following involve ionic bonding only, which involve covalent bond
ing only, and which involve both?
(a) N2O s (b) CaO (c) C2H4
(d) C a C 0 3 (e) H20 (f) N H 4CI
5.59 What similarities and differences are there between a molecule and a polyatomic ion?

(a) N3- (b) S O /- (c) CaO

(a) N H 4* (b) CN- (c) S O /-
(d) N2 (e) ONBr (nitrogen is the central atom)
(f) co2
5.62 Draw a structural formula for each of the following: (a) C H 20 (b) C C I4 (c) N 0 2CI
(nitrogen is the central atom)
5.63 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following compounds. In each of
the first four compounds, the hydrogen atom is bonded to an oxygen atom.
(a) H C I0 4 (b) H C I0 3 (c) H C I0 2
(d) HCIO (e) HCI
5.64 Draw resonance structures for each of the following:
(a) S 0 3 (b) C O / ' (c) 0 3
5.65 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following compounds:
(a) C H 2Br2 (b) C H SN (c) C H 40 (d) HCN
5.66 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following compounds. Indicate any
double or triple bonds.
(a) C 2H2 (b) C 3H6 (c ) C3He
161
5.67 Draw structural formulas for the compounds in Problem 5.63.
5.68 Draw structural formulas for the compounds in Problem 5.66.
each cation on the left with each anion at the top:
N 0 3- Cr2 07J- S O /-
Cs* _______ _______ ______ __ _______
C a2* ______ _______ _________ _______
Co2* _______ _______ ______ __ _______
Co3* ----------- ------------ ----------- ---- ------------
5.70 Write the formula of each ion in each of the following compounds:
(a) V 0 2C I0 4 (b) (C H 3N H 3)2S 0 4
(c) U02(C I0 3)2 (d) K4P20 7
(e) M g M n 0 4 (f) C e (S 0 4)2
(g) Na2S20 3 (h) B a(O C N )2
(a) Hydrogen peroxide, H20 2
(b) Ethylene, C 2H4
(c) Methyl alcohol C H 3OH
5.72 For each of the following compounds, identify the individual ions, and indicate
how many of each are present per formula unit:
(a) AICI3 (b) M g (H C 0 3)2 (c) Al20 3
(d) (N H 4)2S e 0 4 (e) Sr3( P 0 4)2 (f) (N H 4)2S 0 4
(9) P b 0 2
5.73 Write the formulas of the ions present in each of the following compounds:
(a) N a H C 0 3 (b) B a H P 0 4 (c) NalO
5.74 Write the formula for the compound of each of the following pairs of ions:
(a) P043~and Co3*
(b) S 0 32-and Ag*
(c) C 0 32' and N H 4*
5.75 Identify the formulas of the ions in each of the following:
(a) Pb3( P 0 4)4 (b) V 0 S 0 4
5.76 Write formulas for the ions in each of the following compounds:
(a) C u (C2H30 2)2 (b) KSCN (c) N a M n 0 4
(d) N H 4CNS (e) (N H 4)2C r0 4 (f) Z n S e 0 4
(g) (N H 4)2Cr20 7 (h) Co(O H )2
5.77 W hat familiar ion do you recognize in each of the following compounds? Also
write the formula for the other ion present.
(a) B a (B r0 3)2 (b) (N H 4)2S 0 4 (c) K2C20 4
5.78 W hat is the difference between S e 0 3 and S e 0 32-? Draw an electron dot dia
gram for each.
each cation on the left with each anion at the top:
162
C IC V S O /- S iO /- P 0 43-
Na* ----------- --- ------------ ---- -----------------------------
Ca2* ----------- --- ------------ ---- -----------------------------
Al3" ----------- --- ------------ ---- -----------------------------
5.80 Identify the cation and the anion in each of the following compounds:
(a) L u (O H)3 (b) CuCr20 7 (c) (N H 4)2S 0 3
(d) L iN 0 2 (e) V 0 S 0 3 (f) Li2C r0 4
(g) K B r0 3 (h) N H 4H C 0 3 (i) Na2Cr20 7
GENERAL PROBLEMS - BAI TAP TONG QOAT
5.81 Try to draw an electron dot diagram for the “ammonium molecule," N H 4, which
does not exist. W hat do you find? Draw an electron dot diagram for the
ammo-nium ion, N H 4*.
5.82 Draw an electron dot diagram for (a) 0 2, the perox-ide ion, and (b) N3', the azide ion.
5.83 Write the formula for the compound composed of each of the following pairs of ions:
(a) M g2*and H C O -
(b) Mn2* and CIO?-
(c) Ag* and AsO i i ~
(d) N H / and S O /-
5.84 (a) How many total valence electrons are in an ammonium ion
(b) How many electrons, if any, should that ion share with other ions in its compounds?
5.85 Draw electron dot diagrams for (a) CoCI2 and (b) C O C I2.
5.86 Briefly define each of the following terms:

(a) Anion (b) Ion (c) Ozone
(d) Monatomic ion (e) Octet (f) Lone pair
(g) Polyatomic ion (h) Noble gas configuration
(i) Triple bond
(a) NaO CN (b) C H 3NH 2 (c) CH 3CH2OH
5.88 Draw an electron dot diagram for OCN~, in which the carbon atom is the central atom.
5.89 (optional) State the octet rule in terms of detailed elec-tronic configurations.
5.90 C arbo n does not have lone pairs of electrons in the great m ajority of its
compounds. (Exceptions are C22-, CN-, and CO.) Draw electron dot diagrams
for each of two different compounds, having the nonhydrogen atoms connected
in different ways, each having the for-mula (a) C 2H60 , (b) C 2H7N.
5 91 Draw electron dot diagrams for C /" , C N _, and CO. Comment on their similarity.
5.92 (optional) Write detailed electronic configurations for

(a)Na*, (b)F-, and (c)S2“.
5.93 (optional) Write detailed electronic configurations for
(a) Co2*, (b) F e 2*. and (c) Zn2*.
163
5.94 Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following pairs of elem ents and
their compounds:
(a) Magnesium and nitrogen
(b) Magnesium and chlorine
Contrast this problem with Problem 5.40, parts (a) and (b).
5.95 W hat is the charge on the only monatomic cation of bis-muth?
5.96 Which of the following have any ionic bonds?

C 2H6M g (C I0 3)2 (N H 4)2S 0 4 H2S Pure HCI

Sr _______ ______ _______ _______
16 18
P3-
13 _______ 10
18 1+
5.98 Write the formulas for the ions represented in each of the following:
(a) K12Si60 ie (b) (NH 4)2H P04 (c) (VO )3(P 04)2

Zr4+ _______ _______ _______ _______
M n2+ _______ _______ _______ _______
20 18
36 2+
18 1-
----------- ----------- 80 _______ 2+
5.100 A certain ionic compound contains eight oxygen atoms, one lead atom, and two
sulfur atoms per formula unit. Identify the ions that make up the compound.
5.101 Draw a structural formula for each of the following:

(a) S03 (b) S 0 32'
(c) N a2S 0 3 (d) H2S 0 3
5.102 Identify the cation in each of the following compounds:

(a) Cul (b) C o P 0 4 (c) C rS 0 4
5.103 Which one of the following is ionic? N IC I2 NiCI?
5.104 In which of the following are there any covalent bonds? C a C 0 3 M nO C ,H , PCI,
5.105 Write formulas for the two new compounds formed if each of the following pairs
of compounds traded an-ions
164
(a) P b (N 0 3)2 and N a2S

(b) B a d , and AgN03
(c) NaCl and AgN03
(d) P b (N 0 3)2 and A12( S 0 4)3
5.106 The formulas that follow represent compounds with ionic bonds only, with X rep
resenting one of the main group elements. In each case, state whether X is a
metal or nonmetal, and determine to which main group X belongs.
(a) X 20 3 (b) X C I3 (c) N a3X
(d) X F 4 (e) XO (f) XBr
5.107 List several ions that have two atoms of the same element covalently bonded together.
5.108 How many atoms of each element are in one formula unit of (a) N i(CO )4 and (b)
(C H 3C H 2N H 3)2S 0 4?
5.109 Write formulas for both kinds of ions in each of the following compounds:
(a) Li3N (b) N a2S 0 4 (c) K B r04
5.110 (optional)
(a) Write the outer electronic configuration of thallium (TI).
(b) On the basis of its configuration, explain why thallium forms both a1 + ion
and a 3+ ion.
5.111 (a) How many oxygen atoms are covalently bonded to each silicon atom in S i0 2
(Figure 5.12)?
(b) How many silicon atoms are bonded to each oxygen?
(Hint: Look at the top silicon atom and the oxygen atoms attached below it.)
5.112 Consult Figure 5.12 to determine how many carbon atoms are bonded to a given
carbon atom in (a) dia-mond and (b) graphite.
(Hint: Look in the middle of each figure, not at the edges.)
5.113 Draw a structural formula for (a) C2CI4 and (b) C C I4.
5.114 Draw a structural formula for cyclopentane, C 5H 10, in which the five carbon at
oms are bonded in a ring and each has two hydrogen atoms bonded to it.
5.115 Relatively speaking, how many atoms are covalently bonded in a diamond crystal?
5.116 (optional) W e deduce the electronic configuration of copper from the periodic
table, the n + / rule, or other rules or memory devices to be
Is2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d9
The actual configuration is:
Is2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4 s ’ 3d'°
Starting with each of these configurations, deduce the electronic configuration

of C u2*, and com pare the results.
S U M M A R Y -T O N G KET CHUONG
Chemical formulas identify compounds, ions, or molecules. In formulas for binary com
pounds, the more electropositive element is written first. The formula implies that the at
oms are held together by some kind(s) of chemiical bond(s). When they are not combined
165
with other elements, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine
exist as diatomic molecules. A formula unit represents the collection of atoms in the for
mula. Subscripts in a formula indicate the numbers of atoms of the elements in each for
mula unit. For example, the formula unit H20 has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom. Formula units of uncombined elements, such as Ne, are atoms. Formula units of
covalently bonded atoms are called molecules. Formula units of ionic compounds do not
have any special names. In formulas, atoms bonded in special groups may be enclosed in
parentheses. A subscript following the closing parenthesis multiplies everything within the
parentheses. For example, a formula unit of B a(C I03 )2 contains one barium atom, two
chlorine atoms, and six oxygen atoms. Formulas for hydrates have a centered dot preced
ing a number and the formula for water, such as C u S 0 4-5H 20 . The number multiplies ev
erything following it to the end of the formula (Section 5.1).
Atoms of main group elements tend to accept, donate, or share electrons to achieve
the electronic structure of the nearest noble gas. Metal atoms tend to donate elec
trons and thereby become positive ions. W hen combining with metals, nonmetal at
oms tend to accept electrons and become negative ions. The number of electrons do
nated or accepted by each atom depends to a great extent on the periodic group num
ber; each atom tends to attain a noble gas configuration. The attraction of oppositely
charged ions is called an ionic bond. Transition and inner transition metal atoms do
nate their valence electrons first but ordinarily do not achieve noble gas configurations.
Most of them can also lose electrons from an inner shell and thus can form cations
with different charges (Section 5.2).
Electron dot diagrams can be drawn for atoms, ions, and molecules, using a dot to
represent each valence electron. These diagrams are most useful for main group ele
ments. The diagrams help in visualizing simple reactions and structures of polyatomic
ions and molecules (Section 5.3).
Formulas for ionic compounds may be deduced from the charges on the ions, since all
compounds have zero net charge. Given the constituent elements, you can predict the
formula for binary compounds of most main group metals. You cannot do so for most
transition metals because of their ability to form ions of different charges (Given the
specific ions, you can write a formula for any ionic compound.) Conversely, given the
formula of an ionic compound, you can deduce the charges on its ions Writing correct
formulas for compounds and identifying the ions in compounds from their formulas are
two absolutely essential skills (Section 5.4).
Nonmetal atoms can share electrons with other nonmetal atoms, forming covalent bonds.
In electron dot diagrams, the shared electrons are counted as being in the outermost
shell of each of the bonded atoms. A single bond consists of one shared electron pair;
a double bond consists of two shared electron pairs; a triple bond consists of three
shared electron pairs. Macromolecules result from covalent bonding of millions of at
oms or more into giant molecules.
Drawing electron dot diagrams for structures con-taining only atoms that obey the oc
tet rule can be eased by subtracting the number of valence electrons available from
the number required to get an octet (or duet) around each nonmetal atom The differ
ence is the num-ber of electrons to be shared in the covalent bonds For an ton. you
must subtract 1 available electron for each positive charge on the ion or add 1 avail
able electron for each negative charge. Main group metal ions generally require no
outermost electrons, but each hydrogen atom requires 2. and each other nonmetal atom
requires 8. Atoms in some compounds do not follow the octet rule (Section 5 5/
166
t
NOMENCLATURE
DANH tfC H
Myc DICH YEU cAu - Objectives BO CUC - Layout
6.1 To name and write formulas for 6.1 Binary N o n m e ta l N o n m etal

binary compounds of nonmetals Compounds
6 .2 To name and write formulas for 6 .2 Naming Ionic Compounds

cations, anions, and ionic
6 .3 Naming Acids and Acid Salts
compounds
6 .4 Hydrates
6 .3 To name and write formulas for
acids and acid salts
6 .4 To name hydrates
Jiilcmg ddn doc hieu muc dich yeu cdu vd bo cuc
6 .1 Goi ten vd viet cong thiic cda cdc hop chdt hai chdt phi kim loai, 6 2 Goi ten vd
vd viet cong thde cho cdc cation, anion vd cdc hap chdt ion, 6.3 Goi ten vd viet cong thde
cho cdc acid vd cdc muoi acid, 6.4 Goi ten cho hydrate.
6.1 Cdc hap chdt hai chdt phi kim - phi kim, 6.2 Goi ten cdc hap chdt ion,6 .3 Goi
ten cdc acid vd cdc muoi acid, 6.4 Cdc hydrate.
167
Topic 6: Nomenclature
So far in this book, we have used nam es for som e sim ple ch e m ic a l com pounds,
but we have not yet considered n o m e n c la tu re — how to nam e co m p o u n d s s y s te m a ti
cally The great variety of com pounds requires a system atic app ro ach to n am in g them.
U nfortunately, three or four d ifferen t nam ing system s are used to nam e d iffe re n t types
of com pounds M em orization of a few sim ple rules w ill allow n am ing of a great many
com pounds, but in addition to learning the rules, you m ust be sure to learn when to
use each one Learning generalities will help you to handle g re at q u a n titie s of inform a
tion and to respond to sp ecific questions. Even having fo ur d iffe re n t syste m s for nam
ing com p ou nd s is m uch better than using the trivia l nam es that w ere first used, such
as baking soda for N a H C 0 3, calom el for H g?CI?, lim e for CaO, laughing gas for N?0 .
and so forth Im agine having to learn for each com pound a nam e that does not even
give a clue as to the ele m e n ts that m ake it up
This chapter covers the basic rules for nam ing m any com pounds and ions Sec
tion 6 1 considers the nam ing of binary nonm etalnonm etal com p ou nd s The nam ing of
ionic com pounds is addressed in Section 6 2 First, the nam ing of cations and anions is
discussed, leading into the nam ing of com plete com pounds Section 6 3 covers the naming
of acids and acid salts H ydrates are considered briefly in S ection 6 4 Tables and fig
ures in the chapter sum m arize how to name com pounds in a system atic w ay
Hifdng dan dpc hieu

Cho den phan nay trong cuon sdch, chiing ta da sd dung nhdng ten goi khdc nhau cho
mot so hap chdt hoa hoc dan gidn, nhtfng chung ta clitfa xem xet den danh phap: la cdch goi
ten cdc liap chdt hoa hqc mot cdch cd he thdng. Stf kliac biet Idn gida cdc hqp chat doi hoi
pliai co mot cdch tiep can cd lie thdng de goi ten chung. Khong may la co ba hodc bon he
thong goi ten da dtfoc sd dung de goi ten cdc hqp chdt khdc nhau. Viec ghi nhd mot so it quy
ludt dan gidn se giiip cho ban goi ten dtfqc mot so rdt nhieu cac hqp chdt, nhtfng ngoai viec
hqc cdc quy ludt do, ban cung phai hqc de biet chdc khi nao thi sd dung quy ludt nao. Viec
hqc nhdng quy ludt chung se giiip ban xd ly dtfqc nhdng Itfqng Idn thdng tin md tra lai dtfqc
cho nhdng cdu hoi chuyen biet. Mac du, cd den bon he thong khdc nhau de goi ten cdc hqp
chdt nhtfng dieu ndy cung tot han la sd dung nhdng ten goi thdng thtfdng ma trtfde ddy dd
dtfqc sd dung ddu tien, nhtf ten soda lam banh N aH COf calomel cho Ilg Clf t ot cho CaO,
khi ctfdi cho N O va v,v. Thd ttfdng ttfang viec phai hqc ten cua tdng hap chdt ma ten goi ndy
kliong he cho biet y niem gi ve cdc nguyen td tqo thdnh hap chcit do
Chtfang ndy noi ve nhdng quy ludt ca ban de goi ten nlueu hqp chdt va ion Muc
6.1 xem xet cdch goi ten cdc hap chdt cua liai chdt phi kim ■ phi kim Cdch goi ten cdc
hqp clidt ion dtfac noi den a muc 6.2. Ddu tien, phdn ndy ban ve cdch goi ten cdc cation
vd anion vd sau do ddn den cdch goi ten mot hqp chdt hodn chinh. M uc 6 3 noi ve cdch
dat ten ciia cdc acid va cdc muoi acid. Cdc hydrate dtfqc xem xet mot cach ngdn gon
trong phdn 6.4 Cac bang va hinh dnh trong chtfang ndy tdm tdt cdch goi ten cac hap
chdt theo mot phtfang phdp cd he thong.
Chu diem 6.1: Binary Nonmetal-Nonmetal Compounds
The elem ent farther to the left or farther down in the periodic table is nam ed first
E xcept for co m p ou nd s of hydrogen, the form ulas for co m p o u n d s of two n o n -m e t
als are w ritten and nam ed with the elem ent farther to the left or low er in the p erio d ic
table given first If one e le m e n t is below and to the right of the o the r in the oenodtc
table, the one to the left is given first unless ttiat e le m ent is o xygen or flu orin e
168
Topic 6: N om enclature
B in ary co m p ou nd s of hydrogen that are not acids are given sp ecial nam es. Two
ve ry im p o rta n t e xam ple s are water, H.,0, and a m m o n ia , N H 3 (Figure 6.1). (O ther m uch
less im p o rta n t h yd ro g e n -c o n ta in in g binary co m p o u n d s are a lso know n by com m on
nam es These inclu de p hosphine, P H r and arsine, A s H 3.) H ydrogen co m p ou nd s that
are a cid s in a q u e o u s so lu tion are nam ed, and th e ir fo rm u la s are w ritte n in sp ecial
w ays (see S e ction 6.3).
. Table 6.1 P re fixes Used in N am ing Binary N onm etal-N onm etal C om pounds
N um ber o f Atom s Prefix*
1 mon(o)-
2 d i-
3 tr i-
4 te trla )-
5 p e n tia i-
6 hex( a )-
7 heptf a )-
8 oct( a )-
9 non* a i
10 ded a)-
The last o or a o f the p re fix is usually dropped when the elem ent name begins w ith o
S n a p s h o t R e vie w - On tap nhanh

*■ B in ary c o m p o u n d s of nonm etals are nam ed with a set of cla ssica l prefixes,
not used for m ost o the r com pounds.
*■ If there is o nly one atom of the first elem ent, no prefix is used
A. N am e (a) P ,0 6 and (b) SiO ?.
B. W rite fo rm u la s for (a) iodine heptafluoride and (b) d ip ho sph o ru s pentasulfide
• Cdc hop chdt hai chdl cua cac phi dtfqc goi len vai mot nhom cdc tiip ddu ngd
co dien. nhdng tiep ddu ngd ndy lidu het khong dtfac stf dung cho hap chdt khdc.
• Neu chi cd mot nguyen td ciia nguyen to thd nhdt. thi khong sd dung tiep dau
ngd.
A Goi ten (a> P O i d tb) S iO r
B Viet cdng tlitfc cua tatiodine heptafluoride id (b) diphosphorus pentasulfide.
Huang dan dpc hieu
C a c h d p c h a t ha i c h a t phi kim - phi kim
Ngoai trd cdc hqp chdt hydro, nhdng cdng thde ciia cdc hqp chdt hai chdt phi kim
dtfqc viet vd goi ten vdi nguyen to ddng xa han ve phia ben trai hoac ddng thdp han
trong bdng phdn loai tudn hodn dtfqc neu ra trtfde. Neu mot nguyen to a dtfdi vd a phia
ben phai nguyen to khac trong bdng phdn loai tudn hodn, thi nguyen to a ben trdi dtfac
neu ra trtfde. trd klu nguyen to dd 1a oxy hay fluorine.
169
Cdc hgp chdt hai chdt cua hydro khdng phdi la acid duoc cho nhdng ten ggi dtfc
biet. Hai vi du quan trong la nuac, H}0 vd ammonia, NH} (hinh 6.1). (N hiiu hgp chdt
hai chdt cd chiia hydro It quan trgng hem ciing ditgc biet den bdng nhilng ten ggi thdng
dung. Nhilng chdt ndy gom phosphine, PH} vd arsine, AsHr ) Nhdng hgp chat hydro Id
nhilng acid trong dung dich nildc duoc ggi tin vd viet cong thilc theo nhdng cdch di}c
biet (xem muc 6.3).
Chu diem 6.2: Naming Ionic Compounds____________________________
In most cases, naming ionic compounds involves simply naming both ions. A huge
majority of ionic compounds are made up of one type of cation plus one type of anion.
Thus, to name most ionic compounds, we name the cation first and then the anion. The
more difficult part of the process is learning to name cations and anions themselves.
The charges on the ions allow us to deduce the formula from the nam e of a com
pound, even though the numbers of each type of ion are not stated in the name. Writ
ing formulas for ionic compounds requires deducing how many of each type of ion must
be present to have a neutral compound (see Section 5.2).
Naming Cations
You learned in Chapter 5 that some metals always form monatomic ions having
one given charge in all their compounds. In this book, we will call this type of ion the
constant type. Other metals form monatomic ions with different charges (see Figure
5.11). W e will call this type the variable type. There are also some polyatomic cations,
but only two of these are important for this course. Thus, the first step in naming a
cation is to decide which of these three types it is: poly-atomic, constant type, or vari
able type. W e name them in different ways.
Polyatomic cations
Only two polyatomic cations are important at this point. The am m onium ion (N H /) is
very important and the mercury(l) ion (H g /*) is fairly important. Others may be introduced later.
Constant type cations

Naming the constant type of cation involves naming the element and adding the word
ion, unless a compound is being named. For example, Na* is the sodium ion, and Mg2* is
the magnesium ion; NaCl is sodium chloride. The alkali metals, the alkaline earth metals,
zinc, cadmium, aluminum, and silver are the most important metals that form ions of the
constant type (Figure 6.2). Each of these metals forms the same ion in any of its com
pounds, and the charge on the ion is equal to the classical periodic group number.
Variable type cations

N am in g ions of m etals that form ions of m ore than one c h a rg e re q u ires
distin-guishing between the possibilities. For example, cobalt forms Co2* and C o1* ions.
W e cannot call both of these “cobalt ion" because no one would know which of the two
we meant. For monatomic cations of variable type, the charge in the form of a Roman
numeral is attached to the element's name to indicate which ion we are talking about.
For example, Co2* is called cobalt(ll) ion and C o3* is called cobalt(lll) ion. This system
of nomenclature is called the Stock system .
170
Table 6.2 Classical Names of Some Common Cations
Periodic Group Ion of Lower Charge Ion o f Higher Charge
V IB C r2*, chromous Cr3*, chromic

VHB M n 2*, manganous M n 1*, m anganic
VIII Fe2*, ferrous Fe3*, ferric
VIII C o2*, cobaltous C o 3*,cobaltic
VIII N i2*,nickelous N i3*,nickelic
IB Cu*, cuprous Cu2*, cupric
IB Au*, aurous Au3*, auric
HB H g 2 *, mercurous H g2*, mercuric
IV A S n 2*, stannous S n 4*, stannic
IV A P b 2*, plumbous P b 4*, plumbic
Naming Anions
Just as for cations, there are three types of anions for nam ing purposes. M ona
tom ic anions are easy to nam e A second type, oxoanions, are anions that contain
o xyge n c o v a le n tly b o n de d to a n o th e r elem ent. Table 6.3 p re s e n ts som e im p o rta n t
o xoanions in a fo rm a t d e sig n e d to m ake th eir nam es e a sie r to learn. S e vera l o the r
im portant anions, referred to as special anions in this book, are listed in Table 6.4.
Monatomic Anions
All m onatom ic anions are nam ed by changing the ending of the e le m e n t’s name
to -/'de. For exam ple. I . H , and 0 ? are called iodide ion, hydride ion, and oxide ion,
resp ective ly (The nam es of a few special anions also end in -ide; am ong the m ost
im portant are hydroxide and cyanide ions, listed in Table 6.4.) The charge on any m ona
tom ic anion is co n sta n t and, except for that on H \ equal to the classica l group num ber
m inus 8 (see Figure 5.11).
Table 6.3 Names of Some Important Oxoanions*
Hypo-ite (It hOn ite ate Per - ate

hai nguyen (it hcfn mpt (Nhieu hOn mpt
tuf oxy) nguyen ttf oxy nguyen tijf oxy
CIO hypochlorite CIO, chlorite C103 chlorate C104 perchlorate

BrO hypobromite BrO, bromite BrO/ bromate B r0 4 perbromate
10 hypoiodite io, ‘ iodite I<V lodate 10, periodate
po/ hvpopgosphite PO/ p hosphite P O / - p hosphate
NO, nitrite NO, nitrate
S O 0,2 sulfite SO/ sulfate
CO/ carbonate
"T h e ions do not exist w h ere there are spaces in the table.
171
Topic 6: N otnenclature
Oxoanions
In many important anions, oxygen atoms are covalently bonded to a central atom.
These ions have extra electrons from some source, which give them their negative
charges. They are called oxoanions but were formerly known as oxyanions. For the
seven most important oxoanions, the name is that of the root of the central element
with the ending -ate added. They are listed in the third column of Table 6 3. Once
you learn the names and formulas of these ions, you can deduce the formulas of the
corresponding ions with fewer or more oxygen atoms. Ions ending in -He have one
fewer oxygen atom than the corresponding -ale ions. In some cases, removal of two
oxygen atoms from an ion ending in -ate results in an ion nam ed with the prefix hypo-
anti the ending -ite. Addition of one oxygen atom to an ion with the ending -ate yields
an ion named with the prefix per- and the ending -ate. Note in Table 6.3 that all the
ions with a given central atom have the same charge. Note also that the charges are
all odd for ions with a central elem ent from an odd-num bered periodic group and all
even for ions with a central elem ent from an even-num bered periodic group (see Fig
ure 5.13).
Table 6.4 Nam es of Special Anions

F orm u la Name
OH Hydroxide
CN Cyanide
o, Peroxide
C r0 4 2 Chromate
Cr 2 0 72- dichromate
M n 0 44 Permanganate
c 2 h 3o 2 Acetate
Special anions
Other important anions that don't fit into the prior two categories are called spe
cial anions in this book. They are listed in Table 6.4. Nam es for anions that contain
oxygen but are not included in Table 6.3 may sometimes be determined because of a
periodic relationship between their central element and that of an ion in that table For
example. M n 0 4~ is analogous to C IO / because both central elements are in periodic
groups numbered VII. Its name is permanganate, which is analogous to perchlorate.
Similarly, C r 0 42~ and S 0 42 both have central atoms that are in periodic groups num
bered VI. The name of C r 0 42~ is chromate, analogous to sulfate. (Not all such analo
gies are valid, however.)
S n a p s h o t R e v ie w - On tap nhanh
*■ C ations are nam ed first, then anions.
*" Learning the types of cations and anions enables you to choose the proper
name endings for them
You must learn not only the rules, but when to use each o n e1
•- The proper formulas must be written according to the rules presented in Chapter 5.
172
A N am e (a) BaC I?, (b) M nC I?, and (c) (NH 4)?S 0 4.

B W rite form ulas for (a) m agnesium nitride, (b) le a d(ll) hypochlorite, and (c) a lu
m inum sulfide.
• Cdc cation dugc goi ten trudc sau do la cdc anion.

