'l'hysics

(]Jiirtf 'Year Secondary

General Sciences - Life Sciences sections

By

Janet El Eid Rabih Zorkta

Linguistic Editing: Suzan El Eid

Front Cover: Fadi El Eid

"Jlnyone wfio fias not made a mistakS fias never tried anytfiing new"
Albert Einstein
1
st
Edition

2015
 © Copyrights
are reserved to the authors
Preface
We present to all students and fellow colleagues Eve11est ll� our second installment of the Everest
series. In this book, we decided to raise the standard to a new level. What makes Everest llso
special is that it has been perfected to make the job even easier for both the student and the
teacher. New approaches have been introduced. Extra attention has been given to organization.
Everest 12 is also laid out in a clear and simple way. Every idea is explicitly stated, with diagrams
and figures to reinforce your understanding.

Every chapter is explained in detail, while keeping words to a minimum. Each formula is clearly
printed in a yellow box.

Throughout the book, you will find a big number of solved "applications", which are very useful
to help students to tackle the questions. In this book, we introduced two types of applications:
Applications to be solved in class, and applications students can practice
., alone (marked with
"i!:!i"). However, teachers are not obliged to stick to our choices, for they may solve the
applications they believe are necessary.

At the end, are several problems covering the ideas of the chapter. They are written in a clear way
while considering the action verbs adopted by the National Center for Educational Research and
Development. Since the number of questions is large, we have also selected the problems
necessary for minimum coverage of the material, marked with a tick " ./". But again, the
instructor is free to do the exercises he/she sees adequate.

To make the job even easier, students can find answers to the questions in the "Answers" section
at the end of the book.

Written in conformity with the official curriculum, Everest 12can help students ace the Lebanese
Official Exams. However, while using the book, students may find many ideas and questions
which are not in the official program (marked with "+"). These ideas may be given in the official
exams, and thus help students succeed in the university entrance exams.

Students can also interest themselves with the "Reading", which is there to increase the students
'general knowledge of physics. It shows how physics one learns is used in everyday life.. In
addition, the reading pages contain some concepts beyond the scope of the book.
We hope that this book will make studying physics a pleasant and enjoyable experience, and make
the job easier. Above all, we hope that students would easily achieve progress in their studies
using Everest

.,..,.. .......
The- Authors

•
� Minimum Coverage
Not in Official Program
Application to be solved at home
Contents
Unit 1 Mechanics
1. Energy 7 8. Electromagnetic Induction
• Mechanical energy
• Conservative and non-conservative forces
• Internal energy (microscopic energy)
• Total energy of a system
• Applications
2. Linear Momentum 31
- Definition of linear momentum
• General expression of Newton's z nd Law
- Conservation of linear momentum
• Verification of the conservation of the
linear momentum
- Applications on the conservation of linear
momentum
3. Angular Momentum (GS) 56
• Angular momentum
• Theorem of angular momentum
• Conservation of angular momentum
• Analogy between translation and rotation
4. Mechanical Oscillations (1) -Elastic
Pendulum 70
• Definition of the oscillatory motion
• Types of mechanical oscillations
• Free undamped mechanical oscillations
• Free damped mechanical oscillations
• Driven oscillations
5. Mechanical Oscillations (2) • Torsion,
Compound and Simple Pendulums (GS)99
• Torsion pendulum
• Compound pendulum
• Simple pendulum
6. Forced Oscillations - Resonance
• Forced oscillations
• Experimental evidence of forced
oscillations- Amplitude resonance
• Examples on mechanical resonance
7. Special Relativity (GS)
• Relativity of motion
Inertial and non-inertial frames
• Galilean transformations
Einstein's postulates of special relativity
• Consequences of special relativity
Unit 2 Electricity
142
Magnetic flux <p
Electromagnetic induction
Variation of the magnetic flux
Lenz's law
Faraday's law
The equivalent generator
Power distribution in the induced circuit
• Applications on electromagnetic induction
9. Self-Induction 166
• Definition and explanation of the self­
induction phenomenon
- Inductance of a coil L
- Expression of the self-induced e.m.f
• Ohm's law across a coil
- Magnetic energy stored in a coil
- Graphical study of the growth and the
decay of the current in R-L series circuit
under square signal
• Differential equation and expression of the
current for the growth and decay processes
- Energy distribution in an R-L series circuit
• Sparks due to switching off a circuit
10. R-C Series Circuit Under Constant and
Square Voltage 192
· Charging and discharging of a capacitor
• differential equations in voltage, charge and
current
· Energy distribution in an R-C circuit under
a constant voltage
11. Alternating Sinusoidal Current 214
- Alternating sinusoidal current
· Phase difference
117 · Current in the resistor and the voltage
across its terminals
R-L series circuit under AC voltage
· R-C series circuit under AC voltage
R-L-C series circuit under AC voltage
130 · Average power and power factor
12. Electromagnetic Oscillations (GS) 237
• Free undamped electromagnetic oscillations
in an L-C series circuit
• Free damped electromagnetic oscillations in
an R-L-C series circuit
• Free damped electromagnetic oscillations in
an R-L-C series circuit under DC voltage
4
 - Free damped electromagnetic oscillations in Unit 4 Atom and Nucleus
an R-L-C series circuit under square voltage 17. The Atom 331
- Forced electromagnetic oscillations of an - Historical development of the atom model
R-L-C series circuit under AC voltage • Spectral series and energy of the hydrogen
13. Transformer 267
atom
- Definition and description of a transformer
• Expression of the energy levels of the
- Functioning
- Transformation Ratio hydrogen atom
- Power and efficiency of a transformer Ionization energy
- Ideal transformer Emission and absorption spectra
- Real transformer - Excitation of the atom by an electron
- Labeling a transformer • Laser (light amplification by stimulated
- Transmission of electric energy
emission of radiation)
- Astronomical applications of atomic spectra
Unit 3 Aspects of Light
14. Wave Aspect of Light-Diffraction 280 18. Atomic Nucleus 350
Definition and description of the - Composition of the atomic nucleus
diffraction phenomenon - Isotopes
Positions of the fringes obtained by • Dimensions of the atomic nucleus
diffraction through a thin slit - Mass and density of the atomic nucleus
Diffraction of waves - Binding energy
Curve of the intensity of light in the • Stability of the nucleus
diffraction Pattern • Energy levels of the atomic nucleus
Interpretation of the diffraction
Phenomenon using Huygens' principle 19. Radioactivity 361
Electromagnetic waves - Discovery and definition of radioactivity
15. Interference of Light 295 Liberated energy
Young's double-slit experiment - Laws of conservation
• Types of radioactive decay
Conditions of interference of light
• Detection of the radiation
Positions of bright and dark fringes
• Law of radioactive decay
Expression of the optical path difference
Expressions of the positions of the centers - Half-life or (radioactive period T)
• Activity of a radioactive sample
of bright and dark fringes
Inter-fringe distance - General characteristics of radioactive decay
Geometrical path and optical path Radioactivity in medicine
Modifications of Young's experimental - Decay family
setup 20. Stimulated Nuclear Reactions-Fission
16. Corpuscular Aspect of Light- and Fusion 383
• Definition of a stimulated nuclear reaction
Photoelectric Effect 317
Definition and verification of photoelectric • Laws of conservation
effect - Nuclear Fission
Condition of photoelectric effect Nuclear Fusion
The extraction energy-work function - Advantages and disadvantages of fusion
Inadequacy of the wave theory and fission
Planck-Einstein hypothesis
- Nuclear waste
Interpretation of the photoelectric effect
using the photon theory - Effects of radiation on living organisms

Answers of Problems 403

5
 c

Histo1iiQaUy,1medhanics was among the first ofthe exact sciences to be developed. Here are some important dates in
the development ofmechanics.
Aristotle wrote 1his Physics as lecture notes sometime around 350 BC. Some ofhis basic principles are: Ifthere is no
acting force, there is no motion; action at a distance is inconceivable, the body that applies the action must always be
connecte_d to the moved body.
Archimedesl(2> 87JBC - 212 BC) invented the integral calculus.
Galileo (;alilei 11n Uc632, Galiileo formulated the principle ofrelativity ofmotion to explain why we wouldn't fall off
a rno\Aing!Eanuh.1He,a1so ar<gl!led that discounting wind resistance, a falling object would fall at a constant
accelei:.ation 1independent ofits mass.
Isaac'Newton publicized his Theory ofuniversal gravitation in the 1680s; and in 1686, he formulated the three
basic laws ofmotiolil.. Along the way, he also invented the calculus required to use these laws.
Albert Einstein iiin 1905, Albert Einstein put forward the theory of special relativity.

6
 1 Energy

Chemical Electrical

Sound

Electrical Thermal Wind

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
•!• Determine the mechanical energy of a system.
•!• Distinguish between conservative and non-conservative forces.
•!• Define the internal (microscopic) energy of a system.
•!• Define the total energy of a system.
•!• Define the energy isolated system.
•!• Solve problems with conservation and non-conservation of mechanical energy.

7
Prerequisites
1. Derivative
� x' = :: = 1 is the derivative of the abscissa x with respect to x.
� x' = :: = Vx is the derivative of x with respect to time t where Vx is the algebraic measure of the
component Vx of the velocity along the x axis.
Example: x = 2t3 � x' = :: = 6 t 2 .
d
� v� = ;x = ax is the derivative of Vx with respect to time t where ax is the algebraic measure of
the horizontal component ax of the acceleration.
� (x2 )' = d (x 2 ) = 2 x x' = 2 x Vx .
dt
2 =
� (v )' ! (v 2 ) = 2 v v' = 2 v at where v and at are the algebraic measure of the velocity vector and
t
the tangential acceleration vector respectively.
In rectilinear motion a t= a, where a is the algebraic measure of the acceleration vector.
2. Work done by a constant force F
When work is done, energy is transformed from one form into another or/and transferred from a body
to another.
Consider a force Fwhose point of application is displaced from a point A to a point B. The work
done by Falong the path AB is Wr1 = J!s
fA
F . dr where r is the position vector of the point
application of the force F.
If Fis constant then: WF= F. (ra - rA) = F. AB = (F) (AB) cos ( F 'AB).
3. Work - energy theorem
A system has a kinetic energy KE i at an instant t0 = 0. The kinetic energy of the system varies and
becomes KEf at an instant t. This variation is due the external forces acting on the system and/or the
internal forces among the parts of the system.
Work- energy theorem: The variation of the kinetic energy of the system between t0 and tis equal to the

I
algebraic sum of all the works done by the external and the internal forces between these instants:
I
.
�KE= L W-Fext + L W-.Fmt I·
.
If the system is rigid then L W-F· = 0 �
mt .
�KE = L W- I
Fext .

Introduction
Energy
A system possesses energy if it is able to do work.
A system may possess: mechanical energy and internal energy (microscopic energy).
1. Mechanical Energy
A. Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is a form of energy possessed by a system due to its motion.
•!• Translational kinetic energy
Observe figure (1 ), a hammer is given a vertically downward velocity in
order to drive a nail into a piece of wood. The speed of the hammer
enables it to do work.
We conclude that the moving hammer possesses a form of energy
called translational kinetic energy.
In general, a__article
0
of mass m, moving with a speed v has kinetic Fig.1
m v 2
In S.I units, KE is expressed in joule (J);
KEparticle 2
energy:��������
s.
m in kg and v m ml
For a system of n particles which has a mass M and a center of mass G, the kinetic energy is the
sum of the kinetic energies of the n particles that constitute the system.

8
 1 1 1
KE( syst em) = I KEparticles 2 m1 Vi + 2 mz Vz + + 2 mnVn
2
= 2 2

If the system (Solid) is in translational motion, all its particles have a speed v equal to that of G at
i
I iMv I
any instant. The kinetic energy of the system becomes then: KE( syst em) = (m1 + m 2 + ...+ mn) v2
But M = m1 + m2 + ...+ mn� For a solid in translation: KEsolid 2

•!• Rotational kinetic energy

Observe figure (2), electricity is generated when the blades of the
windmill are rotated by wind.
The rotating blades possess a form of energy called rotational kinetic
energy.
For a solid in rotation about a fixed axis (Ll), all the particles that
constitute the system have the same angular velocity 8' at any instant.
Substitute in the general rule:
1 ,z 1 ,z 1 ,z
KEsolid = I KEpart icles = 2 I1 81 + 2 Iz 82 + ... + 2 In 8n
i
KEsolid = ( I1 + I2 + · · · + In ) (8')2
Fig. 2
KEparticle =Yzmv2
The moment of inertia of the solid with respect to the axis (ll.) is:
KE particle = Y2 m R2 (0')2
Isolid /ti = I1 + Iz + · · · + In) = I
KE particle = Yz I (0')2

I I
The kinetic energy of a solid in rotation about a fixed axis (Ll)
is: KEsolid = i I 8' 2
I is the moment of inertia of the solid relative to (Ll).
In S.I units, KE is expressed in joule (J); I in kg.m 2 and 8' in rad/s.
Note: The kinetic energy of a system can never be negative; KE � O.
•!• Knetic energyof a system in combined motion
A solid is in combined motion if it rotates about a fixed axis (Ll), while (Ll) is in translational motion.
The total kinetic energy of this solid is the sum of the translational kinetic energy (KEt ranslat ion ) and

I
the rotational kinetic energy (KErot at ion ) of the solid about (Ll).
� For a solid in combined motion: KEt ot al = KEt ranslat ion + KErot ation
See the proof of the above formula in "reading" page 19.
Application 1
A wheel of mass m = 20 kg has a center of mass (G) and a radius R.
The wheel rolls down an inclined plane without sliding (Figure 3).
The speed of G is VO = 2 mis, at a certain instant t i .
The moment of inertia of the wheel about its axis is I = mR2• i
1. Calculate at the instant t i :
a. the translational kinetic energy of the wheel. Fig.3
b. the rotational kinetic energy of the wheel.
c. the total kinetic energy of the wheel.
2. Suppose that the wheel slides (without rotation) along the incline and reaches the bottom with a
kinetic energy of 60 J. Calculate the speed of the center of mass of the wheel at the bottom.
Solution:
1 2 1 2
1. a. KEt rans = 2 m VG = 2 (20) (2) � KEtrans = 40 J.
i
b. KErot = I 8 = ( m R2)
12
ii C: i 2
i
) = m vl = (20)(2)2� KErot = 20 J.
C. KEt otal = KEt rans + KErot = 40 + 20 � KEtotal = 60 J.
= 0, so KE = i m vl � v0 j � KE = �
2
2. There is no rotation� 8' = 0� KErot =
�20
� v0 = 2.45 m/s.

9
 B. Potential energy
Potential energy is the energy stored in a system. It is formed at least of
two interacting parts due to the interaction between these parts. Potential
energy depends on the positions of the parts of the system.
•!• Gravitational potential energy GPE
Observe figure (4). The apple is initially at rest; its kinetic energy is
zero. When the apple leaves the tree, it falls down under the action of the
gravitational force exerted by the earth, and so it reaches the ground with
a speed v and a kinetic energy KE> 0.
The work done by the weight of the apple during its descending
transforms a certain form of energy into kinetic energy. This form of Fig. 4
energy is called gravitational potential energy, and it exists due to the
position of the body and the earth relative to each other.

The gravitational potential energy stored in a system (Body, Earth)

I I
when the body is in the vicinity of the earth, is given by:
GPE = m g z = m g h
h
m is the mass of the body in kg; g is the gravitational acceleration in
m/s2 and z is the altitude of the center of mass (G) of the body relative to
a reference level for gravitational potential energy (Figure5). __.....__R_e_fierence
_ level
As (G) moves upward, the value of GPE increases; O for GPE
n
As (G) moves dowward, GPE decreases. Fig. 5
Note: GPE is an algebraic value. It could be positive, negative, or zero, according to the choice of the
reference level for gravitational potential energy.
• The variation of the gravitational potential energy of the system (Body, Earth) as the center of mass
of the body moves from an altitude ZA to an altitude Z8 is iven by:
GPE = GPE8 - GPEA = m g (ZB - ZA)
• The work done by the wei ht of the bodv as its center of mass moves from an altitude ZA to an

I
altitude Z8 is given by: Wm- = m g (ZA - ZB )
_____&_g ---- I
This work is independent of the position of the reference level for the gravitational potential
energy.
I
By comparing the last two obtained rules, you conclude that: .1GPE = - Wmg I
Application 2
A uniform homogeneous rod of mass m =2 kg and of length AB=0.6 m, makes an angle of30° with the
horizontal (Figure 6). Use g= 10 m/s2•
1. · Determine the gravitational potential energy of the system
(Rod, Earth) by taking the reference level for the gravitational
potential energy, as the horizontal plane containing:
a. the point A on the ground;
b. the center of mass G of the rod;
c. the point B.
2. The rod is rotated in the anti-clockwise sense until it becomes vertical Fig. 6
(Figure 7). Deduce the variation in the gravitational potential energy of
the system (Rod, Earth).
Does this variation depend on the choice of the reference level for gravitational potential energy?
Solution:
1. a. The position of the center of mass (G) relative to the ground is z =AG sin30= A: sin30
=> z =0.3 x 0.5 =0.15 m.
The gravitational potential energy is: GPE=m g z=2 x 10 x 0.15 => GPE = 3 J.

10
 b. In this case z =0� GPE = 0. B
c. z =-GBsin30= -0.3 x0.5 =-0.15 m�GPE = 2x lOx(-0.15)
� GPE = -3J.
2. t1GPE =GPE2 -GPE 1 = mg ( h ) = mg( AG - AG sin30)
� �GPE = 2x10 x(0.3 -0.15)� �GPE = 3J.
t1GPE does not depend on the choice of the reference level for
gravitational potential energy since AG - AG sin30 = h = 0.15 m
whatever the choice of the reference. Fig. 7

•!• Elastic potential energy

}lo Tension of the spring
The tension force tends to prevent any
deformation in the spring; it tends to x
restore the natural length of the spring.
Consider a horizontal spring of natural
length f O = AO.The spring is fixed
from its end A , while the other endO is x' x
free(Figure(8-a)).
• In figure(8-b), the spring is
stretched horizontaly to the right,
without exceeding the elastic limit of
the spring .The spring exerts a
x' x
Fig (8-c)Compressing
restoring (elastic) force or tension
towards the pointO in order to
restore its natural length.
• In figure(8-c), the spring is compressed horizontally to the left, so it exerts a restoring force or
tension towards the pointO in order to restore its natural length.

When a spring, whose equilibrium position is coinciding with the originO of the axisOx, is compressed

I
or stretched by a displacement x, it exerts a tension force whose direction is such that it will try to restore
the natural length of the spring. T =- k xrI
k is the stiffness( force constant) of the spring, and k is a characteristic of the spring.
The magnitude of the tension force isT = K lxl .The S.I unit of: k is Nim;T is N and x is m.
T is proportional to lxl.

� Energy stored in g sprioK

A horizontal spring of natural length
f O =OA is fixed from its extremity A to a wall,
while its other endO touches a ball placed on a
table (Figure 9-a). Fig (9-a)
The ball is pushed to the left, so the spring is
compressed by a displacement x( x = f - f o)
(Figure 9-b).
When the system is released from rest, the
spring restores its natural length AO, and the Fig (9-b)
ball is ejected with a speed v(Figure 9-c).The
ball gains kinetic energy due to its motion.
Question: From where does the ball gain its A o�
kinetic energy when ejected?
Fig (9-c)

11
 Answer: During the compressing of the spring, the tension force performs a work which results in
transformation of the kinetic energy of the ball (Gained from the hand) into elastic potential energy
stored in the compressed spring. When the spring is released, the
Reading
tension force again performs a work which results this time in The elastic potential energy stored
transformation of the stored elastic potential energy into kinetic in a spring when compressed or
energy gained by the ball. stretched by a displacement x is
given by EPE = - Wr <Wr is the
Conclusion: A deformed spring possesses a form of stored energy
called elastic potential energy. The elastic potential energy is due to work done by the tension)
the interaction among the particles of the spring. =>EPE=-fT. di
=>EPE = - f kx t. dx t
The elastic potential energy, which is stored in a spring of
i
=>EPE = - k x2 + constant

I I
stiffness k when compressed ( or stretched) by a displacement x,
For x = 0, EPE = 0 � constant = 0
is given by: EPE = � k x2 EPE � 0 i
:::> EPE • kx2 •

Application 3
Consider figure (9). The ball of mass 500 g, compresses the spring by a displacement of 10 cm. When the
spring is released, it restores its natural length and the ball is ejected with a speed of 1 mis.
Neglect all friction.
1. Calculate the kinetic energy of the ball at the instant of ejection.
2. Deduce the maximum elastic potential energy that was stored in the spring.
3. Calculate the stiffness of the spring.
4. Deduce the magnitude of the tension force when the spring is compressed by 10 cm and specify its
direction.

i
Solution
1. KE = m v 2 = � (0.5) (1 ) � KE = 0.25 J.
2

2. After releasing the spring, the work done by the tension force results in the transformation of the
stored elastic potential energy into kinetic energy � EPE = KE � EPE = 0.25 J.
5
3. EPE = � k x 2 � K = �-�;2 � K = SO N/m.
2

4. T = k lxl = 50 x 0.1 � T = SN. The tension force tends to restore the natural length of the spring,
and so it is directed towards O (horizontally to the right).

C. Mechanical energy
Figure (10) shows a vertical spring of natural length -e O fixed to the
ceiling from its upper end. A ball is attached to the lower end of the
spring and then it is released from rest.
During the motion of the ball, the system (Ball, spring, Earth) possesses:
• kinetic energy due to the motion of the ball;
• elastic potential energy due to the elongation of the spring;
• gravitational potential energy due to the position of the ball.
The sum of these energies is called the mechanical energy of the system.
In general: !ME = KE + PE !
PE is the total potential energy of the system: PE = GPE + EPE
J ----
Ground
Fig.10
Application 4
Consider figure (10): fO = 50 cm, k = 20 Nim, mass m = 0.2 kg and g = 10 mls2 •
The figure shows the ball in a certain position during its descending where its center of mass is at an
altitude z = 30 cm above to the ground and has a speed of 1 mis. The length of the spring then is f= 60cm
1- Determine, in this position, the mechanical energy of the system (Ball, spring, Earth). Take the
ground as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
2- Determine the mechanical energy of the system (Ball, spring, Earth) at t0 = 0 which is the instant of
releasing the ball.

12
Solution
1- ME = KE + GPE + EPE imv 2
+ mgz + ikx 2
, where x = .e - f O.
i
=

ME = [ix 0.2 x (1)2] + [0.2 x 10 x 0.3] + [ x 20 ( 0.6- 0.5) ] => ME = 0.8 J.

2

2- At to= 0 , Xo= 0 and v0 = 0 => EPE0 = KE0 = 0. The position of the center of mass of the ball is
z0 = z + x = 30 + 10 = 40 cm = 0.4 m => GPE0 = m g z0 = 0.2 x 10 x 0.4 = 0.8 J
=> MEo= KEo + EPEo + GPEo = O + O + 0.8 => ME, = 0.8J.
2. Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces
Reading
A non-conservative force is a force whose work results in increasing or A non conservative force
decreasing the mechanical energy of the system.
8

could be an internal force

Friction, air resistance, traction force of the engine, tension force exerted by acting between the parts of a
in-extensible strings, muscular forces, ... are non-conservative forces. system or an external force
A conservative force is a force whose work does not vary the acting on the system, while
mechanical energy of the system but transforms the kinetic energy of conservative force is an
the system into potential energy or vice-versa. internal force.
Weight, tension of a spring, electric force between the plates of the
capacitor, ... are conservative forces. The work done by a
conservative force results in
If the work done by a force is zero, then it does not vary ME, KE or PE.
changing the potential energy
•!• Conservation of mechanical energy of the system:
If there are no non-conservative forces, or if the sum of the works done by
the non-conservative forces is zero, then the mechanical energy of the
L Wconservative forces = - A PE
system remains constant and so it is conserved.
=> I ME i = MEr = constant I => MEr - ME i = 0 => �ME = 0.

If there are no non-conservative forces, the mechanical energy of the system is conserved. So the
variation in the kinetic energy is equal to the opposite of the variation of the potential energy.
•!• Variation of the mechanical energy
If non-conservative force(s) exist then the variation of the mechanical energy of the system is given by:
ILlME = "f.Wnon-conservative forces
If L Wnon -conservative forces = 0 then LlME = 0 so the mechanical energy is conserved.
Application 5
Specify whether the mechanical energy of the system in the following two examples is conserved or not:
Example 1: A stone is falling in air from a certain height. Consider the system (Stone, Earth).
Solution
The forces of interaction in the system (Stone, Earth) are the weight (conservative force) and air
*
resistance f (non-conservative force). But WI -=t= 0 => IWnon-conservative forces 0 => The mechanical
energy of the system (Stone, Earth) is not conserved.
The loss of the mechanical energy is converted into heat energy; !1ME = W .
I
Example 2: In figure (10), the ball is moving downward. Consider the system (Ball, spring, Earth).
Neglect all friction.
Solution
The weight and the tension are conservative forces. There are no non-conservative forces in the system
(Ball, spring, Earth) then the mechanical energy of this system is conserved.
During the descending, the gravitational potential energy of the system is being converted into kinetic
energy which is in turn being converted into elastic potential energy.

13
3. Internal Energy (Microscopic Energy)
A. Microscopic kinetic energy
In figure (11), a container containing cold water is placed on fire.
When the temperature of the water rises, we say that water gains heat
energy. Actually, the speeds (or agitation) of water particles increase
which leads to the increase in the kinetic energy of each particle.
The microscopic kinetic energy ( KEmic ) of a system is the sum of the
kinetic energies of the particles that constitute this system.
When the work done by frictional forces acting in a system produces
heat, the microscopic kinetic energy of the system increases. Fig.11
B. Microscopic potential energy
In figure (12), the man is filling the car reservoir with gasoline fuel.
At the station, the car is at rest. When the car moves, its kinetic
energy mcreases.
But how does the car gain this energy?
The traction force of the engine performs work that results in the
transformation of the chemical energy stored in the fuel into kinetic
energy.
The chemical energy stored in the fuel is an example of
microscopic potential energy ( PEmic ). Fig. 12

Nuclear energy is another example of microscopic potential energy.

Note: The microscopic potential energy depends on the interaction among the particles of the system.

Application 6
In figure (11), when the temperature of water becomes 100° C, it starts boiling and change into vapor.
Even though heat energy is given to the system during the change of phase (boiling), the temperature
remains constant.
1. Does the microscopic kinetic energy of water change during boiling? Why?
2. Specify the energy transformation that takes place during the change of state.
Solution
1. KE.me of water does not change since its temperature remains constant.
2. During this change of phase, the distances among the particles increase and KEmic remains constant,
so heat energy is converted (transformed) into microscopic potential energy.
C. Internal energy or microscopic energy

I
A system possesses microscopic kinetic and microscopic potential energy. The sum of these two forms
is called the internal energy or the microscopic energy U of the system: !U= KEmic + PEmic
l
4. Total Energy of a System
The total energy E of a system is the sum of its internal ener U and its mechanical energy ME.
E=ME+U
Energy- isolated system
If the total energy of a system remains constant (conserved), the system is called: energy-isolated
system. I E=ME + U= constant I ::::}.1E= .1ME+ .1U= 0 .
.1ME and .1U represent the variations of the mechanical and the internal energies respectively.
Example 1: The universe is an example of energy-isolated system since the total energy of the universe is
constant.
Example 2: A block slides down from the top of a rough inclined plane. Due to the work done by
friction, the mechanical energy ME of the system (Block, incline, atmosphere, Earth) decreases while its
internal energy U increases. The total energy of the above system remains constant, thus it is an energy­
isolated system.

14
Note: In example (2), consider the system (Block, Earth). The loss in the mechanical energy of this
system is converted into heat, but part of this heat is gained by the surroundings of the system
(atmosphere and incline), so this system is not energy-isolated.
� Energy- isolated system with conserved mechanical energy

J I
If the internal energy of an energy- isolated system does not va then LlU = 0.
But LlE = 0 = LlME + LlU => LlME = 0 => MEf = MEi

Conclusion: If the internal energy of an energy-isolated system is constant, the mechanical

energy of this system is conserved.
Example: Freely falling body
Consider the energy isolated system (Body ; Earth).
i:1E = i:1ME + i:1U = 0. No air resistance => �U = 0 => �ME = 0
Note that i:1ME = 0 => MEf = MEi => � KE = - � PE. So during descending, the gravitational
potential energy of the system (Body ; Earth) is converted into kinetic energy of the body.
� Energy-isolated system with varying mechanical energy
* 0.
J I
If the internal energy of the energy isolated system varies, then LlU
*
But LlE = 0 = LlME + LlU => LlME 0 and LlME = - LlU

Conclusion: The variation of the internal energy of an energy-isolated system is equal to the
opposite of the variation of its mechanical energy.

Example 1: During the upward motion of a rocket, the internal

Remark
energy of the energy isolated system (Rocket- fuel, atmosphere,
dME = L Wnon -conserative forces
Earth) decreases due to the work done by the tractive force of the But for an energy-isolated
engine while burning the fuel. But �E = - LlU, so the decrease in system, AME = - t1U =>
the internal energy is converted into mechanical energy. The GPE dU = - z.Wnon-conservative forces,
and the kinetic energy the system increase. then the variation in the internal
Example 2: During the vertically downward motion of a loaded energy of an energy-isolated
parachute falling with its terminal velocity, the internal energy of the system is due to the work done
energy- isolated system (Parachute, atmosphere, Earth) increases due by the non-conservative acting
to the work done by friction between the parachute and air particles. forces.
But LlU = - LlME => LlME < 0, the decrease in the mechanical energy is converted into heat energy
(Internal energy) . The KE is constant and GPE decreases.

5. Applications on Conservation and Non-Conservation of Mechanical Energy

Application 7 Motion of a car
A car taken as a particle of mass 1000 kg , starts on a

... A
horizontal road from a point 0, as shown in figure (13).
Consider the system (Car-fuel, road, atmosphere, Earth).
Neglect all friction and the mass of the fuel.
Take the horizontal plane containing the center of mass
of the car as a reference level for gravitational potential
energy. Use g = 10 m/s2• O A B
1. Motion under the action of the traction force
The car starts from rest under the action of the traction Fig. 13
force. It reaches a point A with a speed of 72 km/h.
a. Indicate whether the system (Car-fuel, road, atmosphere, Earth) is energy- isolated or not.
b. Calculate the mechanical energies of the system at the point O and at the point A.

15
 c. Deduce the variation in the internal energy of the above system during the motion between O and
A. Justify the sign of this variation.
2. Motion under the action of the braking force
When the car reaches the point A, the traction force becomes zero, and the driver applies the car
brakes f, so the car reaches a point B, 50 m away from A, with a speed of 10 mis.
a. Apply the work-energy theorem between A and B to determine the work done by the braking
force. The braking force is constant and of direction opposite to that of motion. Deduce the
magnitude of this force.
b. Calculate, between A and B the variation in the internal energy of the system. Justify the sign of
this variation.
c. Specify whether the microscopic potential energy or the microscopic kinetic energy of the system
vary.
3. Motion on the inclined plane
The car continues its motion without the braking force along the inclined plane BCD which makes
an angle of 30° with the horizontal. The traction force remains zero.
a. Determine the speed of the car at a point C where its kinetic energy becomes equal to the
gravitational potential energy of the system (Car, Earth).
Deduce the distance BC covered by the car.
b. The car stops at a point D. Determine the height h0 at this point.
c. Calculate the variation of the internal energy of the system (Car-fuel, road, atmosphere, Earth)
between B and D.
Solution
1. a. The system (Car-fuel, road, atmosphere, Earth) is an energy- isolated.
b. MEo = KEo + PEo = � m Vo 2 + mg ho = 0 + 0 ::::}MEo • 0.
MEA = KEA + PEA = 2m VA 2 + mg hA = 2(1000) (72-;- 3.6)2 + 0::::} MEA• 2 X 10 s J,
1 1

c. The system is energy-isolated::::}AU = -AME= - ( MEA -ME0) = - ( 2 x 10 5 - 0)

::::} 4U 2 x 10 5 J.
;;;i •

The variation of the internal energy is transformed into mechanical energy, so the internal
energy of the system decreases::::} AU< 0.
2. a. System: The car (rigid system)
External forces: weight mg, normal reaction N, and the braking force f.
1 1
AKEA ---> B = LWFext ::::} 2m VB 2 - 2mVA 2 =Wmg + WN + Wf
WN = 0 since mgand N are perpendicular to the direction of the motion.
::::} i
Wmg
i
=

(1000) (10) 2 - (1000) (20) 2 = w1 ::::} W7 1111! • 1! x 10 4 J.

Wf = J (AB) cos (180) = -Jx 50 ::::} J = 15 x 10 4
::::} / 3000 N,
i i
;a,
50
b. AU = -AME = - (ME8 - MEA). But ME8 = m VB 2 + mg h8 = (1000) (10 2 ) + 0= 5 x 10 4 J.
::::}AU = - ( 5 x 10 - 2 X 10 ) ::::} �U e 15 X 10 J,
4 5 4

Due to the work done by friction, the decrease in the kinetic energy is converted into heat
energy, so the internal energy of the system increases::::}4 U > 0.
c. The mlcro1cople kinetic ener1y of the 1yitem tnereaHi since the decrease in the kinetic
energy is converted into heat. The microscopic potential energy remains constant since the
traction force is not applied (No chemical reaction).
3. a. There are no non-conservatives forces of interaction in the system then the mechanical energy
of the system (Car, Earth) is conserved::::} ME8 = MEc::::}

i
ME8 = KEc + GPEc = 2KEc ::::} MEs = mV/ ::::}5 x 10 4 = (1000)Vf ::::}Vc•5v2 m/1.
KEc = GPEc ::::} mVf = m g he = mg (BC) sin 30° ::::}(0.5)(50) = (lO)(BC)(0.5) =}BC•5m.
b. Apply the conservation of the mechanical energy along BCD ::::}ME8 = MEc= ME0
MEo= KEo+ GPEo= 0 + m g ho::::}5 x 10 4 = (1000)(10) ho=} ho•! m.
c. AU= -AME = - (ME0 -ME8)::::} 4U•0,

16
Application 8 r.!=,li Vertical motion of the system (Body, spring)
A vertical spring of initial length fO and of force constant k = 100 Nim is fixed from its upper end.
A block (S) considered as a particle of mass m = 500 g is attached to the other end Oof the spring, and
then it is left without initial velocity (Figure 14). Take the horizontal plane containing Oas a reference
level for gravitational potential energy. Use g = 10 m/s2 •
1. Motion without air resistance
The block moves down without air resistance and reaches a point
A where the elongation of the spring becomes �f, = OA, then it
returns back.
a. Show that the mechanical energy of the system [(S), spring,
Earth] is conserved.
b. Calculate the mechanical energy of the system [(S), spring,
Earth] when (S) is at 0.
c. i. Determine the expression of the mechanical energy of the
above system when (S) is at A in terms of m, g, k and
the elongation �f, = OA.
ii. Deduce the elongation �f, of the spring when (S) is at A.
iii. Apply Hooke's law to calculate the magnitude of the
tension force of the spring when (S) is A. Specify its
direction.
d. Determine the speed V8 of (S), at a position B, 7 cm below 0. Fig. 14
2. Motion with air resistance
In reality the block is submitted to a resistive force f of constant magnitude f. When it is left without
initial velocity from 0, it reaches a point C, 8 cm below Obefore itretums back.
a. Calculate the variation in the mechanical energy of the system [(S), spring, Earth] between Oand
C. Into what form of energy is this variation converted'!.·
b. Determine the magnitude f of the resistive force.
c. Prove that the system ((S), spring, atmosphere, Earth) is energy -isolated.
Solution
1. a. First method: The system [(S), spring, Earth] is energy-isolated. There is no variation in its
internal energy (no friction, chemical reaction, nuclear reaction ....)=> LlU = 0 => Ll ME = 0, then
the mechanical energy of the system is conserved.
Second method: There are no non-conservative forces=> IWnon-conservative forces = 0
=> � ME = 0, then the mechanical energy of the system is conserved.
b. MEo = KEo + GPEo + EPEo = 0 + 0 + 0 => MEo = 0.
c. 1. MEA = KEA + GPEA + EPEA = 0 - mg �-C + 1 k �f, 2 => MEA = - mg uf
• A
+ 21 k llf 2 .
i 2
i
ii. ME0 = ME => 0 = - mg �-C + k �t 2 => 0 = (- 0.5) (10) �f, + (100) �t
2

=> 50 M 2 - 5 �f, = 0=> �-C ( 50 �-C - 5) = 0 => �f, = 0 is rejected=>flt= 0.1 m.

iii. Hook's law: T = k l�fl = (100) (0.1) => T = 10 N. Direction vertically upward since T tends to
restore the natural length of the spring.
1 1 2 1 2 1 2
d. ME = 2 m vB z - mg �f, B + 2 k �fB = 0 => 2 (0.5) VB - 0.5(10) ( 0.07) + 2 (100) (0.07) = 0
=> VB = 0.648 m/S.
1
2. a. �ME 0 __,c = MEc - MEo = ( m Ve 2 - mg �fc + 21 k �f2c ) - 0
2
i
=> �ME 0 __,c = 0 - (0.5) (10)(0.08) + (100) (0.08)2 - 0=> llME0....c = - 0.08 J.
The loss in mechanical energy is converted into heat energy.
b. �MEo--,c = IWnon-conservative forces = Wf = - (/) (OC)=> - 0.08 = -f X 0.08=> f = 1 N.
c. The system (S, spring, atmosphere, Earth) is energy-isolated since the loss in the mechanical
energy is converted into heat energy which is gained by the system=> - Ll ME = � U
=> �ME + �U = 0 . => E = const.

17
Application 9 � Motion of a block along an inclined plane
A block(B) considered as a particle of mass m starts from rest from the bottom O of a smooth inclined
plane making an angle of30° with the horizontal. The block moves under the action ofa constant force F
parallel to the incline(Figure 15).
At any instant, the abscissa ofthe block is x relative to the
x'Ox axis. Neglect air resistance and use g=10 m/s2•
The graphs offigure (16) represent the variations ofthe
mechanical and the gravitational potential energies ofthe
system [(B), Earth] as a function of the abscissa x.
The graphs are drawn for x E [O; 5 m].
The horizontal plane containing O is taken as a reference
level for the gravitational potential energy. Fig.15
1. a. Indicate the external forces acting on the block.
b. Prove that the mechanical energy ofthe system [(B), Earth] is not conserved.
2. Refer to figure (16) to answer the following questions:
a. Prove that graph(a) and graph(b) offigure (16) represent the ,oo &ergy (1)
variations ofthe mechanical energy and the gravitational potential
80
energy ofthe system(Block, Earth) respectively.
b. Determine the mass m ofthe block.
60
c. Determine the speed ofthe block when it covers a distance of2 m.

,
d. Indicate the mechanical energy ofthe above system when(B) x(m.)
covers a distance of5 m. Deduce the magnitude F of F . 2 3 4 5
e. Draw on figure (2) the curve ofthe variation ofthe kinetic energy Fig. 16
of(B) as a function ofx.
3. The magnitude F ofF can be determined by applying Newton's z nd law.
a. Apply Newton's z nd law to prove that its motion of(B) is uniformly accelerated rectilinear.
b. Refer to the graph to determine the speed of(B) when x=5 m. Deduce the acceleration a ofthe
motion of (B).
c. Use part(3-a) to determine again the value F ofthe force F.
Solution
1. a. System: particle
External forces: the weight m g ; the normal reaction N and the applied force F .
b. m g is a conservative force, WN =0 and Fis a non-conservative force=>
*
IWnon-conservative = WF 0=> Mechanical energy ofthe system(Block, Earth) is not conserved .
2. a. ME = GPE + KE. But KE;::: 0=>ME;::: GPE=>graph(a) and graph(b) represent the
variations ofthe mechanical and the gravitational potential energies respectively.
b. For x=4 m, GPE=40 J=>mg h=m g x sin a = 40=>m (10) (4 )(0.5)=40=>m =2 kg.
c. For x=2 m: GPE=20 J and ME=40 J=>KE= ME- GPE =40 - 20=20 J
=>� m v2=20=>(0.5)(2) v2=20=> v = 4.47 mis.
d. When X=5 m; ME=100 J , but �E = IWnon-conservative forces = WF
=> 100 - 0 =(F)(5) cos O => F = 20 N.
e. The graph that represents the variation of KE is confounded with GPE.
3. a) System: Block. l:Fext =ma =>mg + N + F =ma . Project the equation along the x-axis:
. -m gsin a+ F
- m g sm a + 0 + F=m a=> a = = const.
m
v
Since a= const and a . > O=>The motion is uniformly accelerated recdlinear.
b) At x=5 m, KE=ME - GPE=100- 50=50 J=>� m v =50 = (0.5)(2) v2 =>v = "5ij mis.
2

U.A.R.M => vF 2 - v/ =2 a d=>50- 0=2(a)(5)=> a = S mls2•

c) We have - m g sin a + 0 + F = m a=> F=2(5) + (2)(10)(0.5)=>F=:20 N.

18
 Reading

A. Expression of the gravitational potential energy of the system <Obiect, Earth)

An object of center of mass (C) is placed in the vicinity of the earth. If the reference level for gravitational potential
energy is the horizontal plane passing through (C), then you expect that the gravitational potential energy of the
system (Object, Earth) is GPE = m g z = 0 since z = 0. But this is not true because the object at this position interacts
with the earth by the gravitational force.
Actually, above the surface of the earth, the gravitational potential energy of the system (Object, Earth) is zero only
at a position very far from the earth; z - oo,
Question: What is the actual physical meaning of the expression m g z?
An object of mass m and center of mass (C) is placed at a point A above the surface of the earth. Let rA be the
distance between A and the center O of the earth (Figure 17).

PEA
=-
The gravitational potential energy GPE of the system (Object, Earth) at A is
GM m
where G is the universal constant of gravitation and Mis
r
B

the mass of the earth.

Similarly, of the system (Object, Earth) at another oint B situated at a
distance r8 from the center of the earth is GPE8
._____ r
= - �.
If(C) moves from A to B, then the variation of the gravitational potential
energy of the system (Object, Earth), between A and B is: 0
• _GM_m _GM_m
�GPE= GPEa - GPEA = +
re A
r
_er -- _A
r ]
=> �GPE = GMm ( ..!. - ..!.) = G M m[ => �OPE • 0 Mm [
r r A
r , re __"'-"".._,...
GM 2 z
But go = => PE •m3oR
pJ'
If A and B are very close to the S!Ound => r A = rs= R(Radius of Earth
supposed spherical) => OPE = m Fig.17
Answer: For an object moving, in the vicinity of the earth between two points separated by an altitude z, mgz
represents the variation in the gravitational potential energy of the system (Object, Earth) between these two
points.
If the reference level is the horizontal plane containing A, then �GPE = GPE8 - GPEA = m go z > 0 => z > 0. This
makes sense since GPE8 > GPEA .
Similarly, if reference level is the horizontal plane containing B, then �GPE= GPEA - GPEs = m So z < 0 => z < 0.

rA:Rand ra = rA + Z
_ 2 Z
=
Note: If the object is at B which is far from the ground while the point A is close to the ground, then:
R+Z => rA. r s= R(R +Z)=>�GPE= GMm[--] But Sz= --2 �
_ Z
Z
rA,re
GM
(R+Z)
�OPE - m g, (R Z)
+ R CR +Z) - m g, (R+ Z) R
But R +Z > R => �GPE 'I- m gz z .
B. Kinetic energy of a solid in combined motion
Consider a solid of mass Mand of center of mass (G). The solid is in rotational motion
about an axis passing through its center of mass (G) which is in translational motion. The
motion of the solid is called combined motion (FigurelS).
The kinetic energy of the solid relative to a fixed point O on the ground is:
=
KE t KE1 = t } m1 v1�0 where m1 is the mass of a particle i and V1 o) is its speed
) (
relative to the point 0. Fig. 18
But v1 0 = V1 G) + va o where:
( ) ( ( )
Yi<o) is the velocity of a particle relative to (0) , v1 G is the velocity of the particle relative to (G) and Va o)is the
( ) (
velocity of (G) relative to (0).
(v1,o/= ( v1,a/ + (vGco/ + 2 V1 G) . Va O) => (v1,o/ = (vica/ + (va,o/ + 2 Vt G) . Vaco,
( ( (
=>KE= t } m1 (v1co/ =} t m1 [(v1<0/ + (vaco/ + H\0 , • vaco,J
1 2 1 2 -,
=> KE = 2 t m1 (v1<0,) + 2 t m1 (Va (o) ) + t m1 v1 (G) . :-1
va (o)
=
(V1<0/ Rf (0') => } t m 1 (v1ca/
2
=}
t m1 Rf (0')
2
= i
I (8') and } t m1 (va<o/ =
2
i M vi
t m1 v1ca) . va<o)
.. ..
= vaco,· t m1 v1ca,, but
.. :-1
t m1 v1 = Pa => t m1 v1 (G)
:-1 ... :-1
= Paco,
...
0
= ...

=> KE = 2!. I 0 + !. MVa

2 2
2

1�
 Problems
Whenever needed, use the gravitational acceleration g = IO m!s2 and neglect air resistance
unless otherwise stated.
1. Con§ervatfon a�cl non-co11sen1atio�of mechanical energy /
Specify whether the mechanical energy of each of the following systems is conserved or not.
a) A stone is falling in vacuum. Consider a system (Stone, Earth).
b) Two students A and B are at rest and standing on an icy ground. Student A pushes student B with a
force FA-->B at t0 = 0. Then at an instant t, both students move horizontally in opposite directions.
Consider the system (The two students, Earth) and answer the question for the time interval [O, t].
c) A bomb initially at rest on the ground explodes into many fragments which move in different
directions. The duration of the explosion is �t. Consider the system (Bomb, Earth) and answer the
question for the time interval �t.

2. Jnternal energy of a s}tstem v

Specify whether the internal energy of the following systems increases, decreases or remains constant.
a) Ice cubes undergo fusion. The S); em is (Ice).
b) A space shuttle enters the atmos the earth. The system is (Space shuttle, atmosphere, Earth).
c) A car is moving under the actio ction·force of the engine with a uniform rectilinear motion
along a horizontal road. The ca tied to air re.sistance. The system is:
i. the car; ii. (car, road, e,
.. , Earth).
··�·
311 D terminatioru ,f the elas.tit: _potential energy
Two vertical and light springs, (S 1) of stiffness k1 = 80 N/m and (S2)
of stiffness k2 are fixed from their upper extremities.
A non-homogeneous block (B) of mass m = 2 kg is attached from the
lower extremities of the springs. When equilibrium is attained, each (S 2 )
spring is elongated by a distance �f = 10 cm.
a) Determine the direction and the magnitude of the tension force k2
exerted by each spring on (B).
b) Deduce the stiffness of (S2).
c) Calculate the total elastic potential energy stored in (S 1) and (S2). 10 cm
d) If the block is attached only to (S 1), determine the elastic potential ·1
·
energy stored in (S 1) at equilibrium.

A solid (S) which is taken as a particle of mass m = 2 kg is released from rest from a point A of the path
ABC in the vertical pane. Given sina = 0.2 ; AB = 4 m and BC = 10 m. The horizontal plane containing
BC is taken as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
a) Neglect friction along AB. Determine the speed of the solid at as it reaches the point Busing:
i. the principle of conservation of mechanical energy of the system (Solid, Earth);
ii. the work-energy theorem.
b) The solid continues its motion along BC and reaches a
point C with a speed ofVc = 2 mis.
i. Determine the variation of the mechanical energy
of the system (Solid, Earth) between B and C.
ii. Deduce that friction exists along the path BC. B c
iii. Determine the constant magnitude of the frictional
force along BC.
c) Specify whether the internal energy of the system (Solid, road, atmosphere, Earth) increases,
decreases, or remains the same during the motion of the solid between:
i. A and B; ii. B and C.