• Viec hoc biet cdc loai cation vd anion giup ban chon duac dung phdn duoi trong
ten cua chung.
• Ban phdi hoc biet khong nhilng chl cdc quy ludt, md con phdi biet khi ndo thi
sd dung quy luat ndy!
• Cdng thiic dung phdi diiqc viet tudn theo cdc quy luat ditac gidi thieu trong chuang 5.
A. Goi ten (a) BaCl^ (b) M nCl2 vd (c) (N H Jj$O f
B. Viet cong thde cua (a) magnesium nitride, (b) chi (II) hypochlorite vd (c) alumi
num sulfide
Chu thich tCf - cum ttf va hUcmg dan dpc hieu

- in its compounds: trong cdc hop chdt cua no
- when to use each rule!: luc sd dung moi quy tdc
- charges on the ions: dien tich tren cdc ion
- number of atoms: so nguyen tii
- stannum: thiec
- oxoanions: cdc oxoanion
- ate: Ate
- hybo: Hybo
- sulfate: Sulfate
Goi ten cac hop chat ion

Trong hau het cdc trudng hqp, viec goi ten cdc hop chdt ion dan gian gom viec goi
ten cd hai ion. Dai da sd cdc hqp chdt ion duqc tqo thanh tit mot cation vd mot anion. Do
dd, de goi ten phdn Idn cdc hqp chdt ion, ta goi ten cation trudc vd sau dd la anion.
Phdn kho khan han trong qud trinh goi ten Id viec hoc ten cua chinh cation vd anion.
Cdc dien tich tren cdc ion cho phep chiing ta suy ra cdng thiic tu tin goi cua mot
hqp chat, mac du sd luqng cua tdng loqi ion khdng ditqc cho biet trong tin goi. Viec viet
cdc cdng thiic cho cdc hqp chat ion ddi hoi phdi suy ra duqc va cd bao nhieu ion cua mdi
loai cdn phdi hien dien de cd ditqc mot hqp chdt trung hda (xem phan 5.2).
Goi ten cac cation

Ban dd duqc hqc trong chuang 5 la mot so kim loai ludn ludn tqo thanh cdc ion
mot nguyen tii cd mot dien tich .vric dinh trong tat cd cdc hqp chdt chiing. Trong sdch
ndy, chung ta se goi loqi ion dd 1a loqi ion cd dien tich khdng ddi. Cdc kim loqi khdc tao
thanh nhdng ion mot nguyen tii cd cdc dien tich khdc nhau (xem hinh 5.11). Chung ta
se goi loqi ion ndy la loai ion cd dien tich thay ddi. Ngoai ra, cdn cd mot sd cation nhieu
nguyen tii, nhitng trong giao trinh ndy chl cd hai ion trong so do la quan trong. Do vay,
budc ddu trong viec goi ten mot cation Id quyet dinh xem ion dd la loai ion ndo trong so
ba loqi: nhieu nguyen tii, loai dien tich khdng doi, hoac loai dien tich thay doi. Chiing
ta goi ten chiing theo nhilng cdch khdc nhau.
173
Cac cation nhieu nguyen ttir

O diem nay chi cd hai cation nhieu nguyen til la quan trong. Ion ammonium (N H t')
rdt quan trong ua ion thuy ngdn (I) ( H g 2') kha quan trong. Cac ion khdc co the duqc
gidi thieu d phdn sau.
Cac Cation loai co dien tfch khong doi

Viec goi ten loai cation co dien tich khong doi bao gom viec goi ten nguyen td va
them td ion, chl trd khi do la mot hop chdt. Vi du, Na' la ion natri. M g2' Id magnesium;
NaCl la sodium chloride. Cdc kim loai kiem vd cdc kim loqi kiem thd. kem cadmium,
nhdm vd bac la nhdng kim loqi quan trong nhdt tqo thanh cdc ion loai cd dien tich
khdng ddi (h in h 6.2). M oi kim loai ndy tqo thanh cung mot ion trong bdt cd hqp chdt
nao cua no vd dien tich tren ion Id bang vdi sd nhdm trong bdng phdn loai tudn hodn.
Cac cation loai co di§n tich thay doi

Viec goi tin cdc ion cua cdc kim loai tqo thanh cdc ion cd nhieu hem m ot dien tich
ddi hoi phdi cd sit phdn biet cdc kha ndng. Vi du, cobalt tqo thanh cdc ion Co2' vd Co3'.
Chung ta khdng the goi cd hai la “ion cobalt” nhu vay se khdng ai biet chung ta muon
chl ion ndo trong hai ion dd. Ddi vdi cdc cation mot nguyen tii loqi cd dien tich thay ddi,
dien tich d dang sd La Md duqc gdn vdo ten cua nguyen td de chi ra ion ma ta muon
noi. Vi du, Co2' duqc goi la ion cobalt(II) vd Co3’ duqc goi la ion cobalt(lll). He thdng
danh phdp ndy duqc goi la he thdng Stock.
Goi ten cac anion

Cung giong nhu doi vdi cdc cation, ddi vdi viec goi ten thi cd ba loqi anion. Cdc
anion mot nguyen tii de goi ten. Loai thii hai la cdc oxoanion, dd la nhdng anion cd
chda oxy duqc lien ket cong hda tri vdi mot nguyen td khdc. B ang 6.3 gidi thieu mot so
oxoanion quan trong duqc thiet ke d mot dang de tqo ra sU de ddng cho viec hoc. Nhdng
anion quan trong khdc trong sdch ndy goi la cdc anion dac biet duqc liet ke d bang 6.4.
Cac anion mpt nguyen tii

Tat cd cdc anion mot nguyen td deu duqc goi ten bdng cdch thay doi phdn duoi cua
ten nguyen td thanh ide. Vi du, I~, H~ vd 0 ~ duqc goi ten Id ion, ion hydride vd ion
oxide mot cdch tuong dng. (ten ciia mot it anion dac biet tan cung bdng ide; trong sd dd
quan trong nhdt la cdc ion hydroxide va cyanide duqc liet ke trong ban g 6.4 .) Ngoai trd
H , dien tich tren mot anion mot nguyen td bdt ky la khong doi bdng vdi sd nhdm tru di
8 (xem h in h 5.11).
Cac oxoanion
T rong nhieu anion quan trqng. cac nguyen td oxy duqc lien ket cdng hda tri ten mdt
n guyen td tru n g tdm. S l i d n g ion nay cd ten cdc electron td m o t so n g u o n , k h ien cho
cluing cd dien tich dm. C h u n g duqc g oi la cdc oxoanion n h u n g trudc d dy curig d u q c goi
Id oxyanion. D oi vdi bay oxoanion quan tron g nhdt. ten cua clu in g la g o c cu a n g u y en td
trung tdm c o n g th em vdi duoi ate. N h d n g oxoanion ndy d u q c h e t ke tr o n g cot t h u ba
cua bang 6.3. M ot khi ban da hoc ten va c o n g thde cua n h d n g ion nay, ban co the suy ra
cdng thde cdc ion tuang dng co so nguyen td oxy it hon hay n lu eu hon. Cdc ion tan cu ng
bdng ite cd it han mdt n guyen td oxy so vdi cdc ion ate tuang dng. T ro n g m ot sc truang
hqp, viec loqi bo bdt hai n g u y en td oxy td mdt ion cd d u o i-a te tao ra m o t ion cd ten g o i
vdi tiep ddu n g d hypo- vd co dudi la ite. V iec th em m o t n g u y en td o xy vdo m o t ion cd
174
duoi Id ate cho ra mot ion co ten goi co tiep ddu ngd la per- vd cd dudi la ate. Chu y
trong b an g 6.3 tdt cd cdc ion vdi mot nguyen tii trung tdm cho trade deu cd cung mot
dien tich. Cung chu y Id cdc dien tich deu la le doi vdi cdc ion cd nguyen to trung tdm tit
mot nhdm le cua bdng tudn hodn vd tdt cd deu la chdn doi vdi cdc ion cd nguyen td
trung tdm ta mot nhdm chin trong bdng tudn hoan.
Cac ion d$c bi#t

Cdc aion quan trong khdc khdng thuoc ve hai nhdm tren a trong sdch ndy duoc goi
Id cdc anion ddc biet. Chung duqc liet ke trong bang 6.4. ten cua cdc anion cd chiia oxy
nhung khdng cd trong b an g 6.3 ddi khi cd the duqc xdc dinh nhd quan he tudn hodn
gida nguyen to trung tdm cua chdng vd nguyen to trung tdm cua mot ion trong bdng
ndy. Vi du, M n 0 4 tuong tu vdi C l 0 4~vi cd hai cdc nguyen td trung tdm deu thuoc ve
nhdm VII trong bdng tudn hodn. Ten cua chdng la permanganate, tuang tu nhu per
chlorate. Tuang tu, C r O 2' vd S O 2 deu cd nhdng nguyen td trung tdm a trong nhdm VI
cda bdng tudn hodn. Ten cda C r 0 2 la chromate tuang tu nhu sulfate. (Tuy nhien khdng
phai tdt cd deu cd tinh tuang tu.)
Chu diem 6.3: Naming Acids and Acid Salts
Acids are a sp e cia l group of hydrog en -co n tain in g co m p ou nd s w hose properties

will be covered m ore fu lly in C ha pter 8. One of their m ost im portant p roperties is th eir
reaction with bases to form salts (Section 8.4). Pure acids are co valen t com pounds,
but they react to va ry in g e xte n ts w ith w ater to form ions in so lu tion . The h ydrogen
atom s that react w ith w a te r to form ions are said to be ionizable hydrogen atoms.
The fo rm u la s of acid s have the ionizable hydrogen atom s w ritten first. In b eginning
courses, all co m p ou nd s (except for w ater and hydrogen peroxide) with hydrogen w rit
ten first are acids. T hus, HCI is an acid with one ionizable hydrog en atom per m ol
ecule, and H2S 0 4 is an acid w ith two ionizable hydrogen atom s per m olecule. C H 4 and
N H 3 are not acids. (In fact, N H 3 acts as a base in aqueous solution ) In other w ords,
the a ppearance of h ydrog en first in a form ula is not based on h yd ro g e n ’s relative p osi
tion in the perio d ic table, as is true for other elem ents, but only on w h e th e r the c o m
pound is an acid.
Naming Acids
C om pounds nam ed as acids do not include the word hydrogen in the nam e. The
word add im plies the p re se n ce of hydrogen.
A cids are nam ed by rep la cing the ending of the related anion by an ending in
cluding the w ord acid, as follow s:
Name of anion Name of acid
Per — - ate Per ... ic acid

-ate ic acid
-ite ous acid
Hypo — ite H ypo-------- ous acid
-ide H ydro— ic acid
Note that if the anion has a prefix hypo- or per-, so does the acid.
175
Topic 6: Nomenclature
If the acid is a binary hydrogen com pound, including HF. HCI. HBr, HI. and H2S,
the pure com pound is nam ed as if hydrogen w ere an alkali m etal For e xam ple , pure
HCI is nam ed hydrogen chloride, and H2S is nam ed hydrogen sulfide w ith no prefixes
for either e le m ent in e ithe r case. W hen the hydrogen halides are d is s o lv e d in water,
they are usually nam ed as acids. Thus HCI in w ater is referred to as h y d ro c h lo ric acid.
Naming Acid Salt?

In C h a p te r 8, w e w ill see th a t an acid w ith m ore than one io n iz a b le hydrogen
atom can re a ct w ith b ase s in ste ps, w ith all b ut th e last s te p y ie ld in g co m p ou nd s
called a c id s a lts . S uch salts co n s is t of a cation, such as a s o d iu m ion. p lu s an an
ion that has one or tw o h ydrog en atom s still a tta che d. J u s t as the h y d ro g e n atoms
are co v a le n tly bonded in the pure acid, the ones that are left in the a cid s a lt are still
c o v a le n tly b o n d e d . T he a n io n is n am ed w ith the w ord h y d r o g e n fo llo w e d by the
nam e o f the p a re n t a n io n . F or e x a m p le . N a H C 0 3 has a s o d iu m c a tio n . N a \ and
the h yd ro g e n c a rb o n a te a nion, H C 0 3_. The co m p o u n d is so d iu m h y d ro g e n ca rb o n
ate. A cid sa lts of a cid s w ith th re e h y d ro g e n a to m s, su ch as p h o s p h o ric a cid , re
q uire s p e c ific a tio n of how m any h yd ro g e n atom s are left T he p re fix e s m ono- and
di- are used fo r one and tw o h ydrog en a tom s, re s p e c -tiv e ly . T hu s, N aH ^P O , is so
dium d ih y d ro g e n p h o sp h a te , and N a2H P 0 4 is s o d iu m m o n o h y d ro g e n p h o s p h a te (or
d iso d iu m h y d ro g e n p h o sp h a te ).
T a b le 6.5 Outline for Nomenclature*
Is the com pound (I) covalent or (II) ionic?

I. C ovalen t: Is the co m p ou n d (A) an acid or (B) a b in a ry c om p o u n d o f tw o non-
m e ta ls?
A. Acid: N a m e the com p o u n d using a suffix an d p o ssib ly a prefix rela ted to
the n a m e o f the analogous anion (IIB). A dd the w ord acid.
B. B in ary com pound: N a m e the first e le m e n t w ith a prefix from T a b le 6.1 if
there are more than one atom. T hen name the second elem ent with a prefix
from T a b le 6.1 (e v en i f th ere is on ly one atom ), an d w ith th e e n d in g
c h a n g ed to -ide.
II. Ionic: N a m e both (A) the cation and then (B) the anion.
A. C ation: Is the ca tio n i l ) p oly a tom ic, <2) a metal fo r m in g ions w ith m ore
than one charge, or <3) a metal with only one ion?
1. P olya tom ic: N a m e the ion.
2. Variable: Use the name o f the metal with a Rom an numeral to indicate
the charge.
3. C o n sta n t: Use th e n am e o f th e metal only.
B. Anion: Is the anion <1> monatomic, (2) a tabulated oxoanion. or ' 3 ' so m e
thing else9
1. M on a tom ic: C ha n g e the en d in g o f the elem e n t nam e to -ide.

2. Oxoan ion: See Table 6.3.
3. Special: See T able 6.4.
U s e th is o u t lin e o r F ig u r e 6 4: you do n 't n e e d bo th .
176

*■ Acids have hydrogen written first in their formulas, but do not have the word
hydrogen in their names.
*■ Acids are related to anions; for every hydrogen atom removed fro the formula
of an acid, one negative charge is added in the resulting anion.
The names of acids and anions are also related:
Anion suffix Acid suffix (and prefix)
-ate -ic acid
-ite -ous acid
-ide h yd ro ____ ic acid
A. Name the following acids: (a) H3P 0 2, (b) H C I0 2, and (c) H N 0 3.
B Write formulas for the following compounds: (a) phosphorous acid and (b) so
dium hydrogen sulfite
• Hydro ditoc viet trudc trong cong thiic cua cdc acid, nhung trong ten ciia chung
khdng cd td hydrogen.
• Cdc acid cd lien quan vdi cdc anion; doi vdi moi nguyen tii hydro diiqc bdi di
khoi cdng tliiic cua mot acid, thi cd mot dien tich dm duoc them vdo trong anion
diiqc tqo thanh.
• Ten acid vd cdc anion cung cd lien quan vdi nhau:
T ie p vi ngur cua a n io n T ie p vi nguf

(va y ie p dau nguf) cua acid
-ate ic acid
-ite tous acid
-ide hydro------ ic acid
A. Goi ten cdc acid sau ddy: a) HJPOr (b) HCIO., vd (c) H N O s
B. Viet cdng thiic cua cdc hqp chdt sau ddy: (a) phosphorous acid vd (b) sodium
hydrogen sulfite.
Chu thich tu1- cum tCf va hifomg dan dpc hieu

- acids: cdc a.xit
- bases: cdc bazo
- sa lts: cac muoi
- ionizable h y d r o g e n atoms: sii ion hda nguyen tii hydro
- not: khdng
- n am e o f a n io n , n am e o f acid: ten goi ciia ion, ten goi cua axit
- acid sa lts: muoi axit
Goi ten acid va cac muoi acid

Acid Id mot nhom cac hop chdt cd chiia hydro dqc biet md cdc tinh chat dd diioc xet
den ddy du hon d trong chuang S. Mot trong nhdng tinh chdt quan trong nhdt ciia chung
Id phan ling cua chung vai base de tqo tlianh muoi (phdn 8.4). Cdc acid tinh khiet la
nhdng hqp chdt cdng hoa tri, nhdng cluing phdn dng vdi cdc mdc do khdc nhau vai nddc
177
de tqo thanh cdc ion trong dung dich. Nhilng nguyen tii hydro phan ling vdi nUdc de tqo
thanh ion duqc goi la cdc nguyen tii hydro co the ion hoa. Cong thiic ciia cdc acid cd cdc
nguyen tii hydro co the ion hoa duqc biet trddc. Trong phdn ddu cua cdc gido trinh, tat
cd cdc hqp chdt (ngoai trii nude vd hydrogen peroxide) vdi hydro duqc viet trudc la cdc
acid. Nhu vay, HCI la mot acid vdi mot nguyen tii hydro co the ion hda tren phdn tii vd
HJSOj la mot acid vdi hai nguyen tii hydro cd the ion hda tren phdn tii. CHf vd NH3
khong phdi la cdc acid, (trong thiic te, N H , cd tac dung nhu mot base trong dung dich
niidc). Noi cdch khdc, sii xuat hien cua hydro d trudc trong cdng thiic khdng phdi la duqc
diia vdo vi tri tuang doi cua hydro trong bdng phdn loai tudn hodn nhu dot vdi cdc
nguyen to khdc, md chi la de chi chdt hqp chdt dd no cd phai la mot acid hay khdng.
Goi ten cac acid

Cac acid duqc goi ten bdng cdch thay the phdn dudi cua anion lien quan bdi mot
phdn duoi cd chd acid nhu sau:
Ten cua anion Ten cua acid

Per — - ate P e r ... ic acid
-ate ic acid
-ite ous acid
Hypo — ite H ypo -------- ous acid
-ide Hydro — ic acid
Luu y rdng neu anion cd tiep ddu ngd hypo- liodc per-, thi acid cung cd tiep ddu ngd dd.
Neu acid la mot hqp chdt hydro hai chdt, bao gom HF, HCI, HBr, H I vd HJS, hqp
chat tinh khiet duqc goi ten nhu Id hydro la mot kim loai kiem. Vi du, HCI tinh khiet
duqc goi la hydrogen chloride, vd H d i i q c goi ten la hydrogen sufide, khdng cd cdc tiep
ddu ngd cho bdt cd nguyen td ndo trong bdt cd trudng hqp ndo. Khi cdc hydrogen halide
duqc hda tan bdi nude, chung thudng duqc goi ten nhu cdc acid. Do dd HCI trong nUdc
duqc goi la hydrochloric acid.
Goi ten cac muoi acid

Trong chutfng 8 , chung ta se thdy rdng mot acid cd nhieu han mot nguyen td hydro co
the ion hda, cd the phdn dng vdi cdc base theo nhieu bdac, nhdng chl cd budc phdn dng
cuoi cung cho ra nhdng hqp chdt goi la cdc muoi acid. Nhdng muoi ndy gom mdt cation,
nhu ion natri, cong them vdi mot anion md van cdn mot hay hai nguyen td hydro gdn vdo.
Dd chinh la nhdng nguyen td hydro diiqc lien ket cong hda tri trong acid tinh khiet, chung
a phia ben trdi trong acid muoi van cdn diiqc lien ket cong hda tri. Anion duac goi ten vdi
td hydro phia sau la ten cua anion goc. Vi du, N a H C 0 3 cd mot cation natri, Na' vd anion
hydrogen carnbonate, H C 0 3 . Hqp chdt la sodium hydrogen carnbonate. Cdc muoi acid
cua cdc acid cd ba nguyen td hydro, nhu acid phosphoric, duqc chi rd ra la cd bao nhieu
nguyen td hydro a ben trdi. Cdc tiep ddu ngd mono- vd di- duqcsd dung cho mot vd hai
nguyen td hydro tuang dng. Nhu vdy NaH f ’O f la sodium dihydrogen phosphate vd
Na J lP O , la sodium monohydrogen phosphat (hay disodium hydrogen phosphate).
Chu diem 6.4: Hydrates
H ydrates are stable crystalline com pounds co nsisting of o the r co m p o u n d s th a t are

stable in th e ir own right, w ith certain num bers of w ater m ole cu le s a tta ch e d (S e ction
178
5 1) Naming and writing formulas for hydrates is easy. W e simply name the compound
first and then combine a Table 6 1 prefix that identifies the number of water molecules
with the word hydrate to indicate the presence of the water molecules. For example,
C u S 0 4. 5 H ?0 is called copper(ll) sulfate pentahydrate If we wish to emphasize that
no water is attached. C u S 0 4 may be called anhydrous copper(ll) sulfate

Hydrates compounds with water attached— are named with a prefix from Table
6.1 attached to the word hydrate to denote the number of water molecules.
A. Name C rP 0 4
4.2H.,0.
I
B. Write the formula for barium iodide dihydrate.
• Cdc hydrate la cdc hgp chat co ndac gdn vao - chung duac goi ten vdi tiep ddu
ngd td ba n g 6.1 gdn them vao td hydrate de chi so luang phan td ndac.
A. Goi ten CrPOr 2H O.
B V iet co n g thde ciia barium iod id e diliydrate
Chu thich tif - cum t a va huong dan dpc hieu

- H ydrogen : Hydro form ula: cong thde acid h yd rogen : hydro axit
Hydrate
Hydrate la nhdng liap chdt ket tinh ben gom co cac hap chdt ben khac cung vcn mot
so luang phdn td nuac duac gan vdo (muc 5.1). Duac goi ten vd viet cong thde cua hydrate
kha de. Ta chi can goi ten hap chdt trudc vd sau do ket hap vdi mot tiep ddu ngd trong
ban g 6.1 de chl ra so phdn td nUdc vdi td hydrate de chi sd hien dien cua cdc phdn td
nude. Vi du, C u S O ,.5 H Q duac goi la dong (ID sulfate pentahydrate. Neu ta muon nhan
manh Id khong cd ndac ddac gan vdo, CuSO, cd the ddac goi la anhydrous dong(II) sufate.
SELF-TUTORIAL PROBLEMS - BAI TA P Ttf KIEM TRA
6.1 W hat is the d iffe re n ce in the m eanings of the prefixes fc>/-and di- (as used in this
chapter)?
6.2 W hich m etals form cations of the constant ty p e 7 W hat are the charges on these
cations?
6.3 Use the Table of E lem ents on the inside of the back cover, if necessary, to name
each of the follow ing
(a) NO (b) No (c) Hf (d) HF
6 4 W hat are the rules for rem em bering the charges on (a) m onatom ic anions and
(b) oxoanions?
6.5 C lassify each of the follow ing as ionic or covalent, and nam e each:
(a) CaO (b) N 0 2 (c) CoO (d) Lil
6 .6 W hat is the d iffe re n ce betw een S 0 3 and S O / ' ? Nam e each one
6 7 C lassify the m etal in each of the follow ing com pounds as co nsta nt type or v a ri
able type, and then nam e each com pound:
179
(a) S n S 0 4 (b) SrSO , (c) M nSO,

(d) NiClj (e) M gSO , (f) Na2S 0 4
6.8 W hat can you tell from each of the following?
(a) The fact that hydrogen is written first in a formula
(b) The charges on the two ions making up a compound
(c) The fact that the name for a compound or ion ends in -ite
6 9 Pure HCI may be named as a binary nonmetal-nonmetal compound, whereas pure
H2S 0 4 isnamed as an acid. Explain why H2S 0 4 is not named as HCI is named.
6.10 (a) W hat is the difference between hydrogen ion and hydride ion?
(b) Explain why H* is called the hydrogen ion rather than the hydrogen(l) ion,
even though hydrogen can form two different ions.
6.11 Write formulas for (a) sulfide ion, (b) sulfate ion, and (c) sulfite ion.
6.12 Nam e each of the following acids:

(a) H I0 4 (b) H I0 3 ( c ) HIO, (d) HIO (e) HI
6.13 W hat is the charge on each of the following?
(a) The hydrogen sulfide ion
(b) The dihydrogen phosphite ion
(c) The monohydrogen phosphate ion
6.14 What are the differences in the following, as used in naming compounds?
(a) Hydrogen (b) Hydro- (c) Hypo-
6 .1 5 Nam e (a) H3P 0 4 and (b) N a3P 0 4.
6.16 W hat is the difference between the two names for HBr: hydrogen bromide and
hydrobromic acid?
6.17 W hat is the difference between N H 3 and N H 4‘ ? Nam e each one.
6.18 Nam e each m em ber of the following pairs, and compare the names:
(a) HCI (pure) and NaCl
(b) H2S (pure) and N a2S
PROBLEMS - BAI TAP
6.1 Binary N o nm etal-N o nm etal Com pounds
6.19 N am e each of the fo llo w in g com pounds:

(a) N 20 3 (b) C l 4 (c) P ?0 3
(d) S F 6 (e) B r 20 3
6.20 Nam e each of the follow ing com pounds:
(a) C 0 2 (b) P 40 6 (c) NH 3
(d) P 2S 5 (e) CO
6.21 Nam e the fo llo w in g substances:

(a) H B r(pure) (b) H2Se (c) HF (pure)
180
6.22 Write the formula for each of the following compounds:

(a) Iodine monofluoride (b) Water
(c) Arsenic trichloride (d) Sulfur dioxide
(e) Phosphorus pentabromide (f) Ammonia
6.23 Nam e each of the following compounds:
(a) S 0 3 (b) SiCI4 (c) PCI3
(d) A sF5 (e) N F3
(a) Carbon tetrafluoride (b) Hydrogen chloride
(c) Silicon dioxide (d) Iodine trifluoride
(e) Bromine monofluoride (f) Hydrogen sulfide
(g) Nitrogen trichloride
(a) Sulfur hexafluoride (b) Sulfur tetrafluoride
(c) Sulfur difluoride
(a) Bromine dioxide
(b) Dibromine trioxide
(c) Dibromine monoxide
(d) Dibromine heptoxide
(a) Tetraarsenic decoxide
(b) Dichlorine monoxide
(c) Diphosphorus pentasulfide
(d) Tetrasulfur tetranitride
6.2 Nam ing Ionic C om pounds
6.28 Explain why chemists often refer to Cl" as “chloride" (without the word ion) but
do not refer to Na* as “sodium" (without the word ion).
6.29 Nam e each of the following cations:

(a) C u2* (b) Au* (c) Cr3*
6.30 Write the formula for each of the following ions:

(a) Calcium ion (b) Manganese(ll) ion
(c) Potassium ion (d) Ammonium ion
(e) M ercury(ll) ion

(a) Ba2* (b) Li* (c) Co3*
6.32 Nam e each of the following anions:
(a) B r (b) S 2‘ (c) N3‘ (d) O2

(a) Cr3* (b) C o2* (c) Ag* (d) Pt“
181
Topic 6: N om enclature ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________ _______________________
6 34 W rite the form ula for each of the follow ing ions:
(a) N itrate ion (b) C hlorate ion
(c) D ichrom ate ion (d) Phosphate ion
(e) C yanide ion (f) H ypobrom ite ion
6.35 N am e each of the follow ing anions:
(a) S O /- (b) P O /* (c) S O / '
6.36 N am e each of the fo llo w in g com pounds:
(a) A 1 j(S 0 4)3 (b) C u 3(P 0 4)2 (c) (N H 4) 2S0 4
6.37 N am e each of the follow ing anions:
(a) C rO /- (b) C 2H 30 ?- (c) C r 20 / '
(d) M n 0 4 (e )O /- (f) CN-
6.38 N am e each of the follow ing com pounds:
(a) C u2S (b) CuO
(a) F e S 0 4 (b) N iS 0 4 (c) (N H 4) 2S0 4
6.40 W rite the form ula for each of the follow ing com pounds:
(a) N icke l(ll) oxide (b) C o b a lt(lll) sulfate
(c) M agnesium hydroxide (d) C o p p e r(ll) chlorate
(e) Lithium cyanide (f) A m m onium ca rbonate
6.41 W rite the form ula for each of the follow ing com pounds:
(a) B arium p eroxide (b) G o ld (lll) acetate
(c) N ickel(ll) chloride (d) C opper(H ) oxide
(e) A lu m in um carbonate (f) A m m onium sulfide
6.42 C om p le te the fo llo w in g table by w ritin g the fo rm u la for each ion ic com pound
w hose cation is given on the left and w hose anion is g iven at the top:
N itrate S u lfa te A c e ta te P h o sp h a te
A m m o n iu m ______ ____________ _____________ _______
Iro n (ll) ______ _____ _______ _____ _______ _______
C h ro m iu m (lll) ______ _____ _______ _____ _______ _____________
T in (IV ) ______ _____ _______ _____ _______ ______
6.43 C om p le te the fo llo w in g table by w ritin g the fo rm u la for each ionic co m pound
w hose cation is given on the left and w hose anion is given at the top
C hloride H ypochlorite P h osp h ate
S odium ______ _______ _______
C h ro m iu m (ll) _______ ______ _______
Iro n (lll) ______ _______ _______
6.44 C o m p le te the fo llo w in g ta ble by w ritin g the fo rm u la for each ion ic co m p ou nd

w hose cation is given on the left and w hose anion is given at the top
H ydroxide C yanide C h ro m a te P e rm a n g a n a te
L ith iu m ______ ___________ ___________
M e rcu ry(ll) ______ ___________ ____ _ _ _ _
Iro n (ll) ______ ___________ ___________
C o b a lt(lll) ______ ___________ ___________
I 82
6.45 An instru ctor tells the students in a class that Na* is the only stable ion of so
dium and that N aJ* cannot be prepared in a solid. W hat nam e should the in
structor use for N a?*?
6.3 N am ing Acids and Acid Salts
6 46 C o m p le te the fo llo w in g table by w riting the fo rm u la for each ionic com pound
w hose cation is given on the left and whose anion is given at the top:
S u lfate D ihydrogen
S u lfa te Hydrogen Phosphate
V a na d iu m (H ) ______ ______ ______
Iron(HI) ______ ______ ______
C alcium ______ ______ ______
S ilver _______ ______ ______
6.47 W hat is the d ifferen ce betw een the nam es phosphorus and phosphorous?
6.48 W hat is the d ifferen ce betw een hypobrom ous acid and hydrobrom ic acid?
6.49 W hat is the d ifferen ce betw een iodic acid and h ydroiodic acid?
6.50 W rite the fo rm u la for each of the follow ing acids:

(a) P hosphoric acid (b) Brom ic acid
(c) H ydrosulfuric acid (d) C hloric acid
6.51 Nam e each of the follow ing acids:
(a) H 2S 0 3 (b) H C I0 3 (c) H 3P 0 4
6.52 W hat is the d ifferen ce betw een brom ous acid and hypobrom ous acid?
6.53 C la ssify each of the fo llo w in g as an acid, an acid salt, or a regular salt, and
nam e each:
(a) H 2S 0 4 (b) N a 2S 0 4 (c) N a H S 0 4
6.54 N am e each of the follow ing com pounds as an acid and also as a binary c o m
pound of nonm etals:
(a) HI (b) H2S (c ) HCI
6.4 H ydrates
6.55 N am e (a) N a2C 0 37 H 20 , (b) F eB r 36H 20 , and (c) Ba(CIO )2. 2 H 20
6.56 W rite the fo rm u la fo r (a) iro n (ll) sulfate m on oh ydrate and (b) barium brom ide
d ih ydra te
6.57 S e lect all of the follow ing com pounds that should be nam ed using the prefixes
of T able 6 1. that should be nam ed with Rom an num erals, and that should have
n ei-ther. N am e each.
(a) KOH (b) Z n C 0 3 (c) PCI3
(d) C o (N 0 3)2 (e) N a2S (f) C 0 2
6.58 N am e each of the follow ing:
(a) H 2S 0 3 (b) N a 2S 0 3 (c) S O /-
183
(d) S 0 3 (e) N iS O j
6.59 N am e (a) C uO and (b) C u 20 .

(a) CrS (b) H 20 2
(c) H B r (in w ater) (d) FeSO,
(e) P 4S ,0 (f) C l 20 5
(g) N a 2S 0 3 (h) B a C r0 4

(a) X eF 6 (b ).X e 0 2 (c) XeF 2
6.62 W hich of the follow ing pure com pounds have co valen t bonds only?
C02 H2S n 2o N H ,C 2H 30 2 C oF 3
6.63 C om plete the follow ing table by w riting the form ula and nam e of each com pound
form ed from an anion at the top and a cation on the left:
no 3- so /- po 43-
A m m o n iu m _______ ______ _______
N ickel(H) _______ ______ _______
V a n a d iu m (H I) _______ ______ ______
6.64 C om plete the follow ing table by w riting the form ula and nam e of each com pound
form ed from an anion at the top and a cation on the left:
C arbonate C hlorate A rsenate
N i2* ----------- ----------- -----------
Pt?. -------------------------------- ---------------------
6.65 W rite form ulas for the follow ing substances:

(a) V a na d iu m (IV ) oxide
(b) H ypochlorous acid
(c) Sodium chrom ate
(d) H ydroiodic acid
(e) P la tinu m (IV ) oxide
6.66 Nam e each of the fo llo w in g com pounds:
(a) S eF 2 (b) N iF 2 (c) BaF 2
6 67 W hich transition m etal ions have a charge of 1 + ?
6.68 Nam e each of the follow ing com pounds:

(a) N 20 3 (b) C o 20 3 (c) A l 20 3
6.69 N am e (a) H Br (as an acid), (b) HBr (pure), and (c) N aB r
6 70 Nam e each of the follow ing ions:
(a) S e O /- (b) S O /-
(c) A sO ,3' (d) P 0 43-
6.71 Nam e the follow ing ions by the Stock system , using T able 6 2 if n e c e s s a ry
(a) Ferrous ion (b) C upnc ion
(c) M anganous ion (d) C uprous ion
(e) S tannous ion
184
6.72 N am e (a) L i,H P 0 4. (b) KH 2P 0 4, (c) H 3P 0 4, and (d) K 3P04.
6.73 W hich of the follow ing com pounds have acid properties?
nh3 hno3 k h 2p o 4 khso3 ch4
6.74 W rite fo rm u la s fo r (a) m a n g a n e s e (ll) m o n o h y d ro g e n p h o s p h a te and (b)
m a n g a n e se (ll) dihydrogen phos-phate.
6.75 W rite fo rm u la s fo r the fo llo w in g ions, as w ell as fo rm u la s and nam es for the
co rresp on din g acids and an-ions (with no hydrogen):
(a) H ydrogen su lfid e ion
(b) D ihydrogen phosphate ion
(c) H ydrogen sulfate ion
(d) H ydrogen carbonate ion
6.76 G ive a m ore m odern nam e for each of the follow ing
(a) Sodium bica rb o na te (b) C obaltic chloride
(c) N ickelous sulfate (d) C hrom ic oxide
6.77 W rite the fo rm u la fo r potassium bisulfide.
6.78 W rite the fo rm u la for h ydrosu lfuric acid.
6.79 W rite fo rm u la s fo r hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen sulfide ion, and h ydrosulfuric acid.
6.80 N am e the cation in each of the follow ing com pounds:

(a) K 2S e 0 4 (b) (N H 4) 2M o 0 4
(c) C rP 0 4 (d) C o P 0 4
6.81 N am e the anion in each of the follow ing com pounds:
(a) V 0 S 0 4 (b) V 0 2C I0 3 (c) Zn 3(P 0 4)2
6.82 W rite fo rm u la s fo r (a) acetic acid, (b) calcium selenate. and (c) m agnesium a r
senate.
6.83 Nam e each of the fo llo w in g com pounds:

(a) C a S 0 4 (b) P 2S 5 (c) X eF 4
(d) C o F2, (e) N H 4CN
6.84 N am e (a) B a 0 2 and (b) S n 0 2 (Hint: Peroxide ion gen -e ra lly exists only in c o m b i
nation w ith m etals in the form of th eir ion of highest charge.)
6.85 N am e (a) N H 4CIO , and (b) AI(C IO )3.
6.86 N am e and w rite fo rm u la s for the ions in (a) Li?S and (b) H g 2S.
6.87 N am e each of the follow ing:

(a) S b 20 3 (b) T i0 2 (c) BrCI 3
(d) H BrO (e) (N H 4) 3P 0 4
6.88 W rite the fo rm u la of each of the follow ing:

(a) S odium peroxide
(b) C alcium oxide
(c) Lead(IV ) oxide
(d) C alcium peroxid e
6 89 Identify the type of substance, using the follow ing sym bols. T hen w rite form ulas
for each
185
IV for Ionic com pounds containing m etal ion of V ariable type