20.
s. Vertical motion of a particle
A particle (S) of mass 2 kg is launched vertically upward from the ground with an initial z
speed of 10 m/s. Take the ground as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
The Oz axis is oriented positively upwards, and O is on the ground.
A. Air resistance is neglected
Assume that the particle is not submitted to air resistance.
a) Determine the mechanical energy of the system (Particle, Earth) when the particle
reaches its maximum height.
b) Deduce the maximum height reached by the particle.
c) i. Apply the principle of conservation of mechanical energy to determine,
v
at any instant t the relation between the algebraic value v of the velocity of (S)
and its altitude z above the ground. 0
ii. Deduce the algebraic value of the acceleration of (S).
B. Air resistance is not neglected
v,
The particle is subjected to air resistance whose direction is opposite to and whose magnitude is 5 N.
a) Determine then the maximum height reached by the particle.
b) i. For the upward motion of (S), apply the work-energy theorem to determine the relation
between the algebraic value v of the velocity and the altitude z above the ground.
ii. Deduce the algebraic value of the acceleration of of (S).
6. Rotation of a disk about a horizontal axis i/
A disk of mass 800 g of center of mass (G) and of radius R = 40 cm
can rotate without friction about a horizontal axis (Li) passing
through a point A of its circumference. Take the horizontal plane
containing A as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
Given: The moment of inertia of the disk relative to the axis (Li) is
I
I=�2 m R 2 �G
a) The disk is shifted from its equilibrium position by an angle
of 60 °. Determine the gravitational potential energy of the
system (Disk ; Earth) in this position.
b) The disk is released from rest. Determine the angular
speed of the disk as (G) passes through the equilibrium position.
7. Vertical motion of .a block
A block (S) which is taken as a particle of mass m = 10 kg starts from rest
from a point O on the ground and moves upward under the action of a
constant tension force exerted by a vertical string.
Neglect all friction. Take the ground as a reference level for gravitational
potential energy.
a) Calculate the mechanical energy of the system [(S), Earth] when (S) String
is on the ground.
b) Is the mechanical energy of the system [(S), Earth] conserved? Why? B
c) At a point B of height 1 m above the ground, the speed of the block is
Vs = lm/s.
i. Calculate the mechanical energy of the system [(S), Earth] when
(S) is at B.
ii. Deduce the magnitude of the tension force exerted by the string on
the block during its motion along OB.
d) When the block reaches the point B, the string is cut. Ground
i. Apply the principle of conservation of the mechanical energy to
determine the speed of the block just before reaching the ground.
ii. Determine, relative to the ground, the height of a point C where the kinetic energy of
the block is equal to the gravitational potential energy of the system [(S), Earth].

21
8. Effect of the mass of the pulley on the motion of the blocks ./
A string of negligible mass connects two blocks of which are considered as particles of masses m 1 = 5 kg
and m2 = 2 kg.
The string passes over a pulley which is fixed
at the top B of an inclined plane OB which
makes an angle a with the horizontal OA.
The string is inextensible and doesn't slide
over the pulley.
The pulley of mass m = 2 kg and of radius
r = 0.2 m can rotate without friction about its
axis.
The friction along the incline has a constant
magnitude f.
At t0 = 0, m 1 is at C while m2 is 25 m above A, 0
and the system is released from rest.
Given: OC = 20 m; sin a = 0.8; l p ulley = 1/z m r2 and the center of mass of the pulley is 100 m above the
horizontal OA.
Take the horizontal plane containing OA as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
Hint: The string is inextensible, then the sum of the works done by all the tension forces along any
displacement is zero and so LlME = l: W7
a) i. Determine the mechanical energy of the system (Blocks, string, pulley, Earth), at t0 = 0.
ii. The pulley rotates in the anti-clockwise sense. The block of mass m 1 reaches Oat an instant t with
a speed of 7.75 m/s. Determine the mechanical energy of the system (Blocks, string, pulley,
Earth), at the instant t.
iii. Deduce the magnitude f of the friction force .
b) Suppose that the pulley is light. Determine then the speed of the block of mass m 1 when it reaches O.
c) Deduce whether the effect of the mass of the pulley decreases or increases the speed of the particles.
9. Circular motion of a particle ,/
••• ··•·· •
A particle (P) of mass m = 0.4 kg is attached to
·· · c ·· ·· . .....
one end of a light string of length f = 1 m.
... . .. ....
....
The other end of the string is fixed to a point 0. (P)
is shifted from its equilibrium position by an angle
. .. .
of 60° , in the vertical plane . From the point A, (P)
.. . ..
is given an initial velocity which is perpendicular
..
to the string and of magnitude VA·
Take the horizontal plane containing the point B .. 0 .
.. ...
(Equilibrium position of (P)) as a reference level
for gravitational potential energy.
The particle reaches the highest point C of the ..
trajectory of (P) with a speed Vc = 3.5 m/s. ..
a) Determine the mechanical energy of the
.... A
system (Particle, Earth).
.....
b) Deduce the speed VA .
c) Determine the angle(s) between the string and .
• · ..· , ....... .;.. .... #.,:.� ......................
the vertical when: B Reference level
i. the speed of the particle is -../52. 25 m/s. for GPIE
Deduce, without calculation, that this speed
is the maximum speed attained by (P).
ii. the kinetic energy of (P) becomes equal to the gravitational potential energy of the system [(P) ,
Earth].

22
A rocket engine is used to launch a satellite of mass 50 kg to its orbit around the
Earth
The rocket holding the satellite starts from rest from the surface of the earth and
moves vertically upwards. Air resistance is not neglected.
a) Is the total energy of the system (Satellite, rocket, fuel, atmosphere, Earth)
conserved?
b) Prove by two methods that the mechanical energy of the above system is not
conserved.
c) The satellite is carried to its orbit at an altitude of z = 36230 km. The
gravitational potential energy of the system (Satellite, Earth) increases by
2.665 x 10 9 J when the satellite is carried from the ground to the altitude z. The speed of the
satellite in its orbit is 3.1 X 10 3 m/s.
i. Determine the variation of the mechanical energy of the system (Satellite, Earth) when the
satellite is carried from the ground to the altitude z.
ii. 667.874 kg of fuel is needed by the rocket to put the satellite in its orbit, and 10 % of the
variation of the internal energy of the fuel is converted into mechanical energy of the system
(Satellite, Earth). Determine the energy produced by the combustion of 1 kg of the rocket fuel.
r
11.. Tansformation of energy
Consider a particle (S) of mass m = 500 g which is attached to the extremity A of a massless
inextensible string OA of length t = 1 m. The extremity O of the string is fixed.
(S) is shifted from its equilibrium position by an angle 9 = 30° , and then it is given at t0 = 0 an initial
velocity perpendicular to the string and of magnitude VA = 1 m/s. The particle reaches the lowest
position B with a speed V8 = 1.5 m/s.
The horizontal plane containing B is considered as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
a) i. Determine the initial mechanical energy of the system [(S), string, Earth].
ii. Prove that the particle is subjected to air resistance during its motion between A and B.
iii. Deduce the work done by air resistance between the initial position and the lowest position of (S).

� QQQQ0QQQQQQQ c
Reference level of GPE B

b) When the particle (S) reaches the lowest position (B), the string is cut and (S) moves along a
horizontal surface until it hits the right end of a horizontal spring of stiffness k = 100 N/m. The
other end of the spring is fixed to a support. In this part, neglect all friction.
i. Apply the work-energy theorem to prove that the speed of the particle (S) remains constant before
reaching the spring.
ii. The particle reaches the spring with the speed 1.5 m/s. (S) then compresses the spring by a
maximum distance X m .
1. Determine X m .
2. Determine the speed of the particle when the compression of the spring is Xm .
2

23
12. Motion of a car along an inclined plane
A car which is considered as a particle of mass 1000 kg starts from rest at the bottom A of an inclined
plane AD which makes an angle a = 30° with the horizontal.
The friction force is supposed to be constant, opposite to the
direction of motion and of magnitude 200 N.
a) Motion along the path AB
The car reaches a point B with a speed V8 = 10 m/s under the
action of the traction force which is parallel to AD and of
magnitude F = 6000 N. Apply the work energy theorem to
determine the distance AB.
b) Motion along the path BC
As the car reaches the point B the driver changes the magnitude of the traction force so that the car
continues its motion along the path BC with a constant speed of 10 m/s.
Apply the work energy theorem to determine the new magnitude F' of the traction force.
c) Motion along the path CD
As the car reaches the point C the driver applies the brakes, so the traction force becomes zero. As a
result, the car stops at a point D which is 3.75 m away from C.
Use !:::. M.E = L Wnon -conservative forces to determine the constant magnitude f of the braking force.
Take the horizontal plane containing A as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
13. Bungee jumping t/
A bungee jumper, who is taken as a particle of mass m = 75 kg ,
is attached to one end of a long elastic bungee cord.
The other end of the cord is fixed to a high bridge as shown in
the adjacent figure. The bungee cord acts as a spring of
negligible mass, of stiffness k and of initial length .f O = 30 m.
The jumper leaves the bridge and falls without initial speed
towards the ground.
Take the horizontal plane containing the starting point A as a
reference level for the gravitational potential energy GPE.
The Ay axis is oriented positively downward.
A. Motion of the iumper before the stretching of the cord
The jumper leaves the bridge at t0 = 0. At an instant t, the
jumper covers a distanced :'.S .f0 (before the stretching of the
cord) and attains a velocity of algebraic value v.
a) Write down, at an instant t, the expression of the
mechanical energy of the system (Jumper, cord, Earth) in
terms of v, m, y and g. Deduce the acceleration a of the
jumper, and then indicate the nature of his motion.
b) Deduce the speed of the jumper ford = 30 m.
c) Apply the principle of conservation of the mechanical
energy of the system (Jumper, cord, Earth) to determine again the speed of the jumper after
covering a distance of 30 m.
B. Motion of the iumper during the stretching of the cord
When the jumper covers a distanced = .fO = 30 m, the cord starts to elongate.
At the end of his downward motion, the jumper stops and returns back. At this instant the elongation
(increase in length) of the cord is maximum l:::..f max = 32 m.
Consider the downward motion of the jumper:
a) The mechanical energy of the above system is still conserved. Justify.
b) Indicate the energy transformations that take place during the stretching of the cord.
c) Determine the stiffness K of the bungee cord.
d) Determine the position of the jumper when his kinetic energy is equal to the elastic potential
energy of the bungee cord. Deduce the speed of the jumper at this position.

24
14. Rolling of a cylinder down an inclined plane
Consider a solid cylinder (C) of center of mass (G), of mass M = 20 kg and radius R = 0.5 m. At t0 = 0,
(C) starts from rest and rolls down without sliding from the top of an inclined plane which makes an angle
a = 30° with the horizontal. The moment of inertia of the cylinder about its axis is I = � MR2.
Let G0 and G 1 be the positions of the center of mass of (C) at t0 = 0 and at t 1 respectively.
Take the horizontal plane containing G 1 as a reference level for gravitational potential energy GPE.
(G) moves along the x'Ox axis.
a) Determine the mechanical energy of the system (Solid, inclined plane, Earth) at t0 = 0.
b) Apply the principle of conservation of mechanical energy to determine the speed of (G) at t 1.
c) Prove that the ex ression of the gravitational potential energy of the system in terms of x
is J;:11 • H is the altitude of G0 relative to the reference level of GPE.

d) Write the expression of the mechanical energy of the system at any instant. Use the principle of
conservation of mechanical energy to deduce the acceleration a of the center of mass of the solid.

x'

H=lOm

Reference level
ofGPE
x

15. Determination of the produced heat during the motion of a particle

A uniform thin rod AO of length f = 1 A
m has its upper end A fixed to a
support. A particle (S) of mass m = 0.6
kg is stuck to the other end O of the
rod. Consider the system [Rod, (S)] of I S)
total mass M = 1.2 kg and of center of
mass (G). The system is taken from its ' .....
stable equilibrium position to a position ,., .... . ..... . .
: : . .. ..
making 0 = 60° with the vertical, and ..... ............
...,···· .
,..4____ B ______ """._ ...,_ .�,. i ..................
then it is released from rest and rotates
about a horizontal axis (Li) passing x 0 1
through A.
3
Given: AG= f and the moment of inertia of the system [Rod, (S)] about (Li) is I= 0.8 kgm 2.
4
The horizontal plane containing O is taken as a gravitational potential energy reference.
a) i. Determine the initial mechanical energy ME 1 of the system [Rod; (S); Earth] when 0 = 60°
ii. Apply the principle of conservation of mechanical energy to determine the
angular speed 0' of the system [Rod, (S)] at the equilibrium position 0.
iii. Deduce that the linear speed of the particle (S) at the point O is v0 = 3.35 m/s.
b) When the system [Rod, (S)] reaches the equilibrium position, (S) leaves the point O with the speed
v0 and continues its motion along the frictional horizontal path OB . (S) moves along the x-axis of
origin 0. The ex ression of the speed of (S) as a function of the abscissa x is:
S.I
i. Determine the mechanical energies ME 0 and ME 8 of the system ((S), Earth) at the point O and at
a point B respectively. B is 2 m away from 0.

25
 ii. The frictional force acting on the particle along the path OB is supposed to be constant with a
direction opposite to that of the motion of (S). Determine the magnitude of this frictional force.
iii. Deduce the heat energy produced during the motion of the particle between O and B.

16. Analytical and graphical studies of energy ./

A block (S) which is taken as a particle
of mass m = 2 kg is released from rest at
t0 = 0 from the top B of an inclined plane B
making an angle a = 30 ° with the
horizontal.
A light spring of stiffness k = 200 Nim
and of natural length -e = OA = 60 cm is
placed along the inclined plane. The ---------------------
Reference level
extremity A of the spring is fixed to a ofGPE
support while the extremity O can move
along the inclined plane as shown in the
adjacent figure. Neglect all friction and
consider the horizontal plane containing
O as a reference level of gravitational
potential energy.
The x-axis is oriented positively
downwards along the spring.
In this problem, we intend to study the downward motion of the block (S) between the points B and C.
a) Motion of (S) along BO
The mechanical energy of the system (Block, spring, Earth) at any position between B and O is 6 J.
Determine the distance BO and the speed V0 of the block (S) as it reaches the point 0.
b) Motion of (S) along OC
As the block (S) reaches the point 0, the length of the spring starts decreasing until the speed of the block
becomes zero at a point C, where the spring is compressed by a maximum compression OC. At an instant
t, the abscissa of (S) is x and the algebraic measure of its velocity is v.
i. Show that the expression of the mechanical energy of the system (Block, spring, Earth) at any
QOsition between O and C is given by the following expression:
= v2 + 100 x2 -10 where O :S x :S OC.
ii. Determine OC.
iii. Deduce the magnitude of the maximum tension exerted by the spring on the block.
c) _Graphical study of energy along OC
The three graphs of the adjacent figure represent the
variations as a function of x, of : GPE ; EPE (Elastic
r
potential energy) and ME of the given system along
the path OC.
i. Specify the form of energy that each graph
represents.
ii. Use the graph to determine the kinetic energies of
(S) when x = 0 cm; 5 cm; 10 cm; 15 cm; 20 cm
and 30 cm.
iii. Draw on the figure the curve that represents the x{em)
I )
variation of the kinetic energy of (S) along the path 20 25 30
oc.
(2) -

26
17. Exchange of energy
A spring of natural length f O = AO is placed on an inclined plane making an angle a=30 ° with the
horizontal. The spring is fixed from one end A at the top of an inclined plane CA.
A block (M) taken as a particle of mass m 1 = 500 g is attached from the other end, so the spring is
elongated by a distance d=OB= 10 cm and equilibrium is established.
Take the horizontal plane containing the point Oas a reference level of gravitational potential energy.
Neglect all friction. x'Ox is an axis oriented positively upward along the incline.
A. The block (M) is in equilibrium at the point B
The block (M) is a rest
at the point B. x
a) Apply the condition
of equilibrium to ..............:�
prove that the force
constant of the spring
is k = 25 Nim.
b) Calculate the elastic
potential energy ···
11 · · ·····
EPE8 possessed by 3.
the spring and the ·· ·· · ·····
··
gravitational potential x'··
energy GPE8 of the
system [(M), Earth].
c) A particle (N) of
mass m 2 = 0.2 kg is
launched from the
bottom (C) of the
inclined plane with an j,,� .•
initial speed V0 = 3 mlsand reaches the block (M) with a speed of ../4. 6 mis.
Apply the work-energy tlieorem to determine the distance CB covered by the particle N.
B. Motion of the block (M) after the collision
The particle (N) hits the block (M) and re-bounces back towards the point C. Just after the collision,
(M) starts moving up the incline with a speed V8 = -JT.s mis.
a) i. Determine the mechanical energy ME 8 of the system ((M), spring, incline, Earth) just after the
collision.
ii. Determine the maximum compression (OD = Xm) of the spring.
b) i. Take the instant right after the collision as an origin of time t0 = 0. At an instant t, the abscissa
of (M) is x = OM and the algebraic measure of its velocity vis v.
Write down the expression of the mechanical energy of the above system in terms of m 1, k, g, v
andx .
ii. Deduce at any instant t the expression of the acceleration a of the block in terms of: x, m 1, g
and k. Deduce the acceleration a whenx = 0.
c) In reality, a frictional force of direction opposite to vand of constant magnitude fr is acting on the
block (M). So after the collision between (N) and (M), the spring returns to its natural length /0
when its speed becomes zero (at 0, no elongation and no compression).
i. Determine the variation of the mechanical energy of the system [(M), spring, incline, Earth]
when (M) moves from B to 0.
ii. Deduce the magnitude fr of the frictional force
iii. Determine the variation in the internal energy of the system [(M), spring, incline,
atmosphere, Earth].

27
18. Markaba power plant ./
" In hydroelectric power plants, water is directed down from a height h towards the blades of huge
turbines of the alternator. Markaba is a hydroelectric power plant in Lebanon. It takes water in from the
Qaraoun lake through Markaba tunnel. The tunnel is connected to the power station by means of a steel
penstock of a maximum discharge capacity �t = 22000 kg/s.
The output electric power of the power station is P = 34 MW.

a) Indicate the energy transformation that takes place in the power plant when:
i. water falls down towards the turbine;
ii. water rotates the blades of the turbine and generates electricity.
b) Calculate the mass of the water discharged to the power station during one day.
c) The efficiency of this power plant is about 34 %.
i. Calcula�t mechanical power P t that operates the power station.
ii. Given: --where E 1 is the gravitational potential energy of the systm Water, Earth)
when water of mass mis at a height h. Deduce that the mass flow rate is: . .
iii. Deduce the height h from which water falls in Markaba power plant.
19. Graphical study of the motion of a particle ./
A particle (M) of mass m = 0.6 kg can move z
along a curvilinear path ABCD placed in a vertical
plane. The particle starts from rest from a point A
of elevation (altitude) zA measured relative to the z
axis (Figure 1). Take the horizontal plane
containing the origin O as a reference level for
gravitational potential energy GPE.
A. Motion of (M) from A to the lowest point C
Consider the motion of (M) between A and C. c
The graphs of figure (2) represent the variation Fig.1
of two forms of energy (kinetic, gravitational
or mechanical energy) of the system (Particle,
Earth) as a function of z.
a) i. The graph (b 1 ) represents the variation of the
gravitational potential energy of the system
(Particle, Earth). Justify.
ii. Determine the altitude (zA) of the point A.
z(m)
b) The graph (a 1 ) represents the variation of the
kinetic energy KE of the system. Justify.
c) i. Use the graphs to calculate the mechanical
energy of the system (Particle, Earth) at the
points: A ; Band C.
ii. Deduce that friction exists between A and C. Fig. 2
d) Draw on figure (2) the curve that represents the variation of the mechanical energy of the above
system as a function of z.

28
 B. Motion of (M) from C to the point D
Consider the motion of (M) between C and D.
In figure (3), the graphs (a2) and (b2 ) represent the
variations of KE and GPE of the system (Particle,
Earth) respectively as a function of z.
a) Specify the altitude of the point D. -+I
b) i. Verify that the mechanical energy of the z(m)
system (Particle; Earth) is conserved
between C and D. 2
1
ii. Draw on figure (3) the curve that represents
the variation of the mechanical energy of the
system (Particle, Earth) as a function of z.
C. Apply the work- energy theorem to determine the Fig. 3
work done by the frictional forces acting on the particle between A and D.

20. GraphicaLstud}Lof_the r__otation of a disk

A homogeneous full disk (D) of mass 2 kg and of radius R can rotate in
the vertical plane about a horizontal axis (�) passing through its center.
The disk starts from rest at t0 = 0 under the action of a motive couple
F1 and F2 . Each force is in the vertical plane and makes an angle a
with the line joining the points of application of the couple.
The friction around the axis of the pulley admits a constant moment Mc
during the whole motion of (D).
At t = 10 s, the motive moment is removed and the disk then stops
within the next 40 seconds.
Take the horizontal plane containing the point A at the top of the disk as a reference level of the
gravitational potential energy GPE.
mRz
Given: sin a = 0.4 ; F 1 = F 2 = F = 1.25 N; moment of inertia of (D) with respect to (�) is I =
2
The figure below shows the variations of the: Kinetic energy KE of D gravitational potential energy GPE
and the mechanical energy ME of the system [(D) , Earth], as a function of time.
The red graph (a) has two parts (a 1 ) and (a2 ) and the green graph (b) has the parts (b 1 ) and (b2).
The indigo graph (c) is constant and has the equation E = - 2 J.

-32 _!(J)
'''\..
'\..''\
'
30
-2:

'\ .,
-26

,,'"
, I
-24
-22

'
-20 I
18
(a1)

'"'"'..
-,....... j ['-

,//,
16
-1 -� /J ['-�-)

,,
1-2
1ii
"-...
-s- --·-
-6
-4
J
Jj �IT
/I
<b1� �
�,
"-... -.............. -----
...............
-i
// t (s)
/
I
0 1,0 15 2p 26 30 3 ,5 40--...__. 50 I
�2 I I I I I I I I I
(c)

29
 a) i. Graph (c) represents the variation of GPE of the system [(D); Earth] as a function of time. Justify.
ii. Graph (b) represents the variation of the mechanical energy. Is it conserved? Why?
iii. Graph (a) represents the variation of the kinetic energy of (D). Justify by two different methods.
b) Use curve (c) to prove that the radius of the disk is R = 10 cm. Calculate then the moment of inertia I
relative to (11). Deduce the angular speed of (D) at t = 10 s.
c) Motion of (D) during the time interval [ 10 s, 50 sl
i. Apply Newton's z nd law in rotation to determine the nature of motion of (D) during [10 s; 50 s].
ii. Use curve (a2 ) to deduce the angular acceleration of (D) during this time interval.
iii. Deduce that the value of the resistive moment is Mr= - 0.02 N.m.
d) Motion of (D) during the time interval [ 0 , 10 sl
Use the curve (a1) and apply the work-energy theorem to determine the angle described by (D)
during the first 10 seconds.
e) Use the curve (b) to verify that over the whole journey 11ME = I Wnon conservative forces .

21. Motion of a chain

A uniform chain of mass M = 5 kg and of length i = 1 m can move in the
vertical plane over a horizontal cylindrical thin tube.
The chain starts from rest at t0 = 0, when the length of one of its parts is
40 cm and that of the other part is 60 cm.
Neglect all friction and take the horizontal plane containing the tube as a
reference level of gravitational potential energy.
40cm
a) i. Determine at t0 = 0 the gravitational potential energies of the
systems (Short part of the chain, Earth) and (Long part of the chain,
Earth).
ii. Deduce the mechanical energy of the system (Chain, Earth) at t0 = 0. 60cm
b) At an instant t the long part falls down a distance x.
i. For O::;; x :S 0.4 m, prove that the expression of the gravitational
potential energy of the s stem (Chain, Earth), as a function of x is:
PE=-SOx2 -lOx-1 (S.I ).
ii. Deduce the expression of the mechanical energy of the system
(Chain, Earth) as a function of x and the speed v of the chain.
iii. Deduce the expression of v 2 as a function of x.
iv. Deduce the expression of the value of the acceleration a of the chain as a function of x. Determine
the minimum and the maximum accelerations of the chain.
c) The adjacent graph shows the variation of the
.r-------------------.·
2
a (m/s )
value of the acceleration a of the chain as a
function of time t. 10
Refer to the graph to:
i. pick out the time needed by the chain to a
leave the tube. 6
ii. determine the distance covered by the 4
chain and its speed of at t = 0.3 s.
2

0,1 0,.2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 o.a 0,,9, 1 t (s)

30
 2 Linear Momentum

Leaming Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
� Define the linear momentum of a particle, of a system of particles and of the center of
mass of a system.
� Apply the general form of Newton's second law.
..:,. Verify the law of conservation of linear momentum.
•) Apply the law of conservation of linear momentum in collisions, explosions ...

31
 Prerequisites
•!• Position of the center of mass of a system of particles
In the adjacent figure, consider a system of n particles such that the:
- 1 st particle has a mass m 1 and a position vector i\;
y
- z nd particle has a mass m2 and a position vector r2;
r
- 3 rd particle has a mass m3 and a position vector 3 ;

- nth particle has a mass m0 and a position vector n; r x

Then the position of the center of mass of the above system
1s:

•!• Graphical �etermination of the instantaneous speed Fig.1

Figure (2) shows the trajectory of the center of mass of a body.
Ao; A1; A2; A3 and Ai are the
successive positions of the center
of mass at the instants: t0 ; t 1 ; t2; t3
and t4 respectively.
T = .1t = ti - t0_1) = constant, is a
very small time interval separating
any two consecutive instants.
The instantaneous speed at a
position Ai is given by: Fig. 2
where Ao-i)A(i+l) is the distance between the positions A(i-JJ and A(i+JJ.

1. Definition of Linear Momentum

Figure (3) shows an elephant moving at a low speed.
Figure (4) shows a bullet moving at a high speed.
It is very hard to stop the elephant and the bullet, but for different reasons.
The elephant is moving relatively slowly, but it has a large mass, while the
bullet is light but it is moving at a high speed.
We conclude from these observations that mass and velocity
of an object play a major role in studying its motion.
Fig. 3
The product of these two quantities represents a physical quantity called the
linear momentum of the object.
•!• Linear momentum of a particle

The linear momentum of a particle of mass m moving with a

v
velocity relative to a certain frame of reference, is given by
I P=mv ! Fig. 4
P is a vector quantity and has the same direction as that of the
velocity (Figure 5). • •
v --p
In S.I units: P is expressed in kg.mis ; m in kg and v in mis.
Fig. 5

32
Application 1
A particle of mass 500 g is launched with an initial
velocity V0 which makes an angle a=60° with the horizontal
and has a magnitude V= O 10 mis.
At the point A,the velocity of the particle is VA which is
parallel to the horizontal axis and has a magnitude
VA=5 mis (Figure 6).
Determine the linear momenta (momentums) of the particle
and their magnitudes at the pointsOand A. x
Solution Fig. 6
,'13 ...
AtO:P.......0 =mV
�
0 ,butV0 =V0 cosa1 +V0 sinaJ
-+ -0 .....
= 10(0.5)1
....
+ 10(2)J = 51 + 8.66J
..+ -00

� Po=0.5(5 i + 8.66 T)�Po= 2.5 i + 4.33 J. Po= m Vo= 0.5(10)�Po= 5 kg.mis.

....... --t- t .. ......

At A: PA=mVA=0.5(51)�PA= 2.5 . PA = 2.5 kg.mis.

•:• Linear momentum of a system of particles

Consider a system of n particles of masses m 1 ; m 2 ; ... ; m 0 and of velocities\\; v2 ; ... ; Vn relative to a
certain reference (O; 7; J) respectively.
The linear momentum of the system of particles is the vector sum of all the linear momenta of its
particles:

P1 = m 1 V1 ; Pz = m2Vz ... ; Pn = m0vn are the linear

momenta of the above particles respectively (Figure 7).
� Psystem = m1V1 + IDzVz + ··· + IDn Vn ·
•:• Linear momentum of the center of mass of a system
Th I "( t f th center of mass of the above system is given by: Fig. 7
5•,l 1: 1 '';; • \ '� ) �- • �
r r
where i\ ; 2 ... ; n are the position vectors of the above particles relative to
(O; 7; J) respectively.
Derive both sides of the above equation with respect to time:
.... m1il1 +m2vz+ ... +m 0 v0
VG = m1+m2+···+m M � M-+
0
VG = m1 V
=
I
.... 1 + illzVz
.... + ... +mnVn
.... .I
Mis the total mass of the system and vG is the velocity of the center of mass of the system.
I
But M v G = PG is the linear momentum of the center of mass of the system� PG = M vG = Psystem
Conclusion: The linear momentum of a system of particles of constant mass is equal to the linear
momentum of the center of mass of the system.
Application 2
Figure (8) shows two marbles A and B moving horizontally in opposite directions. Marble A has a mass
of 50 g and moves with a speed of 4 mis, while marble B has a
mass of 75 g and moves with a speed of 6 mis.
1. Determine the linear momentum of the system (A ,B ).
2. Deduce the velocity of the center of mass of the above A B
system. Fig. 8
Solution
1. Psystem=P1 +Pz = m1V1 + mzVz=0.05( 47) +0.075( -67)=0.27+(-0.457)
� Psystem = • 0.25 l (kg.mis).
- o.25 r
0.05 + 0.075
=> VG =.
2 t (mis).

33
2. General Expression of Newton's z nd law
•:• General expression of Newton's 2 law: nd

The derivative of the linear momentum of a s stem with respect to time is equal to the sum of the
external forces acting on this system. L F ext = * Remark
But the linear momentum of the system of particles is equal to the According to Newton's 3 rc1
P P
linear momentum of its center of mass: = G= M V G .
law, the forces of interaction
between the particles of the
_, _ ct r_ ct CMvd _dM .... ....
=> L F ext - - - -- => L-F ext - - VG +M aG system are couples of action
dt dt dt and reaction • I if1nt1rn11 • 0
a'. G is the acceleration of the center of mass of the system.
Consider the two following cases:
• System of constant mass
IL F I
If the mass of the system is constant, then�� = M' = 0
=> ext = M a'. G Theorem of the center of mass
The sum of the external forces acting on a system of constant mass is equal to the product of the mass
of the system by the acceleration of its center of mass.
• System with changing mass
Consider a system of variable mass M moving under the action of external forces whose resultant is
IFext
ct M _ ct r _ ct M .... ct vG
� -F ext - dt - dt VG + M
dt :;t: O => L... -d-
As an example of a system with changing mass, we consider the motion of a rocket of mass M. The
mass of the rocket changes at a rate :7
when its engine operates, due to the ejection of gases by the
combustion of fuel.
(+) The gas, which is ejected with a speed u relative to the rocket, exerts a force on the rocket called

�I
the thrust force which causes the upward motion of the rocket.
The expression of the thrust force is given by: Fup = u . (See the proof in the reading page 43).

Application 3 B
A particle A of mass mA = 2 kg is launched at t0 = 0 with an
initial velocity of magnitude VO = 10 mis, from the bottom of a ,, ,, ..
..
,, ,,,,
,,,
long inclined plane making an angle 30° with the horizontal.
.. ,, ,, ,,..
A particle B of mass ma = 3 kg is released at t0 = 0 from rest
from the top of the inclined plane (Figure 9). The magnitude of "' ,, ,,
,, ..
the frictional force acting on each particle is f = 5 N. The x­
axis is parallel to the incline and oriented positively Fig. 9
downward. Use g = 10 mls2.
1. Apply Newton's z nct law to determine the expression of the algebraic value of the linear momentum
of the:
a. particle B;
b. particle A;
c. center of mass of the system (A; B).
2. Use parts (1-a) and (1-b) to determine again the algebraic value of the linear momentum of the
center of mass of the system (A; B).
3. Determine the time needed by A to stop.
4. Determine the algebraic value of velocity of the center of mass (G) of the system (A; B) at t = 0.5 s.
Solution
1. a. System: B
External forces: weight mag; the normal reaction Na and the friction fa,

34
 dP _ dPs
Newton , s 2nd law: L.. F ext = �m B g + N B + f..B-
�
-+ --+ -
dt dt"
Project the equation along the x-axis:
. dPa
m B g sm a +O -fB = dt ..··
�(3) (10) (0.5) - 5 = d:tB � dPB =
10 dt
� f dPB = f 10 dt �PB = 10 t+ PB (o)
PB(o) 0 since B starts from rest
=

�Pa• 10 t. (S.I)
b. System: A
External forces: weight mA g ; the normal
mei
reaction NA and the friction fA . iJi.······
-+ dP --+ --+ -+ d PA x Fig.10
IF ext = �mA g+N A +fA = Tt ·
dt

Project the equation along the x-axis:

, dPA
mA g sm a +O + fA = dt
�(2) (10) (0.5)+ 5 = d:t � dPA = 15 dt �f dPA = f 15 dt
�PA= 15 t+ PA(o), but PA(o)= mAVo = (2) (-10) = - 20 kg.mis�PA •Ht ·20 (S.I)
c. System: (A , B)
External forces: mA g; NA ; m B g; NB ; fA and fB .
d dPG dPG
�mA g + N A + m B g+N B +fA +fB = dt ..
� -+ --+ --+ --+ -+ -+
Newton'sz n law: L...F ext = -
-+

dt
Project the equation along the x-axis: mA g sin a+ 0 + m B g sin a+ 0 + fa - fa = dPtG
d
d
�(2) (10)(0.5)+ 0+ (3) (10)(0.5) + 0+ 5 - 5 = ;G � dPG = 25 dt �f dPG = f 25 dt
�PG = 25t+ Po ,but Po = PA (o) +PB (o) = - 20+O�PG = - 20 kg.mis� Po•25t-20 (S.I)
2. PG = PA +PB = (15t-20 )T +1otT =(25t-20) r�
Pa •25t-20 (S.I)
3. PA 15 t - 20. A stops when PA O� 15 t - 20 =O�t•l.333s.
= =

4. PG = 25 t - 20 = (mA + mB ) VG = (2+ 3 ) VG �VG = 5 t -4 .

At t = 0.5 s,VG = 5 (0.5) -4 �Vo•-l.Sm/1.

Application 4 (+)
Two identical holes are made at two opposite sides of a container filled with water of mass m.Assume
that water flows out from the two holes at a constant rate of 0.5 kg per second.
At t0 = 0, the container starts from rest and Container
moves without friction on a horizontal track
under the action of a horizontal force F of
constant magnitude F = 2 N (Figure 11).
At t0 = 0, the mass of the empty container is
2 kg and the mass of the water inside it is
mo = 10 kg.
1- Prove that the mass M of the system Fig.11
Container water inside the container) at an instant t is:
where M is expressed in kg and O :5 t :5 20 s.
2- a) Apply Newton'sz nd law to rove that the expression of the speed of the center of mass of
the above system is (0 :5 t :5 20 s).
b) Deduce the speed of the center of mass of the system at t0 = 0 and at t = 20 s.
3- a) Determine the expression of the acceleration of the center of mass of the above system.
b) Deduce whether the motion of the system is uniformly accelerated or not.
c) Determine at t0 = 0 and at t = 20 s the accelerations of the system.

35
 4- If water does not flow out from the container. Determine the nature of the motion of the center of
mass ofthe system (Container, water) and its speed at t 20 s. =

Solution
1- dm - 0.5 kg/s =>dm - 0.5 dt => J dm J - 0.5 dt =>m - 0.5 t + l11o, but 1l1o = 10 kg
dt
=

=
= = =

=> m = - 0.5 t + 10 . M m + 2 =>M 12-0.5 t. =

2- a) System (Container, water in the container).

External forces: weight of the system Mg; Normal reaction N and the applied force F.
Newton's 2°ct law L Fext
... ctr
- =>Mg + N + F
..... .... -
ctr • Project along the direction of
dt dt
= =

motion ofthe system: 0 + 0+F �: => dP F dt =>J dP = = =

J F dt
=>P 2 t +PO 2 t (PO 0 since the system starts from rest).
= = =

P 2t
But P M Vo =>Vo M =>Ve =
-12---0.-5-t
= =

2 x 20
b) At t0 0 , VG(o) = 0 and at t 20 s , Vo (20)
= = =

12 _ (0.5 x 20)
=>V(20) = 20 mis.
2t
3- a) v0 12 - 0. 5 t
=
, derive both sides with respect to time
2 ( 12 - 0.5 t)+ (0.5) (2t) 24 - t + t 24
=>a0-:-
- (12- 0.5 t )2
-
- (12 - 0.5 t)2
=>a-----
G - (12- O.St)2
b) The motion is not uniformly accelerated since a is not constant.
c) At to = 0, ao (l�\ 2 => Bo = 0.167 m/s2 .
=

4
At t 20 s , a => 8(20) = 6 m/s2 .
( 12_ 0�5 x 20 )2
= =

dP F 2
4- We haveF - dt
M'v0+Mv0 ' 0+Mao=>ao -
= =

M
-
12
= 0.167m/s2.
= = =

a0 constant and ao . v > O => The motion ls uniformly accelerated rectilinear.

=

v0 at+ v0 0.167 x 20+ 0=>Ve = 3.34 mis.

= =

Application 5 (+)
A rocket has an initial .mass cif30 x 10 3 kg. At the instant oftake off,
exhaust gases are ejected out due to the combustion offuel which
takes place at an average rate of180 kg/s and with a speed of2 km/s
relative to the rocket. Neglect air resistance.
a) Calculate the magnitude ofthe thrust force acting on the rocket.
b) Deduce the initial acceleration ofthe rocket.
Solution
a) The up thrust force acting on the rocket is given by:
dM
U dt (2000) 180=> Ftbrust = 36 X 10 N.
4
Fthrust
= =

b) L Fext Ma => Fthrust + M g Ma. Project along the direction of the motion of the rocket:
= =

_ (36 x 10 4 )- (3o x 10 3 x 10)

Fthrust - Mg _ - Ma=>a - 30 x 103
=>a= 2 m/sz.
3. Conservation of Linear Momentum
Isolated or mechanically isolated system
Consider a system subjected to the external forces F1 , F2 ,
F3 , ... , Fn.
If the sum of these forces is zero L Fext 0 , then the =

system is said to be isolated or mechanically isolated.

Apply Newton's z nd law:
" Fext = '.!!'system
L...
dPsystem
=> ��- = 0 => Psystem is constant.
dt dt

The linear momentum of an isolated system is conserved: Psystem (il Psystem (fl
=

36
4. Verification of the Conservation of the_ Linear Momentum

), Eauioment:
-. A horizontal air table with its accessories;
• Two pucks (A) and (B) of masses: MA= 600 g and
Ms =400 g ;
-. Two light elastic rings;
• A light string.
> Procedure and observation:
• Push the two pucks initially placed on the air table
towards each other with concurrent velocities.
• A0 , A 1 ... , A6 and 8 0 , 8 1 , ... , 8 6 are the successive
positions of the centers of mass of (A) and (B)
respectively before collision.
A6, A 7 ... , A 1 2 and 8 6 , 8 7 , ... ,8 1 2 are the successive
positions of the centers of mass of (A) and (B)
respectively after collisions (Figure 14). Fig. 13

•B2 Ba •
87
•
Bs

- - -·
•
• A6 •
As A1 •
As

Fig. 14
> Analytical proof
The external forces acting on the system (Two pucks, elastic rings) are: the weight (M A + Ms) g
vertically downward and the normal reaction N exerted by the table vertically upwards.
But (MA + M8) g + N = 0 so the system is isolated => Psystem il = Psystemcr .
C J
), Experimental verification
* Before collision
• The motion of each puck is uniform (equal distances covered during equal intervals of time T = 20
ms). The speed of each puck is determined graphically:

37
 0 6 = 4.8 x 10-2 m = O ml d = 0 2= 0 6 =
6.lx 10-2m = O
V (i) = 02T 2 = 6T
A A A ml
· 4 s, an V (i)
A B B 8 8

A
6x2ox10-3 s 8
2T 6T 6x2ox10-3 s · 508 s.

=
•The linear momentum of: puck A is P Ci) = MA V (i) = 0.6 x 0.4 = 0.24 kg. mis.
A A

puck Bis P 0) = MB V (i) = 0.4 x 0.508 0.2 kg.mis.

8 8

• Drawing of the linear momentums:

The scale (1 cm - 0. 08 kg.mis) is used to represent the linear momentums.
0 24
The length of P c·)I is 0.08
A
· = 3 cm and that of P CI.) is�
8
0.08 = 2.5 cm.
PA (i) has a direction same as that of the velocity V Ci) of A before collision. Similarly, P8 i ha s a
A
C)
direction same as that of the velocity V 0) . 8

Psystem Ci) = P ol + Ps (i) , is represented also on the figure.

A

• After collision
_ A 6 A 12 _ 5.4 X 10-2m _ _ 6 12 _ 5.9 X 10-2m _
V (f) - � - 6 x 20x 10-3 s - 0.45 mis, and V (f) - � - 6x 20x 10-3 s = 0.49 mis.
8 8

A B

• The linear momentum of: puck A is P cf) = MA V (f) = 0.6 x 0.45 = 0.27 kg.mis.
A A

Puck Bis Bci) = MB V8 (i) = 0.4 x 0.49 = 0.196 kg.mis.

=
• Drawing of the linear momentums:
0 6
The length of P cf) is�-.�: 3.4 cm and that of P Cf) is /:8 = 2.5 cm.
A 8

PA cf) has a direction same as that of the velocity V cfl of A a fter collision. Similarly, P8Cfl has a
A

direction same as that of the velocity V Cfl .

8

Psystem Cfl = P cfl + Ps (f) , is represented also on the figure.

A

Graphically, Psystem Ci) and Psystem f) have the same magnitude and direction, so the conservation
C
of linear momentum is verified.

5. Anplications on the Conservation of Linear Momentum

The conservation of linear momentum explains some situations in daily life. In what follows, we will
introduce for you two of these situations:
A. Recoil of objects
Some objects recoil back when doing certain actions. For example, recoil of a cannon when ejecting a
shell, recoil of the soldier's shoulder when shooting by a gun, recoil of a boat when a person moves on its
surface, etc. Let's take the recoil of a cannon as an example.
Rec911 qt a cannon
A canon of mass M ejects a shell of m ass m with a
horizontal velocity u.
Consider t0 = 0 to be the instant just before the
ejection of the shell, and t to be the instant right after
ejection. We limit our study to the time interval [ 0, t].
Neglect friction between the cannon and the ground.
Question· Why does the cannon recoil when ejecting
the shell?
System: (Cannon, shell) which is initially at rest.
External forces:
* The weight (M + m ) g vertically downward; Fig. 15
* The normal reaction N vertically upward.
L Fext = (M + m ) g + N = 0 => The system is Bcurk
isolated then the linear momentum of this system is The explosion of the powder iuide the cannon
is due to internal forces of the tystem (Canon ;
conserved => Psystem (i) = Psystem (f) · shell), The tum of theN internal form ii O,

38
 Answer:
The system is initially at rest� Psystem 0 � Psystem (fl = 0.
(i) =

� Pshell (fl + Pcannon (fl = 0 �mu+ M v = 0 ( v is the velocity of the cannon right after the ejection
of the shell� = - � � The cannon recoils with a velocity v in a direction opposite to that of the
direction of the ejection of the shell.
Application 6 �
Karim starts walking at t0 = 0 with a velocity V1 of magnitude 0.5 mis relative to the ground, on a wagon
which is initially at rest. The wagon then moves with a
velocity V2
Given: mass of Karim is m1 = 50 kg and mass of the wagon
is m2 =40 kg . Rails
Neglect the forces of friction between the wagon and the
rails. The x-axis is oriented positively in the direction of V1
1. a) Prove that the system (Karim, wagon) is isolated. Fig.16
b) Determine the velocity V2 of the wagon.
c) Determine the velocity of the center of mass of the system (Karim, wagon).
2. Suppose that the wagon is initially in uniform rectilinear motion and Karim starts walking at t0 = O
with the velocity V1 relative to the ground. Specify then the nature of motion of the center of mass of
the system (Karim, wagon).
Solution
1. a) The external forces acting on the system (Karim, wagon) are: The forces of interaction between
* the weight (m1 + m2 ) g vertically downwards; Karim and the wagon are internal
* the normal reaction N vertically upwards. forces for the system
(Karim ; wagon).
(m1 + m2) g + N = O � The system is isolated.
b) The system is isolated, then the linear momentum of this system is conserved:
Psystem (i) = P5y3tem (fl , but Psystem (i) = 0 since the system was initially at rest� Psystem (fl = 0 �

I\:arim (fl + Pwagon (fl = 0 � m1 V1 + IDz Vz = 0 � Vz = - --;;-- = � Vz = • 0,625 l (mis).

...... ...... ...... -+ -+ ......m 1 V1
-+ - 50 x 0.5 i ;1
40
Then the velocities of the wagon and Karim have opposite directions.
c) Before and after motion: Psystem = 0, but PG = Psystem �PG = 0 = (m1 + m2) VG � VG• 0.
2. The system is isolated, then the linear momentum of this system is conserved:
Psystem (i) = Psystem (fl = PG = (m1 + m2 ) VG = constant �VG is constant�
The center of mass keeps moving in uniform rectilinear motion.
B. Explosions and collisions
a) Explosion
Explosion takes place during a very small time interval under the action of huge internal forces acting
between the parts of the system.
If the explosion of a solid takes place above the ground (no reaction between the ground and the solid),
then during explosion the magnitudes of the internal forces between the parts of the solid are much
greater than those of the external forces acting on the solid (Weight or/and the resistance). Then the
weight and air resistance can be neglected.
So during explosion in air, the system can be considered isolated and its linear momentum is conserved�
PsystemciJ = Psystemcr) ·
b) Collision
In most cases, during a collision between two bodies, their velocities are changed during a very small
interval of time (10 ms to 200 ms) under the action of huge internal forces between them.
So, the external forces acting on the system of the two bodies during the collision can be neglected
relative to the huge internal forces.
39
 When a collision of short duration takes place within a system of two bodies, this system can be
considered isolated and as a result the linear momentum of the system is conserved during this collision.
=> Psystem(i) = Psystemcr) => [m 1 V i + m2 Vz = m, v� + m2 v; !where:
* m 1 and m2 are the masses of the colliding bodies;
* v 1 and v�are the velocities of the center of mass of the first body just before and right after collision
respectively;
* v 2 and v; are the velocities of the center of mass of the second body just before and right after
collision respectively.
•!• Elastic and non-elastic collisions
A collision between two bodies is said to be elastic if, during the collision, the total kinetic energy
of the system is conserved.
1
IK EsystemciJ = KEsystem(f) => 2m 1 V i +2IDzz
1 2 1 1 ,z 1
V 2 = 2m 1 V i + 2IDzz
'2
V 1
In most collisions, part of the kinetic energy of the system before collision is converted during the
collision into heat and other forms.
In this case, the collision is said to be non- elastic or inelastic. KEsystem(f) < KEsystemci
J
•!• Elastic collisions with collinear velocities
m 1 V1 · v2 m2
�------------- ---=-- --�
Before
Two solidsA and B of respective masses m 1 and collision
m2 move horizontally and enter into a head-on A B
collision (all the velocities are collinear). Fig (17-a)
Let:
v� 1 v; 1
• e
• v 1 and v 2 be the velocities ofA and B just
After
before the collision respectively;
collision
• v� and v; be the velocities ofA and B right A B
after the collision respectively.
Fig (17-b)
The expressions of the algebraic values of the velocities of the two solids right after collision.
In what follows, we will determine in terms of m i , m 2 , V i and v 2 the expressions of the algebraic values
of the velocities of the two solids right after collision.
(v i and v 2 are the algebraic values of V i and v 2 respectively).
During collision, the linear momentum of the system (A ; B) is conserved, then:
m 1 v i + m2 v 2 = m 1 v� + m2 v; .
All the velocities are collinear then the vector relation can be written in the algebraic form.
=>m 1 V i + m2 v 2 = m 1 v i ' + m2 v 2 ' => ...eq (1)
The co11,1SlOn• 1s •
• e1ast1c=> 2 '2
2m i V i +2mzVz 2m i V 'i + 2mzVz =>mi ( V i -V i )=m 2 (Vz - z
i i i i
V2 )
2 = 2 I 2 2 I 2

=> .. V: v + ff ... eq (2)