IC for Ionic com p ou nd s containing m etal ions of C on sta nt type
A for Acids or acid salts
C for other binary C ovalent com pounds
E for E lem ents
N am e Type F orm ula
(a) Iro n (lll) fluoride ______ ______________________
(b) N icke l(ll) oxide _____________________________
(c) Iodine trichloride ______ ___ _________________ __
(d) Sodium hydride ______ ___ ___________________
(e) G o ld(l) sulfide __________ ___________________
(f) M agnesium hydroxide ______ ___ ___________________
(g) N itric acid ______ ___ ___________________
(h) A m m onium sulfate __________ ___________________
(i) M agnesium sulfite ______ ___ ___________________
(j) P hosphorous acid ______ ___ ___________________
(k) H ydrochloric acid _____ ___________________
(I) Potassium carbonate ______ _______________________
(m) A m m onium d ichrom ate ______ ___ __ ____________ _ _
6.90 Identify the type of substance using the sym bols of Problem 6.89, and nam e each.
(a) C o C 0 3 (c) H SO.
(d) N H 4B r 0 3 (f) s f 5
(9) Ba 3( P 0 4)2 (0 C C I 4
(j) FeCL
6 91 Identify the type of substance using the sym bols of Problem 6.89, and nam e each.
(a) RbOH ( b ) N a 2S 0 3 (c) Ni 3(P 0 4)2
(d) CO (e) (N H 4) 2C 0 3 (f) BrCI
(g) N H 4N 0 3 (h) C 0 2 (i) C rP 0 4
6,92 Identify the type of substance using the sym bols of Problem 6.89, and nam e each.
(a) PbO (b) HBrO (c) B a(O H )2
(d) C S 2 (e) H C 2H 30 2 (f) M nF 2 (g) N 2Os
6.93 Nam e each of the follow ing substances:
(a) C u2S (b) M g(O H )2 (c) B rF 3
(d) HCI (e) B F 3 (f) AgBr
(g) H 3P 0 4 (h) M n 0 2 (i) C oF 3
(I) KOH
6.94 Identify the type of su bstance using the sym bols of P roblem 6 89. and w rite the
form ula for each.
(a) Potassium p erm anganate
(b) Sodium peroxide
(c) Iro n (lll) d ichrom ate
(d) C o p p e r(ll) acetate
(e) B arium hydrogen carbonate
(f) S ulfur trioxide
I 86
(g) V a n a d iu m (lll) arsenate

(h) T etraphosphorus hexasulfide
(i) Iodine pentafluoride
Q) C alcium dihydrogen phosphate
(k) D iarsenic trioxide
( 1) P erchloric acid
(m) A m m on iu m chlorite
(n) A cetic acid
Nam e each of the follow ing:
(a) H g 2CI? (b) CrS (c) BaCI 2
(d) C aH 2 (e) A g 2S (0 C o 3(P 0 4)2
(g) P C I3 (h) Z n (C I0 4)2 (i) M g 3N 2
(j) N H 4C 2H 30 2 (k) C u S 0 4
Nam e the follow ing substances
(a) Fe 20 3 (b) C o 20 3 (c) B rF 3
(d) LiH (e) A u B r 3 (f) M g (C I0 4)2
(g) Li3N (h) CCI 4 (i) C aH 2
W rite form ulas for the follow ing substances:
(a) C alcium oxide
(b) N itric acid
(c) T ita n iu m (lll) hydroxide
(d) M a n g a n e se (ll) chrom ate
(e) N icke l(ll) nitrate
(f) Potassium d ichrom ate
(g) C h ro m iu m (lll) chloride
(h) N itrogen trifluoride
(<) S u lfu r te traflu oride
(J) S u lfuro us acid
N am e the fo llo w in g substances:
(a) H C 2H 30 2 (b) C a S 0 4 (c) H C I0 4
(d) CuO (e) BrC I 3 (f) p c i 5
(g) H B r0 2 (h) KH S O j (i) P b (H P 0 4)2 (j) h n o 2
W rite form ulas fo r the follow ing substances:
(a) Sodium hydrogen sulfide
(b) B arium ch lo rite
(c) Iodine trifluo rid e
(d) D ioxygen d iflu oride
(e) Lithium ch lo ra te
(f) C o b a lt(lll) hydroxide
(g) G o ld (l) chlo rid e
(h) A m m o n iu m sulfate
(i) M an g a n e se (IV ) oxide
(j) T in (ll) sulfide
187
6 100 Nam e each of the follow ing:

(a) H N 0 3 (b) CaS (c) n 2o
(d) N i(C 1 0 3)2 ( e ) F e ( N 0 3)3 (0 C a(N O ?)j
(g) p i3 (h) k n o 3 (i) HCIO 3
(j) Li 3P 0 4 (k) (N H 4) 3P 0 4
6.101 Nam e the follow ing substances:
(a) Li 2S 0 3 (b) HCI (c) Nl
(d) C a C 0 3 (e) NaOH (f) N H 4H 2P 0 ,
(g) (N H 4) 2S e 0 4 (h) N a 3A s 0 4 (i) H C IO 3
(j) k c n
6.102 W rite fo rm u la s for the follow ing substances:
(a) Iro n (lll) brom ide
(b) A m m o n ia
(c) M a n g a n e s e (lll) fluoride
(d) L ithium nitrate
(e) B arium peroxide
(f) Iro n (lll) chloride
(g) A m m o n iu m su lfite
(h) X enon te traflu oride
(i) Iodine trichloride
(j) M ag ne sium hydride
6.103 W rite fo rm u la s for the follow ing substances:
(a) C arbon tetraflu oride
(b) G o ld (lll) chloride
(c) P hosphorous acid
(d) S ilver acetate
(e) L e a d (ll) sulfate
(f) Zinc p erm anganate
(g) C arbon disu lfide
(h) N icke l(ll) carbonate
(i) P erchloric acid
(j) P otassium cyanide
6.104 From Figure 6 4, give the route by w hich you w ould nam e (a) C r( C IO j . (b) ICI .
and (c) (N H 4) 2C rO d.
6.105 (a).A zid e ion has the form ula N 3~. W rite the fo rm u la fo r the c o rre s p o n d in g acid,
(b) W hat is the nam e of that acid? (Hint: Add the le t-te r o to the stem )
6.106 If oxalate ion is C 20 4?‘ . w hat are the form ula and nam e of its p a re n t acid?
188
S U M M A R Y - TONG KET CHlfONG_________________

D ifferent system s are used for nam ing ionic com pounds and binary covalent com pounds,
and acids are nam ed still other w ays. For binary n onm etal-nonm etal com pounds (which
are co valen t), the leftm o st or low er e le m ent in the periodic table is named first, and then
the other ele m e n t is nam ed. The ending of the second elem ent is changed to -ide, and
the num ber of atom s of that elem ent in the molecule is indicated by a prefix (Table 6.1).
If m ore than one atom of the first elem ent is present per m olecule, a prefix m ay be
used for that elem ent, too. (Section 6.1)
To nam e an ionic co m p o u n d , nam e the cation first and then the anion. M onatom ic
cations of ele m e n ts that form only one cation are nam ed using ju s t the nam e of the
elem ent. For m onatom ic cations of elem ents that can form m ore than one cation, the
charge on the cation is indicated by a R om an num eral in p a ren th ese s added to the
nam e of the e lem ent. P o lyato m ic cations have special nam es, a m m onium ion being
the m ost im portant.
The nam es of m onatom ic anions have the ending of the ele m e n t's nam e changed to -
ide. The charge on any m onatom ic anion (except H-) is equal to the classica l group
n um ber m inus 8 . The nam es of m ost fam iliar oxoanions end in -ale or -he. d epending
on the relative n um be r of oxygen atom s per ion Ions with m ore oxygen atom s than
those w hose nam es end in -ate have the prefix per- added to the nam e; ions w ith few er
oxygen atom s than those w hose nam es end in -ite have the prefix hypo-added to the
name. N am es of o th e r anions m ust be learned based on periodic table relationships or
individually.
A R om an n um eral in p aren th ese s in the name of the com pound d esignates the charge
on a cation and an A ra bic num eral as a subscript in the formula d esign ates the n um
ber of ions. The ch arge s enable you to deduce the num bers of ions, and vice versa,
but the R om an n um erals and the Arabic num erals do not re p re sen t the sam e q ua nti
ties. (Section 6.2)
A cids can be re co g n ize d by the fact that the ion iz-a ble hydrog en atom s are w ritten
first in th eir fo rm u la s, but the word hydrogen does not appear in th e ir nam es. The word
acid im plies the p re sen ce of the hydrogen. O xoacids are nam ed like the corresponding
oxoanions. w ith the end in g -ate changed to -ic acid or the ending
-ite chan ge d to -ous acid Nam es of binary acids have the ending -ide of the c o r
resp on din g anion chan ge d to
-ic acid and the pre fix hydro-added. For exam ple. Ch is chloride: HC1 is h y d ro
chloric acid
Acid salts are nam ed as ionic com pounds, but the name of the anion has the word hy
drogen in it (perhaps with a prefix) to indicate that at least one ionizable hydrogen atom
is still present. For exam ple. N a H C 0 3 is sodium hydrogen carbonate. (Section 6.3)
H ydrates are nam ed w ith a prefix from Table 6.1 before the word hydrate, to indicate
the n um be r of w ater m olecu les For exam ple, C u S 0 3-5H 20 is nam ed c o p p e r(ll) sulfate
pentahydrate. (S e ction 6.4)
189
ATOMS AND ATOMIC
n g u y £ n ti)
VIA KHO'I LUQIiG NGUYEN TLT
M U C D ICH YEU C A U - O b je c tiv e s b6 CUC - Layout
7 .1 To c a lcu la te a fo rm u la mass 7.1 F orm ula Masses
7 .2 To ca lc u la te th e p e rc e n t c o m p o s itio n 7 .2 P ercent C o m p o sitio n

by m ass fro m th e fo rm u la o f a c o m
7 .3 The M ole
pound
7 4 Em pirical F orm ulas
7 .3 To use th e basic ch e m ica l q u a n tity th e
m o le to m a ke ca lcu la tio n s c o n v e n ie n t 7 .5 M olecu lar Form ulas
7 .4 To d e te rm in e th e e m p iric a l fo rm u la
fro m p e rc e n t c o m p o s itio n or o th e r
m a s s -ra tio d a ta
7 .5 To d e te rm in e th e m o le c u la r fo rm u la
fro m p e rc e n t c o m p o s itio n and m o
lecu lar m ass d a ta o r fro m th e e m p ir i
cal fo rm u la and m o le c u la r m ass data.
_jiica n g dan d oc hieu m u c dich ijcu cau l a b o cue
7.1 Tinh khoi luang cdng thiic, 7.2 Tinh thanh phan phan tram theo khoi luang tit
cong thiic cua hqp chdt, 7.3 Sit dung dai luang hda hqc ca ban moi de thuc hien cdc
phep tinh duac thudn tien, 7.4 Xac dinh cong thiic thuc nghiem tu thanh phan phdn
tram hay cdc sd lieu ti sd khoi luqng khdc, 7.5 Xdc dinh cdng thiic phdn tii tu thanh
phdn phdn tram vd cac sd lieu khoi luqng phdn tii hay ti/ cdng thiic thuc nghiem i a cdc
so lieu khoi luang phdn tu
7.1 Khoi luqng cdng thiic, 7.2 Thanh phdn phdn tram, 7.3 Moi. 7.4 Cong thuc thuc
nghiem, 7.5 Cdng thiic phdn tii
190
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic
The m eaning of a ch em ica l form ula was discussed in C hapter 5, and you learned how
to in te rp re t fo rm u la s in term s of the num bers of atom s of each e le m ent per form ula
unit. In this chapter, you w ill learn how to calculate the n um ber of gram s of each ele
m ent in any given q ua ntity of a com pound from its form ula and to do other ca lcu la
tions invo lvin g form ulas. Form ula m asses are presented in S ection 7 1, and percent
com position is considered in Section 7.2. Section 7 3 discusses the m ole - the basic
chem ical qua ntity of any substance. M oles can be used to count atom s, m olecules, or
ions and to ca lcu late the m ass of any known num ber of form ula units of a substance.
Section 7.4 show s how to use relative m ass data to determ ine e m pirical form ulas, and
the m ethod is extended to m olecular form ulas in Section 7 5
Hi/ong dan dpc hieu

Y nghia cua cong thiic hda hoc dd duqc mang den a chuang 5, ban dd duqc hqc
cdch dien gidi nhilng cong thiic dua tren so cdc nguyen tii cua moi nguyen to tinh tren
dan vi cong thiic. Trong chuang ndy ban se hqc cdch tinh so gam cua mot nguyen to
trong mot luqng bat ky ciia mot hqp chat tii cong thiic ciia no vd thuc hien cdc phep tinh
khdc co lien quan den cdc cong tluic. Cdc khoi luqng cong thiic duqc gidi thieu d muc 1.7
i>d thanh phdn phdn tram duqc xem xet trong muc 7.2. M uc 7.3 noi ve moi - la luqng
hoa hqc ca ban ciia bdt cii chdt ndo. Xlol co the duqc sii dung de dem so nguyen tii, phdn
tii hay ion vd de tinh khoi luqng cua mot so bat ky da cho ciia cdc dan vi cong thiic. Muc
7.4 trinh bdy cdch sii dung nhilng so lieu khdi luqng tuang doi de xdc dinh nhilng cdng
thiic thiic nghiem vd cho phep duqc md rdng ra cho cdc cong thiic phdn til trong muc 7.5.
Chu diem 7.1: Formula Masses
B ecause each sym bo l in a form ula represents an atom, which has a given aver-age
atom ic m ass, the fo rm u la as a w hole represents a co lle ction of atom s w ith a given
form ula m ass The fo rm u la m a ss (also called fo rm u la w e ig h t) is the sum of the atom ic
m asses of all atom s of e ve ry e le m e n t (not m erely each type of atom ) in a form ula
unit. In general, form ula m asses should be calculated to as m any sign ifican t digits as
are given in any data p resented in a problem . For m any calculations of this type, no
data are given in the sta te m e n t of the prob-lem , and at least three sig n ifica n t digits
should be used in values from the periodic table. For exam ple, we can calculate the
form ula m ass for fo rm a ld eh yde , C H 20 , as follows:
Number of
atoms per Atomic
formula unit mass
1 C 1 X 12.0 amu 1 2 . 0 amu

2H 2 X 1 01 amu = 2 .0 2 amu
1 0 1 X 16 0 amu = 16 0 amu
Form ula m ass = 30 0 amu
B ecause ca lcu latio n of form ula m ass is essentially adding two or m ore num bers
the n um bers to be added may be rounded to the same num ber of decim al places For
exam ple, the tw o H atom s in the preceding calculation m ight have been included as
2.0 amu. P rior m ultiplica tion m ight affect the num ber of decim al places you retain in
the atom ic m asses
I9 l
The three types of formula masses correspond to the three types of formula units:
(1) atomic masses (also called atomic weights), (2) molecular masses (also called mo
lecular weights), and (3) formula massed for ionic compounds (also called formula
weights) The term atomic mass may be used whether an atom is com bined or not,
but it always refers to the mass of one atom of an element.
S n a p s h o t R evie w - O n ta p n h a n h
*- The formula mass atomic mass for atoms, molecular mass for molecules, and
formula mass for ionic substances is merely the sum of the atomic masses of
every atom in the formula unit.
A. Calculate the formula mass for each of the following substances and state which
is an atomic mass, which is a molecular mass, and which is neither: (a) CO,
(b) Co, and (c) C o C 0 3.
• Khoi luqng cong thilc - la khoi luqng nguyen tii doi vai cdc nguyen til, khoi
luqng phdn til doi vdi cdc phdn til vd khoi luqng cong thilc doi vcri cdc hqp chdt
ion - chl dan gian la tong cdc khoi luqng nguyen til ciia tUng nguyen til trong
dan vi cong tliiic.
A. Tinh khoi luqng cong thilc ciia nhdng chdt sau ddy va cho biet khoi luqng ndo Id
khoi luqng nguyen til, khoi luqng ndo la klidi luqng phdn til va khoi luqng ndo
khong phai la cd hai: (a) CO, (bi Co vd (c) CoC O t
Chu thich tCf - cum tCf va hUamg dan dpc hieu

- fo rm u la mass: khoi luqng theo cong thilc
- form ula w e ig h t: trong luqng theo cong thilc
- form ula u n it: dan vi theo cong thUc
- atom ic: (thuoc) nguyen til
- mass: khoi luqng
- m olecular masses: khoi luqng phdn til
K h o i lu d n g c a c c o n g thufc
V i moi ky hieu trong mot cong thilc bieu dien cho mot nguyen til, nguyen til nay co
mot khoi luqng nguyen til trung binh, todn bo cong thilc bieu dien cho mot tdp hap cua cdc
nguyen til vdi khoi luqng cong thiic dd cho. Khdi luqng cdng thilc (con dilqc goi la trong
luqng cdng thiic) la tong cdc khoi luqng nguyen til ciia tdt cd cdc nguyen til ciia mdi nguyen
td (khdng chi la cua mot loai nguyen til) trong dan vi cdng thuc. Noi chung cdc khoi luang
cdng thuc cdn duac tinh vdi nhieu chil sd cd y nghla nhu dd duac cho trong dil lieu ciia bai
toan. Ddi vdi nhieu phep tinh loai ndy, khdng cd cdc sd lieu duqc cho trudc trong de bdi, vd
it nhdt phai sii dung ba chd so cd y nghla trong cdc gia tri tu bdng phdn loai tudn hoan.
So nguyen tu
tren mot dan vi Khoi luang
cdng thilc nguyen til
1C 1 \ 1 2 .0 a m u = 12 0 a m u
2 H 2 x 1 0 1 a m u - 2 0 2 a m u
10 1 x 16 0 a m u - 16 0 a m u
192
Vi du ta cd the tinh khoi luang cong thilc cua formaldehyde C H f i nhu sau:
Khdi luqng cong thilc - 30.0 amu vi cdch tinh khoi luqng cdng thilc chu yeu la viec
cong hai hay nhieu con sd, cdc con sd duqc cdng, duac lam tron den cung cdc sd le thdp
phdn, hai nguyen til H trong bdi todn d tren phdi duqc lam tron Id 2.0 amu. Neu nhdn
tri/ac thi cd the dnh hudng den sd sd le md ban cdn gitl trong cdc khoi luqng nguyen td.
Cd ba loqi khdi luqng cdng thiic tuang Ung vdi ba loai dan vi cdng thilc: (1) Khdi
luqng nguyen til (cdn goi la trong luqng nguyen til) (2) khoi luqng phdn til (cdn goi la
trong luqng phdn td) (3) khdi luqng cdng thiic cho cdc hqp chat ion (cdn goi la trong
luqng cdng thilc). Thuat ngU khdi luqng nguyen td cd the duqc sd dung cd khi nguyen td
cd duqc ket hqp hay khdng, nhung no ludn ludn chi khoi luong cua mot nguyen td cua
mot nguyen to.
Chu <Jiem 7.2: Percent Composition _____________
If we know the total m ass of each elem ent in a form ula unit and we also know
the m ass of the entire form ula unit, we can calculate the p e rc e n t c o m p o s itio n of the
com pound. W e sim p ly divide the total m ass of each elem ent by the total m ass of the
form ula unit and m u ltip ly each q u o tie n t by 100% to co n ve rt it to a percen ta ge . T o
gether, all the p ercen ta ge s constitute the percent com position.
S n a p s h o t R e v ie w - O n ta p n h a n h
*■ The p ercentage of an elem ent in a com pound is 100% tim es the ratio of the
m ass of the e le m e n t divided by the form ula m ass. The percen t com position
of the co m pound is the percentages of all the elem ents
*- It does not m atter if the com pound is covalent or ionic.
A. C alculate the p e rce n t com position of each of (a) ethyl alcohol, C?H 60 . and (b)
fo rm a ld eh yde . C H 20 .
• Phdn tram cua mot nguyen td trong mot hqp chdt la 100 % nhdn vdi ti sd giila
khoi luqng ciia nguyen td chia cho khoi luqng cdng thilc. Thanh phdn phdn tram
cua hqp chdt la cdc ti le phdn tram cua tdt cd cdc nguyen td.
• Viec hqp chdt do la hqp chdt cong hda tri hay hqp chdt ion khong dnh hudng gi
den phep tinh.
A Tinh thanh phdn phdn tram cda (a) ethyl alcohol C J l f i vd (b) formaldehyde
C H fi
Chu thich tCT - cum tO va hUomg dan dpc hieu

- P ercen t com p o sitio n : thanh phdn phdn tram
Phan tram nguyen tc

Neu ta biet tong khoi luqng cda tdng nguyen td trong mot dan vi cdng thde vd ta
cung biet khoi luqng cua todn bo dan vi cdng thUc, ta cd the tinh duqc thanh phdn phdn
tram cua hqp chdt. Dan gian la ta chi cdn chia tdng khoi luqng cua tilng nguyen td cho
tong khdi luqng cua dan vi cdng thuc vd nhdn thuang sd cho 100cc de chuyen doi thanh ti
le phdn tram. Tdt cd cac ti le phdn tram cung vdi nhau tqo thanh thanh phdn phdn tram.
193
Chu diem 7.3: The Mole
The a tom ic m ass unit (am u) is an e xtre m ely sm all unit, s u ita b le fo r m easuring
m asses of individual atom s and m olecules. H ow ever, to m ea sure m a sse s on labora
tory b alances takes a huge n um ber of atom s, m olecules, or fo rm u la units. Chem ists
have to w eigh a large collection of form ula units, so that the total m ass is m easurable
on a laboratory balance (Try to w eigh one grain of rice on a scale d e sig n e d to weigh
people, and you w ill get an inkling of the problem of m easuring the m ass of one atom
or m olecule. See Figure 3.7.)
The m ole (ab b re via te d m oi) is the standard ch e m ic a l unit used to m ea sure the
quantity of a substance. A m ole is defined as the n um be r of ' 2C atom s in exactly 12 g
of 12C. The m ole is equal to 6.02 21 3 67 x 10 23 particles. T hu s the m ole is a number,
essentially like a dozen, e xcep t very m uch larger This n um be r is about the num ber of
grains of sand that w ould fit into a sphere the size of the Earth. (See P roblem 2.146.)
This n um ber is know n as A vo ga d ro 's num ber. You should rem e m b e r the value of this
num ber to at least three sig n ifica n t digits.
A vo g a d ro ’s n um be r w as set at 6.0221367 x 10 23 so that the a tom ic m ass of each
elem ent and the n u m b e r of gram s per m ole of that e le m e n t have the sa m e numeric
value, although in d iffe re n t units. The atom ic m ass of l2C is 12.00 am u. and that same
n um ber is the n um be r of gram s per m ole of l2C. The fo rm u la m ass of any compound
or e le m e n t is also e qu al to its n u m b e r of g ra m s p e r m ole T he fo rm u la m ass of a
substance in units of gram s per m ole is often called the m olar m ass of the substance.
(M olar m ass can be a bbreviated MM.)
The ch em ica l fo rm u la for a com pound gives the ratio of atom s of each elem ent in
the co m p ou nd to a tom s of e ve ry o th e r e le m e n t in the co m p o u n d . It a lso g ive s the
ratio of dozens of atom s of each ele m e n t in the com pound to d ozens of atom s of ev
ery other e le m e n t in the com pound. M oreover, it gives the ratio of m oles of atom s of
each elem ent in the co m pound to moles of atom s of e very o th e r e le m e n t in the com
pound For exam ple, a given q uantity of H ,0 has 2 moi of H atom s fo r e ve ry m ole of
O atom s, and a g ive n q u a n tity of N H 3 has 1 m oi of N a tom s fo r e v e ry 3 m oi of H
atom s. The m ole ratio from the form ula can be used as a fa cto r to c o n v e rt from moles
of any e le m e n t in the fo rm u la to m oles of any o the r e le m e n t or to m oles o f the for
mula unit as a w hole. In Figure 7 2. these additional c o n ve rsio n s have been added to
those already presented in Figure 7.1
The percent com position of a com pound can be calculated in te rm s of m olar masses
instead of form ula m asses.
Chu thich tCf - cum tCf va hudfng dan dpc hieu

- M ole: moi
- A vogadro’ num ber: so Avogadro
Mol
Dan i’i khoi luong nguyen tu <amu) la mot dan vi cuc nho. thich hap cho n e e do
luang nhilng khdi luang cua cdc nguyen tii va cdc nguyen tu rieng biet Tu\ nhien. nhilng
khoi luang do luang trong phong thi nghiem cd mdt sd rat Idn cdc ngu\en tu phdn til
hay dan vi cong thuc
194
Cdc nha hoa hqc phai cdn mot tap hqp Ion cdc don vi cong thde sao cho tong
khoi luqng la cd the do duqc trong phong thi nghiem (Ban thii cdn mot hat gao
tren mot edi cdn ddnh de cdn ngudi va ban se cd y m em ve van de do ludng khoi
luqng cua mot nguyen til hay mot phdn til) xem hinh 3.7).
M ole (viet tdt moi) la dan vi hoa hqc tieu chuan duac sii dung de do ludng luong
cua mot chdt, mot moi duqc dinh nghia nhu so nguyen tii l2C trong 12g c h in h xac cua
l2C. M ot moi bdng vdi 6 ,0 2 2 1 3 6 7 x 1023 hat. Do do moi la mot con sd, chu yeu cung
nhu con sd mot chuc, chi khdc la no Idn hon rdt nhieu. Con sd ndy bdng khodng so hat
cat xep V i l a tren mot hinh cdu co kich thudc bdng trdi ddt (xem b a i ta p 2.146) Con sd
ndy duqc goi la sd Avogadro. Ban phdi nhd gid tri cua con sd ndy vdi it nhdt la 3 chil
sd co y nghla.
Sd Avogadro duqc xdc dinh la 6,0221367 x 1023 sao cho khdi luqng nguyen td cua
mdi nguyen td vd sd gam tinh tren moi cua nguyen td dd cd cung mot gia tri sd, nhung
vdi cdc don vi khdc nhau. Khdi luqng nguyen til cua l2C la 12,00 amu vd con sd ndy
cung Id sd gam tinh tren moi cua ,2C. Khdi luqng cong thilc cua mot hqp chdt hay nguyen
td bdt ky cung deu bdng vdi sd gam cua hqp chdt hay nguyen td dd tinh tren moi. Khoi
luqng cdng thilc cua mot chdt tinh bdng don vi gam tren moi thudng duqc goi la khdi
luqng moi cua chat (khdi luqng moi cd the duqc viet tdt Id MM).
Cdng tliilc hda hqc cua mot chdt cho ta biet ti sd cdc nguyen til cua cung nguyen td
trong hqp chdt so vdi sd nguyen tu cua tdng nguyen td khdc trong hqp chdt. No cung cho
biet ti so cua sd chuc nguyen td cua ti/ng nguyen td trong hqp chdt so vdi sd chuc nguyen til
cua ti/ng nguyen td khdc trong hap chdt. Hqn nda, no cho biet ti sd moi cua nguyen tii cua
ti/ng nguyen td trong hqp chdt so vdi sd moi ciia cdc nguyen ti/ cua tdng nguyen td khdc
trong hqp chdt. Vi du, mot li/ang xdc dinh cua H.,0 cd 2 moi nguyen tit H ddi vdi mot thdi
moi nguyen td O; mot khoi luqng xdc dinh cua NH } cd 1 moi nguyen til N ddi vdi 3 moi
nguyen til H. Ti sd moi trong cdng thi/c cd the duqc sit dung nhu mot he sd de chuyen doi
td so moi cua bdt cd nguyen td nao trong cdng thde thanh sd moi cua bdt cd nguyen to ndo
khdc hay thanh so moi cua cd dcm vi cdng thde. Trong h in h 7.2 la nhdng phep chuyen doi
bo sung duac them vdo nhdng chuyen doi dd duac gidi thieu trong h in h 7.1.
Thanh phdn phdn tram cua mot hqp chdt cd the duqc tinh todn bdng cdc khdi luang
moi thay cho cdc khoi luqng cdng thde.
S n a p s h o t R eview - O n ta p n h a n h
*- The m ole is A vo ga d ro 's num ber of form ula unitsequal to 6 02 X 10 23 units.
*- A m ole of a su bsta nce has a mass (in gram s) equal to its form ula m ass, called
the molar mass, w hich can be used as a factor in solving problem s
A A m ole of a su bsta nce with form ula m ass 84.5 amu has (a) how m any form ula
units? (b) w hat m ass?
B C alculate the m ass of 7 00 moi of the am ino acid glycine, C ^KN O ^.
C. C alculate the n um ber of m olecules in 7.00 moi of glycine.
• Moi la sd Avogsdro cua cac don vi cdng thde bdng 6.02 x 1023 don vi.
• M ot moi cua mdt chdt cd khoi h/qng tinh bdng (gram) bdng khdi luqng cdng
thde cua chdt do. di/qc goi la khoi luqng moi; khoi luang moi duqc sii dung nhu
la yeu td de giai cac bai todri.
A. M ot moi cua mot chdt cd khdi h/qng cdng thde la 84.5 amu cd (a) bao nhieu dan
vi cdng thde? >b) khoi luqng Id bao nhieu?
195
Topic 7: Atoms and atomic_____________________________ ________________
B. Tinh khoi lilgng cua 7,00 moi cua amino acid glycine, C
C. Tinh so phan tit trong 7.00 moi glycine.
ENRICHMENT: Bai doc them

It is also possible to think of a mole as the number of atomic mass units in 1 gram.
Chu diem 7.4: Empirical Formulas ______________
The empirical formula of a compound is the formula that gives the lowest whole-
number ratio of atoms of all the elements. For example, the empirical formula of the
simple sugar fructose, C6H 120 6, is C H 20 . The simplest ratio of carbon to hydrogen to
oxygen atoms in fructose is 1 to 2 to 1. An empirical formula always has the smallest
integral subscripts that give the correct ratio of atoms of the elements.
We can find the empirical formula from percent composition data. The empirical
formula represents a ratio; therefore, it does not depend on the size of the sample
under consideration. Because the empirical formula reflects a mole ratio, and percent
composition data are given in terms of mass, we have to con-vert the masses to moles.
We then convert the mole ratio, which is unlikely to be an integral ratio, to the small
est possible whole-number ratio, from which we write the empirical formula.
The steps we take to obtain an empirical formula from percent composition data
are given in the left column (Steps) that follows. In the right column (Exam ple), the
empirical formula of a compound containing 27.87% phospho-rus and 72 13% sulfur is
calculated.
We can obtain an empirical formula from mass data instead of a percent compo
sition.
Most ionic compounds such as NaBr, M gCI2, Al20 3, and N H 4C I0 3 are identified by
their empirical formulas, and such formulas are used for calcula-tions involving these
compounds. Compounds such as N a20 2, Hg2CI2, N a2C 20 4, and K2S 2Oa. having certain
polyatomic ions, are exceptions. For molecular substances, empirical formulas are used
as a basis in determining mo-lecular formulas, as described in the next section
C h u t h ic h tO - c u m t i f v a h i/crn g d a n d p c h ie u
- num ber: so - m ole: m oi

- m u n berm ass: k h oi liTOng - m a ssm olecu le: p h a n tuf
- m asses: so nhieu cua - m oles: so n hieu cua m ole
- em p irical form ula: co n g thtfc thuc n ghiem
Cong thQc thuc nghiem

Cong thilc thiic nghiem cua mot hop chat la cong thiic ti so lay tron so cua cac
nguyen tit cua tdt cd cdc nguyen to 1a nho nhdt. Vi du cong thiic thiic nghiem cua diidng
don fructose CJi.JD^ la C H p . Ti so nho nhdt gii2a cdc nguyen til carbon hydro va oxy
trong fructose la 1 tren 2 tren 1. Mot cong thiic thiic nghiem ludn ludn cd nhilng so nguyen
di ben dudi nho nhdt. nhilng so ndy cho ti so dung cua cdc nguyen tii cua cdc nguven to.
Ta cd the tim ra cdng thiic thiic nghiem tii cdc so lieu thanh phdn phdn tram, cong
thilc thilc nghiem the hien mdt ti so. do vdy no khdng phu thuoc vdo kich cd cua mdu
196
Topic 7: Atoms and atomic
dang xem xet. Vi cong thilc thiic nghiem phdn dnh mot ti so moi, cdc so lieu thanh phan
phan tram dilqc cho d dang khoi luqng, ta phdi doi cdc so luqng thanh moi. TI so moi
chua chdc dd la mot tl so nguyen, sau do chung ta doi tl so ndy thanh tl so lay tron so
nhd nhdt co the duqc, tii do ta viet diiqc cong thiic thiic nghiem.
Cdc budc md ta thiic hien de co duqc cong thilc thiic nghiem til cdc so luqng
thanh phdn phdn trdm duqc cho trong cot ben trai (cdc budc) nhu sau. Trong cot ben
phdi (vi du) cong thilc thiic nghiem cua mot hop chdt co chUa 27.87% phosphorus vd
72.13 % sulfur duqc tinh.
Ta co the thu duqc cdng thilc thiic nghiem tii cdc so lieu so luqng thay cho thanh
phdn phdn trdm.
Phdn lan cdc hqp chdt ion nhu NaBr, MgClp A l20 } vd N H 4C103 diiqc xdc dinh bdi
cong thilc thiic nghiem cua chiing, vd nhilng cong thUc ndy dd duqc sii dung trong cdc
phep tinh co lien quan den cdc hqp chdt do. Nhilng hqp chdt nhu Na20 ? H gfilp Na2C f l 4
vd K fijO p co mot so ion nlueu nguyen til, la nhilng ngoai le. Doi vai cdc chdt phdn til,
cong thilc thiic nghiem duqc sii dung nhu cong thilc ca ban trong viec xdc dinh cdc cong
thUc phdn til, nhu duqc mo td trong doan tiep theo.
S n a p s h o t R eview - On ta p n h a n h
*■ An empirical formula— the simplest formula for a compound— is obtained from
the integral mole ratio of its elements.
•- To determine an empirical formula, calculate the number of moles of each el
ement in a sample (arbitrarily choose 100 g if percentages are given), divide
each of them by the smallest number of moles, and then multiply by some
integer if necessary to get integral numbers of moles.
A. Calculate the empirical formula of a compound consisting of 8 9.9 4% C and
10.06% H.
• M ot cong thUc thiic nghiem, la cong thilc dan gidn nhdt cua mot hqp chdt, co
duqc tii ti sd moi nguyen cua cdc nguyen to cua no.
• De xdc dinh mot cdng thUc thiic nghiem, hay tinh so moi cua tUng nguyen to
trong mdu (chon la lOOg neu dd biet cdc ti le phdn trdm), chia mdi so moi cua
chung cho so moi nhd nhat vd sau do nhan vdi mot so nguyen neu cdn thiet de
co duqc nhilng so moi nguyen.
A. Tinh cong thiic thiic nghiem cua mot hqp chdt cd chUa 89.949c C vd 10.06% H.
Chu diem 7.5: Molecular Formulas
The m olecu lar form ula gives the number of atoms of each elem ent in one mol
ecule. This information includes (1) the ratio of atoms of each elem ent to atoms of
every other elem ent in a compound, (2) the ratio of atoms of each elem ent to mol
ecules of the compound, and (3) the corresponding mole ratios. For example, C 2H4
has a ratio of 2 moi of carbon atoms to 4 moi of hydrogen atoms, as well as a ratio of
2 moi of carbon atoms to 1 moi of C2H4 molecules. The molecular formula is always
an integral multiple (1. 2, 3, . . . ) of the empirical formula Thus, the molecular for
mula gives all the information that the empirical formula gives plus the ratio of the
number of moles of each element to moles of the compound. Molecular formulas can
be written only for com-pounds that exist in the form of molecules.
197
Topic 7: Atoms and atomic
If we calculated the percent compositions of C ?H? and C?He (Figure 7 3 on p 195),

we would find that both have the same percentages of carbon and the sam e percent
ages of hydrogen (compare Problem 7.95 at the end of the chapter) Both have the
same empirical formula— CH. This result means that we cannot tell these two com
pounds apart from percent composition data alone. However, if we also have a mo
lecular mass, we can use that information with the percent composition data to deter
mine not only the empirical formula but also the mole-cular formula.
Determining the molecular formula of a compound involves first determining the
empirical formula and then determining how many empirical formula units are in a mol
ecule of the compound.
One important use of molecular formulas is to identify molecular compounds. If a
chemist isolates a useful substance from a plant or animal source, the chemist wants
to know the formula so that the compound can be made in the laboratory Making a
compound is often more convenient and more eco-nomical than obtaining it from its
natural source. Certain vitamins and penicillin are examples of such compounds.
Chu thich tti - cum tCf va hi/cmg dan dpc hieu

M olecular form ula: cdng thilc phan til
Molecules: so nhieu cua molecule
W a te r molecules: phdn til nUdc
M olecule or m olecular mass: phan tii hay khoi luqng phan til
Cong thtjfc phan tii

Cong thilc phdn til cho biet so nguyen til cua mdi nguyen to trong mot phdn til.
Thong tin ndy gom (1) tl so cua cdc nguyen til cua mdi nguyen to so vai nguyen til cua
mdi nguyen to khdc trong mot hop chat; (2) tl so cua so nguyen til cua tilng nguyen to
vdi sd phdn til cua hqp chat la (3) ti so moi tuang ilng. Vi du C./H 4 cd ti so 2 moi nguyen
til carbon so vdi 4 moi hydro, cung nhu cd tl so 2 moi carbon so vdi 1 moi C2H f Cdng
thUc phdn til ludn ludn la mot boi sd nguyen (1, 2, 3, ...) ciia cdng thilc thi/c nghiem. Do
dd cdng thilc phdn til cho tdt cd thdng tin md cdng thilc thilc nghiem dd cho va cd them
ti sd cua sd moi cua tilng nguyen to so vdi so moi cua hqp chat. Cdc cdng thuc phdn til
chl cd the duqc viet cho cdc hqp chdt ton tai d dang phdn til.
Neu ta tinh thanh phdn phdn trdm cua C f l 4 vd C6H 6 (h in h 7.3) trang 195, ta se
thdy rang cd hai cd cung ti le phdn trdm cua carbon vd ti le phdn trdm cua hydro (so
sdnh vdi bdi tap 7.95 d cuoi chuang). Cd hai deu cd ciing m ot cdng thilc thuc nghiem
la - CH. Ket qud ndy cd nghia Id chung ta khdng the noi rdng hai hqp chdt ndy khdc
nhau vd chi dua vdo cdc sd lieu thanh phdn phan trdm. Tuy nhien, neu ta cd them
klioi luqng phdn til thi ta cd the sii dung thong tin ndy ciing vdi cdc sd lieu ve thanh
phdn phdn trdm de xdc dinh khdng chi cdng thilc tliUc nghiem md cdn cd cdng thilc
phdn til.
Cdng dung quan trong cua cdng thUc phdn til Id de xdc dinh cdc hap chdt phdn til.
Neu mot nhd hda hqc tach neng la duqc mot chdt cd ich tu mot nguon thuc vdt ha\ dong
vat, nhd hda hqc ndy muon biet cdng thilc de cd the san xuat hqp chat ndy trong phong
thi nghiem. San xuat ra mot hqp chdt thudng la thudn tien vd kinh te han la thu lay
hqp chdt dd til mot nguon tu nhien. M ot so vitamin vd penicilin Id nhilng vi du cua
nhilng hqp chdt nhu vdy.
198
M olecu lar form ulas apply to covalent substances only.

*■ A m olecu lar form ula m ay be calculated from the em pirical form ula and the m o
lecu lar m ass by d ividing the m olecular m ass by the m ass of one e m pirical fo r
m ula unit, w hich gives the num ber of em pirical form ula units per m olecule.
A. C alculate the m olecular form ula of a com pound w hose e m pirical form ula is C H ?
and w hose m olecular m ass is 154 amu.
B. One a llotropic form of phosphorus has a form ula Pt. w here x is a sm all inte
ger. The m olecu lar m ass is 124 amu. C alculate the m olecular form ula.
• Cdc cdng thiic phdn tii chl sii dung cho cdc hap chdt cdng hoa tri md thdi.
• Cdng thiic phdn tii co the duqc tinh til cong thiic thuc nghiem vd khdi luqng
phdn til bdng cdch chia khdi luqng phdn tii cho khdi litqng cua mot dan vi cong
thiic thilc nghiem. Phep chia nay cho ra sd dan vi cong thiic thilc nghiem tren
mot phdn tii.
A. Tinh cong thiic phdn tii cua mot hqp chdt co cong thiic thuc nghiem C H 2 vd cd
khdi luqng phdn tii la 154 amu.
B. Mot dang thu hinh cua phosphorus cd cdng thiic trong dd x Id mot sd nguyen
nhd. Khoi luqng phdn tii la 124 amu. Tinh cdng thuc phdn tii.
SELF-TUTORIAL PROBLEMS - CAC BAI T A P T tf GIAI
7.1 For each of the fo llo w in g, select the proper units from the follow ing list: amu,
gram s, gra m s/m o le .
(a) A tom ic m ass (b) M olecular mass
(c) M a ss(d ) F orm ula m ass
(e) M olar m ass
7.2 W hat sm all integ er should you m ultiply each of the fol-low ing ratios by to get a
w h o le -n u m b e r ratio? W hat ratio results in each case?
7.3 W hat sm all in te g e r should you m ultiply each of the fol-low ing ratios by to get a
w h o le -n u m b e r ratio? W hat ratio results in each case?
7 4 A 100-g sa m p le of a certain com pound contains 87.3% carbon. W hat p e rce n t

age of carbon is contained in a 41.9-g sam ple of the sam e com pound?
7.5 W hich of the fo llo w in g are em pirical form ulas?
CH C 5H „ C 4H ,0 C 6H tJ C 9H ,s
7.6 W hich of the fo llo w in g are em pirical form ulas?
c 3h 6 c ,h 5 c 5h , ? c 5h ,0 c 3h 6
7.7 W hat inform a tion do you need to determ ine each of the follow ing?
(a) A fo rm u la m ass (b) An em pirical form ula
(c) A m o le cu la r form ula
7.8 For this pro ble m , assum e that all the socks are identical.
(a) How m any pairs of socks are in 3 dozen pairs of socks?
199
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) How many socks are in 3 dozen socks?

(c) How m any pairs of socks are in 3 dozen socks?
(d) How m any socks are in 3 dozen pairs of socks?
(e) How m any dozen pairs of socks are in 3 dozen s o c k s 7
(f) How m any dozen socks are in 3 dozen pairs of socks?
7.9
(a) How m any nitrogen m olecules are in 3.00 m oi of n i-trogen m olecules?
(b) How m any nitrogen atom s are in 3.00 moi of n itro-gen a to m s 7
(c) How m any nitrogen m olecules are in 3.00 moi of bonded nitrogen atoms?
(d) How m any nitrogen atom s are in 3.00 moi of n itro-gen m olecules?
(e) H ow m any m oles of n itro g e n m o le cu le s are in 3 .0 0 m oi o f b o n de d n itro
gen a tom s?
(f) How m any m oles of nitrogen atom s are in 3.00 m oi of nitrogen m olecules?
7.10
(a) W hich w eighs m orea dozen w aterm elon or a dozen grapes? W hich contains
the g re ate r n um ber of fruits?
(b) W hich w eighs m orea m ole of lead atom s or a m ole of lithium atom s? Which
contains m ore atom s?
7.11
(a) If a shirt box is 1 0 in. high, how m any feet high is a stack of a dozen shirt
boxes?
(b) If a shoe box is 5.0 in high, how m any feet high is a stack of a dozen shoe
boxes?
(c) If a hat box is 8 0 in. high, how m any feet high is a stack of a dozen hat
boxes?
(d) Explain your results.
7.12
(a) C om pare the m ass of a dozen socks rolled into pairs w ith the m ass of the
sam e socks unrolled.
(b) C om pa re the m ass of a dozen socks w ith the m ass o f a d oze n pairs of
socks.
(c) C om p a re the m ass of 1 00 m oi of n itrogen atom s w ith th a t of the same
atom s bonded into N 2 m ole-cules.
(d) C om pare the m ass of 1.00 moi of nitrogen atom s w ith that of 1 00 m oi of
nitrogen m olecules
7.13
(a) If a certa in atom has a m ass of 1 00 am u, w hat is the m ass in gram s of
1 0 0 m oi of these atom s?
(b) If a certain atom has a m ass of 132 9 amu w hat is the m ass in gram s of
1 00 moi of these a to m s 7
(c) If a certa in atom has a m ass of 74 9 amu w hat is the m ass n gâms of
1 00 moi of these atom s?
(d) Explain your results
7.14 W hat co nve rsio n factor is used to convert a n um ber of m oles of a su b s ta n c e to

the n um be r of gram s of the substance?
200
1\ ms-y
___________________________________________ Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic
7.15 W hat is the m olar m ass of (a) a 4.00 moi sam ple of C 2H 60 ? (b) an 8.00 moi
sam ple of C 2H 60 ? (c) a 0.250 moi sam ple of C 2H 60 ?
7 16
(a) W h a t is the d iffe re n ce betw een the atom ic m ass of flu o rin e and the m o
lecu lar m ass of fluorine?
(b) W hy is the phrase “m olar m ass of flu orin e ” am bigu-ous?
(c) To w hat does "m olar m ass of fluorine gas" refer?
7.17 Is m olar m ass an intensive or extensive property?
7.18 C alculate the fo rm u la m ass of each of the follow ing to tw o decim al places twice,
first by rounding atom ic m asses and second by using the entire n um ber of s ig
nificant digits in the atom ic m asses and rounding the form ula mass:
(a) C 8H, (b) KCIO (c) BCL,
7.19 W hat co nve rsio n fa cto r(s) is (are) used to convert a m ass of a substance to a
n um ber of form ula units of that sub-stance?
7.20 W hich of the fo llo w in g su bsta nce s have m olecular m asses? W hich have m olar
m asses?
C aH j C 2H? N 2H 4 Kr
7.21 W hich of the follow ing substances have m olecular m asses? W hich have m olar
m asses?
P C I5 A l 20 3 (N H 4) 3P0 4 Na
7.22 State w h e th e r the p ercen t com position, the em pirical for-m ula, or the m olecular
form ula give s the inform ation specified in each part.
(a) Ratio of m oles of each elem ent to m oles of com pound
(b) Ratio of m oles of each elem ent to each other elem ent, and no m ore
(c) Ratio of m asses of each elem ent to m ass of com pound
7.23 W hat can you d ete rm in e from percent com position data?
7.24 W hat inform a tion is given in the form ula (N H 4) 3P 0 4?
7.25 W hat is a syn on ym for m olar m ass (a) for m olecules? (b) or atom s? (c) for ionic
co m p ou nd s? W h a t is a syn-onym for form ula m ass (d) for m olecu les? (e) for
atom s? (f) for ionic com pounds?
7.26 W hich of the fo llo w in g form ulas identify ionic com -pounds but are not em pirical
fo rm u la s?
N a 20 2 B a C I2 C 4H 4CI 2 P 4S 10
7.27 W hich of the fo llo w in g form ulas identify ionic com -pounds but are not em pirical
fo rm u la s?
PA C 2H 6 Z nC I 20 6
k 2o 2 k 2s 2o 8
7 28 W hat is the e m p irical form ula of each of the follow ing?

(a) C 6H t2 (b) C 6H 60 4
(c) C , 2H 220 „ ( d ) C 3H 60 3
201
7.29 How m any m oles of chlorine atom s are p resent in 6.25 m oi of B a (C lO ,)j?
7.30 How m any m oles o f (N H 4) 2S 0 4 contain 7.75 m oi of h yd ro g e n a tom s?
PROBLEMS - BAI T * P
7.1 Form ula M asses - K hoi IU<?ng cong thtfc
7.31 C alculate the fo rm u la m ass of each of the fo llo w in g c o m p o u n d s to one decimal

place:
(a) K 2S 0 3 (b) B a(C N O )2
(c) N a 3P 0 4 (d) (N H 4) 2S 0 3
(e) C 6H ,4 (f) B C I 3
place:
(a) C H 3OH (b) K 2C r 20 7
( c )U F 6 (d )C o (C 1 0 3)2
(e) C aC 0 3 (f) S 9
7.33 W h a t is the s m a lle s t fo rm u la m ass know n for (a) any atom and (b) any m ol
ecule?
7.34 C alculate the fo rm u la m ass of

(a) N a C I0 5 H 20 (b) Z r(S 0 4) 2-4H 20
place:
(a) A m m on iu m sulfate
(b) C o b a lt(lll) sulfate
(c) A rse nic trichloride
7.2 Percent C o m positio n - T h an h phan phan tram
7.36 C alculate the p ercen t com position of cholesterol, C 27H 45OH.
7.37 C alculate the percen t com position of aspirin, C 9H 80 4
7.38 C alculate the p ercen t com position of vitam in B?, C 17H 20N 406.
7.39 C alculate the p ercen t com position of a m m onium d ih yd ro g e n p h o sp h a te
7.40 C alculate the p ercen t co m positions of cyclob utad ie n e, C 4H4, and b e n ze n e . C H .

C om pare the values, and explain the results.
7.41 C alculate the percent com positions of butene, C 4H6, and cycloo cta ne C .H , C om
pare the values, and explain the results.
7.42 C alculate the p e rce n t co m p ositio n of e thylene glyco l, C 2H 60 2. c o m m o n ly used

as a p erm a ne nt antifree ze in cars
7.43 C alcu la te the p ercen t chlorine in DOT, C 14H 9C I5, an in -s e c tic id e that has been
d isco ntin ue d because it does not biodegrade
202
7.44 C alculate the percen t com position of niacin, a B -com plex vitam in, C 6H 5N 0 2.
7 45 C alculate the percent com position of vitam in E,C ?sH 5Q0 2.
7.46 C alculate the percen t com position of (a) sodium d ichrom ate and (b) potassium
p e rm a ng an a te.
7.3 The Mole - So moi
7.47 How m any m oles of atom s of each elem ent are p resent in 1.00 m oi of each of
the follow ing com pounds?
(a) C H 3C H 2C H 2N H 2 (b) C d(C 2H 30 2)2
(c) N a 3A IF 6 (d) (N H 4) 3P 0 4
7.48 How m any m oles of atom s of each elem ent are present in 1.00 moi of each of
(a) C o 2(CO )9 (b) NH 4C 2H 30 2
(c) C 12H 22O u (d) K H C 0 3-M gC 034H 20
7.49 How m any m oles of atom s of each elem ent are present in 1.00 moi of each of
(a) N icke l(ll) perchlorate
(b) A m m on iu m su lfite
(c) Barium sulfate
7 50 C alculate the form ula m ass and the m olar mass of each of the follow ing c o m
pounds to three sig n ifica n t figures:
(a) (N H 4) 2S 0 3 (b) B a (C I0 4)2 (c) BaC 20 4
7.51 C alculate the n um ber of grams of acetic acid, HC 2H 30 2, in 37 0 moi of acetic acid.
7.52 C alculate the n um be r of m oles of propane, C 3H8, in 71.2 g of propane.
7.53 C alculate the n um be r of m oles of fruit sugar fructose, C 6H t206— in 283.5 g (10.00
oz).
7.54 C alculate the n um be r of gram s of acetaldehyde, C 2H 40 , in 6.11 moi of acetal-

dehyde.
7.55 C a lcu la te the n u m b e r of m oles of m ethane (natural gas), C H 4, in 2 50 .0 g of

m eth an e .
7.56 C alculate the n um be r of m oles in 172 g of a com pound with a m olar m ass of
48. 1 g/m ol.
7.57 C alculate the n u m b e r of m oles in 7. 1 7 g of a com pound w ith a m olar m ass of

58.5 g/m ol.
7.58 C alculate the m ass of 3 50 moi of (a) unbonded nitro-gen atom s, (b) nitrogen
atom s bonded into N 2 m olecules, and (c) N? m olecules
7 59 C alculate the n um ber of gram s in 14.11 moi of form aldehyde, C H 20
7 60 C alculate the n um be r of m olecules in 2 20 moi of NH 3.
(a) C a lc u la te th e n u m b e r of m o le c u le s in 17.9 m oi of trin itro to lu e n e TN T

c 7h 5n 3o .
203
Topic 7: A tom s and atom ic __________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Calculate the number of moles that contain 7 16 x 1 0 " form ula units of
N a C I0 3.
7 62 C alculate the m ass of a sam ple of the sim ple s u ga r g lu cose C 6H BO s. containing
6 .8 6 x 1 0 24 m olecules.
7.63 C alcu la te the m ass of 1.63 x 1021 m olecules of C H 4, m e th a n e (n a tu ra l gas).
7.64
(a) C alculate the n um ber of m oles of C 2H 6 in 7.22 g of C 2H 6.
(b) C alculate the n um ber of m oles of carbon atom s in 7 22g of C 2H6.
(c) C alculate the n um ber of individual carbon atom s in
7 22g of C ?H6.
7 65 C alculate the n um be r of gram s of hydrogen in 5.22 m oi of am m onia
7.66 C alculate the m ass of hydrogen in 1234 g of C H 4, m ethane (natural gas).
7.67 C alculate the n um be r of carbon atom s in 6.50 moi of
7.68 C alculate the n um be r of hydrogen atom s in 2.25 moi of C 2H 40
7.69 C alculate the n um ber of m oles of H 3P 0 3 that contains 1.92 x 10 22 oxygen atoms.
7.70 C alculate the n um be r of m oles of am m onia that co n-tain s 6.71 x 102‘ hydrogen
a tom s.
7.71 C alculate the n u m b e r of gram s of oxygen in 0.500 m oi of A g B rO r
7.72 C alculate the n um be r of carbon atom s in 17.17 g of ethyl alcohol. C 2H60
7.73 C alculate the n um be r of hydrogen atom s in 22.1 g of C 6H f
7.74 C alculate the m ass of C r(C I0 3)3 that contains 9.14 x 10 22 c h lo rin e atom s.
7.75 C alcu la te the m ass of a m m onium chloride that co nta ins 7 02 x 10 23 hydrogen
atom s.
7 76 C alculate the n u m b e r of gram s of oxygen in 1.18 moi of A I(B rO ,),
7.77 C alculate the n um ber of m olecules in 6.19 g of a co m -po un d w ith a m olar mass
of 48.0 g/m ol.
7 78 C alculate the m ass of a sam ple of the sim ple sugar g lu-cose C £H ..O .. contain
ing 1.00 X 10 22 m olecules.
7 79 C alculate the n um be r of m olecules of C 4H 8 co ntaining 9 92 x 102‘ C atom s.
7.80 C alculate the m ass of Mg in 5.55 x 10 24 form ula units of M g 3 N ?.
7 81 C alculate the n um be r of chlorine atom s in (a) 7.66 g of SC1 and (b) 7 6 6 g of

S O C 1 2.
7.82 C alculate the m ass in gram s of one fluorine atom
7.4 Em pirical Form ulas - C ong thtfc thtfc nghiem
7 83 D ecide w he th er each of the follow ing is an e m p irica l form ula

(a) C .H ; 0 2 (b) N a.C r.O . (c) K .S .0 e
(d) S, (e) C k H w
204
7 84 D ecide w he th er each of the follow ing is an e m pirical form ula:

(a) K jS 20 s (b) H 2C j0 4 ( c ) C 5H,0O 2
(d) Hg?CI? (e) C jF 6
7 85 P o lyeth ylen e a w ell-know n plastic, is com posed of 85 63% carbon and 14.37%
hydrogen.
(a) How m any gram s of each elem ent are in 100.0 g of polyethylene?
(b) How m any m oles of each elem ent are in 100.0 g of polyethylene?
(c) W hat is the m ole ratio in integers?
(d) W hat is the em p irical form ula?
7.86 Styrene, used in m anufacturing a w ellknow n plastic, is com posed of 92.26% ca r

bon and 7.74% hydrogen. D eterm ine its em pirical form ula.
7.87 D eterm ine an em p irical form ula from each of the follow ing sets of p ercen t co m
position data:
(a) 87.73% C. 12.27% H
(b) 43.64% P, 56.36% O
(c) 72.03% Mn. 27 97% O
(d) 47.05% K, 14.45% C. 38.50% O
(e) 77.26% Hg, 9.25% C, 1.17% H, 12.32% O
7.88 D eterm ine an e m p irical form ula from each of the follow ing sets of percent c o m
position data:
(a) 37.82% C, 6.35% H, 55.83% Cl
(b) 54.53% C. 9.15% H. 36.32% O
(c) 74.98% C, 5.24% H, 19.77% F
(d) 66.42% C, 5.57% H, 28.01% Cl .
7.89 N itro glyce rin is co m p ose d of 15.87% carbon, 2.22% hydrogen, 18.51% nitrogen,
and 63.41% o xygen. D eterm ine its e m pirical form ula.
7.90 D eterm ine an e m p irica l form ula from each of the follow ing sets of p ercen t c o m
position data:
(a) 72.36% Fe, 2 7.6 4% O
(b) 77.73% Fe. 2 2.2 7% O
(c) 6 9.94% Fe. 30 06% O
7.91 T estoste ron e, a m ale horm one, is com posed of 79.12% carbon, 9.79% h y d ro
gen, and 11.10% oxygen. W hat is its em pirical form ula?
7 92 P o lyprop ylen e, a w ell-kn o w n plastic, is com posed of 85.63% carbon and 14 37%
hydrogen. D eterm in e its em pirical form ula.
7.93 C a lcu la te the e m p iric a l fo rm u la of each of the su b -sta n ce s from the fo llo w in g
analyses:
(a) 75.95 g C. 9 57 g H, 224.2 g Cl
(b) 5.52 g C. 0 .464 g H, 13.1 gF
7.94 C alcu la te the e m p irica l form ula of each of the follow -ing su bstances. N am e each.
(a) 76.8 g Na. 80.1 g 0.53 4 g S
(b) 9.07 g H. 288 g O. 144 g S
205
7.5 M o le c u la r F o rm u la s - C o n g th tfc p h d n ttf
7 95 C alculate the percen t com positions of benzene. C 6H6 and c y c lo b u ta d ie n e . C 4H4.

C om pare the values, and explain the results.
7.96 C alcu la te the p e rce n t co m p ositio ns of butene. C 4HS, and c y c lo h e x a n e , C 6H 12.

C om pare the values, and explain the results
7 97 What is the empirical formula mass and the molecular mass of each of the following?
(a) C 12H 12 ( b ) C 2H 6 (c )C ,H 6
7.98 W hat is the e m p irical form ula m ass and the m olecu lar m ass of each of the fol
low ing?
(a) C 5H 10 ( b ) C 4H 6 ( c ) C 4H 10
7.99 C alculate the e m p irical form ula m ass of each of the follow ing:
(a) H g 2B r 2 (b) N a 2S 20 3 (hypo)
7.100 D eterm ine the m olecu lar form ula of a substance if its e m p irica l form ula is NO?
and its m olar m ass is
(a) 92.0 g/m ol and (b) 46.0 g/mol.
7.101 Find the m olecu lar form ula of a substance with an e m -pirica l fo rm u la C H 2 and a
m olar m ass
(a) 84.0 g/m ol, (b) 98.0 g/m ol, (c) 168.0 g/m ol, and (d) 280 g/m ol.
7.102 Find the m olecu lar form ula of a substance if the e m p irical fo rm u la is CH and its
m olar m ass is
(a) 52.0 g/m ol. (b) 65.0 g/m ol. (c) 91.0 g/m ol, and (d) 182 g/m ol
7.103 D eterm in e the m o le cu la r form ula of a sim ple s u ga r from its p e rc e n t com position
of 40.0% C, 6 .67 % H, 53 3% O, and its m olar m ass of 150 g /m o l
7.104 Find the m o le c u la r fo rm u la of a co m p ou nd co m p o se d of 87 73% ca rb on and

12.27% h ydrogen w hich has a m olar m ass of 82.14 g/m ol.
7.105 C alcu la te the m o le cu la r fo rm u la of each of the s u b s ta n c e s from the following

analyses:
(a) 42.87 g C, 7.20 g H, 38.08 g O, MM = 74.1 g/m ol
(b) 3.00 g H, 35.6 g C. 95.3 g O, MM = 90.0 g/m ol
(c) 10.72 g C. 0.600 g H, 4 166 g N, 14.28 g O, MM = 200 g/m ol
(d) 36.93 g C, 8.27 g H, 49.20 g O. MM = 92.0 g/m ol
7.106 R hom bic su lfu r is one form of e lem ental sulfur. Its m olar m ass is 256 g/mol
C alculate its m olecu lar form ula.
7.107 The m ost w ide ly used antifreeze, ethylene glycol, is co m p ose d of 38 70% car
bon, 9.74% hydrogen, and
51.56% oxygen. Its m olar m ass is 62.07 g/m ol Find its m o le c u la r fo rm u la
7.108 O ctane and heptane are two ingredients of gasoline O ctane has 8 4 12% c a r
bon and 15.88% hydrogen, and heptane has 83 90% carbon and 16 10% h ydro
gen T h e ir m olecu lar m asses are 114 amu and 100 am u, re -s p e c tiv e ly W hat
are their m olecular fo rm u la s 7
206
7.109 C alcu la te the m olecu lar form ula of a substance if its p ercen t com p ositio n is 79.91
% C and 20.09% H, and its m olar m ass is app ro xim a tely 30 g/mol.
7.110 C alculate the m olecular form ula of a substance if its percent com position is 85.63%
C and 14.37% H, and its m olar m ass is a pproxim ately 43 g/m ol.
7.111 C alcu la te the m olecu lar form ula of a com pound if a sam ple contains 109 g of
p hosphorus and 141 g of oxy-gen and its m olar m ass is 284.
7.112 C alculate the percen t com position of soluble saccharin, C 7H 4N N a 0 3S.
7.113 C alculate the n um be r of carbon atom s in 1.000 gallon of octane, C 8H 1S, a m ajor
com p on en t of g asoline (1 gallon = 3.785 L; density = 0 7025 g/m L).
7.114 Calculate the num ber of m olecules of vitamin A, C ^H Ô . in 500 mg of vitamin A.
7.115 (a) V itam in B ,2 has one cobalt atom per form ula unit. The com pound is 4.348%
Co. C alculate its m olar mass.
(b) V itam in D, has tw o oxygen atom s per form ula unit. The com pound is 4.03%
O. C alculate its m olar mass.
7.116 C alculate the n um be r of hydrogen atom s in 155 g of a com pound that contains
91.25% carbon and 8.75% hydrogen.
7.117 C alculate the n um be r of m olecules in 27.3 g of a com pound that has a m olar
m ass of 92.13 g/m ol and contains 91.25% carbon and 8 75% hydrogen
7.118 C alculate the n um be r of hydrogen atom s in 0.777 g of a com pound w hose p e r

ce nt co m p ositio n is 15.88% H and 8 4.1 2%C.
7.119 C alculate the n um be r of hydrogen atom s in 72.5 g of a com pound that contains
9.14% hydrogen.
7.120 C alculate the n um be r of m olecules in 117 g of a com -pound that has a m olar
m ass of 84.13 g/m ol.
7.121 A sam ple is 45 0% KC1 by mass, and the rest is w ater. C alculate the num ber
of m olecu les of w a te r in 64.7 g of the sample.
7.122 C alculate the p e rce n t e rror in rounding off the atom ic m ass of each of the fo l
low ing e le m e n ts to three significant digits:
(a) C arbon (b) Oxygen
(c) R ub idium (d) Argon
(e) H ydrogen (f) C hlorine
7.123 A scie n tist isolates a pure substance from a new ly discovered plant in the A m a
zon R iver basin W hat data does the scientist need to start to d ete rm ine w he th er
the su bsta nce is a new com pound and w hat its form ula is?
7.124 How m any m oles of carbon atom s is present in the q uantity of C 2H tO that co n
tains 7.19 g of hydrogen?
7 125 A 7.832-m g sa m ple of a hydrocarbon was burned in air The p roducts w ere 22.97
mg of C 0 2 and 14 09 mg of H?0.
207
(a) How m uch oxygen w as used in the com bustion?