If v 1 = V J ' and v2 = vi ', then the collision does not take place, so this solution is re ·ected.
Divide equation (2) by equation (1) to get: V i + v�= v; + v 2 => ... eq (3).
Substitute equation (3) in equation (1): m 1 (v i -v�) = m2 ( V i + v�-2 v 2 )
=> m 1 v 1 - m 1 v�= m2 V J + m2 v�-2 m2 v2 => v�( m2 + m1) = v,( m 1 - m2 ) + 2 m2 v2
=> v�=(m1-m2)v1 +( Zmz )v2
m1 +mz m1 +mz
From equation (3): V i = v 2 - V i + v 2 , substitute this expression in equation (1):
m, (2v i -v; - v2 ) = m2 (v; - Vz)
=> 2m 1 V J - m 1 v' - m, v2 = m2 v' - m2 v2 => v; (m2 + m 1 ) = 2m J v 1 + (m2 -µi 1) v2
=> v; =(m2-m1)v2 +( Zm1 )v 1
m1 +m2 m1 +mz

40
Particular cases
• If m 1 m2� v� v2 and v; v I so the solids exchange their velocities;
= = =

• If v2 0: =

* for m 1 > m2 , v�, v; and v 1 have the same sign� The two solids move after collision in the
same original direction of\\ .
* for m 1 < m2 , v�and v 1 have opposite signs, while v; and v 1 have the same sign. Therefore, the
solid of velocity Vi bounces back while the other moves right after collision, with a direction as
that of Vi .
Aoolication 7 Elastic and in-elastic collisions
In figure (18-a) , a light spring of stiffness k 270 Nim is compressed by 4 cm by means of two blocks
=

(A) and (B) of masses m 1 and m2 = 0.2 kg

respectively. A light string is tied around the A B
blocks and the spring in order to keep the system
at rest. Neglect all friction.
·----- • Reference level of G.P.E
The whole system is placed on a horizontal table.
The horizontal plane containing the centers of Fig (18-a)
mass of (A) and (B) is taken as a reference level for gravitational potential energy. The x-axis is oriented
positively to the left.
A. Recoil of the two blocks
At t0 0, the system [Spring, (A), (B)] is at rest and the string is burnt. (A) is ejected to the left with a
=

velocity of algebraic value V 1 while (B) is ejected to the right with a velocity of algebraic value V2•
Figure (18-b) shows the
trajectories of (A) and (B) A B
after ejecting. The time
interval separating any
two consecutive dots is
� �- -� - -· - - ·• 1000000®®®'
2.4cm
B--- ...-----�· ----..... -
4.8cm
• = 40 ms. Fig (18-b)
1. Use figure (18-b) to calculate V 1 and V2•
2. Apply the principle of conservation of the mechanical energy to prove that m 1 = 0.4 kg.
3. Determine the linear momentums Pi and P2 of (A) and (B) after ejecting. Deduce the linear
momentum of the system [(A) , (B)] after collision.
4. Represent these momentums on the figure using the following scale: lcm - 0.06 kg.mis.
5. a. Indicate the linear momentum of the system [(A), (B)] before ejecting. Conclude.
b. Deduce the linear momentum of the center of mass of this system at any instant.
c. Is the center of mass in motion or at rest? Justify.
B. Elastic collision:
After ejecting, (A) moving to the left with a speed V 1 = 0.6 mis
enters into a head-on elastic collision with a third block (C) of mass C A+-­
m3 0.1 kg initially at rest (Figure 18-c).
=
x�.:.::111111.:.:
1. Determine the magnitude and the direction of the velocity of
each block right after collision. Fig (18-c)
2. The collision lasts for 0.012 s. Use I Fext 1:,!:, Pt to determine
=

the average magnitude, and the direction of the force FA;c exerted by (A) on (C) during the collision.
C. Non - Elastic collision: ___.B D
After ejecting, (B) moving to the right with a speed of 1.2 mis,
collides with a fourth block (D) of mass� = 0.6 kg initially at rest. X<ll
.:.:.:.EIIII:.:
They move together as one body with a speed V (Fig18-d). -�-.J
1. Determine the speed V. Fig (18-d)
2. Is this collision elastic? Justify.

41
Solution
24 mm 48 mm
A. 1. V 1 = 40 ms � V, •0.6 m/1; V2 = 40 ms � Vz = 1.2 mis.
2. System: ( A, B, spring, Earth)
ME0 = ME�GPE0 + KE0 + EPE0 = GPE + KE+ EPE �O + 0 +ikx = 0 + im1 Vl + im2 V}
2

� i (270) (0.04)2 i m (0.6)2 + i (0.2)l(1.2)2�ID =OA kg.

= 1 t

3. P1 = m 1 V1 = 0.4 x 0.6 1 � P1 •0..24 (kg.mis);

--+ --t ,. ....

v
P2 = m 2 2 = 0.2 x c- 1.2) r�
P2 • - o.u (kg.mis). r
r
Pafte r = P1 + P2 = 0.24 + c-0.24 i) �Pa,_. = o.
4. Length of P1 = Length of P2 = �:�: = 4 cm. ·

A B
--••rmrm®®'" R-----.......--
P2

Fig. 19
5. a. P before = 0 (System starts from rest).
-+ --

Conclusion: Pbefore = Pafter �Linear momentum of the system [(A), (B)] is conserved.
b. Pc = Psys tem = 0 ·
c. Pc = (m 1 + m2) Ve = 0 � fG = i (G is at rest).

1. During the collision, linear momentum is conserved.

P1 + P3 = p� + p� � m 1 V1 + 0 = m, + m3 v� v� .
The equation in the algebraic form is:
m 1 V 1 = m 1 V� + m3 V� � m1 (V1 - V�) = m3 V� ...eq(l).
The collision is elastic so, the kinetic energy of the system is conserved.
1 •2 •2 •2 •2
� 2 m 1 V1 + 0 = 2 m 1 V1 + 2 m 3 V3 �m,( V1 -V1 ) = m3 ( V3 ) �
2 1 1 2
' ,
m1 ( V1 - V1 ) CV1 + V1 ) = m 3 ( V3 2 ) .
,

Divide the obtained equation by equation (1) to get: V1 + V� = V� ...eq(2).

m m3
By solving the equations (1) and (2): V� = ( m1+m3 i- ) V 1 = co.:-s°"l) (0.6) �v; = 0.36 mis.
V� = ( 2 m1 ) V 1 = 2 (0.4) (0.6) � V, •0.96 mlt.
m1+m3 0.5
v� v�
v� > o and v� > o � and are directed horizontally to the left (in the direction of 1 ). v
ti P P3 - o
2. System:Block (C); IFext = � �m3g + N 3 +FA /C =� [But m 3 g+N 3 = 0]
-+ -+ -+ _, -+ -- _,

-+ m3 v�
� FA /C = -- �FA /C and V' 3 have the same direction.
-+ -+

' tit
m3 V3 (0. 1 )(0.96) � F' • 8
FNC = tit = 0.0 1 2 N
. I.JC
c.
•

1. During the collision, linear momentum is conserved.

P2 + P4 = P� + P� �m2 V2 + 0 = (m2 + II4) V � 0.2 ( -1.2 i) = ( 0.2 + 0.6) V
� V = - 0.3 i � V = - 0.3 mis � Speed: V • 0.3 m/1.
- 2 m2 V22 + 0 _1
2 • KEbefore _1 - 0.144 J.
- 2 (0.2)(1.2) 2_
KEafter r = 2 (m2 + II4) V = 2 (0.2 + 0.6) (0.3) = 0.0 36 J
1 2 1 2

�KEbefore *
KEafter �The collision is DOD elattie.

42
 Rgdfng
1. Which are ,.rer,
modem can or old-tghlone4 can?
Crumple zones are areas of a vehicle that are designed
to defonn and crumple in a collision.
In an accident, a modem car takes a longer time to
become at rest than an old car. This is due to cnunpling.
According to Newton's 2111l lawl:Fm =�, the
magnitude of the resultant force acting on the passengers
is smaller. Then modem cars are safer than old-fashioned
carsm
Passenger cell
2. Rocket propu111on Fig. 20
>'
The combustion of fuel inside a rocket, which is due to
internal forces, results in ejection of gases out of the rocket The gases are ejected from the rear of the rocket with a
velocity it (relative to the rocket) whose magnitude is very high. The ejected gases exert a force called thrust force
on the rocket. The thrust force is an internal force in the system (Rocket, fuet.111)1 and it pushes the rocket
vertically upwards in a direction opposite to it .
Consider the system (Rocket, fuel). The mass of this system decreases due to the ejection of the gas from the rocket
The external force acting on the system is its weight W (Neglect air resistance).
v
At an instant t, the mass of the system is Mand its velocity is (Figure 21 -a) .

• M-�m

M
v+�v
Fig (21-a) Fig (21-b)
At an instant t + .:it, the mass of the ejected gas is .:im (4m > 0), so the remaining mass .of the system (Rocket, fuel)
v
is M - .:im and its velocity becomes + .:iv (Figure 21 -b).
Assume that the gas is ejected with a constant velocity it relative to the rocket.
v
At the instant (t + 4t), the velocity of the ejected gas relative to the ground is it+ + .:iV.
.:iP,ytt,m -Ps,tt,m (I) • P,y,um (t)
P,y.um (l' •Mv andPsy.um ((') - �Rocket ,fuel) + Pejected pt
v
P(Aocket ,fuel, • (M - .:im) (v + .:iv) and PeJected pt • 4m (it + + .:iv).
v
.:iP,y,um - (M- .:im) (v +.:iv)+ .:im (ii+ + .:iv) • M v- M .:iv + .:im iI
tiP!(ltMn • t.UV Hm 11
At 4t
As .:it..,.. O • 4P.,.,m ,,. dP,y,t,m • M dv + dm ii • Mi + ii !!?!
.At dt dt dt
Applying Newton's 2114 law for the system: t Fext • dP�';'m • M + ii �� a
ButtF"" • W • Mi• W • il 2 dt
W • M it directed vertically downward and it has a variable magnitude tince Mand are variable.s
it called the tbru,t force whose direction is as that of the motion of the rocket,

43
3. A�erage force during a collision
During a collision between two balls A and B, the forces of
F
Factual
interaction between them rises rapidly to a large value and
then falls back to zero during the short time interval [t 1 , t2]
(Figure 22).
We are interested in the average force Fav exerted by each
ball on the other. The average force Fav exerted by body A
on body B, is the change in the linear momentum of body
B divided by { �t = t2 - t1): -

Fig. 22

4. Oblique collision between two identical particles with one of them being initially at rest
A particle (A) of mass m moving with a velocity
Vi enters into an oblique collision with a
stationary particle (B) of mass m.
Right after collision, (A) and (B) move with
velocitiesv� v;and respectively.
Prove that v� v; and are perpendicular.
During the collision, the linear momentum of the
system [(A); {B)] is conserved, then:
mvi = mvi ' +mv2'
=>v1 vi' v2
= + ' •.. eq (1)
The collision is elastic
i 2 1 12 i •2
=> 2 m vi = 2 m Vi + 2 m v2
=> V21 = V1'2 + Vz'2 •.• eq (2) Fig. 23
Square eq (1)·: v2 = v,z + v.'2 + 2-+' vl • v2 .•. e9 (3)
1

v� .v
-+

v
1 1 2
Compare eq (2) and eq (3) => 2 2 = 0 => vi and 2 are orthogonal.

44
�---·----.
 Problems
Whenever needed use the gravitational acceleration g = IO m!s 2 and neglect air resistance
unless otherwise stated.
1.. Calculation of the linear momentum ./
The following parts are independent.
a) The kinetic energy of a particle of mass m is zero. Determine its linear momentum.
b) Two students each of mass 60 kg are sitting on a bus moving at a speed of 72 km/h. Determine the
magnitude of the linear momentum of:
i. each student relative to the earth;
ii. the system (two students) relative to the earth;
iii. the system (two students) relative to the bus.
c) The velocity of the center of mass of a solid of mass 2 kg is: (S.I).
Determine the linear momentum of the solid at:
i. t = O;
ii. t = 5 s;
d) Two identical particles are moving with the same speed, but in opposite directions. Specify whether
they have the same linear momentum or not. Determine the total linear momentum of the system
formed by the two particles.
e) A student A of mass mA = 60 kg is sliding on ice with a velocity VA= 2 t. A moves towards
another student B of mass mB = 50 kg and sliding with a velocity VB . After collision both students
slide with a velocity V = - t. Neglect all friction. Determine VB .
f) A box of mass 1 kg starts from rest at t0 = 0 under the action of a resultant force F = 2 t.
Determine the linear momentum of the center of mass of the box at the instant t = 10 s.
2· Trolley-Block colllslon ./
A trolley of mass 1 kg is moving with a velocity V1 = 3 i. A wooden block initially at rest and of mass
0.5 kg is put on the moving trolley. Right after the collision between the block and the trolley, the
velocity of the system (Trolley, block) becomes V = 2 i.
a) Verify that the linear momentum of the system (Trolley, block) is conserved during the collision.
b) Deduce the resultant of the forces acting on the system (Trolley, block).
3· Elastic collision between two balls ./
A ball (M) of mass m 1 = 1 kg moves with a constant velocity of algebraic value V1 = 4 mis towards a
ball (N) of mass m 2 = 2 kg moving with a constant velocity of algebraic value V2 = 1 m/s. At a
certain instant, (M) enters into a head-on elastic collision with (N).
Determine the algebraic values V� and V� of the velocities of (M) and (N) respectively right after
collision.
4- Determination of the Internal energy lost by a system
Fadi is standing on a small stationary boat. He throws a box of mass m 1 = 2 kg horizontally towards
the jetty with a velocity V1 = 5 t (m/s). The combined mass of Fadi and the boat is m2 = 50 kg.
Neglect friction between the boat and the water.
While throwing the box, Fadi and the boat move as one body.
Take the horizontal plane containing the center of mass of the system (Fadi, box, boat) just before
throwing the box, as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
a) Determine the velocity V2 of the system (Fadi, boat) right after throwing of the box.
b) i. Indicate the gravitational potential energy of the system (Fadi, boat, box, Earth): just before
and right after throwing the box.
ii. Deduce the increase in the mechanical energy of the system (Fadi, boat, box, Earth)
due to throwing the box.
iii. Deduce the internal energy lost by Fadi during the throwing of the box.

45
 ..
a) Apply the theorem of the center of mass to determine the (S)
acceleration of the center of mass (G) of the bomb. J.
b) Deduce the velocity of (G) at the instant t 1 = 1 s.
c) At the instant t 1 = 1 s, the bomb explodes into three fragments A
A, B and C of masses mA = 1 kg , m 8 = 2.5 kg and
c
m e = 1.5 kg respectively.
Right after the ex losion, the velocity of: G
* A is B
* Bis
i) During explosion, the linear momentum of the
system (Bomb) can be considered conserved. Why?
ii) Deduce the velocity Ve of the fragment C right after
explosion. )'

A man of mass m = 80 kg is standing on a

stationary boat of mass M = 400 kg.
The man starts moving horizontally relative to the
shore, with a velocity Vm of magnitude Vm = 2 mis.
The boat then moves with a velocity Vb relative to
the shore.
Neglect friction between the boat and the water .
a) Determine the magnitude and the direction of
vb
the velocity of the boat.
b) Determine the velocity of the center of mass G of the system (Man, boat) during the motion of the
man.

'1· dv hellcopt r (+)

The blades of a steady helicopter of mass 5000 kg send air
vertically downward at a rate of 800 kgls.
Determine the speed of ejection of air

block
A bullet of mass m 1 = 50 g moving horizontally at a speed V 1 = 600 mis strikes a stationary wooden
block of mass m 2 = 2 kg resting on a smooth horizontal surface. The bullet becomes embedded in the
block.
a) Determine the speed of the system (Bullet, block) right after collision.
d
b) The duration of the collision is 1 ms. Use Pt = t.P to determine the average magnitude of the
d l,t

force FBullet/bl ock exerted by the bullet on the block during collision.
c) Deduce the average magnitude of the force exerted by the block on the bullet during collision.
d) Specify whether the above collision is elastic or not.

46
9· Determination of the stiffness of a spring
The adjacent figure shows two blocks (A) and (B) having masses
m 1 = 2 kg and m 2 = 1 kg respectively and placed on a frictionless
table. (A) and (B) compress a horizontal light spring of stiffness k by
means of a light string. The compression of the spring is ;j,,f = 5 cm.
The x-axis is oriented positively to the right.
Consider the system (S): (Two blocks, string, spring).
a) Name and represent the external forces acting on the system (S).
b) The string is suddenly cut at an instant t0 = 0. Block (A) is ejected with a horizontal velocity of
magnitude 0.2 m/s to the left.
i. Determine the magnitude and the direction of the ejecting velocity of the block (B).
ii. Determine the velocity of the center of mass of the system (S) right after cutting the string.
iii. The mechanical energy of the system (Two blocks, string, spring, Earth) is conserved. Why?
Deduce the stiffness k of the spring.
10· Force needed to br k an RI
An egg of mass 60 g is released from rest from a height
of 0.4 m above the ground.
The y-axis is oriented positively downward.
During impact, the ground exerts a force F on the egg.
The egg is broken if the value ofF is around 25 N.
a) Apply Newton's z nd law to determine the speed of
the egg just before reaching the ground.
b) The impact of the egg with the ground takes 6 ms and then the egg
aP
stops. Use [ Fext = to determine the average magnitude of the
at
force exerted by the ground on the egg during impact.
c) The egg is released from rest from a height of 0.4 m
above a container of flour. When the egg reaches the flour, it stops
after 60 ms. Determine the average magnitude of the force exerted
by the flour on the egg during impact.
d) In which of the above cases will the egg break under impact?
11• Newton's er di v
The device in the adjacent figure consists of five
identical metal balls A, B, C, D and E suspended by
light strings of equal lengths.
When ball A is shifted to the left from its
equilibrium position and then released, it reaches its
equilibrium position with a velocity of algebraic
valuevA .
The collisions between the balls are elastic.
a) Determine the expression of the algebraic value
v� of the velocity of B right after collision, in
terms ofvA.
b) Prove that ball E will be ejected with a velocity of algebraic valuevE =vA .
12- Det rmln tlon of h tem v
A solid sphere (S 1 ), which is considered as a particle and of mass m 1 = 6 kg, is attached to a massless
rope of length f. The sphere is released from rest when the rope makes an angle of 60° with the
vertical. (S 1) reaches the horizontal plane (P 1) with a speed V1 = 5 mis, and enters into a head-on
elastic collision with another sphere (S2 ) which is initially at rest and has a mass m 2 = 6 kg.
Take the horizontal plane (P1) as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
a) Determine the length f of the rope.

47
 b) Determine the speeds of (S 1 )and
(S2) right after the collision.
c) Sphere (S2 ) moves without
friction along the track (P 1 ). At
the end of the track, it meets a
stationary wagon (W)of mass : I

M = 9 kg . (S2 ) enters the wagon

and the system [(S2), wagon ] I ______<_s ___l _ .- ,
moves to the right with a velocity ()-----·-
V along the horizontal plane (P2). (P2)
(P1)
i. Determine the magnitude V of
the velocit V of the system [(S2 ) , wagon ].
ii. Specify whether the collision between (S2 ) and (W)is elastic or not.
13· Determination of the speed of a bullet
The adjacent figure represents the ballistic
pendulum which is an apparatus used to
measure the speed of a bullet.
A bullet of mass m = 150 g is fired L ·
u,
-
horizontally with a velocity towards a large
block of wood of mass M = 50 kg suspended
from a light string of length .f = 1 m. After
M ---------m +M�-- ,
v� .,/
.,
collision, the bullet becomes embedded in the
block and the system (Bullet, block)deviates
the string through a maximum angle 8 = 30° .
Take the horizontal plane containing the center
of mass of the system (Bullet, block) when the string is vertical as a reference level for gravitational
potential energy.
a) Apply the principle of the conservation of the mechanical energy to determine the speed V0 of the
system (Bullet, block) right after collision.
b) Deduce the speed u of the bullet just before the collision.
14· Duration of collislon between two particles ./
Two particles (M)and (N), whose masses are m1 = 200 g and m2 = 300 g respectively, move in the
r,
horizontl plane (0, T). The expressions of the position vectors of (M) and (N)as a function of time t
are:
S.I units
A- Before the collision
a) Determine the instant at which M and N collide.
b) Determine the linear momenta P1 and P2 of (M)and (N)respectively before collision.
c) Deduce the linear momentum of the system [(M), (N)] before collision.
d) Deduce that the sum of the external forces acting on the system [(M), (N)] is zero. What do we
call this system?
e) Determine the velocity VG of the center of mass of the system [(M)and (N)].
B- After the collision
a) After collision, the particles join and move as one body.
Determine their velocity V right after collision.
b) Is this collision elastic? Justify your answer.
c) During the collision, the particle M exerts a force FM -->N = 30 Jon N (The average magnitude of
dP = t.P
this force is 30 N). Deduce the duration i:1t of the collision between the particles. Use .
dt tit

48
15- Advantage of airbag in automobiles
Airbags in automobiles have saved countless lives in accidents.
The advantage of the airbag is to increase the time interval during
which the driver is brought to rest, thereby reducing the forces
exerted by the steering wheel on the driver. Also, one of the
advantages of the airbag is to decrease the pressure of the force of
the steering wheel on the driver, since when it inflates it acts as a
pillow (larger area). A car collides with a concrete wall. The driver
of mass 60 Kg hits the steering wheel with a speed whose value
is 8 mis relative to the car. The time taken by the driver to become
at rest relative to the car is Llt.
a) Stopping without the air bag
Suppose that the airbag of this car is dysfunctional, so
Llt = 20 ms.
i. Determine the algebraic measure �p of the variation of the linear momentum of the driver during
Llt.
ii. Deduce the average magnitude of the force (F 1 ) exerted by the steering wheel on the driver during
Llt
b) Stopping with the airbag
In reality, the airbag opens, so Llt = 100 ms.
i. Calculate the average magnitude of the force (F 2) exerted by the airbag on the driver.
ii. Compare F 1 and F2 .
iii. Deduce which one of the above advantages is verified?
16- Effect of the mass of a particle on the collision with another particle
v
A particle (A) of mass m 1 moving with a velocity 1 = i (mis) enters into head-on collision with a
stationary particle (B) of mass m 2 .The figure below represents the algebraic values v� and v; of the
velocities of (A) and (B) respectively right after collision, as a function of the mass m 1
Use the figure to answer the following questions:
a) Prove that m 2 = 1 kg.
b) Choose two values for m 1 to verify that the collisions are elastic.
c) Pick out the values of m 1 in order that (A) recoils back after collision.
d) For a certain value of m 1 , the two particles are ejected with the same speed V. Pick out Vand m 1 •
e) Pick out the maximum speeds of (A) and of (B).

V(m s)

17- Motion of the center of mass of a system

Two blocks (A) and (B) of masses mA = 200 g and m 8 = 100 g are compressing an elastic spring. The
system is tied by means of a light string as shown in the figure.
The system is initially in uniform rectilinear motion moving with a velocity V = Vc , where (G) is the
center of mass of the system [(A), (B), spring, string].