(b) H ow m any m illim o le s of carbon w as p re s e n t in the p ro d u c ts and in the
sam ple?
(c) How m any m illim o les of hydrogen was pre sen t in the p ro d u c ts and in the
sam ple?
(d) W h a t is the e m p irica l form ula of the sam ple?
7 126 A 22 0-m g sam ple of a hydrocarbon was burned in air The products w ere 60.4 mg
of C 0 2 and 49.4 mg of water. W hat is the em pirical form ula of the hydrocarbon?
7.127 A certa in ca rb o h yd ra te (a com pound co ntaining c a rb on p lus h ydrog en and oxy

gen in a 2:1 atom ratio) is 40.0% carbon. C alculate its e m p irica l form ula.
7 .128 A 7.785g sa m ple of a hydrate of co p p e r(ll) sulfate, C uS O , x HjO. is heated un

til all the w a te r is d rive n off. A fter the a nhydrous sa lt cools, its m ass is 4.976 g.
C alcu la te the va lu e of x. (Hint: T re a t this problem as an e m p irica l form ula prob
lem w ith one of the “e le m e n ts ” H 20.)
7.129 C alcu la te the p e rce n t com position of am m onium cyanide.
7.130 A d iffe re n t m ethod m ay be used to calculate the m o le c-u la r fo rm u la from per

ce nt co m p o sitio n data plus a m olar m ass: First, ca lcu late the m ass of each ele
m ent in 1.00 m oi of com pound Next, calculate the n um ber of m oles of each of
the e le m e n ts in the m ole of com pound, and th ose results yield the m olecular
form ula. Use this m ethod to calculate the m o le cu la r fo rm u la of a hydrocarbon
(a co m p ou nd of carbon and hydrogen only) that co nta ins 83 90% C and has a
m olar m ass of 1 0 0 g/m ol.
S U M M A R Y - ON TAP CHUCJNG
The fo rm u la m ass (form ula w eight) of a su bsta nce is d e te rm in e d by adding the
atom ic m a sse s (ato m ic w e ig h ts) of each atom (not each e le m e n t) in a fo rm u la unit
M olecular m ass is one type of form ula m ass (for substances that form m olecules) and
is ca lcu la te d in the sam e w ay as the fo rm u la m ass fo r an ionic co m p o u n d For ex
am ple, the fo rm u la m ass of H?0 is 18 0 amu, the atom ic m ass of tw o h ydrog en atoms
plus that of one o xyge n atom . T hree or m ore sign ifican t dig its should be used to re
port fo rm u la m asses. (S ection 7.1)
The percent com position is the percentage of each elem ent in a com pound The per
centage of an elem ent in a com pound is calculated by finding the ratio of the total mass
of that elem ent to the form ula m ass and m ultiplying that ratio by 100% The percentages
of all the elem ents in a-com pound should total 100% (within less than 1 %). (Section 7 2)
The m ole is d efin ed as the n um ber of C atom s in e x a c tly 12 g of ' ! C w hich is
6 02 x 10 23 A vo g a d ro 's n um be r The sam e num ber of m oles of tw o (or m o re i different
su bsta nce s has the sam e n um ber of form ula units but not the sam e m ass The molar
m ass is the m ass in gram s of a m ole of a substance The n um be r of g ram s per mole
the m olar m ass is a fre q u e n tly used conversion factor, used for c o n v e rtin g betw een
gram s and m oles, (S ection 7.3)
An e m p irical fo rm u la gives the low est integral m ole ratio of atom s of all the e le
m ents in a co m pound An e m p irical form ula is dete rm ine d from a p ercen t co m p o-sition
by changing the p ercen ta ge s to num bers of gram s (by a ssum in g a 1 0 0 -g sa m p le ) and
then d ivid in g the n um ber of gram s of each elem ent by its atom ic m ass in g ra m s The
nom nte g ra l m ole ratio that results is co nve rte d to an in te g ra l m ole ratio by d iv id in g
208
each of the n um be rs of m oles by the m agnitude of the sm allest, and then, if nece s
sary, m ultiplyin g e very one of the quotients by the sam e sm all w hole num ber. N ever
round o ff by m ore than 1% during this procedure. If data are given in gram s rather
than as a p ercen t com position, sim ply om it the first step. (S ection 7.4)
M o le cu la r form ulas give the sam e inform ation as e m p irical fo rm u la s, as w ell as
the ratio of the n um ber of m oles of each elem ent to the n um ber of m oles of the co m
pound (M o le cu la r fo rm u la s are used only for m o-lecu la r su bsta n ce s, not ionic s u b
stances.) A m o le cu la r fo rm u la can be d eterm ined from the e m p iric a l fo rm u la of the
com pound and its form ula m ass: First, divide the form ula m ass by the m ass in amu of
one e m p irica l fo rm u la unit, w hich w ill result in a sm all integer. T hen, m ultiply each
subscript of the e m p irica l form ula by that integer. (Section 7.5)
209
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
CAC PHAM ONG H d A H O C
Mgc DICH YEU cAu - Objectives B6 CUC - Layout
8.1 To interpret a balanced chemical equa 8.1 The Chemical Equation

tion in terms of mole ratios of reactants
8.2 Balancing Equations
and products
8.3 Predicting the Products
8 .2 To balance chemical equations that is,
of Chemical Reactions
to get the same number of atoms of
each element on each side 8.4 Acids and Bases
8 .3 To predict the products of thousands of

chemical reactions by categorizing reac
tions and following a few simple rules
8 .4 To predict the products of the reactions

of acids with bases, and to use a special
ized nomenclature for acid-base reactions
Jiic&ng ddn doc hieu muc dich yeu cdu m bo aic
8.1 Dien gidi mot phdn ting hoa hqc cdn bdng trong pham tru ti so moi cua cdc
chdt phdn ilng vd cdc san pham, 8 .2 Cdn bdng phdn ling hda hqc, tile la de cd duqc
cung sd luqng nguyen til cua tiing nguyen td d moi ben., 8 .3 Tien doan cdc san pham
cua hang ngdn phdn ilng hda hqc bdng cdch phdn loqi phdn ting vd mot sd quy luat dan
gidn tiep theo., 8.4 Tien doan san pham cua cdc phdn ilng giUa cdc acid ra cdc base vd
sii dung mot danh phdp dac thu cho cdc phdn ilng acid base.
8.1 Phuang trinh hda hqc, 8 .2 Cdn bdng cdc phuang trinh, 8 .3 Tien doan nhilng
san pham cua cdc phdn Ung hda hqc, 8.4 Cdc acid vd cdc base
210
Topic 8: Chemical reactions
In C h a p te r 7, you learned how to do num erical calculations for com pounds, using their
form ulas as a basis. This chapter lays the foundation for doing sim ilar calculations for
ch em ica l reactions, using the balanced equation as a basis. The chem ical equation is
introduced in S ection 8.1, and m ethods for balancing equations are presented in S e c
tion 8.2. To w rite equations, you m ust often be able to predict the products of a reac
tion from a know led ge of the pro pe rtie s of the reactants. S ection 8.3 show s how to
classify ch em ica l reactions into types to predict the products of thousands of reactions.
An im portant type o f reaction— the acid-base reaction— is discu ssed in S ection 8.4.
Hifdng dan doc hieu

Trong chUOng 7, ban dd hqc dilqc cdch lam cdc phep tinh so cho cdc hqp chdt bang
cdch sii dung cdc cdng thiic cua chung nhu mot dieu ca ban. Chuang ndy trinh bdy phdn
nen tdng de thilc hien nhilng pliep tinh tuong tu cho cdc phdn Ung hda hqc, sii dung
phuang trinh cdn bdng nhu mot dieu ca ban. Phuang trinh hda hqc duqc giai thieu a
doan 8 .1 vd cdc phuang phdp de cdn bdng cdc phuang trinh duqc giai thieu a doan 8 .2 .
De viet cdc phuang trinh ban thudng phdi cd kha ndng tien doan duqc cdc san pham
cua mot phdn ling til kien thiic ve cdc tinh chat cua cdc chat phdn ting. M uc 8.3 trinh
bdy cdch phdn loai cdc phdn Ung hda hoc tlianh cdc loai de tien doan nhilng san pham
ciia hang ngdn phdn ling. M ot loai phdn Ung quan trong la phdn ling acid base duqc
ban den a muc 8.4.
Chu diem 8.1: The Chemical Equation _________________
In a ch em ica l reaction, the substances that react are called reactants, or so m e

tim es, reagents. The su bsta nce s that are produced are called products. D uring the
reaction, som e or all of the atom s of the reactants change their bonding. For exam ple,
two hydrogen m olecu les can react with an oxygen m olecule to form two w ater m ol
ecules. In a less fa m ilia r e xa m p le — the reaction of B a l? with A g F — the p ro du cts are
BaF 2 and Agl. The m etal ions have m erely traded nonm etal ions. All of the ions are
still present after the reaction; they have just “changed partners." W e can describe the
reaction, pictured in in w ords:
Barium iodide plus silve r fluoride yields barium fluoride plus silver iodide.
W e use form ulas to represent the substances involved in a reaction w hen we write
a chem ical equation In an equation, the form ulas for reactants are placed on the left
side of the arrow and those for products are placed on the right side. E ither substance
may be w ritten first on each side of the equation:
B a l 2 + AgF -» BaF? + Agl (Not balanced)
Even better, we can w rite a balanced equation, w hich show s the relative n um
bers of atom s of each of the e lem ents involved. The unbalanced equ atio n ju s t p re
sented seem s to indicate that an iodide ion has disappeared during the reaction and
that a fluoride ion has appeared from nowhere. As w ritten, that equation violates the
law of co nse rva tion of m ass. Thus, you m ust alw ays w rite balanced equations for re
actions. The w ord equation is related to the word equal; an equation m ust have equal
num bers of atom s of each elem ent on each side. Such an equation is said to be bal
anced.
C o efficie n ts — n u m b e rs that are w ritten before the fo rm u la s — tell the relative

n um be rs of fo rm u la units of reactants and p ro du cts involved in a reaction and bal-
2 l I
ance the n u m b e r of atom s of each e le m e n t involved. The coefficient multiplies every

thing in the formula:
(Balanced)
The co efficie nt does not im ply any chem ical bonding In a b alan ced ch e m ic a l equa
tion, the absence of a co efficie nt before a form ula im plies a c o e ffic ie n t o f 1 . The two
form ula units of AgF are com posed of tw o Ag* ions and tw o F ions T he tw o F* ions
in the one form ula unit of B aF 2 produced com e from the tw o fo rm u la units of AgF.
The balanced equation for the reaction of hydrogen and o xyge n, illu strate d in Fig
ure 8 . 1 , is
2 H 2 + 0 2 - * 2 H20
The co efficie nts in a balanced equation give the ratio of moles of each substance
in the reaction to m oles of any o th e r su bsta nce . T he y also give the ratio of form ula
units of each su bsta nce to fo rm u la units of any o the r substance. The b alanced chem i
cal equation is the co rn e rsto n e from w hich we can ca lcu la te how m uch o f one sub
stance reacts w ith or is p ro du ced by a certa in q ua n tity of a n o th e r su b s ta n c e (to be
covered in C h a p te r 10).
R eaction co nd itio ns are often w ritten above or below the arrow , as in
C a C 0 3 ___h*°‘ > CaO + C 0 2
*■ A balanced e quation gives the m ole ratios of reactants and p ro du cts as well
as the ratios of fo rm u la units.
A. For the reaction 4 H20 + PCI 6 -> 5 HCI + H 3P 0 4
(a) How m any m olecu les of HCI w ill be produced from tw o m o le cu le s of PC IS?
(b) How m any m oles of HCI w ill be produced from 2 0 m oi of P C I t7
• M ot phuang trinh can bdng cho biet cdc ti so moi cua cdc chat phdn Ung va cdc
san pham cung nhu cho biet ti so cua cdc dan vi cong thiic.
A. Dai vdi phdn ilng 4 H 20 + PCls —» 5 HCI + H 3P 0 4 (a) Co bao nhieu phdn tii
HCI dd duac tqo thanh til hai phdn tii PCIJ (b) Cd bao nhieu moi HCI se duqc
tqo thanh tU 2.0 moi PCl}?
B. Khdc biet ndo neu cd giUa nhilng phuang trinh sau ddy:
Chu thich ti/ - cum tti va hudng dan doc hieu

— reactants: cdc chdt phdn ilng, — equal: bdng
thuoc thu
- reagents: cdc thuoc thu - balanced: cdn bdng
- products: cdc san pham - coefficients: he so
- equation: phuang trinh - balanced equation: phuang trinh cdn bdng
212
Topic & • Chemical reactions
Phuong trinh hoa hpc

Trong mot phdn ilng hoa hoc cdc chdt phdn ling duoc goi Id cdc chdt phdn ling
(reactant) hoQc doi khi ditqc goi la cdc thuoc thii (reagent). Nhitng chdt ditqc too ra duac
goi la cdc san pham. Trong qud trinh phdn ling, mot so hay tdt cd cdc nguyen til cua
cdc chat phdn ling thay doi sU lien ket cua chung. Vi du, hai phdn tii hydro cd the phdn
ling vai mot phdn til oxy de tqo thanh hai phdn tii nUdc (h in h 8.1). Trong mot vi du it
quen thuoc hon, phdn ting ciia B a i , vdi A gF - cdc san pham la BaF vd Agl. Cdc ion
kim loqi trao doi cdc ion phi kim mot cdch don gidn. Tdt cd cdc ion van hien dien sau
phdn ling, chiing chl (thay doi doi tac). Chung ta chl co the mo td phdn ting trong h in h
8 .2 bdng chU:
Barium iodide cong vdi bac fluoride cho ra barium fluoride cong vdi bac iodide
Ta cd the sii dung cdc cdng thiic de bieu dien cdc chdt cd lien quan trong mot phdn
ling khi ta viet mot phuang trinh hda hqc. Trong mot phuang tr in h , cdc cdng thiic cua
cdc chdt phdn ling ditqc dat d ben trdi cua mui ten vd cdng thiic cua cdc san pham duac
ddt d ben phdi mui ten. Chat ndo viet tritdc d moi ben cua phuong trinh cung ditqc.
B a l 2 + A gF -> BaF 2 + A g l CChua can b&ngj

Tot han nUa thi chung ta cd the viet mot phuang trinh cdn bdng, phuang trinh ndy
chi ra sd nguyen til tuang doi cua mdi nguyen td cd lien quan. Phuang trinh khdng cdn
bdng vita duqc gidi thieu dudng nhu chi ra rdng mot ion iodide da bien mdt trong qud
trinh phdn ling vd mot ion fluoride da xuat hien tit mot noi ndo dd. Nhu cdch viet dd thi
phuang trinh ndy vi pham dinh luat bao todn khoi luqng. Do dd ban ludn ludn phdi viet
nhilng phuong trinh cdn bdng cho cdc phdn ilng. Tit phuang tr in h (equation) cd lien
quan vdi tit bang nhau (equal); mot phuang trinh phdi cd sd luqng nguyen til cua moi
nguyen to bdng nhau d mdi ben. M ot phitang trinh nhu vay ditqc goi la can b&ng.
Cdc he so: la nhilng con sd duqc viet trudc cdc cdng thiic - noi len con so cdc don vi
cdng thiic tuang doi cua cdc chat phdn ilng vd cdc san pham cd hen quan trong mot
phdn ling vd cdn bdng so nguyen til cua tilng nguyen to cd lien quan. Cdc he so duoc
nhdn vdi moi thii trong cdng thiic.
Bal 2j - 2 AgF -» BaF 2 + 2Agl (da can bing)
He sd
H e so khong chi ra bdt cii mot lien ket hda hqc ndo. Trong mot phuang trinh hda
hqc cdn bdng, khi khdng cd mot he so trade mot cdng thiic thi cd nghia Id he sd bdng 1.
Hai dan vi cdng thiic cua A g F dd ditqc hqp thanh tit hai ion A g' vd hai ion F~ Hai ion
F trong mot don vi cdng thiic cua BaF., duqc tqo thanh den tit hai dan vi cdng thilc AgF.
Phuang trinh cdn bdng cho phdn ilng cua hydro vd oxy duoc minh hoa trong hinh
8.1ld
2 H 2 + 0 2 -> 2 H 20
Cdc he sd trong mot phuang trinh cdn bdng cho biet ti sd moi ciia moi chdt trong
phdn ling vdi sd moi cua mot chdt bdt ky khdc. Chiing cung cho biet ti sd giUa sd dan vi
cdng thiic giUa titng chdt vdi sd dan vi cdng thiic ciia mot chdt bdt ky khdc. Phuang trinh
hda hqc cdn bdng la nen tdng de til do ta cd the tinh duqc cd bao nhieu ciia mdt chdt
phdn ling vdi hoac duqc tqo ra bdi mot luqng nhat dinh ciia mot chat khdc..
Cdc dieu kien phdn ilng thudng duqc viet ben tren hay ben dudi mui ten nhu trong
C aC03 __ «__ * CaO + C 0 2
213
Chu diem 8.2: Balancing Equations_________________________________
Y our first m ajor task of this chapter is to learn to balance e qu atio ns fo r chem ical
reactions. B alancing sim ple equations w ill be covered in this chapter: e quations for more
com plicated o xid atio n-red uctio n reactions w ill be considered in C h a p te r 16.
The first step in w riting a com plete and balanced equation for a ch e m ic a l reaction
is to w rite co rrect form ulas for the reactants and products To help you as you learn,
you m ight w rite the equ atio n in w ords and then w rite the fo rm u la s. C o rre c t form ulas
cannot be changed to m ake an equation balance! Only after the c o rre c t fo rm u la s have
been w ritten can we go on to the next step. Then, we use c o e fficie n ts to change the
num bers of fo rm u la units to get the sam e n um ber of atom s of each e le m e n t on the
two sides of the equation.
For exam ple, the unbalanced equation for the reaction of carbon m onoxide with
oxygen to give carbon dioxide is
CO + 0 ? —> C 0 2 (Noi balanced)
D on’t fo rg et that e le m e n tal oxygen occurs as 0 2. W ith one m olecule of each sub
stance, the n um bers of oxygen atom s on the two sides of the equation are not equal,
so the equation is not balanced. W e can balance the equation by in se rtin g proper co
efficients in front of the form ulas:
2 C 0 + 0 2 -> 2 CO 2 (Balanced)
The n um be r 2 before the CO indicates that there are tw o carbon m onoxide m ol
ecules, conta ining tw o carbon atom s and two oxygen atom s. T here are tw o m ore oxy
gen atom s in the 0 2 m olecule B ecause there are two carbon atom s and four oxygen
atom s in the tw o C 0 2 m olecu les, the equation is now balanced. You sh o u ld always
ch eck an e q u atio n a fte r you balan ce it to m ake sure that the n u m b e rs of atom s of
each e le m e n t on each side of the arrow are equal.
One of the p roblem s encountered by students ju s t learning to balan ce equations
is that the a bsence of a co e fficie n t in a balanced equation m eans a c o e ffic ie n t of 1 ,
but the absence of a co efficie nt before the equation is fu lly balanced m ig ht m ean that
this su bstance has not yet been considered. To avoid any co nfu sion , you can place a
question m ark before each form ula when you start to balance an equation. (A fte r you
have had a lot of practice, you w ill not need to use the q uestion m arks.)
If the initial p la cem e nt of the co efficie nt 1 yields fractio na l co e ffic ie n ts in the equa
tion, you can get integ er values by sim ply m ultiplying every co e ffic ie n t (in clud ing the
co efficients equal to 1 ) by a sm all integer that w ill clear the fractio ns
W hen any e le m e n t appears in m ore than one su bstance on the sam e side of the
equation, you should balance that e le m ent last
Any p olyatom ic ion that m aintains its com position th rough an entire reaction can
be balanced as a group of atom s, instead of balancing the ind ivid ua l e le m e n ts
Inform ation abo ut the s ta te of a reactant or p ro d u ct (w h e th e r it is p re s e n t as a
solid, liquid, gas, or solute) m ay be given in a chem ical e quation The fo llo w in g a bb re
viations are used: solid (s). liquid ( r ). gas (g), and solute in a queous so lu tion (aq) An
a q u e o u s s o lu tio n is a solution in w ater. Thus, the reaction of s ilv e r nitra te w ith s o
dium chloride can be represented by the follow ing equation:
A g N 0 3(aq) + NaCI(aq) -> A gC I(s) + N a N 0 3(aq)
214
The reaction of aqueous potassium carbonate with a solution of hydrochloric acid

can be represented by the following equation:
K?C O s(aq) + 2 HCI(aq) -» 2 KCI(aq) + H20 ( t ) + C O ?(g)
S n a p s h o t R evie w - On ta p n h a n h
*■ Because the balanced equation is a set of reacting ratios, one coefficient is
rather arbitrary. W e set the coefficient of the most skiii Builder complex for
mula to 1, but we might later have to adjust all the coefficients to get integers.
A. Balance the following equations: (a) P4O 10(s) + H20 ( t_ ) -> H 3P 0 4( c ).
(b) FeC I3(aq) + Fe(s) -> FeCI2(aq), and
(c) TiC I4( ( ) + H 20 ( ( ) -> T i0 2(s) + HCI(g)
• Vi phuang trinh cdn bdng la tap hap cdc tl so phdn ling, mot he so la tuy
chon. Ta chon he so cua cdng thiic phiic tap nhat Id 1, nhung sau dd ta phdi
dieu chlnh tdt cd cdc he so de co duqc cdc so nguyen.
A. Cdn bdng cdc phuang trinh sau ddy:
(a) P4O10(s) + H 2O U ) -> H3P 0 4( (),

(b) FeCl3(aq) + Fe(s) -> FeCl2(aq), va
(c) TiCl4( , ) + H20( ( ) -> T i 0 2(s) + HCl(g)
Chu thich tCf - cum tuf va hutimg dan dpc hieu

- the coefficient mul-tiplies everything in the formula: he so nhdn trong cdng thiic
- ratio of moles: ty so moi
- state: trang thdi
- aqueous solution: dung dich nUdc
Can bang cac phuong trinh

Cong viec ddu tien cua ban trong chuang ndy Id hoc de cdn bdng cdc phuang trinh
cho cdc phdn ling hoa hqc. Viec cdn bdng nhilng phuang trinh dan gian se duac noi den
trong chuang ndy; cdc phuang trinh oxy hda khii phiic tap han se duac xem xet den trong
chuong 16.
Budc ddu tien trong viec viet vd hodn chinh mot phuang trinh cdn bdng cho mot
phdn ling hda hqc la viet cdng thiic dung cho cdc chdt phdn ilng vd cdc san pham. B e
giiip minh khi hqc, ban phdi viet phuang trinh bdng chJ roi sau dd viet cdc cong thiic.
Cdc cdng thiic dung khdng the duac thay doi de tao ra mot phuang trinh cdn bdng! Chi
sau khi cdc cdng thiic dung duac viet ra, ta mdi cd the tiep tuc sang budc tiep theo. Sau
do ta sii dung cdc he sd de thay doi sd dcm vi cdng thiic de cd duqc cung mot so cdc
nguyen tii cua moi nguyen td d ca hai ben cua phuang trinh.
Vi du, phuang trinh khdng cdn bdng cua phdn ling giUa carbon monoxide vd oxy
de cho ra carbon dioxide la
CO + 0 2 -> C 0 2 (Chua c in bing)
215
Dung quen rdng oxy nguyen to co a dang O V d i mdt phan td cua moi chdt, s6
nguyen tii oxy a hai ben cua phuang trinh la khong bdng nhau, do do phuang trinh
chua duac cdn bdng. Chiing ta cdn bdng phuang trinh bdng cach dua cdo cdc he s6
thich hqp a phia trudc cdc cong thiic:
2 CO + 0 2 -» 2 C 0 2 (Dd cdn bdng)
So 2 a trudc CO chl ra rdng cd hai phdn tii carbon monoxide, chiia hai nguyen til
carbon vd hai nguyen tii oxy. Con cd hai nguyen tii oxy niia trong phdn tli Op vi cd hai
nguyen tii carbon vd 4 nguyen tii oxy trong hai phdn tii C0.f phuang trinh chua duqc
cdn bdng. Ban luon ludn phdi kiem tra mot phuang trinh sau khi cdn bdng no de dam
bao la so nguyen tii cua mdi nguyen to d moi ben cua rmii ten la bdng nhau
M ot van de md cdc sinh vien thudng gap phdi khi mdi viia hqc cdch cdn bdng cdc
phuang trinh la khi khdng cd mot he sd trong mot phuang trinh cdn bdng, cd nghia la
lie so la 1, nhung khi khdng cd mot lie sd trudc mot phuang trinh dd cdn bdng cd the co
nghia Id chat dd da chua duqc xem xet den. De trdnh bdt cii su lam Ian nao, ban phai
ddt mot dau hoi trudc mdi cdng thiic khi ban bdt ddu cdn bdng mot phuang trinh. (Sau
khi ban dd thuc hdnh nhieu, ban se khdng cdn sii dung cdc ddu hoi).
Neu viec chon lie so 1 ban ddu cho ra cdc he sd phdn sd trong phuang trinh, ban cd
the cd duqc cdc gid tri nguyen dan gidn bdng cdch nhdn ti/ng he so (gom cd nhtfng he so
bdng 1) vdi mot so nguyen nho de lam mat phdn so.
Vdi bdt cii nguyen td ndo cd trong nhieu han mot chdt a cung mot ben cua phuang
trinli, ban phai cdn bdng nguyen to do sau ciing.
Bdt cii mot ion nhieu nguyen tii ndo gitf nguyen thanh phdn cua no trong todn bo
phdn i/ng cd the duqc cdn bdng nhu mot nhdm nguyen tic, thay vi phai cdn bdng ti/ng nguyen
td rieng biet
Thong tin ve tra n g th d i cua mot chdt phdn i/ng hay mot san pham (no hien dien
nhu mot chdt rdn, chdt Long, chdt khi hay chdt hda tan) cd the di/qc cho irong mot phi/ang
trinh hda hqc. Nhtfng chtf viet tdt sau ddy duqc sii dung: rdn (s), long ( f ), khi (g) va
chdt tan trong dung dich nUdc (aq). Mot du n g dich. ntidc la mot dung dich trong nUdc.
Theo dd, phdn ling cua bac nitrate vd natri chloride cd the duqc bieu dien bdng phuang
trinh sau ddy:
AgN OJaq) + NaCUaq) —> AgCKs) + NaNO (aq >
Phdn i/ng ciia kali carbonate trong dung dich nUdc vdi mot dung dich hydrochloric
acid cd the duqc bieu dien bdng phuang trinh sau ddy:
K C O /a q ) + 2 HCKaq) -> 2 KCl(aq) + H f l f r ) + C O /g j
Chu diem 8.3: Predicting the Products of Chemical Reactions_________
To the b eginning student the huge array of ch em ica l reactions seem s b ew ild er
ing To m em orize the products of each one by m erely looking at the rea c-tan ts would
be im possible Instead, we g eneralize a great n um ber of reactions into five sim ple types
that allow s us at least to m ake an educated guess as to the p ro du cts To learn a few
sim ple rules is m uch easier than to m em orize each reaction in d e p e n d e n tly . T hus we
m ust:
- Learn to classify reactions into th eir types by c o n sid e rin g the re a ctan ts only.
- Learn w hat p roducts m ight be produced by that type reaction
216
- Learn how to pre dict if the expected reaction w ill actually proceed.
M ore co m p lica te d o xid ation-reduction reactions w ill be presented in C ha pter 16,
and o the r co m p le x reactions are covered in more advanced ch em istry courses.
S im ple ch em ica l reactions can be divided into the follow ing classes:
1 C om bination reactions
2. D ecom position reactions
3. S ingle su bstitu tion (or single displacem ent) reactions
4. D ouble su bstitu tion (or double displacem ent) reactions
In addition, m ost e le m e n ts and m any com pounds react with oxygen:
5. C om bu stio n reactions
Combination Reactions
C o m b in atio n re ac tio n s involve the reaction of two (or m ore) reactants to form
one product. P e rha ps the e asiest com bination reaction to recognize is one in w hich
two free e le m e n ts (at lea st one of w hich is a nonm etal) react w ith each other. The
elem ents can do little e xcep t react with each other (or not react at all) For exam ple, if
we treat m agnesium m etal w ith chlorine gas, the elem ents can co m bine to form m ag
nesium chloride:
M g(s) + Cl2(g) -> M gC I2(s)
The form ula for the product of a com bination reaction m ust be w ritten according
to the rules p re sen te d in C h a p te r 5. After the pro du ct has been rep re sen te d by the
p roper form ula, the equation is balanced, as shown in S ection 8.2.
W hen tw o n o n m e ta llic elem ents com bine, the pro du ct form ed often d epends on
the relative q ua n titie s of the reactants present. For exam ple, w hen carbon com bines
with oxygen, e ithe r of tw o p ossible com pounds m ay be p ro du ced — carbon m onoxide
or carbon dioxide. W hen the supply of oxygen is lim ited, carbon m onoxide is produced,
but w hen e xcess o xyge n is available, carbon dioxide results:
2 C (s) + 0 2(g, limited quantity) -► 2 CO(g)
C(s) + 0 2(g, excess) -» C 0 2(g)
W hat h appens in the a tm osphere to the carbon m onoxide generated in a uto m o

bile e ng in es? The carbon m onoxide gas reacts slow ly with the oxygen gas in the air to
produce carbon d io xide gas:
2CO (g) + 0 2(g) -> 2C 0 2(g)
Of course, not e ve ry pair of elem ents w ill react with each other. For exam ple, you
know that the noble gases are quite stable in their elem ental form s.
In a n o th e r typ e of co m b in a tio n reaction, a co m p ou nd m ay be able to co m b in e
with a p a rticu la r free e le m e n t to form another com pound as the only product. This o c
cu rs m o st o fte n w h e n the free e le m e n t is the sam e as one of the e le m e n ts in the
o riginal co m p ou nd An exam ple of such a com bination reaction is
2 C oC I 2(s) + C l 2(g) -► 2 C oC I 3(s)
H ere, the e le m e n t chlo rin e com bines with a com pound of co ba lt and chlorine —
c o b a lt(ll) ch lo rid e — to form a nother co m p ou nd of co b a lt and c h lo rin e — c o b a lt(lll)
chlo rid e — in w hich the co ba lt ion has a d ifferen t positive charge.
217
In yet a no the r type of com bination reaction, two co m p ou nd s c o n ta in in g the sam e

elem ent m ay be able to co m bine to form a single, m ore c o m p le x c o m p o u n d The ele
m ent the reactants have in com m on is very often oxygen:
CaO(s) + C 0 2(g) - * C aC 0 3(s)
MgO(s) + H 20( t ) -> M g(O H ) 2(s)
Decomposition Reactions
D eco m p o sitio n reactions have the o pposite e ffe ct from c o m b in a tio n reactions.
In a d eco m p ositio n reaction, a single com pound can d ec o m p o s e to tw o elem ents, to
an ele m e n t and a sim p le r com pound, to tw o sim pler co m p ou nd s, or (ra re ly) to another
com bination of products. T ernary com pounds, com p ou nd s c o n ta in in g th re e elem ents,
do not deco m p ose into th re e uncom bined elem ents. D eco m p o sitio n rea ction s are easy
to identify b ecause th ere is only one reactant. T able 8.1 s u m m a riz e s the m ost com
mon types of d eco m p ositio n reactions.
Table 8. 1 M ost C om m on T ypes of D eco m position R eactions
Reactant Products Example
Binary compound —» Two elements 9 H O e le c t r ic c it y

2 H2 + 0 2
Binary compound —> Compound + element 2 H 2 0 2 -> 2 H20 + 0 2
Ternary compound —> Compound + element 2 K N 03 h'*‘ > 2 K N 02 + 0 2
Ternary compound —> Two compounds M gC 0 3 h,“a' > MgO + C 0 2
Input of energy in som e form is usually required to get a com pound to decom pose:
2H 2 0 ( 0 ne^s™ » > 2H 2 (g) + 0 2 (g)

Two elem ents
2 H 2 0 2( 0 Ll8ht > 2 H 2 0 ( l ) + 0 2 (g)

A sim ple com pound and an e le m e n t
C a C 0 3 (s) — » CaO(s) + C 0 2 (g)

Tw o sim ple com p ou nd s
To get co m p ou nd s to d eco m p ose using ele ctricity, ions m ust be p re sen t, and the
sam ple m ust be in som e liquid form . (E lectricity does not pass th ro ug h solid ionic co m
pounds, even though they are com posed of positive and negative ions.) T he ions in a
liquid are free to m ove and thus co nd uct the current. The liquid can be a m o lte n (m elted)
pure ionic su bsta nce or a solution of an ionic su bsta nce in w a te r or a n o th e r liqu id (Fig
ure 8.3). If a solution is used, the com pound that is m ore e asily d e co m p o se d (the ionic
com pound or the w ater, for exam ple) is the one that w ill react.
Note in the p revious equations that the form ulas of e le m e n tal h ydrog en and o x y
gen are w ritten as dia to m ic m o le cu le s— H? and 0 2 B efore e qu atio ns are b a la n ce d the
form ulas for all p roducts m ust be w ritten according to the rules given in C h a p te r 5
D ecom position reactions are often used to prepare elem ents. Joseph P nestley (1733-
1804), the d isco ve re r of oxygen, used the d ecom position of m e rc u ry (ll) o xide HgO. to
prepare ele m e n tal oxygen (and free m ercury):
218
S tudents often d ecom pose potassium chlorate to produce oxygen in the labora
tory (Figure 8 4). This reaction is usually carried out by heating that com pound in the
p resence of m anganese(IV ) oxide, M n 0 2. The M n 0 2 is a catalyst— a substance that
changes the speed of a chem ical reaction w ithout undergoing a perm a ne nt change in
its own co m p ositio n. A ca talyst is conventionally w ritten above or below the reaction
arrow:
2 K C I0 3(s) — > 2 KCI(s) + 3 0 2(g)

Single Substitution Reactions
The reaction of a free ele m e n t with a com pound of two (or m ore) o the r elem ents
may result in the free e le m e n t disp lacing one of the ele m e n ts o rig in a lly in the c o m
pound. A free m etal can g enerally displace a less active m etal in a com pound; a free
nonm etal can generally d isplace a less active nonm etal in a com pound
Fe(s) + C u S 0 4(aq) -> FeS O a(aq) + Cu(s)

Iron (m etal) disp lace s copper (m etal).
C lj(g ) + C u B r 2(aq) -> C uC I 2(aq) + Br?( ()

C hlorine (nonm etal) disp lace s brom ine (nonm etal).
In this class of reaction, called a single d isplacem en t reaction, or single sub
stitution reaction, e le m e n ts that are inherently more reactive can d isplace less reac
tive elem ents from th e ir com pounds, but the opposite process does not occur:
C u(s) + F e S 0 4(aq) -► N.R. (N.R. stands for “no reaction")
C he m ica ls tend to react to go to a more stable, low er e nergy state. W hen iron
reacts with c o p p e r(ll) sulfate, C u S 0 4, the system goes to a low er energy state. W hen
an aqueous solution of iro n (ll) sulfate, F e S 0 4, is treated with co pp er metal, these ch em i
cals are a lready in the low er energy state, so they have no te nd en cy to produce iron
m etal and c o p p e r(ll) sulfate. W e say that iron is more active, or m ore reactive, than
copper, w hich ind icate s that it has a greater tendency to leave its elem ental state and
form com pounds. T his is due to atom s of iron having a gre ate r te nd en cy to lose e le c
trons than those of co p p e r do
To pre dict w hich sing le substitution reactions w ill occur, you need to know a little
about the relative re a ctivitie s of som e of the im portant m etals and nonm etals. Som e
m etals and a few non m e ta ls are listed in Table 8.2 in order of decrea sing reactivity.
M ore co m p le te lists are given in m ore advanced textbooks H ydrogen is included in
the list of m etals b ecause it can be displaced from aqueous acids by reactive m etals
(Figure 8 5) and can disp lace less active m etals from their com pounds.
C opper, silver, and gold — the coinage m etals— have long been prized for th eir sta
bility, or lack of rea ctivity (Figure 8 .6 ). They can even occur uncom -bined in nature.
Active m etals do not o ccu r naturally as free elem ents.
Double Substitution Reactions

The reaction of tw o com pounds may yield two new com pounds. M any reactions
that o ccu r in a queous solution involve two ionic com pounds trading anions This class
of reactions is called double substitution reactions, double d isp lacem en t reactions,
or m etathesis reactions. As usual, the correct form ulas m ust be w ritten for the p ro d
ucts before the equ atio n is balanced. In a double substitution reaction, if the ions are
not co nve rte d to co va le n t com pounds, th e ir charges do not change as th ey are c o n
verted from reactants to products.
219
T a b le 8.2 R elative R eactivities of U ncom bined E le m e nts
M etals Nonmetals
Most active A lka li m etals and M ost active

alkaline earth m etals o2
Al C l2
Mn
Zn
Cr
Fe B r2
Sn
Pb
H* I2
Cu
Ag
L ess active
Least active Au
‘ H ydrogen is included in the list of m etals because it can be d isp la ce d from aque
ous acids by reactive m etals.
C r(s) + 2 HCI(aq) -> H 2(g) + C rC I 2(aq)
H 2(g) + C uC I 2(aq) C u(s) + 2 HCI(aq)

V ery active m etals can even d isplace hydrogen from w ater:
2 N a(s) + 2 H 20 ( ( ) -> 2 N aO H (aq) + H 2(g)
In aqueous solution, neither H2C 0 3 (carbonic acid) nor NH4OH (am m onium hydroxide)
is stable; they decom pose to yield water and either C 0 2 or NH 3. If either H 2C 0 3 or NH4OH is
expected to be a product of a double substitution reaction, C 0 2 plus H 20 , or N H 3 plus H20,
will be produced instead. Other unstable compounds are encountered m uch less frequently.
Table 8.3 Water Solubility of Some Common Ionic Compounds
Soluble in Water Insoluble in Water
A ll chlorates BaSO,
A ll acetates M ost oxides
A ll nitrates M ost sulfides
A ll compounds o f alkali metals M ost phosphates
A ll compounds containing
the ammonium ion
A ll chlorides except those listed AgCI. PbCI,. Hg:C lr
in the next column and CuCI
The d rivin g fo rce beh in d dou ble s u b s titu tio n re a ctio n s is the fo rm a tio n of an in
so lu ble ionic co m p ou nd or a co v a le n t co m p ou nd (such as w a te r or a g a s e o u s c o m
pound) from ions in so lu tion . A solid fo rm e d from ions in s o lu tio n is c a lle d a p r e c ip i
ta te . W e can thus p re d ic t that a reaction w ill o ccu r if s o lu b le ion ic c o m p o u n d s yield
270
2 HgO(s) — >!"!— > 2 Hg( c ) + 0 2(g)
at le a st one in so lu b le
io n ic c o m p o u n d o r
o n e c o v a le n t c o m
p o u n d . Y o u n e e d to
be fa m ilia r w ith th e
s o lu b ilitie s o f so m e
c o m m o n io n ic c o m
pounds in w a te r .
S o m e ty p e s o f io n ic
c o m p o u n d s th a t a re
soluble or in so lu b le in
w a te r a re lis te d in
T a b le 8 .3 . A m o re
com prehensive ta b u la K ey: s = soluble (greater than about 1 g solute/10 0 g of w ater)
tio n o f s o lu b ilitie s is ss = slightly soluble (approxim ately 0.1 — 1 g s olu te/100 g of w ater)
presented in T able 8.4 i = insoluble (less than about 0 1 g solu te/100 g of water)
for refe ren ce, not n e c d = decom poses in water
e ssa rily to be m e m o 'H g C I is soluble, H gB r2 is less soluble, and H g l2 is insoluble

rized.
In addition to learning the so lubility rules, you also m ust be fa m iliar w ith the na
ture of the bonding in co m p ou nd s to be able to predict if double substitution reactions
will proceed as w ritten. You learned in C hapter 5 that co valen t co m p ou nd s have no
m etallic e le m e n ts or the a m m onium ion in them . It m ight be helpful to note that fo r
m ation of a co va le n t com p ou nd includes
(a) Form ation of a gas (All gases at room tem perature are covalent.)
(b) Form ation of w ater
(c) F orm ation of a weak acid or weak base. (W eak acids and bases in solution
are m ore than 95% covalent. They w ill be d iscu ssed in S ection 8.4.) W eak
acids inclu de all acids except HCI, H C I0 3, H C I0 4| HBr, HI, H N 0 3, and H 2S 0 4.
T he se a cid s are strong, that is, they are co m p le te ly ionic in w a te r solution.
The only w ea k base that we w ill discuss is am m onia, NH 3.
ITEMS FOR INTEREST

An ind ustria l pro cess called the Solvay process uses the follow ing set of reactions
:o produce Na 2C 0 3 (know n as w ashing soda). The reactants are inexpensive, and Na 2C 0 3
s a very im p o rta n t ind ustria l com pound used in the m anufacture of soap, glass, pa-
Der, dete rg e nts, and o th e r chem icals.
C a C 0 3(s) -► H eat C aO (s) + C 0 2(g)
2 C 0 2(g) + 2 H 20 ( 0 + 2 N H 3(aq) -> 2 N H 4H C 0 3(aq)
2 N aC I(aq) + 2 N H 4H C 0 3(aq) -> 2 N a H C 0 3(s) + 2 N H 4CI(aq)
Very concentrated solutions
2 N a H C O ,(s) -► N a ,C 0 3(s) + C 0 2(g) + H 20 ( ( )
C aO (s) + H ,0 ( ( ) -> C a(O H ) 2(s)
2 N H 4C I(aq) + C a (O H ) 2(s) -> 2 N H 3(aq) + 2 H?0 ( [ ) + C aC I 2(aq)
221
If we add all the reactants and all the products in these equ atio ns and then de
lete the com pounds that appear on both sides, we get the fo llo w in g o ve ra ll equation:
C a C 0 3 + 2 NaCl -> N a 2C 0 3 + C aC I 2
Combustion Reactions
E veryone is fa m ilia r w ith the p rocess called burning B u rning , a lso ca lle d com
b u s tio n , is the rapid reaction of a w ide variety of su bsta nce s w ith o xyg e n gas. Com
bustion reactions of e lem ents can also be classified as co m b in a tio n reactions; the type
of reaction is not as im portant as the products. For exam ple, we can refer to the fol
low ing reactions as co m b in a tion reactions or com bustion reactions:
S(s) + 0 2(g) - * S 0 2(g)

C(s) + 0 2(g) C 0 2(g)
The com b ustio n reactions of h y d ro c a rb o n s — co m p ou nd s co m p ose d of carbon
and hydrogen only — are espe cia lly im portant as sources of useful energy. W e burn
m ethane, C H 4, called natural gas, in our hom es to provide heat, and we com bust oc
tane, C eH )8, in our cars to provide m echanical energy:
C H 4(g) + 2 0 2(g) -> C 0 2(g) + 2 H 20 (g )
2 C8H 18( 0 + 17 0 2(g) -» 16 CO(g) + 18 H 20 (g )

In such reactions, e ithe r carbon m onoxide or carbon dio xide m ay be produced, in
a dd itio n to w ater. If s u ffic ie n t oxygen is p resent, carbon d io x id e is p ro d u c e d . If the
supply of oxygen is lim ited, carbon m onoxide is the product. (W ith ve ry lim ited oxygen,
soot — a form of carbon — and w ater are produced ) In any case, water is a product.
The co m b ustio n reactions of com pounds conta ining carbon, h ydrog en , and oxy
gen (which include the ca rb oh ydrates we use for food) also pro du ce e ithe r carbon mon
oxide or carbon dioxide, d epending on the relative q uantity of o xygen a vailab le

W e m ust cla ssify ch em ica l reactions into types in o rd e r to have a chance to
pre dict the p roducts given the reactants. Five sim ple types are given here, with
w hich it sh ou ld be fa irly easy to m ake e du cate d g u e sse s as to the correct
products Be sure to practice these problem s e xte n sive ly
A. C om plete and balance the follow ing equations:
(a) M gO (s) + H 20( I ) ->
(b) Al(s) + H CI(aq) ->
(c) HCI(aq) + K 2C 0 3(aq) -»
• Ta p h ai p h an loai cdc ph dn ilng h oa h oc thanh m ot so loai nhdm co duac ca hoi

tien doan n h iln g san p h a m d uac ch o ra tii cd c ch d t phdn ilng N dm loai phdn
ilng dan gian duac gia i th ieu a ddy bdng ndm loai ndy ta co th e suy d&an tuang
d oi d e d a n g b d ng cdch co h e th o n g cdc san p h a m d u n g. B an can th u c hanh
n hiln g bai tap nay n h ie u <
A. Hodn chinh vd cdn bdng nhilng phuang trinh sau d d y:
(a) M g O 's) + H 0< f ) —>
Ib> A lts ) + H C I'a q i —>
(c) HCUaq'i + K CO laq) —>
222
Chu thich tCf - cym tCf va hudng dan dpc hieu

- co m b in a tion reactions: phdn ting ket hap
- decom position reactions: phdn ilng phdn hiiy
- te rn a ry compounds: hap chdt ba nguyen to
- M olte n: ndng chay
- C a ta ly s t: xuc tac
- S ingle disp lace m e nt reaction: phdn ilng the dan
- Single su b -s titu tio n reaction: phdn ilng the dan
- A ctive: cd hoat tinh
- Reactive: de phdn ilng, co hoat tinh manh
- R elative: cd lien quan, ty le vai, tuang doi
- S ta b iliti: tinh on dinh
- Double s u b s titu tio n reactions, double displacem ent reactions: phdn ilng the ddi
- M e ta th e sis reactions: phdn ting trao doi
- P re cip ita te : chat ket tua, lam ket tua
- S o lu b ilitie s : do tan
- B u rning : dot chay
- C om -bustion: sii dot chay
- Type: loai
- Products: cdc san pham
- H ydrocarbons: hydrocacbon
- In any case, w ater is a product: trong bat cii trilimg hap ndo, nude la mot san pham
Tien doan cac san pham cua cac phan ting hoa hoc
Doi vai nguai mdi bdt ddu mot mang Idn cdc phdn ilng hda hoc cd ve nhu qud rdc
roi. De nhd cdc san pham cua tilng phdn ling chi bdng cdch nhin vdo cdc chat phdn ilng
xay ra deu khdng the duqc. Thay vdo dd chung ta tong quat hda mot so luqng cdc phdn
ilng thanh ndm loqi phdn ilng dan gidn de it nhdt ciing cho phep chiing ta du doan mot
cdch cd he thong han ve cdc san pham. Viec hqc mot sd it cdc quy ludt dan gidn thi de
han nhieu so vdi viec phdi nhd tilng phdn ilng rieng. Do dd ta phdi:
Hqc cdch phdn loai cdc phdn ling thanh cdc loqi phdn ilng bdng cdch chi xem
xet cdc chdt phdn ling md thdi.
Hqc biet dilqc cdc san pham ndo cd the duqc tqo ra til loqi phdn ilng dd.
Hqc biet de tien doan 1a phdn ilng di/qc mong muon trong thilc te cd xay ra hay
kliong?
Nhilng phdn ling oxy hda khii phiic tap han se duqc gidi thieu a chuang 16 vd cdc
phdn Ung phiic tap khdc duqc ban den trong nhilng giao trinh hda hqc ndng cao han.
Cdc phdn ling hoa hqc dan gidn cd the duqc chia thanh cdc nhdm sau ddy:
1. Cdc phdn ling ket hqp
2. Cdc phdn ilng phdn huy
3. Cdc phdn ling the dcm (hay phdn ling chuyen vi dan)
III
4. Cdc phdn ilng the cdc (hay chuyen vi hep)

Ngodi ra phdn lan cdc nguyen to vd nhieu hap chdt phdn ling vai oxy:
5. Cdc phdn ilng chay
Cac phan Qng ket hop

Cac phdn ilng ket hap bao gom phdn ilng cua hai (hay nhieu) chat phdn ilng de
tqo thanh mot san pham. Phdn ilng ket hqp de nhan biet nhdt cd le la mot phdn ling
trong dd hai nguyen to tu do (it nhdt mot trong hai nguyen to la mot phi kim) phdn ling
vdi nhau. Cdc nguyen to chl cd the phdn Ung vdi nhau (hay khdng phdn ilng gi cd). Vi
du, neu ta xu: ly kim loqi magne bdng khi chlorine, cdc nguyen to cd the ket hqp de tqo
thanh magne chloride.
M g(s) + C l 2(g) -> M gC I 2(s)
Cdng thde cdc san pham cua mot phdn ling ket hqp phdi duqc viet theo nhitng quy
luat duqc gidi thieu trong chtfcfng 5. Sau khi san pham da duqc bieu dien bdi mot cdng
tlidc dung, phuang trinh dilqc cdn bdng nhu trinh bay trong muc 8 .2 .
Khi hai nguyen to phi kim ket hqp vdi nhau, san pham duqc tqo thanh thudng phu
thuoc vdo nhdng luqng tuong ddi cua cdc chdt phdn dng cd mdt. Vi du, khi carbon ket
hqp vdi oxy, mot trong hai hqp chdt cd kha ndng cd the duqc tqo thanh - carbon monox
ide hay carbon dioxide. Khi nguon cung cap oxy cd gidi hqn, carbon monoxide duqc tqo
thanh; nhung khi oxy cd du, carbon dioxide dilqc tqo thanh:
2 C(s) + 0 2(g, luglng co han) -> 2 C O(g)
C(s) + 0 2(g, co du) -> C 0 2
Diem can quan tarn

Dieu gi xay ra trong khi quyen doi vdi carbon monoxide duqc tqo ra bdi cdc dong
ca xe hai? Khi carbon monoxide phdn dng chain vdi khi oxy trong khong khi de tqo ra
khi carbon dioxide.
2 CO(g) + 0 2(g) -> 2 C 0 2(g)
D l nhien la khdng phdi mot cap nguyen to ndo cung phdn dng vdi nhau. Vi du,
ban biet la cdc khi hiem kha ben trong dang nguyen to cua chung.
Trong mot loqi phdn dng ket hqp khdc, mot hqp chdt cd the cd khd ndng ket hqp
vdi mot nguyen to tu do ndo dd de tqo thanh mot hqp chdt khdc nhu Id san pham duy
nhdt. Dieu ndy xay ra thudng xuyen nhdt khi nguyen to til do giong mot trong cdc nguyen
td cua hqp chdt ban ddu. M ot vi du cua phdn dng ket hqp kieu ndy la
2 C oC I 2(s) + C l 2(g) -> 2 C oC I 3(s)
0 day nguyen td chlorine ket hqp vdi mot hqp chdt cua
cobalt vd chlorine - cobalt(II) chloride - de tqo thanh mot hqp chdt khdc cua cobalt
vd chlorine - cobalt(III) chloride - trong dd ion cobalt cd mot dien tich duong khdc.
Trong mot kieu phdn dng ket hqp khdc nda, hai hap chat cd chda cung nguyen to
cd the cd khd ndng ket hqp vdi nhau de tqo thanh mot hqp chdt duy nhdt phde tap han.
Nguyen td md cdc chdt phdn dng cd chung rdt thudng Id oxy:
C aO s) + C O /g ) —> C aC O ((s)
M g O s ) + H Ol i ) —> M g iO H ).(s )
224
Cac phan ting phan huy

Cdc phdn ting phdn huy co tac dung trdi nguqc vdi cdc phdn tfng ket hap. Trong
mot phdn ting phdn huy, mot hap chdt dan co the phdn huy thanh hai nguyen to, thanh
mot nguyen to vd thanh mot hap chdt dan gidn han, thanh hai hap chdt dan gidn hay
(hiem khi) thanh mot ket hap khdc cua cdc san pham. Cdc hqp chdt ba chdt, la nhitng
hqp chdt co chiia ba nguyen to, khong phdn huy thanh ba nguyen to khong ket hqp. Cdc
phdn ling phdn huy de duqc nhan ra vi chl co mot chat phdn ilng. B ang 8.1 tom tdt
nhtfng kieu phdn huy thudng gdp nhdt
Bang 8.1 NHLlNG KIElu PHAN L/NG PHAN HUY THL/CJNG GAP NHAT
Chat phan vfrig San pham Vi du
H ap ch at h ai ch at —> h ai nguyen to 2 H ,0 dien - * 2 H 2 + 0 2

H ap ch at hai chat —> hap chat + nguyen to 2 H 20 -» 2 H 2 + 0 2
H gp chat ba chat —» hgp chat + nguyen to’ 2 K N 0 3 -> n h ie t 2 K N 0 2
Thudng cdn co mot dang ndng luqng ddu vdo de cho mot hqp chdt phdn huy:
2 H 20 ( 0 >2 H 2(g) + 0 2(g)

2 nguyen to
2 H 20 2 ( 0 — A"h “ "‘ >2 H 20 ( 0 + 0 2(g)

Mot hqp chdt dan
C a C O j(s )— Nh'** >CaO(s) + C 0 2(g)

Hai hqp chdt dan gian han
lie cho cdc hqp chat phdn huy bang cdch su: dung dien thi phdi cd cdc ion hien dien
vd mau phdi d mot dang long ndo dd. (Dien khdng di qua cdc hqp chat ion rdn, mac du
chung cung duqc tqo thanh ttf cdc ion duang vd ion dm) cdc ion trong mot chdt long
chuyen dong tu do vd do dd ddn dien. Chat long cd the la mot chdt ion tinh khiet ndng
chay hay mot dung dich cua mot chdt ion trong nude, hay trong mot chdt long khdc
(h in h 8 .3 ).Neu sii dung mot dung dich, thi hqp chdt de bi phdn huy han (vi du hqp chdt ion
hay nUdc) la chdt se phdn ting.
Chu y la trong nhtfng phuang trinh trudc, cac cdng thtfc cua hydro vd oxy nguyen to
da duqc viet nhu cdc phdn tii hai phdn tii - H J vd Or Trudc khi cdc phuang trinh duqc
cdn bdng, cdc cdng thtfc cua tdt cd cac san pliam phai duqc viet tudn theo cdc quy luat
duqc cho trong chuang 5.
Cdc phdn ling phdn huy thudng duqc sii dung de dieu che cdc nguyen td. -Joseph
Priestley (1733 - 1804) Id ngudi phat hien ra oxy, dd stf dung sU phdn huy cua thu\
ngdn (II) oxide, HgO. de dieu che oxy nguyen td (vd thuy ngdn tu do):
2 HgO(s) 2 Hg( ( ) + 0 2(g)
225
Cdc sinh vien thudng phdn huy potassium chlorate de tqo ra oxy trong phong thi
nghiem (h in h 8.4). Phan ilng ndy thudng duqc tien hdnh bdng viec dun ndng hop chdt
vdi stf hien dien cua mangan(IV) oxide, M nO r M n 0 2 la mot xiic tac - Id mot chdt lam
thay doi van toe cua phdn dng hoa hoc md khong cd stf thay ddi vlnh vien trong thanh
phdn cua no. Chdt xuc tac theo quy Udc duqc viet ben tren hay ben dudi cua mui tin
phdn tfng:
2 KC103(s) — %£}— > 2 KCl(s) + 3 0 2(g)
Cac phan ting the don

La phdn ilng cua mot nguyen td ttf do vai mot hap chdt hay cua hai Chay nhieu)
nguyen td khdc cd the xay ra do stf thay the mgt hay nhieu nguyen td ban ddu trong
hap chdt. M ot kim loai ttf do thudng cd the thay the mot kim loai it hoat dong han trong
mot hap chdt. M ot phi kim til do thudng cd the thay the mot phi kim it hoat dqng han
trong mot hap chdt.
Fe(s) + C u S O /a q ) -> F e S 0 4(aq) + Cu(s)

Sdt (kim loai) thay the dong (kim loqi)
C l 2 + C u B r 2(aq) -» C uC l 2(aq) + B r 2( ( )
chlorine (phi kim) thay the bromine (phi kim)
Trong nhom phdn tfng duqc goi la phdn ilng the dan ndy, cdc nguyen td cua chdt
hoat dong han cd the thay the cdc nguyen td cua chdt it hoat ddng han trong hqp chdt
cua chung, nhung qud trinh nguqc lai khong xay ra.
Cu(s) + F e S 0 4(aq) —> N .R (N.R viet tdt “khong phdn tfng").

Cdc hoa chdt thudng cd khuynh htfdng phdn tfng de tqo ra m ot trang thdi ndng
luqng thdp han bin han, khi sdt phdn tfng vdi dong(II) sulfate, C u S 0 4, he thdng chuyin
sang mot trang thdi ndng luqng thdp han. Khi dung dich nUdc cua sdt(II) sulfate,
F e S 0 4, duqc xil ly vdi dong kim loqi, nhtfng hda chdt ndy dd a trong m ot trang thdi
nang luqng thdp, do dd chung khong cd khuynh hudng tqo ra dong, sdt kim loai vd
dong(II) sulfate. Ta noi rdng sdt hoat dong han hay d i phdn tfng han dong, de chl ra
la no cd khuynh hudng rdi khoi trang thdi nguyen td cua no vd tqo thanh cdc hqp
chdt. Dieu ndy la do cdc nguyen til sdt cd khuynh hudng de mdt electron manh han
cdc nguyen ttf cua dong.
De tien doan phdn tfng the dan ndo se xay ra ban cdn biet mot it ve tinh hoat ddng
tuang ddi cua mot sd kim loqi vd phi kim quan trong. Mot sd kim loqi vd mot vai phi kim
duqc liet ke trong bang 8.2 theo thtf ttf tinh gidm ddn. Nhtfng danh sdch hoan chinh han
duqc cho trong cdc gido trinh ndng cao han. hydro duqc bao gom trong danh sdch cua cdc
kim loai bai vi no cd the bi the ttf dung dich ntfdc cua cdc acid bdi cdc kim loai hoat dong
(hinh 8.5) va cd the the cdc kim loqi it hoat dong han ttf cac hqp chdt cua chung
C r(s) + 2 H C l(a q ) —► H ,(g) + C rC l 2<aq)
H 2( s ) + C uC l 2(aq) —» Cu(s) + H C l(aq )

Nhtfng kim loai it hoat dong tham chi cdn cd the the cho cho hydro trong nude:
2 N a(s) + 2 H 20 ( ( ) -» 2 N aO H (aq) + H ,(g)
Dong, bac va vdng - la nhtfng kim loai de due tien dong - dd duqc ddnh gid cao ttf
xUa, do tinh ben cua chung, hay tinh kem hoat dong (h in h 8 .6 ) chung tham chi con xuat
hien a dang khdng ket hap trong ttf nhien. Cdc kim loai hoat dong khdng xuat hien
trong tu nhien a dang cdc nguyen td tu do.
226
Bang 8.2. TiNH HOAT BONG TUONG 0 6 l CUA CAC NGUYEN T(5 KH6NG K^T H0P.
Kimloai Phi kim
Hoat dong nhdt Cac k im lo a i kiem F, Hoat dong nhdt

va cac k im lo a i kie m tho 0,
Al c i2
Mn
Zn
Cr
Fe B r2
Sn
Pb
H* I2 It hoat dong han
Cu
Ag
It hoat dong hem Au
*Hydro duqc liet ke trong danh sdch cdc kim loai ri trong dung dich nude cua cdc
acid no co the bi the cho bai cdc kim loai hoat dong
Cac phan ilng the doi

Phan ling cua hai hqp chat co the cho ra hai hqp chat mai. Nhieu phdn ilng xdy ra
trong dung dich nUdc bao gom hai hqp chat ion trao doi cdc anion. Nhom phdn ilng ndy
duqc goi Id cdc phdn ting the doi. hay cdc phdn Ung trao doi. Cung nhu thudng le, cdc
cdng thUc dung phdi duqc viet cho cdc san pham trudc khi phuang trinh duqc cdn bdng.
Trong mot phdn Ung the doi, neu cdc ion khdng duqc chuyen hda thanh cdc hqp chat
cong hda tri, thi dien tich cua chiing khdng thay doi khi chung duqc chuyen hda thanh
cdc chat phan Ung thanh cdc san pham
Trong dung dich m/dc, cd H ,C 0 3 (carbonic acid) Ian N H f l H (ammonium hydrox

ide) deu khdng ben, vd chung phan huy de tqo ra nUdc vd CO , hay N H r Neu H 2C 0 3
hay N H f i H duqc du kien la mot san pham cua mot phdn Ung the ddi, thi thay vdo dd
CO, cong vdi H ,0 hay N H 3 cong vdi H ,0 se duqc tqo thanh. NhUng hqp chdt khdng ben
khdc it gap han nhieu.
Dong hie ciia cdc phdn Ung the ddi la sii tao thdnh cua mot hqp chdt ion khdng tan
hay mot liqp chdt cong hda triu (nhu nUdc hay mot hqp chdt dang khi), thi cdc ion trong
dung dich. Mot chdt rdn duqc tqo thdnh tU cdc ion trong dung dich duqc goi la ket tua.
Ta cd the tien doan rdng mot phdn Ung xdy ra neu cdc hqp chat ion tan cho ra it nhdt
mot hqp chdt ion khdng tan hay mot hqp chdt cong hda tri. Ban cdn phai lam quen vdi
do tan ciia mot sd hqp chdt ion thdng dung trong nUdc. Mot so loai hqp chdt ion tan hay
khdng tan trong nUdc. duqc het ke trong bang 8.3. M ot bdng ddy du hqn ve tinh tan
duqc gidi thieu d bang 8.4 de tham khdo khdng cdn thiet phai hqc thuoc.
Ngodi viec hoc cac quy luat ve do tan, ban cung phdi 1dm quen vdi ban chdt cua
lien ket trong cdc hqp chdt de cd th i tien doan la cdc phdn ling the ddi cd dien ra nhu
dd duqc viet hay khdng. Ban dd duqc hoc ti/ chifcfng 5 1a trong cdc hqp chdt cong hda tri
khdng cd cdc nguyen td kim loqi hay ion ammonium. Mot die'm cd ich cdn ghi nhan nUa
la sU tqo thdnh cita mot hqp chdt cong hda tri bao gom :
111
(a) Su tao thdnh mgt chdt khi (tdt cd cdc chdt khi d nhiet dd phong deu Id c$ng
hoa tri).
(b) Su too thdnh nUdc
(c) Su tao thdnh mot acid yeu hay mot base yeu (cdc acid vd base yeu trong dung
dich co den han 95% Id cong hoa tr\. Chung se duac ban den trong doan 8.4).
Cdc acid yeu bao gom tdt cd cdc acid ngoai trit HCI, HClOy HClOf HBr. HI.
HNOj vd HJSOf Nhilng acid ndy la acid manh, tiic la chung phdn ly hodn
todn thdnh ion trong dung dich nUdc. Base yeu duy nhdt md chung ta ban din
Id amoniac, NHr
Bang 8.3. TiNH TAN TRONG NUdC CUA M0T S(5 H0P CH/kT ION TH0NG DUNG.
Tan tro n g ntfdc K h on g tan tron g ntfdc
Tat ca cdc chlorate B aS 0 4

Tat ca cdc acetate Phan Idn cdc acid
Tat ca cdc hop chat Phan Idn cdc silfide
cua cdc kim loai kiem
Tat ca cdc hop chat co Phan Idn cdc phosphate
chita ion ammonium
Tat ca cdc chloride, trif AgCl, PbCl2, Hg 2 Cl2, va CuCl
nhufng chloride dutfc liet
ke trong cot ben
Bang 8.4. BANG TiNH TAN TRONG NUClC
co32-
s o 32_
CI03~ cr P 0 4J _
N03" B r" Cr042-
c2h 3o2- r so42' b o 33_ S2 - O H - O2-
Pb2 + s ss-i i i i i i
Na+, K +,N H 4+ s s s s s s d
Hg 22 + s i i i i i i
Hg2+ s S -i s i i i i
Ag+ s i ss i i i i
M g2+ s s s s s i i
Ca2* s s i i s S d
Ba2+ s s i i s s d
Khoa: s - tan (nhieu han lg chdt tan I lOOg nuac)

ss = it tan (xap xi 0,1 den lg chdt tan /lOOg nuac)
i = khong tan (it han 0,lg chdt tan I lOOg nuac)
d = phan huy trong nuac
*HgCl3 tan, HgBr2 tan it hem va Hgl} khong tan
228
Diem can quan tarn

M ot quy trinh cong nghiep goi la quy trinh Soluay stf dung mot loat cdc phdn ling
sau ddy de san xuat Na2G 0 3 (con goi Id soda gidt tay). Cdc chdt phdn ling khong ddt
tien, la Na2C 0 3 la mot hap chat cong nghiep rdt quan trong dilqc sit dung trong viec san
xuat xa phong, thuy tinh, giay, chdt tay rila vd cdc hoa chdt khdc.
C aC 0 3 (s) - » CaO(s) + C 0 2 (g)

2 C 0 2 (g) + 2 H 2 0( t ) + 2NH 3 (aq) -> 2 NH 4 H C 0 3 (aq)
2 NaCl(aq) + 2 NH 4 H C 0 3 (aq) -> 2N aHC0 3 (s) + 2NH<Cl(aq)
Nhilng dung dich rdt dam d&c
Neu ta cong tdt cd cdc chdt phdn tfng vd tdt cd cdc san pham trong nhitng phuang
trinh ndy roi xoa di cdc hap chdt xuat hien d cd hai ben, ta se thu duqc phuang trinh
tong quat sau ddy:
C aC 0 3 + 2 NaCl -* Na2 C 0 3 + CaCl2
Cac phan ting chay

A i cung deu quen thuoc vdi qud trinh chay. Su chay la phdn ilng nhanh cua mot
loat cdc chdt khdc nhau vdi khi oxy. Cdc phdn ilng chay cua cdc nguyen to co the duqc
xep loqi nhu cdc phdn ilng ket hqp; loqi cua phdn ilng khong quan trong nhu cdc san
pham cua phdn ilng. Vi du, ta co the xem nhitng phdn ilng sau ddy la nhitng phdn ilng
ket hqp hay phdn ilng chay.
S(s) + 0 2 (g) -> S 0 2 (g)

C(s) + 0 2 (g) -> C 0 2 (g)
Cdc phdn ilng chay cua cdc hydro carbon - la nhitng hqp chdt duqc tqo thdnh til chl
til carbon vd hydro - la dqc biet quan trong nhu nhilng nguon ndng luqng hHu ich.
Chung ta dot methane, C H r duqc goi la khi ttf nhien, trong nhd de tqo ta nhiet vd
chung ta dot chdy octane CgHIS trong xe hai de tqo ra ca ndng:
CH 4 (g) + 2 0,(g) - » CO,(g) + 2 H 2 0(g)

2 CsH lgt t ) + 17 0 2 (g) -> 16 CO(g) + 18 H2 0(g)
Trong nhtfng phdn tfng nhtf vay carbon monoxide hay carbon dioxide co the duqc
tqo ra, ngodi ra con cd nUdc. Neu cd ddy du oxy thi carbon dioxide se duqc tqo ra. Neu
stf cung cap oxy cd giai hqn, carbon monoxide la cdc san pham (Khi oxy la rdt hqn che),
bui than (la mot dang carbon - vd nUdc dtfqc tqo ra). Trong bdt ctf trudng hqp ndo, nUdc
cung la mot san pham.
Cdc phdn chdy cua cdc hqp chat cd chtfa carbon hydro vd oxy (bao gom cd cdc
carbonhydrate md ta sii dung lam thtfc pham) cung tqo ta carbon monoxide hay carbon
dioxide tuy thuoc vdo luqng tuang doi cua oxy cd the cd.
Chu diem 8.4: Acids and Bases
T here is a n o th e r co m m on way to classify chem ical reactions: acid -b a se reactions,

o xidation-reduction reactions, and reactions of more com plicated types beyond the scope
of this book. A cid -b a se reactions are considered to involve the reactions of hydrogen
ions w ith h ydroxid e ions. The reactions of acids and bases w ill be taken up in this s e c
tion. and a m ore so p h istica te d view of these reactions is presented in C h a p te r 18. O xi
229
d ation-reduction reactions involve the transfer of e le ctron s from one su b s ta n c e to an

other. M any co m bination reactions, m any decom position reactions, all sin g le su bstitu
tion reactions, and all co m b u stio n reactions are of this type, but m ore co m p le x ex
am ples are presented in C hapter 16.
The reactions of acids w ith active m etals fit into the sing le s u b s titu tio n class dis
cussed in S ection 8.3. R eactions of acids with bases are double s u b s titu tio n reactions,
also discu ssed in S ection 8.3. H ow ever, the reactions of acid s and bases are so im
portant that they have a sp ecial term inology that we need to know .
A c c o rd in g to the m o st fu n d a m e n ta l th e o ry c o n c e rn in g a c id s and b a s e s — the
A rrh e n iu s th e o ry an a c id is a com pound that furnishes hydrogen ions. H \ to an aque
ous solution, and a b a se is a com pound that fu rnishes h ydroxid e ions, OH", to an aque
ous solution. The hydrogen ion does not e xist alone, as H*, but is stable in aqueous
solution in the form H.,0*, w hich is freq ue n tly represented as H*(aq).
In b eginning co urses, form ulas for acids (and no o th e r co m p ou nd s e xcep t water
and hydrogen peroxide) are w ritten with the ionizable hydrogen atom s first, as in HCI.
H C l(g) H +(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Ethane, C 2H6, am m onia, N H 3, and glucose, C 6H 120 6, are e xa m p le s of com pounds
that are not acids b ecause they do not provide hydrogen ions to a q u e o u s solutions.
T heir hydrogen atom s are therefore not w ritten first in th eir fo rm u la s For certain ac
ids, such as a cetic acid, H C 2H 30 ?, only the hydrogen a tom (s) w ritten first is (are) ca
pable of being ionized; the other hydrogen atom s do not yield H* in solution
Properties of Acids and Bases