49
At a certain instant the string is burnt, so (A) is ejected with a velocity VA= 3 i while (B) stops.
The x-axis is oriented positively to the right. Neglect friction.
String

A- Motion of the center of mass {G)

a) Determine VG .
b) Determine the nature of motion of the center of mass after collision.
B- Collision between A and C
The block (A) of velocity VA = 3 t collides with another block (C) which moves with a velocity
Ve = - 2 t and has a mass me = 150 g.
a) Determine the linear momentum of the system [(A) , (C)] before collision.
b) After collision, (C) is rebounded and moves with a velocity V� = 3 t. Determine the velocity V�
of (A) right after collision.
c) Specify whether this collision is elastic or not.
C- Motion of {G) after the collision between {A) and (C)
a) Determine the velocity V� of the center of mass (G) of the system [(A), (B), spring, string)] after
the collision between (A) and (C).
b) V� -:j:. VG . Justify without comparing the values.
18- Motion and explosion of a bomb
At t0 = 0, A bomb of mass m = 5 kgis launched vertically upward from a point O above the
ground, with a velocity V0 = - 20 k . At t 1 = 4 s, it passes again by the point O with a velocity
v1 = 20 ic. 0
Neglect all friction. The unit vector k is directed positively downward. k
A- Determination of the gravitational acceleration g
a) Determine the linear momentums P0 and P1 of the bomb at the instants t0 = 0 and
t 1 = 4 s respectively. Deduce �p between t0 and t 1 = 4 s.
b) Apply Newton's 2 nd law to determine the gravitational acceleration Useg. dP t.P
dt = tit .
B- Explosion of the bomb
The bomb reaches the ground and becomes at rest. After a certain time it explodes into three
fragments A, B and C whose trajectories lie in the horizontal plane of the ground.
Fragment A: mass mA = 2 kg; velocity (mis)
Fragment B: mass me = 2 kg; velocity (mis)
a) Indicate the value of the linear momentum of the bomb
y
before explosion.
b) Name the external forces acting on the bomb (at the ground)
during the explosion. Indicate their resultant. What can be said
about the system (bomb) during explosion? B
c) Ufe a scale lcm-+ 25 kg.mis to represent the linear momenta j x
PA and Pe of A and B respectively.
d) Represent the linear momentum Pc of C on the figure. Deduce l A
the magnitude of Pc and deduce the speed Vc of fragment C.

so
 C- Collision
The fragment A enters into a head- on elastic collision with a body D, of mass m 0 initially at rest.
a) During the above collision, two physical quantities are conserved. Indicate them.
b) The ex ression of the algebraic value of the velocity of A right after collision is:
�A -re.
±
v . Specify the possible value(s)of the mass m 0 of D if:
i. the fragment A rebounds after collision;
ii. the fragment A stops after collision;.
iii. the fragment A does not change its direction of motion after collision.

19- Analysis of the motion of two blocks ./

In this problem, we intend to study the motion of two identical blocks (M) and (S) before, during and
after their collision. For this, we consider the path ABCDE.
Take the horizontal plane containing BH as a reference level of gravitational potential energy.
A. Motion along the track AB
The block (M) of mass m 1 = 2 kg, is launched along the horizontal track AB, with an initial velocity.
The linear momentum of (M) along the track AB is:
i is a unit vector whose direction is same as that of AB.

M
E
B A
a) Calculate the speed V8 with which (M)reaches the point B.
b) Determine the sum of the external forces acting on (M) along AB.
c) Deduce whether (M)is subjected to friction force or not during it motion along AB.
B. Motion along the track BCD
The block (M) continues along the track BC, which makes an angle a with the horizontal and reaches
the point C with a speed Vc = 27 mis.
Given: sin a = 0.4, cos a = 0.92, BD = 14 m.
At C, the block (M) enters into a head-on collision with another block (S) of mass m 2 = 2 kg initially
at rest on the incline. Right after collision, (S) is launched along CD with a speed Vs = 8\/10 mis.
a) Suppose that the linear momentum of the system [(M); (S)] is conserved during collision. Deduce
the magnitude and the direction of the velocity VM of the block (M) right after collision.
b) Prove that this collision is in-elastic.
c) Deduce without calculation that the mechanical energy of the system [(M); (S); Earth ] is not
conserved during collision.
C. Motion along the path DE
(S)reaches the top of the inclined plane CD at the point D with a speed V0 = 20 mis, at an instant taken
as an origin of time t0 = 0. (S)then continues its motion as a projectile between D and E in the vertical
plane DHE.
a) Determine, in the frame of reference (0 ; i; J ), the expression of the linear momentum Po = Po of
the block (S) at t0 = 0.
b) Apply Newton's z nd law to determine the expression of the linear momentum P of the block (S)
between D and E, as a function of time t.
c) Deduce the time needed by (S)to reach the maximum height.

51
20- Motion of a car using flowing water
A small toy car carries a container filled with water to a height z = 0.32 m. Neglect the mass of the
container. The mass of the car when the container is empty is m = 2 kg.
The container is completely filled with water of mass M = 10 kg. A tap on the bottom of the container
is used to evacuate it. (G) is the center of mass of the system when the container is empty, and (G 1 ) is
the center of mass of the water (See figure).
Take the horizontal plane containing (G) as a
reference level for gravitational potential
energy. The x-axis is oriented positively to the Waier
right. Neglect friction. z = 32 m
Gi.
A- The car is at rest
The tap is still closed and the system (Car ,
water) is at rest.
a) Calculate the gravitational potential energy
of the system:
i. (Water, Earth) ii. (Car , Earth)
b) Deduce the mechanical energy ME 0 of the system (Car, water, Earth).
c) Indicate the sum of the external forces acting on the system (Car; water). Indicate the name of this
system.
d) Indicate the initial linear momentum P0 of the system (car, water).
B- Movement of the car
At ta= 0, the car is at rest and the tap is opened, so water flows backwards with a velocity ii.
a) Show that the car moves in a direction opposite to ii (forwards).
b) The container is completely evacuated at an instant t when the car attains a speed of V = 2.5 mis.
i. Calculate the mechanical energy of the system (Car; Earth) when the container is completely
evacuated.
ii. Calculate the increase of the mechanical energy of the system (Car , Earth) between ta= 0 and t.
m. Deduce the decrease of the mechanical energy of the system (Water , Earth) between ta= 0 and t.
C- Stopping the car
When the car attains the speed V = 2.5 mis, it reaches a rough surface where the frictional force has a
constant magnitude fr = 2.5 N . It takes the car a time dt to stop.
a) Calculate the variation i:1P of the linear momentum of the car during the time dt.
b) Apply Newton's z n a law to determme dt. Use dt = tit
. di> tii>

21 • (Blocks -spring) system under collision

Consider a block (A) of mass m1 = 1.6 kg moving initially to the right with a velocity V1 of magnitude
4 mis on a horizontal track. (A) enters into a head-on elastic collision with a massless spring attached to a
second block (B) of mass m2 = 2.1 kg. Initially, the system [(B), spring)] is moving to the left with a
velocity V2 of magnitude 2.5 mis.

-·-------�--:
The horizontal plane containing the center of
mass (G) of the blocks is taken as a reference
level of gravitational potential energy GPE. (A) k (B)
Given: The stiffness of the spring is k = 600
Nim . Neglect all friction.
a) Prove that during the whole motion of the two blocks, the:
i. mechanical energy of the system [(A) ; (B); spring ; Earth] is conserved;
ii. value of the mechanical energy of the above system is =19.3625 J;
iii. linear momentum of the system [(A), (B), spring] is conserved; deduce the velocity VG of (G)
before and after the collision.
b) The spring is compressed
i. During the compression of the spring, part of the kinetic energy is converted into another form.
Indicate this from.

52
 ii. When the compression of the spring is X i , the velocity of (A) is VA= 3 i (mis).
1. Determine then the velocity of (B).
2. Apply the principle of conservation of mechanical energy of the system [(A) ; (B); spring ;
Earth] to deduce X i .
iii. At the instant when the spring is compressed to maximum, (A) and (B) have the same velocity V.
1. Prove that at this instant the velocity of each block is equal to that of (G).
2. Deduce the maximum compression of the spring.
c) The spring restores its natural length
When the spring restores its natural length, (A) and (B) are ejected with velocities of algebraic
values V� and V� respectively.
i. Determine the expressions ofV� and V� in terms of V1 ; V2; mi and m2 .
ii. Deduce thatV� is negative and V� is positive.
iii. Determine the minimum speed V I that must be given to (A) in order to recoil back after collision
with an ejection speed less than that of (B).
22- Determination of the ratio of the masses of two marbles ./
The adjacent figure shows two
marbles (A) and (B), which are
considered as particles of masses mi
and m2 respectively, placed on a f
track in the vertical plane.

·-------�............_
At t0 = 0, A is released from rest from
a height h. The marble A reaches the bl
horizontal path of the track with a Reference level of GPE
velocity of algebraic value v 1, where
it collides elastically with the stationary marble (B). The plane containing the horizontal part of the track
is taken as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
The horizontal x-axis is oriented positively to the right. Neglect all friction.
a) Determine the expression of the height h in terms of: Vi and the gravitational acceleration g .
b) v� andv; are the algebraic values of the velocities of (A) and (B) respectively right after collision.
Determine the expressions ofv� andv; in terms of mi , m2 and Vi .
c) Knowing that mi < m2 , specify the directions of the velocities andv� v; right after collision.
d) Determine the ratio mi if:
mz
i. (A) and (B) are ejected with equal speeds right after collision.
ii. the ratio of the maximum heights reached by (A) and (B) after collision is
23- Explosion of a rocket
A rocket of mass 30 tons is moving vertically upwards at a
speed V = 5 km/s. It explodes and splits into two
fragments A and B of masses mA = 10 tons and m8
respectively. Just after explosion, the velocities of the Instant of
fragments are: VA which has a magnitude VA = 9 km/s explosion
and makes an angle a with the initial direction of the
rocket and V8 which makes an angle 8 with the initial
direction of the rocket. Trajectory of
The figure represents the trajectory of the rocket before the rocket
explosion and that of fragment A after explosion. before
Use a scale lcm-+ 50 x 10 6 kg.mis to determine exploilon
graphically the magnitude of V8 and the angle 9.

53
24- Determination of the external forces acting on a solid
A solid of mass m = 0.5 kg is moving along the
circumference of a circle of center 0. y
The adjacent fi gure shows the positions of the
center of mass (S) of the solid. The time interval
separating any two consecutive positions is -r = 40 ms.
a) Prove that the motion of (S) is uniform circular.
b) Calculate the speed of the solid .
c) Use the scale 1 cm- 0.05 kg m/s to
represent the linear momenta of the center of mass x
of the solid at the points A 0 and A 2 .
d) Represent, at the point A 1 , the variation of the
linear momentum L1P0 2 of (S) between A0 and A2 .
e) Deduce the magnitude of �P0,2 .
f) Determine the magnitude of the resultant force
. llP ct P
actmg on the so1·d1 . Use - = - .
M
ct t

25- Determination of the mass of a puck

Puck (A) of mass mA moves on a horizontal air table along the path M' B0M which makes an angle
of 37° with the x-axis B 0x (B0 is the origin of the x-axis).
At a certain instant, puck A hits obliquely another stationary puck (B) of mass m B = 0.6 kg. Consider
the pucks as particles. After collision, (A) and (B) move in two perpendicular directions along the y­
axis and the x-axis respectively.
The figure below shows the trajectories of the two pucks such where:
* 8 0 , B 1 , B 2 and B 3 are the successive positions of puck (B) after collision.
* A 1 , A 2 , and A 3 , are the successive positions of puck (A) after collision.
* the time interval between two consecutive positions is T = 50 ms.
a) Calculate after collision the speeds VA and VB of the pucks (A) and (B) respectively.
b) Represent at B 0 the linear momentums PB of (B) after collision. Scale: 1 cm--+ 0.05 kg.mis.
c) The system [(A) ; (B)] is isolated. Why?
d) Use the results of parts (b) and (c) to represent the linear momentums PA of (A) after collision, and
the linear momentum P0 of (A) before collision.

ty
M.
. ....
.
. ..... .
.....
A,r
Az'
. . . .
. .. ....
.
. .....
... .... .
x
�?.························
.{37" i························1·························"i1·················�
..,,•' Bo 1 -i -l

II'
(A)/�·0

M ;.··· .
54
e) Deduce that the mass of puck (A)is mA = 0.6 kg.
f) Specify whether this collision is elastic or not.

26- Linear momentum of the center of mass (G) of a system ./

Two pucks (A)and (B)initially placed on a horizontal air table are pushed towards each other with
concurrent velocities. A 0 , A 1 . . . , A 6 and 8 0 , 8 1 , . . . , 8 6 are the successive positions of the centers of
mass of (A)and (B)respectively before collision. A 6 , A 7 , . . . , A 12 and 8 6 , 8 7 , . . . , 8 12 are the
successive positions of the centers of mass of (A)and (B)respectively after collisions.
Let (G)be the center of mass of the two pucks. Given: M A= 600 g; M 8 = 400 g and T = 20 ms.
a) G0 is the center of mass of A 0 and 8 0 . Calculate the distance A 0 G 0 .
b) Construct the trajectory of (G)before and after collision.
c) Deduce the nature of the motion of (G). Calculate the speed of (G)before and after collision.
d) Use a scale: lcm - 0.08 kg.mis to represent the linear momentum PG of (G)before and after
collision.

812
•

89 •
•Bz Ba •
87
B• s •

•
As •
A•9
A 10
A•u
·A•
I 12

55
 3 Angular Momentum

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

•!• Define the angular momentum of a particle and of a system of particles rotating
around a fixed axis.
•!• Apply the theorem of angular momentum.
•!• Apply the law of the conservation of angular momentum.

56
Prerequisites
1 • Moment of a force with respect to an axis
The moment of a force with respect to an axis(�) is a physical quantity that measures the rotational
effect ofthis force about the axis (�).
A rod OA oflength f is free to rotate about a horizontal
axis (L\) which is perpendicular to OA at 0.
A force F, which is orthogonal to the axis (L\) and makes an
angle a with OA, is applied on the rod at the point A
(Figure 1).
The magnitude ofthe moment of the force about (L\) is:
Mp = F x d where:
F is the magnitude ofthe force in N;
d is the distance between the line of action of the force Fig.1
and (L\).
In all cases, d = OA sina, so we can write Mp = F x OA sina.
The force F may rotate the rod in the chosen positive sense( Mp > 0) or opposite to the chosen positive
sense( Mji < 0), and then the moment of a force is an algebraic quantity.
=> I MF=± F x OA sina.] S.I unit ofthe moment Mp is N.m.

• Ifthe line of action of F is parallel to or passing through the axis(�), then Mp = 0 relative to the axis
(�).
2· Work done by a force of constant moment
A force F is acting on a solid which is in rotational motion relative to a fixed axis(�).
The work Wp done by the force F ofmoment Mp relative to(�). when the angular abscissa of the solid
varies from ei to 9r, is given by the following expression: dWp = Mp

de =>WP =
rer
Mp d9.
Je1
If the force has a constant moment relative to(�)(Figure 2), then
Wp = Mp (9r- 9i) = Mp �9

=> I Wp = MF . d0 0

Fig.2
where: Mji is the moment of the force in N.m, and �0 is the angle
described by the rotating solid in radians (rad).

• If Mp > 0 => The work is motive and the moment Mp of the force helps the rotational motion of the
solid.
• If Mp < 0 => The work is resistive and the moment Mji of the force resists the rotational motion of the
solid.
3· Angular abscissa, angular veloclty and angular acceleratlon

• 9' = :: => d9 = 0' dt => [!: f

= 9' � (9 and 9' are the angular abscissa and the

• 9" = �:· => d0

1
"" I
0" dt => 0' = f 0" dt I angular velocity respectively).
(9" is the angular acceleration).

57
 1- Angular Momentum (d)
•!• Angular momentum of a particle in circular motion about a fixed axis
Consider a particle(S) of mass m whose velocity at an instant t is The linear v.
momentum of(S) is P = m v. 0
(S) is located at distance r from an axis(�)(Figure 3).The angular momentum
of the particle relative to(�) at the instant t is given by the following
___.
.
express10n: ___,__,
a= r x _,PTh_,_,
. en a= r x m v Fig. 3
:::} a= r m v sin 8 = r P sin8 .
r = OS is the distance between(�) and(S), and 8 is the angle
r
between and the linear momentum P of(S).
In case the particle describes a circular trajectory about a fixed
axis(�), r will be the radius of the circular trajectory (Figure 4).
:::} 8 = 90° :::} a= r p = r m v , but v = r 8'( 8'is the angular
velocity of the particle with respect to(M)
:::} a = m r 2 8', but m r 2 = I( I is the moment of inertia of the Fig. 4
particle with respect to(�)):::} a= I 8'.
Reading
The algebraic value of the angular momentum of a particle in circular a is a vector quantity and its
motion about a fixed axis(�), is the product of the moment of inertia of direction is given by the right
the particle and its angular velocity relative to(�). a = I 8'i i hand screw rule:
1- curl the fingers of the right
2 2
In S.I units, I is expressed in kg.m , 8' in rad/sand a in kg.m /s hand rule in the sense of
the motion;
The algebraic value of CJ is positive if the particle moves in the positive 2- the thumb indicates the
sense, and negative if the particle moves in the negative sense. direction of cr.
•!• Angular momentum of a system of particles rotating about a fixed axis
At any instant, the angular r.iomentum of a system of n particles rotating about a fixed axis(�) is the
algebraic sum of the angular momentums of all particles with respect to(�).
Note:
The linear momentum of a system of
particles is equal to that of the center
where I i is the moment of inertia of a particle of order i relative to of mass of the system; Psystem = Pc ,
(ll), and 8; is the angular velocity of the same particle. while the angular momentum of a
For a solid in rotation about a fixed axis, 1 all the particles of the system of particles is not equal to
system have the same angular velocity 8 :::} that of the center of mass of the
- t-ot-a_l _=_l_s -st-em-9-,�, system; O"system -:/=. crc.
CTt ota l = 9' ( 1 1 + lz + ··.In) :::} ,_, CT
y

Application 1
A particle(A) of mass m= 500 g is fixed at a distance d= 20 cm (4)
from the eenter of a disk of mass M= 2 kg and radius r= 40 cm
(Figure 5). +
At t0= 0, the system(Particle, disk) starts rotating from rest in
the anti-clockwise sense about the axis(�) of the disk, with a r·
i d
)
i
constant angular acceleration 8" = 0.2 rad/s2.The moment of
inertia of the disk relative to(�) is I = M r2. Fig. 5
Determine the total angular momentum of the system(Particle, disk) at:
1. to= O; 2. t= IO s..
Solution
1. (Jtota l = aA+ (J di ks . At to= 0, 8'= 0 :::} aA = (J diks = 0:::} atotal = 0.

58
 2. 9" is constant and 9". 9' > 0 => Uniformly accelerated rotational motion.
=> 9' = 9" t + e� => 8� 1 0) = 0.2 x 10 + 0 = 2 rad/s.
(JA = IA ce') 2 = (md2 ) 9'= 0.5 (0.2)2 (2)= 0.04 kg. m /s.
2

i 2 2 2
cr disk = l cti sk (e') = M r 9' = (0.5) (2)(0.4) (2) = 0.32 kg. m /s
2

=> Cftotal = 0.04 + 0.32=> O"total = 0.36 kg.m2/s .

Reading
2- Theorem of Angular Momentum --. .... - ..... <lP
In general, MF = r x F = r x-
The rate of change of the of the angular momentum of a system about a dt

fixed axis (Ll) is equal at any instant to the sum of the moments (relative Butcr = r x P �
dcr di' _, .. dP
to Ll of the external forces acting on the system. dt
=[ dt xPJ+[r x ]
dt
d cr de' , di ctr - ctr - - - -
L Mext = dt => L Mext = I dt + 0 dt · - =V=>- x P=VxmV=O

Ir I
dt dt
dcr .. dP ____,
=>-=r x- =M-F
If I is constant=> :� = 0 => Mext = I 9" dt
____,
dt
dcr du
M-F = -
dt
=> M-F =-
dt

Application 2
Consider a homogeneous disk (D) of radius r= 0.2 m. The moment of
inertia of (D) relative to a horizontal axis (Ll) and perpendicular to the
plane of the disk at its center is I= 0.1 kg m2. The disk starts from rest at
t0 = 0 under the action of a motive couple ( F 1 = F2= F=1 N) (Figure 6).
F1 and F2 remain tangent to the disk at A and B respectively. Neglect all B !)...
friction.
1. Apply the theorem of the angular momentum to determine the
expression of the angular momentum of the disk as a function of time.
2. Deduce the angular velocity and the angular acceleration of the disk Fig. 6
at t = 5 s. Deduce the number of rotations described by D during the
first 5 seconds.
3. Apply the work -energy theorem to determine the work done by the couple during the first 5 seconds.
4. At t = 5 s, the couple is removed and another resistive couple of moment M7 = - 0.2 N.m is
applied on D.
a. Determine the new angular acceleration and deduce the nature of motion of the disk.
b. Deduce the stopping time of this phase of motion.

Solution
1. System: disk
External forces: the weight mg, the reaction R and the couple F1 and F2 .
Theorem of angular momentum:
d cr d cr
L Mext = dt => Mmg + MR + Mcouple dt

Mmg = MR = 0 since mg and R pass through the axis of rotation (Ll)

Mcouple = (F) (d) (sin 90°) = (F) (2 r) (sin 90°) = 1 x 2 X 0.2 x 1 = 0.4 N.m
da
I
=> 0 + 0 + 0.4 = dt => cr = 0.4 dt =. 0.4 t + cr0 , but the disk starts from rest=> cr0 = 0
=> a 0.4 t S.I
11111

04
· t => 0' = 4t S.I. Derive 9' with respect to time: 0" = 4 rad/s 2= constant.
2. er = 0.4 t.=> 9' = �I = 0.1
Ocs) • 20 rad/s and 9(!n • 4 rad/s2.
f I II
Then: Bes) = 4 x 5 =>
I
e = e· dt = 2t2 + Bo=> .19 = 2t2 => .19cs) = 2 x 52 => 49cs) = 50 rad .
.
The number of rotations 1s
. N=-
M = so
2
- - - => N - 8 rotati ons.
2 X .14
TI 3
=
59
 3. System: Disk (rigid system)=> /J. KE= L Wf!ext => i I (8�) 2
- 0 = W m g + WR + Wcoupl e
Wmg = WR= 0 (mg and Rpass through the axis of rotation (Li)) . At t = 20 s, 8� = 20 rad/s.
=> Wcoupl e = (0.5) (0.1) (20) 2=> Wa,uple = 20 J.
= dt, but I = constant=> L Mext = I 8 11 => Mmg +MR+ M7 = I 811 => - 0.2 = 0.18 11
dcr
4. a. �M
L., ex t

=> 8" = - 2 raclls1

8 11 = constant and (8 11 • 8� < 0)=> Uniformly decelerated rotadonal modon.
b. 8' = 8" t + 8� = -2 t + 20. The disk stops when 8' = 0=> 0 = - 2t + 20=> t = 10 1.

3- Conservation of Angular Momentum

A system is subjected to the external forces: F1 , F2 , F3 , ... , Fn .
Suppose that the sum of the moments of the above external forces about an axis (/J.) is zero (I M-F
ext = 0).
By applying the theorem of angular momentum, we get: L Mext = �: = 0 => cr is constant. So the angular
momentum of the system about the axis (/J.) is constant (conserved).

I I
If the sum of moments of the external forces acting on a system relative to a fixed axis (Li) is zero the
angular momentum of this system relative to (/J.) is conserved. => cr i = err
•:• Applications on conservation of angular momentum
a) Deformable 1y1tem with variable moment of lnerda - Rotating 1toot
Figure (7) shows a student sitting on a freely rotating
stool holding two dumbbells (loads) each of mass m.
In figure (7-a), the student holds his arms
outstretched and rotates with an angular velocity 8�
with respect to a vertical axis (Li) passing through the
center of mass of the system (Student , stool).
The moment of inertia of the system (Student, r. .
c,
dumbbells) relative to (/J.) is 1 1
Suddenly, the student pulls his arms to his chest
[Figure (7-b)]. So the moment of inertia of the
system relative to (/J.) becomes h, and the angular
velocity increases to become 8�. Neglect all friction.
But why does the angular velocity of the system
increase when the student pulls his arms to his chest? ��
(a) (b)
Explanation
System: (Student, dumbbells). Fig. 7
The external forces acting on the system at any instant are:
the weight m g and the reaction R. (the muscular forces are internal forces).
mg and Rare confounded with the axis of rotation (/J.)=> Mm g = MR = 0.
=> L M ext = 0 => The angular momentum of the system is conserved:

b) Q1Com1bk 1r•tem wtth equ,tant mqment of tnettf• - Rqtattqn or two 4Awt to ogpq1tte ,en•u
In figure (8), a vertical torsion wire of negligible mass joins the centers of mass of two horizontal disks
(A) and (B).
The system [(A); (B); torsion wire] is suspended by two vertical torsionless strings connected to two
fixed supports.

60
 The system is initially at rest. Rotate disk(B) from its equilibrium position by an angle 9 about a vertical
axis(�) passing through the torsion wire, and then release it from rest.
You observe that the two wires rotate in opposite senses.
Explanation
System: [(A); (B); torsion wire].
j(A)
Support
The external forces acting on the system at any instant are:
the weight Mg of the two disks and the tensions T1 and T2
String
Disk A
exerted by the strings.
(The tension forces exerted by the torsion wire on the disks
are internal forces).
MMg = M1\ = Mf2 = 0, since these forces are confounded Torsion wire

--���-i-�-----------�
with the axis of rotation(�) . DiskB
::::} L M ext = 0 ::::} The angular momentum of the system is
conserved ::::} cr i = CTf
String
Before rotation: The system starts from rest ::::} cri = 0.
After rotation: crA = IA 8� and crB = IB 8� where : -r--�, Support
• IA and IB are the moment of inertia(relative to(�) )
of disks A and B respectively; Fig. 8
• 8� and 8� are the angular velocities of the disks (A) and(B) respectively.
CJf = CJA + CJB = 0
' ' , -1 9�
8 . . , ,
0 = IA 8A + IB 8 8 ::::} 9 A = -- , but IA and Is are positive then 8A and 8 8 have opposite signs
IA
::::} The two disks rotate in the opposite senses.
If IA< IB ::::} 18� I > 1 8� I .
Application 3
Consider a uniform homogeneous rod(R) of mass m= 240 g and of length t= 1 m.(R) that can rotate
without friction in the horizontal plane around a vertical axis(�), which is perpendicular to the rod and
passing through its center 0.
(A) and(B) are two particles attached to O by means of light strings of
respective lengths OB= D= 40 cm and OA= d= 20 cm.
At t0= 0, the system [Rod, string, (A),(B)] rotates in the anti-clock
wise sense with a constant rotational speed(frequency) of 3 r.p.s. B
Given: The masses of(A) and(B) are mA = 400 g and m 8 = 250 g
respectively and the moment of inertia of the rod with
, ..... ······1r···•
1
respect to (D.) is Ir = m t2.
12 !(A)
1. Calculate the moment of inertia I of the system [Rod, string, (A) ,
(B)] relative to(�). Fig. 9
2. Deduce relative to (D.) the angular momentum of the above system at an instant t0= 0.
3. Prove that the angular momentum of the system [Rod, string, (A), (B)] is conserved during the
rotation.
4. The strings OB and OA are suddenly cut at an instant t. Then(A) is displaced to the left extremity of
the rod while(B) is displaced to the right extremity. Deduce the new rotational speed of the above
system.
Solution
1
1. I= Ir + IA + I 8 = mt2 + mA d 2 + m 8 D 2
12
1
I= 1 2 (0.24)(1 2) + 0.4(0.2)2 + 0.25(0.4)2::::} I= 0.076 kg.m2 •
2. a = I 8'= I x (2 n f) = 0.076 x 2 n x 3 ::::} a::! 1.432 kg. m2 /s.
3. System: (Rod, string, A, B).
External forces: the weight of the rod mg ; the weights: mA g and m 8 g of A and B

61
 respectively; the reaction R at the axis ofrotation.
Moments relative to(�): MR = 0 since R passes through the axis(�).
Mmg = 0 since m g is confounded with the axis(�).
MmAg = Mm 8 g = 0 since these forces are parallel to(�).
=> IMF"ext = Mmg + MR + MmAg + Mmgg = 0.
dcr dcr =
But I M = dt => dt 0 => er = constant.
1
4. The new moment ofinertia ofthe system is: I' = 1 2 (0.2 4)(12) + 0.4(0.5)2 + 0.25(0.5) 2
=>I'::: 0.183 kg.m2.
er is conserved => er = i' 8' = i'(2 TI () => 1.432 = 0.183(2 rr () => f' ::: 1.25 r.p.s .

Application 4 �
A box(S) ofmass m rests on a horizontal table and is .- - - - -
----------
connected to a thin string, which passes through a hole { o .------�--------<•
...
made in a table at a point 0.
The other end of the string hangs below the table a
' .. - _ _ _ - - - - - - - _ !__ - ...
(S)
massless container(N), which contains sand ofmass
m 1 (Figure 10).
At t0 = 0, the box(S) is given an initial angular
velocity 8� and rotates about O in the anti-clockwise
sense. Neglect all friction.
1. Apply the theorem of angular momentum to
determine the nature of motion of(S).
2. Determine the expression ofthe magnitude T 1 of

--
the tension force exerted by the string on(S), in
terms ofm, R, and 8�( R is the radius ofthe m1 (N)
circular trajectory of(S) ).
3. At an instant t, we start adding more sand Fig.10
gradually to the container. When the hanged mass
becomes m 2 , the radius ofthe circular trajectory becomes f.
i. Determine the expression ofthe new angular velocity 8� of(S) in terms of 8�.
ii. Deduce m 2 ofin terms ofm 1 .
Solution
1. System: (S).
The external forces acting on the system at any instant are:
the weight mg , the normal reaction N and the tension force T1 exerted by the string.
mg and N are parallel to the axis ofrotation(.:l) => Mmg = MN = 0.
The moment ofthe tension force is: Mr' = 0 since this force meets the axis ofrotation(�).
i
=> L Mext = �; = 0 => er = const. => The angular momentum of(S) is conserved.
But er = I 8' => 8' = const. => Uniform rotational motion.
2. System: (S).
I Fext = ma =>mg+ N + T1 = ma. Project along the radial direction oriented positively towards
the center ofthe trajectory of(S):
2
0 + 0 + T1 = man = m : wherean is the normal acceleration of(S).
'
But v = R 81 => T 1 = m R (9 1 )
' 2

3. i. When the hanged mass is m2 , }: Mext remains equal to 0, then the angular momentum of(S)

62
 R z , ,
crafter � 11 8 1 = 12 8 2 � m R 8 1 = m(2) 8 2 � Oz = 4 0 ,1
• • , ,
ts still conserved � <Jb efore = 2 ,

ii. For 8� ' TI = mR(8� ) 2 ' and for 8� ' the magnitude of the new tension is T2= m c �) (8� )2
�T2= m(2 R
)(48i)' 2=
8(mR(8i) ' 2
)�T2= 8T 1•
But T1 = m 1 g and T2= m 2 g since the system (Block (N); sand) is in equilibrium� m 2 g = 8 m 1 g
�m 2 =8m 1

4- Analogy between Translation and Rotation

Each term in rotation can be analogous to a term in translation. We make analogy in physics to
facilitate the study (analysis, results ....).
The table below gives some physical quantities in translation and their analogous quantities in
rotation.

Translation Rotation

Abscissa: x Angular abscissa: 0

Algebraic value of the velocity: v Angular velocity: 0'

Tangential acceleration: 3t Angular acceleration : 0"

Mass: m �oinentofinertia:I

....
linear Inomentuin: P = In V
.... angular ffiOIIlentulil: (J = I e'

-+
Force: F Moment of a force : MF

... d<J
l:Fext =
Tt
di>
.I: Mext = dt

.I:Fext = 0 �I\= Pc (constant) L Mext = 0� cri = ere = constant

63
 Problems
1. Calculation of angular momentum i/
The questions A and B are independent
A. A marble taken as a particle ofmass m= 50 g is moving in a circular trajectory ofradius 0.8 m.
The ex ression ofthe angular velocity ofthe marble about the axis ofrotation (Ll) is :
( S.I ).
a) Determine the expression ofthe angular momentum ofthe marble about the axis(�), as a
function oftime t.
b) Deduce the algebraic sum ofthe moments (about (Ll)) ofthe external forces acting on the marble.
B. Consider a disk ofmass M= 1.6 kg and ofradius r= 40 cm. A particle (A) ofmass m 1 = 500 g is
fixed at a distance d= 20 cm from the center O ofthe disk.
Another particle (B) ofmass m2= 1 kg is fixed at a distance (A)
D = 30 cm from 0. At t0 = 0, The system [Disk , (A) , (B)]
rotates in the anti- clockwise sense about the axis (Ll) ofthe
disk, with a constant angular velocity 9'= 0.2 rad/s.
+
The moment ofinertia ofthe disk relative to (Ll) is I=� Mr 2 .
a) Calculate the moment ofinertia ofthe above system
)
relative to (Ll).
b) Deduce the algebraic value ofthe angular momentum ofthe above system relative to (L'l).

2. Determination of the number of revolutions performed by a hoop i/

Consider a hoop (S) ofmass m= 1.2 kg and ofradius R= 30 cm. At t0 = 0, (S) rotates without friction
in a horizontal plane about its vertical axis (Ll) with a rotational speed (frequency) of 160 r.p.s. At an
instant t, a force F ofconstant magnitude is applied tangentially on (S) thus stopping it in 8 s.
a) Calculate the initial value ofthe angular momentum of(S) relative to (Ll).
b) Apply the theorem ofthe angular momentum to determine the magnitude F of F.
c) Determine the number ofrevolutions performed by (S) during the stopping time.
3. Determination of the sum of external forces and the sum of their
moments

circumference ofa circle ofradius R= 6 m, is

a) Calculate the speed ofthe particle. Deduce the algebraic value ofthe angular momentum of the
particle relative to an axis ofrotation (Ll), which is perpendicular to the plane ofthe circle at its
center.
b) Deduce, relative to (Ll), the sum ofthe moments ofthe external forces acting on the particle.
c) Determine the expression ofthe linear momentum P at any instant.
d) Deduce the expression ofthe sum ofexternal forces acting on the particle.
4. Walking on a turntable �
A person taken as a particle ofmass m= 60 kg is
m
standing on the rim ofa horizontal twntable of
radius r= 2 m. The moment ofinertia ofthe
turntable with respect to its axis is 500 kg.m2.
The turntable is initially at rest, and it is free to CM
rotate without friction about a vertical axle
through its center ofmass CM.
The person starts walking anti-clockwise along the
rim ofthe table at a constant speed V= 1.5 m/s
relative to the ground.
a) Indicate the external forces acting on the system (Turntable, person).

64
b) Prove that the turntable will rotate in the clockwise sense. Determine the angular velocity of the
turntable relative to the ground.
c) Determine the angle described by the turntable when the person describes an angle of � rad.
2
d) Specify whether the mechanical energy of the system (Turntable, person, Earth) is conserved or not.
Calculate the variation in the internal energy of the system (Turntable, person, atmosphere).

5. Rotation of two disks �

A disk of radius R1 and moment of inertia 1 1 = 0.5 kg m 2 rotates without friction about an axis (..1) with
an angular velocity 8\ = 2 rad/s. The axis (11) is vertical and perpendicular to the plane of the disk at its
center. A second disk initially at rest of same mass and
of radius R2 = �1 is put over the first disk. Then th� two
disks rotate as one body with an angular velocity Or
Given: The moment of inertia of a disk of mass M and
i
of radius R with r�spect to its axis is I = M R2•
a) Determine Or.
b) Determine the initial and the final kinetic
energies of the system (two disks). Before After
c) The loss in the kinetic energy of the above system
is converted into another form of energy. Indicate
the form of this energy and calculate its value.
6. The spinning bicycle wheel
Karim holds the axle of a spinning bicycle Fig (a) Fig (b)
wheel while sealed on a stool (chair). The
stool is free to rotate without friction about a Before wheel is After wheel is
vertical axis (..1) passing through the center of flipped flipped
mass of the system (Karim , stool) (See
figure).
At t0 = 0, Karim and the stool are at rest, and
Karim is holding the axle of the spinning
wheel. The wheel is spinning in the horizontal
plane with an initial angular speed I 0� I = 10
rad/sin the anti-clockwise sense (Figure a).
At an instant t, Karim flips the wheel upside
down, so the wheel rotates with an angular
speed 10�1 = 10 rad/sin the clockwise sense
(Figure b).
The moment of inertia of the system (Karim,
stool) with respect to (..1) is 3 kg.m 2, and that
of the wheel relative to its axis is 0.45 kg.m 2
Take the anti-clockwise sense as the positive sense.
a) Calculate the algebraic value of the initial angular momentum <J 0 of the wheel.
b) Prove that the angular momentum of the system (Karim, stool, wheel) is conserved.
c) Deduce the sense of rotation and the magnitude of the angular velocity 0�, of the system (Karim,
stool).
d) Determine the work done by the force F exerted by Karim during the flipping of the wheel.
7. Linear speed of the motion of Earth around the sun
The earth, considered as a particle, moves in an elliptical orbit around the Sun.
In 3- January, and the distance between Earth and Sun is minimum (R1 = 147 x 10 6 Km), while in
3- July, this distance is maximum (R2 = 152 x 10 6 Km).
In 3- January and in 3-July, the velocities of the earth around the sun are V1 and V2 respectively (figure).

65
 Given: mass of Earth ism= 6 x 10 24 kg.
a) Indicate the external force
acting on the earth. Deduce
that the angular momentum of
the earth during its motion

*
around the Sun is conserved.
b) Deduce that V1 V2. V1 and
V2 are the magnitudes of V1
and V2 respectively.
c) Knowing that V1= 30.29 kmlh.
i. determine the angnlar
momentum of the earth
relative to (A) in 3- January.
ii. deduce the linear speed V2
of the earth.

8. Particle- rod collision

=
Consider a particle (S) of mass m 3 kg moving horio
a velocity V. (S) strikes the end A of a stationary homogenous
=
vertical rod of mass M 1 kg and of length ( =AB= 2 m.
The speed of (S) just before the collision is V = 2 mis.
--
z ntally with
(S) V � +
Ure rod can rotate without friction about a horizontal axis (l\), 0 0
orthogonal to the velocity V of (S) and passing through the center
of� 0 of the rod.
Right after collision. the particle is stuck to the rod and the system
(Particle, rod) rotates about (Li) with an angular velocity 8'.
=
The moment of inertia of the rod relative to (A) is I :M .f2 .
1
a) Determine the magnitude of the linear momentum P of the
particle just before the collision.
b) The angular momentum (relative to (A)) of the particle just before collision is given by this
=
expression: a0 P x (OA) x sin (OA, P ). Calculate a0 •
c) Prove that the angular momentum of the system (Particle, rod) is conserved during the collision.
Deduce&'.
d) Specify whether this collision is elastic or not.

9. MQtion of the system (Fadi , Disk)

Consider a uniform homogeneous disk (D) of mass
= =
m1 200 kg and radius of R 4 m. (D) is free to rotate in
the horizontal plane about a vertical axis passing through its
center.
=
Fadi considered as a particle of mass m2 60 kg is standing
at a point A on the periphery of the disk.
i
Given: moment of inertia of (D) relative to (A) is I = MR2•
In this problem. we will study the motion of the system
(Fadi • disk) in two cases:
First:
The system (Fadi. disk) is initially at rest.
=
At to O. Fadi starts from rest a uniformly accelerated
rotational motion in the anti-clockwise sense. He attains an
angular velocity of 0.5 rad/s relative to the ground at t= 10 s.
At any instant t. the angular velocity of Fadi is 8�.

66
a) Determine the expression of the angular velocity 0� of Fadi as a function of time.
b) Show that the angular momentum of the system(D, Fadi) relative to (Li) is conserved.
c) Deduce the expression of the angular momentum er, of the disk(relative to (Li)) as a function of time.
d) Determine the number of rotations described by Fadi during the time needed by the disk to complete
one rotation.
e) Draw roughly the graph that represents the variation of the angular momentum of Fadi as a function
of time.
Second:
In this case, Fadi holds a stone of mass m3 = 10 kg and stands on the disk at the point A. The system
(Fadi, disk, stone) is initially at rest.
At an instant t chosen as a new origin of time t0 = 0, Fadi throws the stone horizontally in a direction
tangent to the periphery of the disk, with a speed of 2 mis relative to the ground. Fadi remains at rest
relative to the disk.
Apply the conservation of angular momentum to the system(Fadi, disk, stone) to determine the angular
velocity of the system(Fadi, disk) right after throwing the stone.
10. Conservation and non conservation of angular momentum and
mechanical energy ./
A solid taken as a particle of mass m = 2 kg moves on a horizontal frictionless table while attached to
one end of a massless string.
Take the surface of the table as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
A. Conservation of angular momentum and non conservation of mechanical energy
The string passes through a small hole in the table. The string remains under tension under the effect of
a force Fexerted by a person on the string as shown in figure (1 ).
The magnitude of the force F is equal to that of the tension T exerted by the string on the particle.
At t0 = 0, the solid rotates with an angular speed 0�= 0.4 rad/s around a vertical axis(�) passing through
the hole , and it describes a circle of radius f0 = 0.5 m .
At this instant, the magnitude of Fis F0 , and the person starts pulling the
string slowly downwards until the radius of the circle becomes f = 0.3 m.
a) Determine the magnitude T0 = F 0 of the tension force T0 exerted by
the string on the solid.
b) Prove that the angular momentum of the solid relative to(�) is
conserved during the pulling of the string.
c) Deduce the final angular speed 0� of the solid.
d) Compare the initial and the final mechanical energies of the
system (Solid, string, Earth).
e) Deduce the work done by Fduring the pulling of the string. Fig. 1
B. Conservation of mechanical energy and non-conservation of
angular momentum
In this case, the other end of the string is wrapped
around the rim of a cylinder as shown in figure (6)
(2). The diameter of the cylinder is very small
relative to t, then we assume that the solid rotates : Cylinder
about a vertical axis(�) passing through the
center of the cylinder. :f.-0· ... ... . � ��ring
At t0 = 0:
the angular speed of the solid relative to(�)
Solid
is 0�= 0.4 rad/s; ··························

- the distance between the solid and the axis(�)

is .fO = 0.5 m.
During the motion of the solid, the length of the
string joining the solid and the cylinder
Fig. 2
67
decreases. At a certain instant t 1, the distance between the solid and the axis (Ll) is f = 0.3 m.
a) Prove that the mechanical energy of the system (Solid, string, Earth) is conserved.
b) Deduce the final angular speed 9� of the solid relative to (Ll) at the instant t 1 •
c) Compare angular momentums of the solid relative to (Ll) at the instants t0 and t 1 •

11. The Seesaw

Two children (A) and (B) considered as particles of
masses mA = 40 kg and m8 = 30 kg respectively are
sitting on a seesaw at different distances from the
pivot Oat its center (Adjacent figure).
+
The seesaw is modeled as a rigid rod of negligible
mass, which rotates in the vertical plane about a
horizontal axis (Ll) perpendicular to the seesaw at 0.
The distances separating child (A) and child (B) from
O are 2 m and 2.5 m respectively.
Neglect all friction and use g = 10 m/s2•
The system (Childs, seesaw) starts from rest.
At any instant t, the angle between the seesaw and a
horizontal axis perpendicular to (Ll), is 0.
a) Determine the moment of the weight of each m8 g
child relative to (Ll) in terms of the angle 9.
b) Deduce the expression of the angular acceleration 8" of the above system in terms of 9.
c) Deduce the angular acceleration of the system when 9 = 0.

12. Rotation of a disk t/

A uniform homogeneous disk of mass m = 4 kg and radius of R = 50 cm is free to rotate in the
horizontal plane about a vertical axis passing through the center of the disk. Starting from rest, the
disk attains an angular speed of 20 rad/s within 5 seconds under the action of a constant motive couple
of moment 7 N.m.
Given: moment of inertia of the disk relative to the axis of rotation is I = mt
a) Calculate the moment of inertia of the disk relative to the axis of rotation. Deduce the angular
momentums of the disk at t0 = 0 and at t = 5 s.
b) Apply the theorem of angular momentum to determine the sum of the external moments acting on
the disk. (Assume that the external moments are constant).
c) Assume that friction admits a constant moment relative to (Ll). Prove that its algebraic value is
-5N.m.
d) Apply the work-energy theorem to determine the angular abscissa LlO described by the disk during
the 5 seconds. Deduce the number of rotations performed by the disk during this time.
e) Calculate loss of energy due to friction during the first 5 seconds .
f) The motive couple and the frictional force are removed when the angular speed becomes 20 rad/s
at t = 5 s. We place a particle of mass m 1 = 1 kg on the disk at a distance d from its center. The
system (Disk ; particle) rotates then with an angular speed of 15 rad/s. Determine d.

68
13. Rotational motion of a rod
A rod of length f = OA = 0.5 m can rotate in the horizontal plane
about a vertical axis (fl) passing through the end O of the rod. (A)
The rod starts from rest at t,, = 0 and rotates in the horizontal plane
under the action of a horizontal force F. Fhas a constant +
magnitude of 2.5 N and remains perpendicular to the rod during its
motion.
The forces of friction acting on the rod in the whole question have a
,o A
7
constant moment of magnitude 1 N.m.
a) i. Apply the theorem of angular momentum to determine the expression of the angular momentum
of the rod as a function of time t.
ii. At an instant t = 10 s, the angular speed of the rod becomes 2.5 rad/s. Prove that the moment of
inertia of the rod relative to (fl) is I= 1 kg m2•
b) At the instant t 1 = 10 s, the force Fis removed. Determine (after t 1) the time needed by the rod to
stop.
c) In another experiment, we fix a ring (S) considered as a
(�)
particle of mass m = 1 kg at a point B on the rod. The same
force F(remains perpendicular to the rod) is acting again on
the rod at the point B in the horizontal plane. The rod starts +
from rest.
i. Determine the expression of the angular acceleration of
the system (Rod, ring) as a function of x = OB.
0 s A

ii. Deduce the minimum chosen value of x in order to start the rotation of the system (Rod , ring).
iii. For x = 0.5 m:
1. determine the angular speed of the system at t = 10 s.
2. deduce the work done by the force Fduring the time interval [O; 10 s].

14. Rotational and translational motions

Consider a pulley of radius R = 0.6 m and mass M = 5 kg . A light, 5.00kg
and inextensible rope wrapped around the rim of the pulley hangs a
water bucket of mass m = 3 kg. The forces of friction around the axis
of the pulley admits a couple of constant moment Mi. The system
starts from rest at t0 = 0. The moment of inertia of the pulley relative
to its axis (fl) is 1 1 = "i MR2 • Use g = 10 m!s2.
a) Apply the theorem of the center of mass to determine the
expression of magnitude T of the tension of the rope in terms of
the acceleration of the center of mass of the water bucket.
b) Apply the theorem of the angular momentum to determine
the expression of angular momentum of the pulley in terms of
Mi, T and the time t.
c) Deduce the expression of the angular acceleration of the pulley in
terms of Mi.
d) At the instant t = 2 s, the speed of the water bucket is 4.8 mis.
Deduce Mi.

69
 4 Mechanical Oscillations(1)
Elastic Pendulum

---
Abscissa Acceleration

0 2 4 6 -2 -1 0 1 2

-�=
Time Abscissa
Velocity V
l

bL
-2
-2 -1 0 1 2
Abscissa

-�IT s� !3'.?:?<J
O 2 4 6
Time
�
-2 -1 0 1 2
Abscissa

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

•!• Define the oscillatory motion.

•!• Indicate the types of oscillations.
•!• Specify the characteristics of the undamped oscillatory motion.
•!• Derive the differential equation that governs the simple harmonic motion of the
horizontal elastic pendulum.
•!• Derive the differential equation that governs the free damped oscillations of the
horizontal elastic pendulum.
•!• Analyze the energy graphs of free undamped and free damped oscillations of the
horizontal elastic pendulum.

70
Prerequisites
•!• Variation of sine and cosine functions
Consider the following sine function: x = f(t) = A sin (cot+ q,) . x is a function oftime t where A, co and
<p are constants.
But -1::::: sin (cot+ cp)� 1 �-A� x� A. Xm = IAI is called the amplitude ofx.
Similarly ifx = A cos (cot+ cp) � - A� x � A �IAI = Xm is the amplitude ofx.
Role ofq,:
Consider the following two sine functions:
x = 2 sin (2t+ �) (Figure 1-a) and x = 2 sin (2t) (Figure 1-b), where t is expressed in s and x in cm.
� -2 cm � x� 2 cm.