A cids in gen eral have a sour taste, turn indicators (S e ction 11.3) c e rta in colors,
and react with bases to form salts. For exam ple, the so ur taste of lem on is the taste
of citric acid, and the sour taste of vine ga r is due m ainly to a ce tic acid, its principal
acid com ponent. S im ple acids have one or m ore hydrogen atom s per m olecu le.
Bases feel slippery, turn indicators certain colors that d iffe r from th ose acids pro
duce, and react w ith acids to form salts You m ay e x p e rie n c e the s lip p e ri-n e s s of a
base by putting your fin g e rtip s in som e dilute am m onia w ater. S im ple base s contain
one or m ore h yd ro xid e ions or are able to react w ith w a te r to so m e e x te n t to form
h ydroxide ions. For exam ple, am m onia is a base because of the fo llo w in g reaction:
NH3(aq) + H20 ( () -> NH4+(aq) + O H (aq)
The m ost im p o rta n t rea ction s of acid s and bases are th e ir re a c tio n s w ith each
other to form salts and w ater:
H N 0 3(aq) + NaO H(aq) -> N a N 0 3(aq) + H 20 ( r )

An acid A base A salt W ater
A salt is any com p ou nd of a cation o the r than H* w ith an anion o th e r than O H ‘ or
O 2 . (The word salt in e veryda y co nversation m eans sodium c h lo rid e w hich is o nly one
exam ple of a salt under this definition ) Such reactions, a ctua lly sp ecific e xa m p le s of
double substitution reactions, are called neutralization reactions (F ig ure 8 7 ) because
they produce p roducts that are more neutral than acids or bases. N eu tral m eans “nei
ther acidic nor basic."
ITEM OF INTEREST
M any ind ivid ua l co m p ou nd s that are acids have a dd itio n a l p ro p e rtie s th a t m ake
them dan ge ro us These d angerous com p ou nd s give acids a bad nam e to the general
230
p ublic. For e xam ple , LSD (lyse rgic acid d ie th yl-a m ide ) is a m in d-a ffe cting h a llu cin o
g en ic agent, but this pro pe rty is in addition to any acid pro pe rtie s o f the com pound.
C o n ce n tra te d su lfu ric acid, used in auto batteries, is a p ow erful o xid izin g agent and
d e h ydratin g agent. A lum p of sugar placed into concentrated su lfuric acid has the e le
m ents o f w a te r pulled from its m olecules, leaving carbon (Figure 8 .8 ):
C o n c e n tra te d
C12H220 „ ( s ) ------^ ------- ►12C(s) + 11 H 20(in H ,SO , solution) + H 20 + heat
N itric acid, e sp e cia lly w hen concentrated but even in d ilute solution, is another
pow erful o xid izin g agent. In contrast, boric acid is such a w eak acid that it is so m e
tim es used in solution to bathe infected eyes.
All h yd rog en -co n tain in g acids are covalent com pounds w hen they are not in so lu
tion; they ionize w hen th ey react w ith w ater:
HX( e o r g) + H?0 ( t ) -> H*(aq) + X-(aq)

T ho se th a t react n ea rly 100% to form ions are called strong acids. T hose that
react only to a lim ited e xte n t are called weak acids. The co m m on strong acid s are
HCI, HBr, HI, H C I0 3, H C I0 4, H N 0 3, and H 2S 0 4. P ra ctically all o the r acids are weak.
T hus double su bstitu tion reactions w ill go to form w eak acids or bases — com pounds
that are m ainly co va le n t even in w ater solution — but they w ill not go to form strong
acids or bases in w a te r solution.
Bases p rovide hydroxid e ions to aqueous solution. Soluble m etal hydroxides, in
clud ing th ose o f the a lka li m etals and barium , are exam ple s. The solu ble m etal hy
droxides are ionic even w hen they are pure solids; they remain ionic in water. W hen
they are d isso lve d in w ater, the hydroxide ions are to ta lly se pa ra te d from the m etal
ions. A soluble m etal hydroxid e is a strong base. A weak base is not 100% ionized.
A m m onia, the m ost co m m on w eak base, reacts w ith w a te r to a sm all e xte n t to p ro
vide hydroxide ions:
N H 3(aq) + H 20 ( ( ) -» N H 4*(aq) + OH (aq) (Usually from 0.1% to 2%)
For e xam ple, if 1.00 m oi of NH 3 is dissolved in a liter of w ater, only 0.004 m oi of
NH4* and 0 .004 m oi of O H - w ill be present. A lm ost all (0.996 m oi) of the N H 3 rem ains
in its m olecu lar form .
W eak acid s and w ea k bases react with w ater to a sm all extent but they react with
strong bases or acid s e sse n tia lly com pletely:
N aO H (aq) + HC 2H 30 2(aq) -> N aC 2H 30 2(aq) + H 20 ( ( )

HCI(aq) + NH 3(aq) -> NH 4CI(aq)
A strong acid and a strong base react with each other co m p le te ly to form a salt
and w ater:
H C I(aq) + N aO H(aq) N aC I(aq) + H 20 ( ( )
The driving force for double su bstitu tion reactions is form ation of inso lub le ionic
com p ou nd s or co va le n t com p ou nd s from ions in solution. H ow ever, if an equation has
an insoluble co m p ou nd on one side and a co valen t com pound on the other, w hich way
does the reaction go? In m any cases like this, the form ation of co valen t co m p ou nd s is
m ore im p orta nt than the form ation of insoluble ionic com pounds, as show n by the re
action of B a (O H )2 w ith HC1. Acids usually react with insoluble bases to produce salts
and w ater:
B a (O H ) 2(s) + 2 H C I(aq) -» BaC I 2(aq) + 2 H 20 ( t )
231
A cids can react w ith m etals m ore active than h ydrog en (see T ab le 8 .2) to pro
duce a salt and h ydrogen gas:
F e(s) + 2 H C I(aq) -> FeC I 2(aq) + H 2(g)
E xtre m e ly active m etals, such as the alkali and a lkaline e arth m etals, can even
react w ith w ater to produce hydrogen gas plus the co rresp on din g m eta l h ydroxide. For
exam ple:
Ba(s) + 2 H 20 ( ( ) -» B a(O H ) 2(aq) + H 2(g)
Acidic and Basic Anhydrides

M ost m etal o xides in w hich the m etal ion has a 1+ or 2+ ch arge are basic anhy
drides, and m ost nonm etal oxides are acidic anhydrides. In g en eral, an anhydride'
is any com pound that can result by loss of w ater from a n o th e r co m p ou nd If w ater is
added to an acidic anhydride, the anhydride becom es an acid. For e xam ple sulfur di
oxide plus w ater yields su lfurou s acid:
S 0 2(g) + H ?0( ( ) -» H 2S 0 3(aq)
If w a te r is added to a basic anhydride, the a n h ydride b e co m e s a base. For ex
am ple, lithium oxide plus w ater yields lithium hydroxide:
Li 20 (s ) + H 20 ( ( ) -> 2 LiO H(aq)

The first of the p re vio u s reactions is resp o n sib le for a good p o rtio n of the acid
rain problem tro u b lin g the ind ustria lize d w orld. S ulfur, p re s e n t in sm a ll q u a n titie s as
an im purity in coal and oil, is converted to su lfur dioxide w hen the coal or oil is burned;
then the su lfu r dio xide reacts w ith the m oisture in the air to p ro d u ce s u lfu ro u s acid
Sulfurous acid can react w ith the oxygen in air to produce s u lfu ric acid. T h e se acids
are w ashed from the a ir by rain (or snow ), and the solution can cause so m e corrosion
of concrete and m etal in buildings Acids in the air and in the rain or snow a lso injure
trees and o the r plants, as w ell as anim als, including hum ans. In high concentrations,
acids and acid anh ydride s in the air can m ake breathing d ifficult, e s p e c ia lly fo r people
who are already in poor health.
A cidic a nh ydride s can react directly with bases, and basic a n h y d rid e s can react
d irectly w ith acids. The sam e salt is produced as w ould be p ro du ced by the acid and
base:
S 0 2(g) + 2 N aO H (aq) -> N a 2S 0 3(aq) + H ?0 ( r )
C aO (s) + 2 H C I(aq) -> C aC I 2(aq) + H 20 ( ()
An acidic a nh ydride and a basic anhydride can even react w ith each o the r in a
com bination reaction:
S 0 2(g) + C aO (s) - * C a S 0 3(s)
Acid Salts
A cid s c o n ta in in g m ore th an one io n iz a b le h y d ro g e n a tom , s u c h as H .S O and
H 3p 0 4, can be partially neu tra lized if less base is used than is nee de d fo r co m p le te
neutralization. The salt form ed contains ionizable h ydrogen atom s and th e re fo re is still
capable of reacting with bases:
H 3P 0 4(aq) + N aO H (aq) -» N aH 2P 0 4(aq) + H?0 ( ( ) (Partial neutralization)
H 3P 0 4(aq) + 2 N aO H (aq) —► N a 2H P 0 4(aq) + 2 H?0 ( c ) (Partial neutralization)
232
t
Topic & Chemical reactions
H 3P 0 4(aq) + 3 N aO H(aq) -> N a 3P 0 4(aq) + 3 H 20 ( / ) (Complete neutralization)
A su b sta n ce produced by a partial neutralization, such as N aH 2P 0 4 or N a 2H P 0 4,

is p artially a salt and p artially an acid. As the product of an acid and a base, it is a
salt. H ow ever, it is capable of neutralizing more base, so it can also act as an acid:
N aH 2P 0 4(aq) + 2 N aO H(aq) -► N a 3P 0 4(aq) + 2 H 20 ( c )

Such a su bsta nce is called an acid salt. The nam e of the com pound includes the
word hydrogen to d enote the fact that one or more ionizable hydrogen atom s rem ain.
The p re fix m ono- or di- m ay be used w hen it is nece ssary to indicate how m any hy
drogen atom s are p resent:
N aH 2P 0 4 S odium dih ydro ge n phosphate
N a 2H P 0 4 S odium m onohydrogen phosphate (or d isodium hydrogen phosphate)
N aH C 03 S odium hydrogen carbonate
In an o ld e r n om en clatu re system , the word acid was used to denote an acid salt.
The prefix hi- was used fo r a half-neutralized acid that o rigin ally contained two ioniz
able h ydrogen atom s. T hus, sodium bicarbonate and sodium acid carbonate are other
nam es that have been used fo r N a H C 0 3.
In the anion of an acid salt, the num ber of hydrogen atom s plus the m agnitude of
the charge on the ion e quals the m agnitude of the charge on the oxoan-ion and also
equals the n um ber of h ydrogen atom s in the acid:
P 0 43- The zero hydrogen atom s plus 3 negative charges
on the phosphate ion equals 3.
H P O /‘ 1 hydrog en atom plus 2 negative charges equals 3.
H 2P 0 4_ 2 h ydrogen atom s plus 1 negative charge equals 3.
H 3P 0 4 3 h ydrogen atom s plus 0 negative charges equals 3.
Carbonates and Acid Carbonates

Carbonates are co m p o u n d s containing the carbonate ion. Acid carbonates are
com pounds co nta ining the hydrogen carbonate ion. Just as acid-base reactions are an
im p o rta n t typ e of d o u b le su b stitu tio n reaction, the reactions of c a rb o n a te s and acid
carbonates w ith acids are an im portant subtype of acid-base reaction.
C arbo n ate s und ergo double substitution reactions with acids to form carbon d io x
ide and w a te r or acid ca rbonates, depending on the relative q uantity of acid added:
K 2C 0 3(aq) + 2 HC I(aq) -> 2 KC I(aq) + C 0 2(g) + H 20 ( ( )
K 2C 0 3(aq) + H CI(aq) -> KC I(aq) + K H C 0 3(aq)
The acid e ithe r to ta lly or partially neutralizes the carbonate.

C arbon d ioxide, an a cidic anhydride, can react w ith a base to form a carbonate or
an acid carbonate:
C 0 2(g) + 2 NaO H(aq) -> Na 2C 0 3(aq) + H 20 ( / )
C 0 2(g) + NaO H(aq) -> N a H C 0 3(aq)
The base e ith e r totally or partially neutralizes the carbon dioxide.
233
ITEMOF INTEREST
C arbon dio xide p re se n t in relatively high co nce ntra tion in w a te r ca n d is so lve in
soluble carbonates to yield soluble acid carbonates:
C 0 2(g) + H 20 ( O + C a C 0 3(s) -> C a (H C 0 3) 2(aq)

The reaction of lim e ston e (C a C 0 3) with w ater co n ta in in g ca rb on d io xid e in rela
tively high co nce ntra tion can form natural caves, such as Luray C a ve rn s in V irgin ia (Fig
ure 8.9a). If the carbon dioxide co ncentration is low ered, the reve rse reaction can oc
cur:
C a (H C 0 3) 2(aq) -> C 0 2(g) + H 20 ( ( ) + C a C 0 3(s)

Thus, w a te r d ripp ing from the ceiling of a cavern can d e p o s it C a C 0 3 a tiny par
ticle at a tim e, and o ve r long p eriods can form sta lactite s and sta la g m ite s (F ig ure 8.9b).
Acid ca rb on ates undergo double su bstitu tion reactions w ith e ith e r acids or bases,
n eutralizing either:
N a H C 0 3(aq) + HCI(aq) - * NaCI(aq) + H 20 ( i ) + C 0 2(g)
N a H C 0 3(aq) + NaO H(aq) -> N a 2C 0 3(aq) + H 20 ( ( )

T hese types of reactions are sum m arized in Figure 8.10.
*- M ost acid and base reactions can be included in the sing le and dou ble substi
tution reactions of S ection 8.3.
*■ Acids and bases are so im portant that a sp ecial n om e n cla tu re has grown up
around them .
•- C arbonates, acid salts, and acid and base a n h yd rid e s are s im ila r to acids and
bases in som e of th e ir chem ical properties.
A. W rite a balanced ch em ica l equation for the reaction of H^SO^ and B a(O H )2, as
w ell as the acid or base w ith the a nhydride of the other, and of the tw o anhy
drides th em selve s.
B. W rite a balanced ch em ica l equation for the reaction of N a 3PO , w ith (a) an equal
n um ber of m oles of HCI, (b) tw ice as m any m oles of HCI, (c) th re e tim es as
m any m oles of HCI.
• Phdn Idn cdc phan ting acid ua base cd the duoc bao gom trong cdc phdn ilng
the dan vd doi cua muc 8.3.
• Cdc acid va cdc base quan trong den miic chl m ot thuat ngil hoc rieng dtfoc
phat trien quanh nhilng chdt ndy.
• Cdc carbonate, cdc muoi acid cdc anhydride vd acid anhydride base cd mot so
tinh chdt tuong tu nhu cdc base.
A. Viet vd cdn bdng phuong trinh phdn ilng cua H J$04 vd Ba(OH)2 cung nhu phuong
trinh ciia aicd hay base vai anhydride cua chdt kia vd phuong trinh cua hai anhydride.
B. Viet vd cdn bdng phuang trinh hda hoc phdn ilng cua N ojP 0 4 vai
(a) mdt so moi HCI bdng vdi sd moi cua NaPO.
(b) mot so moi HCI gap doi so moi NaPO
(c) mdt so moi HCI gap ba so moi NaPO,.
234
Chu thich tti - cgm tCf va hi/amg dan dpc hieu

- arrrhenius theory: ly thuyet Arrhenius
- salt: muoi
- neutraliza-tion reaxtions: phdn ting trung hda
- neutral: trung hoa, trung tinh
- strong acids: cdc axit manh
- weak acids: cdc axit yeu
- they remain ionic in water: chung de lai ion trong nude
- basic: ca ban
- anhydrides: so nhieu cua anhydride
- acidic anhydrides: axit anhydride
- partially: rieng phdn, cuc bo
- acid salt: muoi axit
- acid carbonates: axit cacbonat
- this reaction is potentially exploxive: phdn ilng ndy la the no'
Cac Acid va base

Con cd m ot cdch khdc de phdn loai cdc phdn ilng hda hqc: cdc phdn ting acid -
base, cdc phdn dng oxy hda thd vd cdc phdn dng thuoc nhitng loai phde tap han
ngodi pham vi cua cuon sdch ndy. Phdn dng acid - base dilqc xem nhtf cd lien quan
vdi nhtfng phdn tfng cua cdc ion hydro vdi cdc ion hydroxide. Cdc phdn tfng cua cdc
acid vd cdc base se duqc noi d in trong doan ndy, viec xem xet chi tiet han ve nhilng
phdn dng ndy ditqc giai thieu trong chtfang 18. Cdc phdn tfng oxy hoa khd cd lien
quan vdi stf chuyen cdc electron ttf mot chdt ndy sang m ot chdt khdc. N hieu phdn
tfng ket hqp, nhieu phdn tfng phdn huy, tdt cd cdc phdn dng the vd tdt cd cdc phdn
tfng chdy deu thuoc loqi ndy, nhitng nhtfng vi du phde tap han duqc gidi thieu d
trong chtfang 16.
Cdc phdn dng cua cdc acid vai cdc kim loqi hoat dong dilqc xep vdo nhom phdn
tfng the dan dd ditqc ban trong doan 8.3. Cdc phdn tfng cua cdc acid vdi cdc base la
nhtfng phdn tfng the ddi cung dd dilqc ban trong doan 8.3. Tuy nhien, nhtfng phdn tfng
cua cdc acid vd cdc base quan trong den mtfc chdng co mot thuat ngit hqc dqc biet md
chung ta can biet.
Theo ly thuyet ca ban nhat cd lien quan den cdc acid vd base - thiec Arrhenius -
mot acid la mot hqp chdt cung cdp cdc ion hydro H ' cho mot dung dich ntfdc vd mot
base la mot hqp chdt cung cdp cdc ion hydroxide OH cho mot dung dich ntfdc. Ion hydro
khdng ton tai rieng le nhit dang H\ nhilng ben trong dung dich ntfdc a dang H f l \ vd
thitdng dtfqc bieu dien bdng H'(aq).
Trong quy trinh sa cdp cdc cong thtfc cua cdc aicd (vd khdng cd hqp chdt ndo khdc
ngoai tril nUdc vd hydro peroxide) duqc viet vdi nhtfng nguyen td hydro cd the oxy hda
trudc nhu trong HCI.
H Cl(g) H*° > H*(aq) + C l ( a q )

Ethane, C .fl6, amoniac, N H 3 vd glyco CsH }, 0 6 Id nhtfng vi du cua cdc hqp chdt
khdng phdi Id acid vi chung khdng cung cap cdc ion hydro vdo cdc dung dich nude. Nhtfng
nguyen td hydro do do ray khdng duqc viet trudc trong cdng thtfc cua chiing. Doi vdi mot
235
so acid, nhd acid acetic H C f l 30 f chl co nhdng nguyen tii hydro duqc biet trudc la c6
khd ndng bi ion hoa; cdc nguyen tii hydro khdc khong cho ra H ' trong dung dich.
Cac tfnh chat cua cac acid va base

Cdc acid noi chung co vi chua, 1dm ddi mdu mot sd chdt chl thi (doan 11.3) la phdn
ling vdi cdc base de tao thdnh cdc muoi. Vi du vi chua cua chanh vd vi cua citric acid vd
vi chua cua gidm, chu yeu la vi cua acetic acid, la thdnh phdn acid chinh cua gidm.
Nhdng acid dan gidn co mot hay nhieu nguyen til hydro tinh tren phan td. Cdc base c6
tinh chdt tran, lam chuyen mdu mot sd chdt chl thi sang nhdng mdu khdc han vdi nhdng
mdu md acid tao ra, vd phdn dng vdi cdc acid de tao thdnh cdc muoi. Ban co the thd
nghiem tinh tran trot cua mot base bdng cdch nhung ddu ngon tay vdo mot dung dich
amoniac loang trong nUdc. Cdc base dan gidn co chda mot hay nhieu ion hydroxide hay
co khd ndng phdn dng vdi nUdc a mdt mdc do ndo do de tao thdnh cdc ion hydroxide. Vi
du, amoniac la mot base do co phdn dng sau ddy:
N H 3(aq) + H 20 ( ( ) -► N H /(a q ) + OH-
Nhdng phdn dng quan trong nhdt cua cdc acid vd cdc base la phdn dng gida chung
vdi nhau de tao thdnh cdc muoi vd ndac:
H N 0 3 (aq) + NaOH(aq) - » N aN 0 3 (aq) + H20

M ot axit M ot baza Mot muoi Nude
M ot muoi la bat cd hap chdt ndo ciia mot cation khdc han H ' vai mot anion khdc
han OH~ hay 0 2~. (Td muoi trong dai song hang ngay co nghla sodium chloride, do chl
la mot vi du cua muoi theo dinh nghia ndy) Nhdng phdn dng nhu vay, thuc te Id nhdng
vi du d&c trUng cua cdc phan dng the doi, ddac goi la cdc phdn dng trung hda (h in h 8.7)
vi chung tao ra nhdng san pham trung tinh han la cdc acid hay cdc base. Trung tinh co
nghia la “khong co tinh acid cung khong co tinh base”.
OI^M CAN QUAN TAM
Nhieu hap chdt rieng biet la cdc acid cd mot sd tinh chdt khdc khien cho chung
nguy hiem. Nhdng hap chdt nguy hiem do khien cho cdc acid cd mot tai tieng khong tdt
ddi vdi cdng chung. Vi du, L SD (lysergic acid diethylamide) la mot tac nhdn dnh hddng
den tdm than gdy ra do giac, nhdng tinh chdt ndy la tinh chdt phu so vdi bdt ky tinh
chdt acid ndo cua hap chdt. Acid sulfuric dam ddc, duac sd dung trong cdc binh dc quy
xe hai, la mot tac nhdn oxy hda manh vd la mot tac nhdn khd nude. M ot nhum dddng
duqc bo vdo trong acid sulfuric dam dac vi nhdng phdn td nUdc duqc keo ra khdi cdc
phdn tii duong, cdn lai la carbon (h in h 8.8):
C12H220 11(s ) — >l 2C( s) + l l H20(trong dung dich H2S 0 4) + H20 * nhi*t
Nitric acid dac biet la khi dam dac nhung ngay cd khi trong dung dich lodng, la
mot tac nhdn oxy hda manh khdc. Trdi lai, boric acid la m ot acid yeu den noi khi no
duqc sd dung trong dung dich de rda mdt bi nhiem khuan.
Tdt cd cdc acid cd chda hydro la nhdng hqp chdt cong hda tri khi chung khdng a
trong dung dich:
HX( ( or g) + H2 0( C ) —> H*(aq) + X (aq)

Nhdng acid phdn dng gdn nhu 100% de tqo thdnh cdc ion duqc goi la cdc acid
manh. Nhdng acid chi phdn dng d mot mdc do cd gidi hqn ddac goi la cdc acid yeu.
Nhdng acid manh thong dung Id HCI, HBr, HI, H C lO y H C IO , H N O 3 va H JS 0 4 Hau
nhd tdt cd cdc acid khdc deu la yeu.
236
Do vdy nhilng phdn ting the doi se dien ra de tao thdnh cdc acid hay cdc base yeu
la nhilng hqp chdt chu yeu Id cong hoa tri ngay cd khi a trong dung dich ntfdc - nhtfng
nhilng phdn tfng ndy se khong dien ra de tqo thdnh cdc acid hay cdc base manh trong
dung dich nuac.
Cdc base cung cdp cdc ion hydroxide cho dung dich nUdc. Cdc hydroxide kim
loqi tan, bdng nhilng vi du la cdc hydroxide ciia cdc kim loqi kiem vd barium. Cdc
hydroxide kim loqi tan co tinh ion ngay cd khi chiing la nhtfng chdt rdn tinh khiet;
chiing gitf nguyen tinh chdt ion trong nUdc. Khi nhtfng chdt ndy duqc hda tan trong
ntfdc, cdc ion hydroxide tdch rdi hodn todn khdi cdc ion kim loai. M ot hydroxide kim
loqi tan la m ot base manh. M o t base yeu khong bi ion hoa 100%. Amoniac la base
yeu thong d u n g nhdt, no phdn tfng vdi nUdc a mot mtfc do nhd de tqo ra cdc ion
hydroxide:
N H 3(aq) + H 20 ( [ ) -> N H /(a q ) + O H ' (aq)

(Thudng ttf 0.1% den 2%)
Vi du neu 1,00 moi N H 3 duqc hda tan trong mot lit nUdc chi cd 0,004 moi N H 4* vd
0,004 moi O H * se cd mat. Phdn idn (0,996 moi) N H 3 cdn lai trong dang phdn til ciia no.
Cdc acid yeu vd cdc base yeu phdn tfng vdi ntfdc d mot mtfc do nhd nhung chiing
phdn tfng vdi cdc acid hay cdc base manh, hau nhu la hodn todn:
N a O H (aq ) + H C 2H 30 2(aq) -> N aC 2H 30 2(aq) + H 2P(aq)

H C l(a q ) + N H 3(aq) - * N H 4C l(aq)
M ot acid manh vd mot base manh phdn tfng vdi nhau hodn todn de tqo thdnh mot
muoi vd nildc.
H C l(a q ) + N aO H (aq) —> N aC l(aq) + H ,0 ( ( )
Dong Itfc cho nhtfng phdn tfng the ddi la stf tqo thdnh cdc hqp chdt ion khdng tan
hay cdc hqp chdt cdng hda tri ttf nhilng ion trong dung dich. Tuy nhien, neu mot phuang
trinh cd mot hqp chat khdng tan a mot ben vd mot hqp chdt cong hda tri d ben kia, phdn
tfng phdi dien ra theo cdch ndo? Trong nhieu trudng hqp nhu vay su tqo thdnh nhtfng
hqp chdt cong hda tri la quan trong han stf tqo thdnh hqp chdt ion khdng tan, nhu dilqc
the hien bdi phdn tfng cua Ba(OH),vdi HCI. Cdc acid thudng phdn tfng vdi cdc base khdng
tan de tqo ra cdc muoi vd nUdc.
B a (O H ) 2(s) + 2 HCI(aq) -> BaCI2(aq) + 2 H 20 ( ( )
Cdc acid cd the phdn tfng vdi cdc kim loqi hoat dong han hydro (xem bang 8.2) de
tqo ra mot muoi vd khi hydro:
Fe(s) + 2 H C l(aq ) -> F e C l 2(aq) + H 2(g)

Nhtfng kim loai it hoat dong nhu cdc kim loai kiem vd kim loqi kiem tho tham chi
cd the phdn tfng vdi nUdc de tqo ra khi hydro cong vdi hydroxide kim loqi tuang tfng.
Vi du:
Bats) + 2 H 20(1) -> Ba(O H )2(aq) + H ,(g)
Cac anhydride co tfnh base va anhydride co tfnh acid

Hau h it cdc oxide kim loai trong dd ion kim loqi cd dien tich 1+ hay 2 + la nhtfng
anhydrite cd tinh base, rd hau h it cdc oxide khdng kim loqi la nhilng anhydrite cd tinh
acid. Noi chung, mot anhydride la bdt cii mot hqp chat ndo cd the duqc tqo thdnh do stf
mat nUdc ciia mot hqp chdt khdc. N iu nUdc duqc thim vdo mot anhydride cd tinh acid,
anhydride se trd thdnh mot acid. Vi du, sulfur dioxide cong nUdc cho ra sulflurous acid:
237
S 0 2 (g) + H 2 CK1) - » H 2 C 0 3 (aq)

Neu nUdc duqc them vdo mot anhydrite co tinh base, anhydrite se tra thanh mQt
base. Vi du lithium oxide cong nUdc cho ra lithium hydroxide:
Li 2 0(s) + H2 CK1) - » 2 LiOH(aq)

Phdn ilng ddu trong cdc phdn ilng tren chiu trdch nhiem mot phdn quan trong trong
van de mUa acid gdy phien phiic trong the giai cong nghiep hoa. Li/u huynh hien dien d
nhilng luqng nho nhu tap chat trong than dd vd trong ddu md, duqc bien doi thdnh
sulfur dioxide khi than dd hay ddu md diiqc dot chdy; sau dd sulfur dioxide phdn ilng
vdi do dm trong khdng khi de tao thdnh sulfuric acid. Sulfurous acid cd the phdn ilng
vdi oxy trong khong khi de tqo thdnh sulfuric acid. Nhilng acid ndy duqc ri2a trdi khoi
khdng khi bdi mila (hay tuyet) vd dung dich cd the gdy ra sii an mon be tdng vd kim
loqi trong cdc toa nhd. Cdc acid trong khong khi vd trong mila hay tuyet cung lam tSn
thuang cdy coi vd cac thilc vat khdc, cung nhit cho cdc dong vat ke cd con nguai. O nhilng
ndng do cao, cdc acid vd anhydrite acid trong khdng khi cd the gdy ra khd thd, dqc biet
la ddi vdi nhilng ngudi dd co silc khoe kem.
Cdc anhydrite cd tinh acid cd the phdn ilng trtic tiep vdi cdc base, cdc anhydrite co
tinh base co the phdn ilng true tiep vai cdc acid. Cung mot thii muoi duac tqo ra nhu
phdn ilng giUa acid vd base.
Cdc anhydrite cd tinh acid vd cdc anhydrite cd tinh base tham chi con cd the phdn
ilng vdi nhau trong mot phdn ilng ket hqp:
S 0 2 (g) + CaO(s) -> CaS0 3 (s)

M ot so it oxide phi kim gom cd CO vd N 20 , khdng phdi la nhilng anhydrite cd tinh
acid; chiing khdng phdn ilng vdi nUdc d trong nhilng dieu kien binh thudng de tqo thdnh
cdc acid hay phdn ilng vdi cdc base de tqo thdnh muoi.
CO(g) + H 2 0 ( 0 , h W o „g >N.R
CO(gJ + NaOH(aq) -> N.R
Cac muoi acid

Cac acid cd chiia nhieu han mot nguyen tic hydro cd the oxy hda, vi du nhu H J5 0 4
vd H 3P 0 4, cd the duqc trung hda mot phdn neu cd it base han luqng base cdn dung de
trung hda hodn todn. Muoi duqc tqo thdnh cd chiia nhilng nguyen tic hydro cd the ion
hda vd do vay muoi ndy van cdn cd khd ndng phdn ilng vdi cdc base:
H 3 P 0 4 (aq) +NaOH(aq) - » N aH ,P0 4 (aq) + H2 0( I )

Trung hoa mot phan
H3 P 0 4 (aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) -> Na 2 H P 0 4 <aq) + 2 H / )
Trung hoa mot phan
H 3 P 0 4 (aq) + 3 NaOH(aq) - » Na 3 P 0 4(aqj + H 2 0( C )
Trung hoa hoan toan
Mot chdt duqc tqo ra bdi su trung hda mot phdn, nhu N aH 2P O f hay N a J iP 0 4 mot
phdn la m uoi vd m o t phdn la mot acid. Vi la san pham cua mdt muoi vd mdt base, no
la mot muoi. T uy nhien, no co khd ndng trung hda them base nila, do dd no cung cd tac
dung nhu mot acid:
NaH PO /aq) + 2NaOH<aq'-> Na ,P 0 4 + 2 H CX H
238
Topic & - Chemical reactions
M ot chdt nhu vdy duqc goi Id mot muoi acid. Ten cua hqp chdt bao gom ttf hydro
de chl ra thuc te la co mot hay nhieu nguyen tii hydro co the oxy hoa vdn cdn lai. Tiep
ddu ngd mono- hay di- co the duqc sii dung khi cdn thiet de chl ra la co bao nhieu
nguyen tii hydro dang hien dien:
N aH 7P 0 4 sodium hydro phosphate
N aH 2P 0 4 sodium monohydro phosphate (ho$c disodium hydro phosphate)
N aH C Q } sodium hydo carbonate
Trong he thong danh sdch cu, tit acid dd ditqc sii dung de chi mot muoi acid. Tiep
ddu ngU di- dd duqc sii dung cho mot acid nila trung hda md nguyen Id co chiia hai
nguyen tii hydro co the ion hoa. Theo do sodium bicarbonate vd sodium acid carbonate
la nhilng ten goi khdc dd dtfqc sii dung cho NaHCOr
Trong anion ciia mot muoi acid, so nguyen ttf hydro cong vdi do Idn cua dien tich
tren ion bdng do Idn ciia dien tich tren oxoanion vd cung bdng vdi sd nguyen til hydro
trong acid:
P04~ khong nguyen tii hydro cong vdi ba dien tich dm

tren ion phosphate bdng 3.
H P 0 4 ~ mot nguyen tii hydro cong vdi hai dien tich dm bdng 3.
H 2P 0 4 hai nguyen ttf hydro cong vdi mot dien tich dm bdng 3
H jP 0 4 ba nguyen ttf hydro cong vdi khong dien tich dm bdng 3.
Cac carbonate va cac carbonate acid

Cac carbonate la nhtfng hqp chdt co chtfa ion carbonate. Cdc acid carbonate la nhilng
hqp chdt co chtfa ion hydro carbonate cung nhit cdc phdn tfng acid base la mot loai
phdn tfng quan trong, trong cdc phdn tfng the doi, cdc phdn tfng cua cdc carbonate vd
cdc acid carbonate vdi acid Id mot loqi phu quan trong cua phdn tfng acid base.
Cdc carbonate cd phdn tfng the doi vdi cdc acid de tqo thdnh carbon dioxide vd
ntfdc hay carbonate acid tuy vdo luqng tuong doi cua acid duqc them vdo.
I i,C 0 3 (aq) + 2 HCl(aq) -> 2 KCl(aq) + C 0 2 (g)

Acid trung hda mot phdn hay hodn todn carbonate.
Carbon dioxide la mot anhydride co tinh acid, cd the phdn tfng vdi mot base de tqo
thdnh mot carbnonate hay mot carbonate acid.
C 0 2 (g) + 2 NaOH(aq) -> N a,C 0 3 (aq) + H 2 0( ( )

C 0 2 (g) + NaOH(aq) -> NaHC0 3 (aq)
Base trung hda mot phdn hay hodn todn carbondioxide
Oiem can quan tam

Carbon dioxide hien dien vdi nong do titang doi cao trong nUdc cd the hda tan car
bonate khong tan de cho ra cdc carbon acid tan:
CO,(g) + HaO( ( ) + CaC0 3 -> Ca(HC0 3 )2 (aq)

Phdn tfng cua da voi (C aC O j vdi nUdc cd chtfa carbon dioxide vdi nong do tuang ddi
cao cd the tqo thdnh nhilng thqch dong ttf nhien nhu thach dong Luray Caverns a Virginia
(hinh 8.9a). Neu nong do carbon dioxide thdp di, phdn tfng ngtfqc cd the xdy ra:
Ca(HC0 3 )2 (aq) -> C 0 2 (g) + H2 0( ( ) + C aC 0 3 (s)
239
Do vdy nude nhiiu giot xuong tU tran cua mot thach ddng cd the Idng ddng them
C a C 0 3 nhu mot hat rdt nho, vd qua mot thdi dai cd the tao thanh nhilng thach nhu vd
nhilng mang dd (hinh 8.9b).
Cdc carbonate acid cd phdn Ung the ddi vdi cdc acid hay cdc base, lam trung hda
chung.
NaHC0 3 (aq) + HCl(aq) - » NaCl(aq) + H2CX t ) + C 0 2 (g)
NaHCOj(aq) + NaOH(aq) - » Na 2 C 0 3 (aq) + H2CX f )
Nhilng kieu phdn Ung ndy duqc tdm tdt trong hinh 8.10.
SELF-TUTORIAL PROBLEMS - BAI T A P T tf KIEM TRA
8.1 Assign the following types to one of the five classes of reactions presented in
Section 8.3:
Reactants Products
(a) 1 compound 2 elements

(b) 2 compounds 2 different compounds
(c) 1 element + 1 compound 1 element + 1 compound
(d) 1 compound 1 element + 1 compound
(e) 1 compound + 0 2 2 or more compounds
(f) 1 element + 1 compound 1 compound
(g) 2 elements 1 compound
8.2 What is the difference, if any, among (a) the reaction of sodium with bromine,
(b) the combination of sodium and bromine, and (c) the formation of sodium
bromide from its elements?
8.3 Which, if any, of the common acids exist completely in the form of ions (a) in
aqueous solution and (b) as a pure compound?
8.4 Explain how to recognize that 0 2 and ZnO will not react with each other in a
single substitution reaction.
8.5 Are oxides of reactive metals or oxides of unreactive metals more likely to de
compose into their two elements when heated?
8.6 Which table in this chapter should be used when working with single substitu
tion reaction, and which ones with double substitution reactions?
8.7 Which of the following compounds are acids?

NH3 H20 H C I0 3 C sH 0 LiH A sH 3 H 3PO .
8.8 Classify each of the following as an acidic anhydride or a basic anhydride
N 20 3 MgO Li20 S02
8.9 What type of reaction is the following? What are the products 7
C aH ,c(g) + 0 2(g, excess) -►
8 10 In a certain double substitution reaction. F eC I 3 is a reactant. Is F e (N O ,)3 or

F e (N 0 3)2 more likely to be a product?
240
8 11 Explain how a catalyst resembles a marriage broker.
8.12 Rewrite the following equations with integral coefficients:

(a) C oF?(s) + /*F 2(g) -> CoF 3(s)
(b) N H 3(g) + v .0 2(g) -> NO(g) + */2H 20(g )
(c) CuBr(s) + /2Br2( c ) -> CuBr 2(s)
(d) V3H 3P 0 4(aq) + M g C 0 3(s) /3Mg 3(P 0 4) 2(s) + H 20 ( f ) + C 0 2(g)
(e) CoCI3(s) + /2Co(s) -> vjCoCI2(s)
8.13 Write a balanced chemical equation for each of the following reactions:
(a) S 0 2(g) + Cl2(g) S 0 2CI2( t )
(b) S 0 2(g) + P C ls(s) - * SO CI2( c ) + POCI3( r )
8.14 W hat products are expected in each of the following cases?

(a) K C I0 3 is heated in the presence of M n 0 2 as a catalyst.
(b) K C I0 3 is heated in the presence of M n 0 2.
(c) K C I0 3 and M n 0 2 are heated together.
(d) K C I0 3 is heated.
8.15 What type of substance can act as an acid but does not have hydrogen written
first in its formula?
8.16 Give two reasons why the following reaction produces products:
B a (H C 0 3) 2(aq) + H 2S 0 4(aq) -> B a S 0 4(s) + 2 H 20 ( ( ) + 2 C 0 2(g)
8.17 Consider the reaction of aqueous chlorine with aqueous calcium iodide.
(a) Identify the reaction type.
(b) Write correct formulas for all reactants and products.
(c) Write a balanced equation.
8.18 Do the classes of reactions described in Section 8.3 include all possible types
of chemical reactions?
8.19 Can a single substitution reaction occur between an element and a compound
of that same element?
8.20 Can a double substitution reaction occur between two compounds containing one
ion in common?
PROBLEMS - BAI TAP
8.1 T he C h em ica l E quation - PhUOng trinh hoa hpc
8.21 ist the number of atoms of each element in the given number of formula units:
(a) 4KN 03 (b) 5 P 40 6
(c) 2 S r(C I0 4)2 (d) 5 C u S 0 4-5H 20
(e) 3 (N H 4) 2S 0 4
8.22 How many atoms of oxygen are present in

(a) Three molecules of 0 2?
241
(b) Four formula units of CaCO,?

(c) Two formula units of N i(H S 0 4)2?
8.23 How many moles of phosphorus are present in

(a) 6.0 moi of tetraphosphorus decoxide?
(b) 4.0 moi of phosphorous acid?
(c) 2.0 moi of diphosphorus trisulfide?
8.24 (a) If two molecules of H20 react with sodium metal according to the following
equation, how many molecules of H? will be produced?
2 Na(s) + 2 H 20 ( c ) - * 2 NaO H(aq) + H 2(g)
(b) If 2 .00 moi of H20 reacts with sodium metal according to the equation, how
many moles of H 2 will be produced?
8.25 (a) If one molecule of P 4 reacts with fluorine gas according to the following
equation, how many molecules of PFS will be produced?
P 4(s) + 10 F 2(g )-> 4 PF 5(g)
(b) If 1.00 moi of P 4 reacts with fluorine gas according to the equation, how
many moles of P F 5 will be produced?
8.2 Balancing Equations - Can blng cac phi/dng trinh

8.26 Write a balanced equation for the reaction of oxygen gas and nitrogen monoxide
gas to form gaseous N 0 2.
8.27 Balance the equation for each of the following reactions:

(a) Cu 2S(s) + 0 2(g) -► Cu(s) + S 0 2(g)
(b) C 0 2(g) + H 2(g) -» CO(g) + H?0 (g )
(c) ZnS(s) + 0 2(g) -» ZnO(s) + S 0 2(g)
(d) H 20 ( c ) + PC I,( ( ) -» HCI(aq) + H 3P 0 3(aq)
(e) 0 2(g) + FeO(s) -> Fe 30 4(s)
(0 C 5H 120 ( t ) + 0 2(g) -► C 0 2(g) + H 20 (g )
8.28 Balance the equation for each of the following reactions:

a) Mn 30 4(s) + 0 2(g) -> Mn 20 3(s)
(b) H 3P 0 4(aq) + NaO H(aq) -> N a 3P 0 4(aq)
(c) B 2H 6(g) + 0 2(g) -> B 20 3(s)
(d) Zn(s) + NaO H(aq) + H 20 ( / ) - > Na 2Z n(O H ) 4(aq) + H2(g)
(e) BiCI3(aq) + H 20 ( i ) -> BiOCI(s) + HCI(aq)
(f) N aA I(O H ) 4(aq) + HCI(aq) AICI3(aq) + H 20 ( r ]I + NaCI(aq)
(9) C 6H 12( / ) + 0 2(g) -► C 0 2(g) + H 20(g )

(h) M n 0 2(s) + H 2C 20 4(aq) -> C 0 2(g) + MnO(s) + H 20 ( ( )
(i) Sb 2S 3(s) + 0 2(g) -> Sb 20 3(s) + S 0 2(g)
(j) C 2H 40 ( f ) + 0 2(g) C O ?(g) + H?0(g)

(k) C u S 0 4-5 H 20 (a q ) + N H 3(aq) ^ C u S 0 4-4 N H 3(aq) + H 2o < n
(1 ) Z n S 0 3(aq) + S(s) ^ ZnS?0 3(aq)
(m) AICI 3(aq) + NaO H(aq) N aA I(O H ) 4(aq) + NaCI(aq)
242
8 29 B alance the equ atio n for each of the follow ing reactions:
(a) Li(s) + 0 2(g) -► Li20 (s )
Oxide
(b) Na(s) + 0 2(g) Na 20 2(s)
Peroxide
(c) K(s) + 0 2(g) -► KO?(s)
Superoxide
8.30 W rite a b alan ced e q u atio n for the reaction of aqu eo us c o p p e r(ll) nitrate with
aqu eo us sodium iodide to produce solid co p p e r(l) iodide plus aqueous iodine
plus aqu eo us so dium nitrate.
8.31 W rite a b alan ced ch e m ica l equation for each of the fo llo w in g reactions:
(a) A queous lithium hydroxide plus phosphoric acid yields lithium phosphate plus
w ater.
(b) A queous a m m onium sulfate plus barium brom ate yields barium sulfate plus
am m on ium brom ate.
(c) Solid su lfu r plus fluorine gas yields liquid su lfur hexafluoride.
(d) A queous m agnesium hydrogen carbonate plus h ydrochloric acid yields m ag
nesium chlo rid e plus cca rb o n dioxide plus w ater.
8.32 B alance the e q u atio n for each of the follow ing reactions:
(a) Sodium m etal plus oxygen gas produces sodium peroxide.
(b) Potassium m etal plus oxygen produces potassium superoxide.
(c) M agnesium m etal plus oxygen produces m agnesium oxide
8 33 W rite a b alan ced ch e m ica l equation for each of the follow ing reactions:
(a) Lithium m etal w hen heated with nitrogen gas reacts to produce solid lithium
nitride.
(b) W ater reacts w ith potassium m etal to produce aqueous potassium h yd ro x
ide and hydrogen gas. (Caution: This reaction is potentially explosive.)
(c) A queous p otassium hydroxide reacts with gaseous carbon dioxide to pro
duce aqu eo us potassium hydrogen carbonate.
(d) Solid m ag ne sium sulfite decom poses on heating to produce solid m agne
sium oxide and su lfu r dioxide gas.
(e) Butane gas (C 4H10) bum s in excess oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and
w ater.
8.34 B a lan ce the e q u atio n for each of the follow ing reactions:
(a) N 0 2(g) — — — » N 20 4 ( f )
(b) Be(s) + 0 2(g) — ► BeO(s)
(c) Na(s) + C l 2(g) -» NaCI(s)

(d) P(s) + 0 2(g) - P 20 3(s)
(e) S(s) + 0 2(g) S 0 2(g)
(f) AIJ0 3(in solution) + C(s) » A l( O + CO(g)
(g) N ,(g) + 0 2(g) L‘s^ ‘"s > NO(g)
243
(h) C 30 2(s) + 0 2(g) -► C O j(g)

(i) B 2H 6(g) + 0 2(g) -► B 20 3(s) + H 20 ( ( )
8.3 Predicting the Products of Chemical Reactions

Tien doan cac s£n pham cua ph£n uTng hoa hpc
8.35 The fo llo w in g rea ction o ccurs in aqueous so lu tion . W h a t c o n c lu s io n s can you
reach a bo ut the b arium carbonate?
BaC I 2 + N a 2C 0 3 -» B a C 0 3 + 2 N aC l
8.36 W rite a b alan ced e q u atio n fo r the reaction o f (a) c o b a lt w ith H C I(aq) to form a
c o b a lt(ll) co m p ou nd and (b) co b a lt w ith ch lo rin e to form a c o b a lt(lll) com pound.
8.37 C om ple te and b alan ce each of the fo llo w in g equ atio ns:
8.38 W rite tw o b alan ced e qu atio ns fo r the reaction of (N H 4) 2C 0 3 w ith H C 1 .
8.39 W rite tw o b alan ced e qu atio ns fo r the possible rea ction s of H 2S 0 3 w ith NaOH.
8.40 T able 8.3 sta te s th a t m ost s u lfid e s are in so lu b le in w ater. W h ic h su lfides are
so lu ble ?
8.41 C om p le te and balan ce a ch e m ica l equ atio n fo r each of the fo llo w in g reactions:
(a) C 6H6( c) + 0 2(g, lim ited supply) ->
(b) C 6H6( c ) + 0 2(g, excess) -»

(c) C 8H 18( i ) + 0 2(g, lim ited supply) ->
(d) C 8H 18( £) + 0 2(g, excess) ->
8.42 C om ple te and balan ce an equ atio n fo r each of the fo llo w in g c h e m ic a l reactions:
(a) P roduction of co p p e r(l) chloride from its e lem ents
(b) P roduction of co p p e r(l) oxide from its elem ents
(c) Ethane (C 2H6) plus lim ited oxygen
(d) C alcium chlo rid e plus silver nitrate
(e) C hloric acid plus barium hydroxide
8.43 W rite a b alan ced equ atio n for the reaction of b ro m in e w ith (a) an a lka li metal
and (b) an a lka lin e earth m etal.
8.44 C om ple te and balan ce each of the fo llo w in g e qu atio ns:

(a) Ca(s) + H?0 ( f ) - *
(b) F 2(g) + H 20 ( ( ) ->
8.45 In w hich , if any, of the fo llo w in g syste m s is a rea ction e x p e c te d ?

(a) M gC I 2(aq) + Fe(s) ->
(b) C u(s) + HCI(aq) ->
(c) C dC I 2(aq) + C l 2(g)
(d) H e(g) + 0 2(g)
8.46 In w hich of the fo llo w in g syste m s is a reaction e x p e cte d ? C o m p le te the equation

for any rea ction that occurs
244
Topic & Chemical reactions
(a) CrClj + Clj -*

(b) CrCI3 + Cl2 -►
8.47 Complete and balance each of the following equations:
H ea t ^
(a) Al(s) + FeCI?(s) -
(b) Br2( ( ) + All3(aq) > —
(c) Ba(C2H30 2)2(aq) + Li2C03(aq) —»

(d) BaBr2(aq) + (NH4)2S04(aq) ->
(e) Ba(CI03)2(aq) + Li2S 04(aq) —►
(f) NH3(g) + HCI(aq) > —
8.48 C o m p le te and b a la n ce an e q u a tio n fo r each of the fo llo w in g rea ction s. If no

reaction occurs, w rite N.R.
(a) Zn(s) + H CI(aq) ->
(b) C u(s) + H CI(aq) -»
(c) Al(s) + H C I(aq) -+
8.49 W rite tw o b alan ced e qu atio ns for the possible rea ction s o f toluene, C 7H8, with
o xygen.
8.50 C om ple te and balan ce each of the follow ing equations:

(a) C 7Hi60 2( { ) + 0 2(g, excess) ->
(b) C 8H 160 2( c) + 0 2(g, lim ited) ->
8.51 W h ich type of re a ctio n invo lvin g ionic com p ou nd s is
m ost like ly to o c c u r w ith o u t any change in the ch arge s on the ions?
8.52 C om ple te and balan ce each of the follow ing equations:
(a) PC I3( c ) + C lj(g ) ->

(b) M g(s) + N 2(g) -»
(c) C rO (s) + 0 2(g) -►
(d) A sC I5( C ) + H 20 ( ( ) -» H 3A s 0 4(aq) +
8.53 C o m p le te and b alan ce each of the follow ing equations:

(a) C r 2( S 0 4) 3(aq) + BaC I 2(aq) ->
(b) C rS 0 4(aq) + B aC I 2(aq) ->
8.54 If a co m p o u n d d e co m p o se s w itho ut any e xterna l energy being added in som e

form , do you e xp e ct the com pound to be very lon g-lastin g? Explain.

(a) C 5H i20 ( ( ) + 0 2(g, lim ited) -»
(b) C 5H 10O 2 ( ( ) + 0 2(g, excess) ->
8.56 C o n s id e r the fo llo w in g p air of reactants: Fe + FeCI3 -»

(a) A d d in g iron m eta l to the co m pound is e q u iv a le n t to doing w h a t w ith the
chlorine?
245
(b) W hat o the r com pound of iron and chlorine exists?

(c) C om plete and balance the preceding equation.
(d) W rite the sym bol for iron surrounded by the sym bo ls fo r th re e chlo rin e at
om s, and w rite a
second such set to the right of the first set. Add a no the r iron atom b etw een two
of the chlorine
atom s, and e ncircle three sets of atom s to m ake the co m p ou nd in part (b).
8.4 Acids and Bases - Cac acid va cac base

8.57 W h a t are the p ro du cts of the reaction of
(a) An acid and a base?
(b) An acid and a carbonate?
(c) An acid and a m etal oxide? ...
(d) W hat is the m ajor d ifference am ong these?
8.58 C om ple te and balance each of the follow ing equ atio ns:
(a) S 0 3(g) + N a 20 (s )
(b) S 0 2(g) + N aO H (aq) ->
(c) S 0 2(g) + Na 20 (s ) -►
8.59 C om ple te and balance the fo llo w in g equations:

(a) NaOH + N a H C 0 3 ->
(b) HCI + N a H C 0 3 —>
(c) N a20 + C 0 2 ->
(d) NaOH + C 0 2 -►
8.60 W rite balanced e qu atio ns for two p ossible rea ction s of o xalic a cid (H 2C 20 4) with
pota ssium h ydroxid e (lim ited and excess).
8.61 State four d iffe re n t w ays that Z nC I 2 can be pre pa re d, sta rtin g w ith H C I(aq) plus
o the r reagents.
8.62 C om plete and balance each of the follow ing equations:

(a) N H 4CI(aq) + KOH(aq)
(b) N aC 2H 30 2(aq) + H C I0 3(aq) ->
8.63 W rite an e q u a tio n fo r the reaction of ca rb o n d io x id e and w a te r w ith calcium

ca rb on ate to produce a soluble product.
8.64 C om ple te and balance each of the fo llo w in g e quations:

(a) N a 2C 0 3(aq) + HCI(aq. lim ited) ->
(b) N a 2C 0 3(aq) + HCI(aq, excess) ->
8.65 Solid C a C 0 3 "d isso lve s" in e xcess H C I(aq). W rite an e q u a tio n fo r the reaction.
D escribe w ha t you w ould e xpe ct to see durin g th is reaction.
8 .6 6 C om ple te and balance each of the fo llo w in g e qu atio ns, a s s u m in g th a t an excess

of the second re a ctan t is p re sen t C om m en t on w hy each re a ctio n p ro c e e d s .
(a) N aH 2B 0 3(aq) + HCI(aq) ->
(b) C aC O ,(s) + HCI(aq) ->
246
(c) F e(C 2H 30 2) 2(aq) + HCI(aq) ->

(d) Li 20 (s ) + H C I0 4(aq) -►
(e) Ba(O H ) 2(aq) + H N 0 3(aq) ->
(f) M g(O H ) 2(s) + H C I0 3(aq) -»
8.67 C om p le te and balance each of the follow ing equations:

(a) H 3P 0 4(aq) + N aO H(aq, lim ited quantity) ->
(b) H C I0 4(aq, excess) + C a C 0 3(s) ->
(c) HCI(aq) + C a (H C 0 3) 2(aq) ->
8 .6 8 C om p le te and balance each of the follow ing equations:

(a) H C I0 4(aq) + C dO (s) ->
(b) N 20 5(g) + H jO ( ( ) ->
(c) S 0 3(g) + N aO H (aq) ->
8.69 C om p le te and balan ce the follow ing equations:

(a) C l20 + H20 -►
(b) C l 20 3 + H20
(c) CI2Os + H20 ->
(d) C l 20 7 + H20
GENERAL PRORLEMS - BAI TA P TONG QOAT
8.70 (a) W hich class of reaction requires only one reactant?

(b) Does the addition of a catalyst change the a nsw er to part (a)?
(c) How can you recognize a substance as a catalyst?
8.71 Is each of the fo llo w in g equations balanced? Is each correct?
(a) A gC I(s) + N i(N 0 3) 2(aq) -> NiCI2(aq) + A g N 0 3(aq)
(b) Z nC I 2(aq) + Fe(s) -> FeCI 2(aq) + Zn(s)
(c) KC I(aq) + N a N 0 3(aq) ^ NaCI(aq) + K N 0 3(aq)
8.72 G ive one e xa m p le o f each type of reaction in P roblem 8.1.
8.73 N e ith e r CO nor N 20 reacts w ith w ater under norm al cond itio ns. W h a t is unusual
a bo ut that lack of rea ctivity?
(a) C 7H )402( i ) + 0 2(g. excess) ->

(b) C 4H , 0(g) + 0 2(g. excess) -►
(c) C ^ H ^ i ( ) + 0 2(g, excess) -»
K erosene
(d) C 12H26( ( ) + 0 2(g, lim ited)
K erosene
8.75 How can you d is tin g u is h a co m b ustio n reaction from a d is p la c e m e n t reaction,

c o n s id e rin g th a t each m ay involve an e le m e n t and a com pound?
247
8.76 A d ditio n of a qu eo us a m m onia to a solution of M g (H C 0 3) 2(aq) c a u s e s a white

so lid to fo rm . W h a t is the fo rm u la of th e s o lid ? W rite an e q u a tio n fo r the
reaction.
8 77 W hat p ro du cts are expe cted from the reaction of a m m o n iu m c h lo rid e and barium
hydroxid e? W rite an equation fo r the reaction.
8.78 C om ple te and balance each of the fo llo w in g equ atio ns.
(a) F eB r 3(s) + C l 2(g) -►
(b) FeC I 2(s) + C l 2(g) ->
(c) F eB r 2(s) + C l 2(g, excess) -►
8.79 B alance the fo llo w in g equation:
K l(aq ) + C r(N 0 3) 3(aq) -> C rl 2(aq) + K N 0 3(aq) + l 2(aq)
8.80 E xplain w hy the S o lvay pro cess is used instead of the fo llo w in g reaction:
C a C 0 3 + 2 N aC l -► C aC I 2 + N a 2C 0 3
8.81 C om p le te and balance each of the fo llo w in g e quations:

(a) FeC I 2(aq) + A g N 0 3(aq) -»
(b) FeC I 3(aq) + A g N 0 3(aq) ->
8.82 In e x p e n s iv e m eta l fo rks c o rro d e ra p id ly if used in a d e lic a te s s e n to rem ove

p ickle s from the ju ice in w hich they are sh ip pe d. E xp lain the p ro b a b le cause.
8.83 A ssu m in g that w a te r co nta ining C a (H C 0 3)2 d e p o sits 1 mg of C a C 0 3 per minute

on the ce ilin g of a lim e ston e cavern, how long w ill it take to p ro d u ce a stalactite
w ith a m ass of 100 m etric tons (1 m etric ton = 1 X 10 6 g)?
8.84 E xplain the d iffe re n ce am ong the fo llo w in g q ue stion s:
W hat is the p ro d u ct of the e le c tro lysis of w ater c o n ta in in g d ilu te N aC l to carry

the cu rren t?
W h a t is the p ro du ct of the e le c tro ly s is of w ater c o n ta in in g d ilu te N aC l?
W hat is the p ro d u ct of the e le c tro ly s is of d ilute a qu eo us N aC l?
8.85 C o n s id e r the fo llo w in g p a irs o f re a c ta n ts . F or e a ch , d e te rm in e th e possible

reaction type, and w rite co rrect form ulas for the p ro du cts that co uld be produced.
If the reaction can proceed, w rite a b alanced e qu atio n.
(a) CO(g) and 0 2(g)
(b) H CI(aq) and Zn(s)
(c) N a N 0 3(aq) and AgCI(s)
8 86 W hat is unusual a bo ut the fo llo w in g d ec o m p o s itio n rea ction s?
(a) N H 4H C 0 3(s) — >
(b) C a (H C 0 3) 2(s) - >
248
8.87 C om p le te and balance each of the follow ing equations:

(a) H CI(aq) + K H C 0 3(aq) ->
(b) KO H (aq) + K H S 0 3(aq) ->
(c) H C 2H 30 2(aq) + Ba(O H ) 2(aq) -»
(d) K C 2H 30 2(aq) + HCI(aq)
8 .8 8 B alance the fo llo w in g equation:
C uC I 2(aq) + K l(aq ) -> l 2(aq) + KC I(aq) + Cul(s)
S U M M A R Y - TONG KET CHlfONG

The balanced equation represents a chem ical reaction. It not only identifies the reac
tants and the products, but also gives quantitative inform ation on the ratios of all su b
stances involved in the reaction (Section 8.1).
To balance an e q u a tio n — that is, to m ake the num bers of atom s of each o f the e le
m ents the sam e on both sides of the equation— you place co efficie nts in front of each
form ula in the e qu atio n. T he state of each su bsta nce m ay be ind icate d as gas (g),
liquid (), solid (s), or solute in aqueous solution (aq) (Section 8.2).
W ith a little expe rie nce , you can predict the products of sim ple reactions from the na
ture of the reactants. In w riting form ulas for the products, alw ays use the rules given
in C ha pter 5; do not w rite inco rre ct form ulas to m ake balan cing an equation easier.
Sim ple reactions can be divided into five types: com bination reactions, decom position
reactions, single su bstitu tion reactions, double substitution reactions, and com bustion
reactions. Identifying the type of reaction can help greatly in deducing the product(s).
If two free ele m e n ts are given, they can either com bine or do nothing; they cannot be
broken dow n into sim p le r substances. If only one com pound is given, it probably will
decom pose, e sp e cia lly if energy
is provided. An e le m e n t and a com pound can react to give a new com pound and an
othe r free e le m e n t. T w o ionic com p ou nd s can sw ap ions to p ro du ce tw o new c o m
pounds. The relative rea ctivity of the elem ents (Table 8.2) dete rm ine s w he th er a single
substitution reaction can occur. S olubility in w ater (Table 8.3) often dete rm ine s w hether
a double su b stitu tio n rea ction can occur. Rapid reaction w ith oxygen is co m bustion;
ca rb on -co ntain in g co m p ou nd s react with lim ited oxygen to produce carbon m onoxide
or react w ith excess oxygen to give carbon dioxide (Section 8.3).
Acids and bases react according to the rules in Section 8.3, but th e ir reactions are so
com m on that fu rth e r d etails need to be learned. The double substitution reaction of an
acid w ith a base is called a neutralization reaction. The products are w ater and a salt.
Strong acids react w ith w ater com p le te ly to form ions, and w eak acids react w ith w ater
only sligh tly, but both kinds of acids react with bases to form salts. S u bstan ces that
react with w ater to form acids or bases are called anhydrides. Acids conta ining m ore
than one ionizable hydrogen atom can be partially neutralized, form ing acid salts. C a r
bonates and acid ca rb o n a te s react in som e w ays like bases (Section 8 .4 ).
249

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C H A U V A N TRUNG

(Basic English for Chemistry)

Chiu track nhiem xuat ban

NHA XUAT RAlfGIAO THONG VAN TAI

Mgc BICH y £u cAu - O b je ctiv es b6 CUC - L a y o u t

1.1 To classify m a tter into types to 1.1 Classification of Matter

1 .3 To distingguish b etw een m atter 1.5 The Periodic table

1 .4 To w rite sym bols for the im p o r­

1 .5 To begin to classify the elem ents

Jiudng ddn doc hieu muc dich yeu cau vd bo cuc

Table 1.1 C lassification of M atter

Chu thich tCf - cum t£f va huong dan dpc hieu

Nhap mon hoa hoc

Chu diem 1.1: Classification of Matter________________________________

Snapshot Review - On tap nhanh

Chu thich tQ - cum to va hifdng dan dpc hieu

Phan loai vat chat

Chu diem 1.2: Properties

Table 1.2 Some Properties of Iron, Sulfur, and an Iron-Sulfur Compound

Iron Sulfur Iron-Sulfur Com pound

Snapshot Review - On tap nhanh

Chu thich to - cum to va hUdng dan dpc hieu

Chu diem 1.3: Matter and Energy

Table 1.3 Form s of Energy

‘ S olar energy is a co m bination of several

Chu thich tQ - cum tCf va hUcrng dan dpc hieu

Vat chat va nang luong

ENRICHMENT: Bai dpc them

Chu diem 1.4: Chemical Symbols

Snapshot Review - On tap nhanh

Table 1.4 E lem ents W h o se N am es and S ym bols

Chu thich tu" - cum tC/ va hifofng dan dpc hieu

Ky hieu hoa hpc

Chu diem 1.5: The Periodic Table

Snapshot Review - On tap nhanh

Chu thich to - cum to va hifdng dan dpc hieu

Bang phan loai tuan hoan

Chu diem 1.6: Laws, Hypotheses, and Theories

Snapshot Review - On tap nhanh

Chu thich ttf - cum tQ va hUcmg dan dpc hieu

Cac dmh luat gia thiet va ly thuyet

SELF TUTORIAL PROBLEMS - BAI TAP T tf KIEM TRA

12 W ould it be considered unusual for an inorganic ch em ist to analyze a new c o m ­

13 W h ich of the fo llo w in g are sa m p le s of m atter, and w hich are s a m p le s of e n ­

18 W hat property of w ater is m ost often desired to be affected by the p re se n ce in

1.13 (a) In w hich group of the p erio d ic table is B r9

(b) In w hich period is Br?

(c) W hat typ e of e le m e n t is Bra m ain group e le m e n t, a tra n s itio n e le m e n t, or

(a) A lka li m etals (b) A lkaline earth m etals

(c) H alo ge ns (d) C oinage m etals

(e) N oble gases

118 Do e le m e n ts in the sam e period or ele m e n ts in the sam e g ro up have s im ila r

1 19 W hy do s cie n tists a cce p t a new la w 9

(a) The g o ve rn m e n t says to accept it

(b) P ro m in e n t scie n tists say to a ccept it

(c) S cie n tific societies a ccept it.

(d) It e xp la in s m ost of the observations

1.1 C la ss ifica tion of M atter - Phan loai vat chat

1.20 W hat kind of c h a n g e — ch e m ica l or p h y s ic a l— is the d isso lvin g of solid salt in

(a) The co n ve rsio n of two elem ents to a com pound

(d) The co n ve rsio n of two com pounds into a solution

(e) The se p a ra tio n of a m ixture into its com ponents

1 24 C lassify each of the follow ing as a com pound or m ixture If it is im p ossible to

1 .4 To w rite sym bols for the im p o r

12 W ould it be considered unusual for an inorganic ch em ist to analyze a new c o m

13 W h ich of the fo llo w in g are sa m p le s of m atter, and w hich are s a m p le s of e n