2 2
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
Fig( 1-a) Fig( 1-b)

The two curves are periodic and have the same amplitude (Xm = 2 cm) and the same period ( T = 1t s),
but they have different starting points: in figure (1), x(o) = 2 cm, while in figure (2), X(o) = 0.
Then the value of cp determines the initial abscissa.
•!• Derivative of sine and cosine functions
Given A, co and cp are constants.
dx
) x = A sin (cot+ cp), the derivative of x with respect to time is: x' = dt = A co cos (cot+ cp).
Example: x = 4 sin (3t+ 1t) �x' = :: = 12 cos (3t+ 1t).
) x = A cos (cot+ cp), the derivative ofx with respect to time is: x' = :: = - A co sin (rot + q,).
Example x = 4 cos (3t+ Tt) �x' = :: = -12 sin (3t+ Tt).
•!• Dlfferentlal equation of second order
- If x = f(t) is a function of time and x" is the second derivative of x with respect to time, then
x" + w� x = 0 is a second order differential equation in x where w� is a positive constant.
• The solution of the above differential equation has the form x = A sin (ro0 t + cp) or
x = A cos (c.o 0 t+ 0) where A, W 0 , cp and 0 are constants.
Note that A could be positive or negative.
• Verification that x = A sin (c.o0t+ cp) is a solution for the differential equation
x' "" A w 0 cos (c.o 0 t+ cp) and x" = • A w� sin (co0 t+ cp) = • w� x
Substitute x" in the differential equation: • w� x+ w 0 2 x = 0 �x = Asin (co 0 t+ cp) is a solution
for the above differential equation.
Similarly, we can verify that x = A cos (co 0 t+ 0) is a solution for the above differential equation.
•!• Exponential function
x "' eat is an exponential function of time.
For t "" 0 => x "" 1. J
Ifa > 0 and t -+ oo => x -+ oo .
If a < 0 and t -+ oo => x -+ 0
Figure (3) shows the variation of x = A e-at as a function
t -1
of t, where A and a are positive constants . We say that the
curve decreases exponentially with time. r t
Fig. 2

71
1- Definition of the Oscillatory Motion
Definition: An oscillatory motion is a to-and-fro motion between two extreme positions during a
constant interval of time.
Figure (3) shows some objects that may undergo vibratory (oscillatory) motion.

Clock pendulum Tuning fork Swing Guitar chords

Fig (3-a) Fig (3-b) Fig (3-c) Fig (3-d)
2- Types of Mechanical Oscillations
Mechanical oscillations could be classified into three
types of oscillations which are shown in figure (4). Oscillations
* Free mechanical oscillations which could be free
undamped or free damped oscillations. Driven Forced
In this type, the oscillator oscillates freely without Free

** an external intervention.
Driven oscillations.
Forced oscillations (Discussed in the chapter 6).
Undamped

Fig. 4
Damped

3- Free Undamped Mechanical Oscillations

•!• Characteristics of the free undamped oscillatory motion
Figure (5) shows a vertical spring of natural length
x
fO hanging a block at its lower extremity. When the
block is displaced from its equilibrium position 0, it
undergoes oscillations about 0.
the free undamped oscillatory motion of an object is
characterized by its:
• period T which is the constant time taken by the
oscillatory motion to repeat itself identically.
Extreme

I I
• frequency fwhich is the number of oscillations position
performed per unit time. T= �
In S.I units, T is expressed in s and fin Hz or 0 Equilibrium
cycles/s. position
Extreme
• amplitude a which is the maximum
position
displacement of the oscillating object from its
equilibrium position 0. Fig. 5
There are no dissipative forces such as friction (no
damping), so the motion is periodic then: Reading
Undamped oscillatory
• the oscillatory motion repeats itself identically, so the block oscillates motion is necessarily
with a constant amplitude between Xm and - Xm periodic, but periodic
• the oscillatory motion repeats itself during a constant interval of time motion is not necessarily
which is called the proper period T 0 of oscillations (Figure 6). an oscillatory motion.

72
 Conclusion
In free undamrred
mechanical oscillations:
* the object oscillates with
a constant amplinrde,
* the object oscillates
with a period QLUed
proper Jreriod T'O.
Proper period is the
minimum possible
period of osciltations
(verified later). Type: Free undamped mechanical oscillations
Fig. 6

•!• Free undamped oscillations of the horizontal elastic pendulum

Consider an oscillating system consists of a
block of mass m attached to the end of a
horizontal spring of stiffness K , of negligible
mass and of loops. The other end of the spring
is fixed to a support. The block is free to move
on a horizontal surface (Figure 7). The formed
system is called: horizontal elastic pendulum. Fig. 7
x'Ox is a horizontal axis oriented positively to the right.
Take the horizontal plane containing the center of mass (G) of the block as a reference level for
gravitational potential energy.
When the spring is neither compressed nor stretched, the abscissa of (G) is x = 0 which is called
the equilibrium position of the system.
The block is displaced by a distance x= A from its equilibrium position and then it is released from
rest. The oscillatory motion starts.
>" Expression of the mechanical energy of the system (Spring, block, Earth)
At an instant t, the abscissa of the center of mass (G) of the block is x= OG and the its velocity is v
whose algebraic value is v= ::
The expression of the mechanical energy of the above system is ME= KE+ GPE+ EPE where:
* KE= � m v2 is the kinetic energy of the block;
* GPE= m g ho = 0 (ho remains zero) is the gravitational potential energy of the above system;

I 1
* EPE= � K x 2 is the elastic _()Otential energy of the spring.
=> ME= � m v 2 + � K x 2

At the instant t0= 0 (Instant of starting observing and not necessarily to be the instant of the starting
the oscillatory motion): ME0 = � m v; + � K x� .
>" Differential equation of the motion
There are no non-conservative forces (no friction) in the system, so the mechanical energy of this
system is conserved.
ME = �2 m v 2 + �2 K x 2 = constant.
1 1 dx
Derive both sides with respect to time: ME'= 0 = 2 ( -2 m vv') + 2 (-2 k x x') ' but x' = - = v
�
dv
dt = x "=> v ( m x" + K x) = 0 .
and v'= -

73
 �I i
But v = 0 is rejected � m x" + K x = 0.
Differential equation using Newton'•
x" +; x = 0 z nct order differential equation in x. znd law
System: Block
External forces:
» Nature of the motion mg : Weight exerted the Earth;
The differential equation of the motion has the form
N : Normal reaction by the ground;
x" + w� x = 0 with w 0 2 = � m
> 0, then the nature of the T: Tension of the spring
motion of the block is simple harmonic motion. 1:Fexi =mi• mg+N+T=mi
Project along the x-axis
» Time equation of the motion of the block • 0 + 0-kx = ma
The solution of the above differential equation (time •O= kx + mx"
equation) is x = A cos (w 0 t + �) or • x" +!x-o.
here: A , w 0 , <p and (2) are
constants.
Verification that x = A cos (w0 t + <p) is a solution of the differential equation:
x' = - W 0 A sin (co 0 t + cp) and x" = - w� A cos (ro 0 t + cp) = - w� x.
Substitute x" in the differential equation: - w� x + w� x = 0.
� x = A cos ( ro 0 t + cp) is a solution for the above differential equation.
* x is the abscissa of the block or the elongation/compression of the spring at any instant;
* X m = IAI where X m > 0 is the amplitude of
the oscillations or the maximum elongation or m
maximum compression of the spring.

I J] I
x and Xm have the same unit.
0
* = w 0 > 0 is the proper angular
ffio Fig. 8
frequency (pulsation) of the oscillations of x (in rad/s).
* (w 0 t + q>) is the phase at any instant t (in rad). x
-1 � sin (W 0 t + <p) � 1 � -Xm � x � Xm X
and then the value of the phase determines the
position (abscissa) of the object at any instant.
* q> is the initial phase (in rad), it depends on: the
origin of time; the abscissa x0 and the algebraic
value v0 of the velocity of the object at t0 = 0.
* The proper period of the oscillations of x is:
Fig. 9

I * f; I
� (T0 in s).
* The proper frequency of the oscillations of x is: fo = = (f0 in Hz).

* For x = Xm sin (co 0 t + cp) � x' = v = W 0 Xm cos (w 0 t + <p)

� jvm = w 0 Xm j where Vm is the maximum speed of the block.
Also x" = a = - w� Xm sin (w 0 t + <p) � a = - w 0 2 x � am = w� Xm where am is the maximum
acceleration or the amplitude of the algebraic value of the acceleration of the block.
The above study shows that x, v and a are sinusoidal functions with time.

74
 Remark Remark: x = Xm sin (ro0 t + <p) => v = W0 Xm cos (000t + q>)
• The proper angular frequency, and the • Whenx = O=>sin(ro0 t+ <p) = O
frequency and the period are called the =>cos (m0 t+ <p) = + 1 =>v = +ro0 Xm =+Vmax
characteristics of the oscillator since they • Whenx = +Xm =>sin(w0 t+ <p)= + 1
depend only on the stiffness K and the mass m. => cos (m0 t + <p) = 0 => V = 0
• The amplitude Xm and the initial phase <p Conclusion: In free undamped mechanical oscillations:
depend only on the in initial conditions such • When x = 0 ; v = =F Vmax ;
as X0 and V0 , • When x = =F Xm ; v = 0 .
Application 1
Consider the horizontal elastic pendulum offigure (8). The stiffness ofthe spring is K = 10 Nim and the
mass ofthe block is 0.5 Kg. The block ofcenter ofmass (G) is displaced horizontally to the right by a
distance of 10 cm and then it is released from rest at t0 = 0. Neglect all friction.
Take the horizontal plane containing the center ofmass (G) ofthe block as a reference level of
gravitational potential energy.
1. Calculate the mechanical energy of the system S (Block, spring, Earth).
2. a. At an instant t, the abscissa of(G) is x and the algebraic value ofits velocity is v.
Write the expression of the mechanical energy ofthe system (S) in terms ofx, v, m and k.
b. Deduce the differential equation that governs the variation ofx.
c. Deduce the nature ofthe motion of(G).
3. Indicate the e of the oscillations of(G).

l·
4. a. Verify that rx. = X cos (.000 t + q>) is a solution ofthe differential equation where Xm and q> are
constants and w0 = Deduce the value ofthe proper period ofthe oscillations.
b. Use the initial conditions and the time equation to determine the values of Xm and cp.
c. Use the time equation to determine in terms ofT0 the instants at which (G) reaches the
,

equilibrium position.

i i
Solution
1. ME = KE+ GPE + EPE = 0+ 0+ K X� = (10) (0.1)2 �ME= 0.05 J.
i
2. a. ME= m v2 + K x 2 • i
i i
b. There are no non-conservative forces so the mechanical energy ofthe system is conserved
� ME = m v2+ K x 2 = constant. Derive both sides with respect to time:
1 1 dx
= v and v' = - dv
ME' = 0 = 2 ( -2 m vv') + 2 ( -2 k xx') ' but x' = -
dt dt
= x " � v ( m x"+ K x) = 0 '
but v = 0 is rejected � m x"+ K x = 0 � " +-
m
x • 0 (2 nd order differential equation in x).
c. The differential equation ofthe motion has the form x" + w� x = 0 with w� = � m
> 0,
then the nature of the motion ofthe block is simple harmonic motion.
3. The type Is free undamped mechanical oscillations.
4. a. x' = - Xm W 0 sin (m 0 t+ <p) and x" = - Xm w� cos (m 0 t+ <p) = - w� x. Substitute x" in the
differential equation: - m� x + �
m
x = 0. But �m
= co� � - m� x + co� x = 0.
� x Xm cos (w0 t+ <p) is a solution for this differential equation.
=

2
To = Wn: = 2rr -.Jk {o.s � T = 1 • 4 s .
� = 2rr -.,/10
0

b. x = Xm cos (ro 0 t+ cp) � x0 = 0.1 = Xm cos <p ...eq (1)

v = x' = - Xm w0 sin (m 0 t+ <p) �Vo = 0 = - Xm w 0 sin <p � sin <p = 0 � <p = 0 or <p = TI.
But from eq (1): Xm > 0 � cos <p > 0 � q, = 0. Also, Xm = �
cos O
= 0.1 m � Xm = 10 cm.
c. x = Xm cos (W 0 t ) � 0 = 10 cos ( W 0 t ) � cos W 0 t = 0 � W 0 t = (2 k+ 1) � where k E N
� \: t (2 k + 1) � . The block reaches the equilibrium position at t = (2 k + 1);. k EN.

75
Application 2 �
Consider a horizontal elastic pendulum.
Given: mass of the block is m = 1 kg and stiffness of the spring is K= 4 Nim.
The expression of the abscissa (position) of the center of mass (G) of the block relative to the x'Ox axis is
where ro 0 , Xm and <p are constants.
1. Prove that friction is neglected.
2. Calculate the proper period of the oscillations.
3. Use the time equation to determine the amplitude Xm and the initial phase <p if at t0 = 0:
x = -4 cm and the algebraic value of the velocity of (G) is v = 0.14 mis.
4. Apply the principle of conservation of the mechanical energy to determine again the amplitude Xm
of the oscillations of (G).
5. We choose a new origin of time. At t0 = 0: x0 = 0 and (G) is moving in the negative direction.
a) The amplitude Xm of the oscillations of (G) does not change. Justify.
b) Deduce the new value of the initial phase <p.
Solution
1. The time equation of motion is x= Xm sin (w 0 t + <p) where the amplitude Xm is constant, then

$
friction is neglected.
2. TO = :: = 2TI .ft- = 2TI => T,. = x S = 3.14 S .
3. x= Xm sin (w 0 t + <p), substitute x0 = -0.04 in the time equation: -0.04 = Xm sin <p ... eq (1)
v = x' = w 0 Xm cos (ro 0t + <p), substitute v0 = 0.14 mis: 0.14 = W 0 Xm cos <p ... eq (2)
. 0.04 tan cp 2 it 0.04
D1v1'de eq(l) by eq(2): - -4 = - => tan cp = -- x - = - O .571
=> <p =
-30° or <p =- 0.1 W0 1T 0.14
30 + 180= 150° . From eq(l) sin <p < 0 => q> = -30•= -� rad
6
Xm = - sm.0·0.:;, => Xm = 0.08 m = 8 cm •
6
_ 1 2 1 2_1 2
4. ME o - ME extreme p o sition => 2 m V + 2 K X - 2 K Xm
=> i (l)(0.14)2+i (4)(-0.04)2 = i (4) X� =>Xm�0.08m = 8cm.
5. a) The mechanical energy is conserved and X. does not depend on the origin of time.
b) x0 = 0 => 0 = Xm sin <p => sin <p = 0 => <p = 0 or <p = TI.
v0 = w 0 Xm cos <p. At t0 = 0, (G) moves in the negative direction=> v0 < 0
=> W 0 Xm cos <p < 0=> cos <p < 0 => 9 = 1t rad

•!• Energetic study of the free undamped oscillations of a horizontal elastic pendulum
A. Graphs of energy versus abscissa
The equilibrium position of the center of mass (G)
of the block of a horizontal elastic pendulum is the Energy
origin of the x'ox axis O is
The curves of figure (10) show the variations of the
I I
mechanical, elastic and kinetic energies as a
function of the abscissa x ( - Xm < x < Xm ).
• Mechanical energy: ME= constant (curve (a)).
• Elastic potential energy: EPE= i K x2
(parabola), this energy is zero when x = 0
(curve (b)). x
• The kinetic energy: KE= ME - EPE
1 0
=> KE= ME - 2 K x2 (parabola).
Fig.10
At the extreme positions KE= 0 curve (c).

76
Conclusion:
During the oscillatory motion, energy is continuously transformed between kinetic energy and elastic
potential energy, such that:
• At x = ± Xm , EPE = ME and KE = 0 � v = O;
• At x = 0 , EPE = 0 and KE = ME = maximum � v = maximum.

Figure (11) shows the signs and some algebraic values ofthe velocity ofthe center ofmass ( G) ofthe
block.

v=O v>O v>O v =O

v = max
x' 0 x
v<O v<O
Fig. 11
B. Graphs of energy versus time
The expression ofthe abscissa ofthe
center ofmass (G) ofthe block ofa
horizontal elastic pendulum is
x = Xm sin (w 0t+ cp).
t
For certain initial conditions, we draw the
curves offigures (12) and (13).
The curve offigure (12) shows the
variation ofx as a function oftime t,
while the curves offigure (13) show the
variation ofthe mechanical, elastic and
kinetic energies as a function oftime t. Fig. 12
• Mechanical energy:
ME is constant (curve (a)). T
• Elastic potential energy: EPE = .!. K x2
i
� EPE = K Xm 2 [sin (w0t+ q,)] .
2

When x = + Xm , the elastic potential

energy EPE is maximum, then curve
(b) represents the variation ofEPE as a
function oftime t .
• K.metic• energy: KE = 1 m v2 . t
2
But v = x' = W o Xm cos (w ot+ cp) � 0
i
KE= m (Wo Xm>
2 [cos (Wot+ q,)]2 .
Fig. 13
When x = 0 , EPE is zero and then the kinetic energy KE is maximum, so curve (c) represents the
variation ofKE as a function oftime.
By comparing figures (12) and (13), we can deduce that the period T e n e rgy ofoscillations ofenergy is
halfthe proper period TO ofx.

Conclusion: B.ttdJua
Consider the above obtained expression of the kinetic enerlY:
The kinetic energy and the
elastic potential energy are
sinusoidal functions of time,
f 1
KE• m (w 0 Xm)2 [cos (w 0 t + <p]2 . But oos2 U"" + � (l •
«)

each of period.
KE• 2 m (w 0 Xm)2 [ i +i oos (2w 0 t + 2<p]
-� m (Vm>3 [ l + oos (2w 0 t + 2<p]. The period of osoillttion of
I,...-T-en- e-gyr _=_;-
_-, 21t B T. an T. 'l'o
energy ts:
. T.oneraY "" ;-- • ut osetlltton "" T0 "" -
w0 • enerau
'M "' ":;"
o
cWQ �

77
Application 3
Consider a horizontal elastic pendulum which
is formed ofa solid (S) ofmass m = 2 kg and 0,5 Enel'gy(J)
a spring whose stiffness is k = 80 Nim.
The center ofmass (G) of(S) may move on a
horizontal axis x'Ox.
The solid is shifted, from the equilibrium 0,3
position O by a certain distance and then it is
released without initial velocity. 0,2
Take the horizontal plane containing (G) as a
reference level ofgravitational potential 0, 1
energy. Neglect all friction.
x
The curve of figure (14) shows the variation
ofthe kinetic energy KE ofthe block as a 0
function ofthe abscissa x of (G). Fig. 14
1. Use figure (14) to:
a. determine the maximum elongation Xm ofthe spring.
b. determine the speed ofthe solid (S) when it reaches the equilibrium position.
2. a. Draw on the same figure the graphs ofthe variation ofthe gravitational potential energy and the
mechanical energy of the system (Oscillator; Earth).
b. Deduce whether the position of (G) is (x = ± x; ) or (x =±Ji) when KE = EPE. Deduce x.
3. The time equation ofthe motion of(S) is x = A sin @0 t + <p) where w 0 , c.p and A are constants and
A < 0. At t0 = 0, X0 = - 10 cm.
a. Deduce the value ofthe initial speed v0 of (G).
b. Use the time equation to determine c.p and A. Compare A and Xm.
4. Calculate the proper angular frequency w 0 ofthe oscillations. Deduce the expression ofEPE as a
function oftime.
5. The curves offigure (15) show the
variations ofKE and EPE as a function
oftime.
a. Use the answer ofpart (4) to specify
which curve represents the variation
ofEPE.
b. Specify the curve which represents
the variation of.KE.
c. Verify that Tenergy = T2° where TO is
the proper period ofthe oscillations ofx and Fig.15
Tenergy is the period ofoscillations ofenergy.
d. Specify a time interval during which KE is transformed into EPE and the block is moving in the
positive direction.
Solution
1. a. There are no non-conservative forces (friction is neglected) then the mechanical energy ofthe
system (Oscillator ; Earth) is conserved� M Eextreme position = MEo � EPEmax = KEmax �
i i
k X� = 0.4 J � (80) (Xm)2 = 0.4� X m • 0.1 m • 10 cm.
i i
b. At 0, ME = KEmax = 0.4 J = m V;,. � 0.4 = (2) (Vm2 � Vm • 'VO, 4 m/s.
2. a. Figure (16).
b. From figure (16), the curves ofKE and EPE intersect at a point ofabscissa x, but
lxl > 5 cm = f�
X .
The two curves mtersect at x = ±
X
.Ji �
x=
10
../'i.
• x • :I: 7,07 cm.
3. a. Xm = 10 cm� Xo = - Xm �Vo 0. =

b. Substitute x0 in the time equation: - 0.1= A sin c.p

78
 01
=> sin <p = - A · (A < 0 => sin <p > 0)
v = x' = W 0 A cos (W 0 t + <p), but vO = 0 then 0,5
0 = W 0 A COS (<p) => COS <p = 0 =>
<p = �rad or <p = - �rad, but sin <p > 0=> q> = rad. i
01
sm
. <p = -- -
· - o.i => A =- O. 1 m => A =- Xm·
=> 1 =A
ft
A
4. w 0 = Jg= => ro0 � 6.32 rad/s.
i i
EPE = k x2 = k [A sin ( w 0 t + cp) ]2
i
=> EPE = (80) (- 0.1)2 sin2 (6.32 t + �)
s
=> EPE = 0.4 in2 (6.32t + i) . -10 0 to
5. a. From the expression of EPE, at t0 = 0, EPE = 0.4 J Fig.16
=> Curve (b) represents the variation of EPE as a function of time.

=
b. At t0 = 0, KE = O => Curve (a) represents the variation of KE as a function of time.
2 1t 2 To .
c. T0 = - = - = 0.994 s 1 S. Graph"1ca11y Tenergy = 0.5 s => Tenergy = -
1t

Wo 6.32 2
d. At t0 = 0 , x = - Xm and the block starts to move in the positive direction. During the time interval
[0.25 s = T; ; 0.5 s = T ° ], the KE is transformed into EPE and the block is moving in the
2
positive direction.
4-- Free Damped Mechanical Oscillations
Consider the horizontal elastic pendulum of
figure (17). If friction is not neglected, the
amplitude Xm of oscillations (if exists) decreases
with time and eventually becomes zero when the
block stops. This type of oscillations is called:
Free damped mechanical oscillations Fig.17
In free damped mechanical oscillations:
• the object oscillates with a decreasing amplitude Damping of oscillations:
• the object oscillates with a period called the pseudo-period T. Continuous decreases in
The oscillations then are said to be pseudo-periodic. the amplitude of
T is greater than the proper period TO ( T > T0). oscillations due to the
• The smaller the friction is, the closer is the pseudo-period to the loss of energy from the

=
proper period. system.
• If friction is very small (slight damping), then T T0 •

);>- Differential equation of the motion

Consider the system (Block, spring, Earth).
*
Due to friction, I Wnon-conservative forces 0, so the mechanical energy of the system is not conserved.
v
The friction force has the expression: f = - h where h is a positive constant called the coefficient
v
of damping and is the velocity of the center of mass of the block at any instant.
r, ·: . � • �t ,�1'�?:f:*P\��
The power of the friction force is: � ....: :. 1.1�? �{!!���1�·,:.�!·'" 't--:_ifl;,:_�v
Take the horizontal plane containing the center of mass (G) of the block Dlffereadal �udon utng
as a reference level for gravitational potential energy. Newton•, 2• taw
The expression of the mechanical energy of the system at any instant is: System: Block. I 1. = mi
i i
ME = m v2 + K x 2. Derive both sides with respect to time:
d ME
•mi+i+f+1=mi
Project along the x-axis:
! 2 ! k x x') = - h v2 . • 0 + 0-kx-hv • ma
ili = 2 ( 2 m vv') + ( 2 •O= kx +bv+ mx''
dx = dv
- = x" => v ( m x" + h x' + K x) = 0 .
But x' = - v and v' = dt
•
l "
• s." +- s' + - s. • 0
dt
But v = 0 is rejected => m x" + h x' + K x = 0 => •
79
 x" + � x' + ; x = 0 I z nd order differential equation that governs the variation of x in free
damped mechanical oscillations of a horizontal elastic pendulum.
Application 4
Consider a horizontal elastic pendulum (S). The curves of figure (18) represent the variations of the
energies KE, EPE and ME of the system [(S); Earth] as a function of time.
At t0= 0, x =XM(O) = 10 cm and the block is released from rest.
The damping is very slight.
1. Specify the type of the mechanical oscillations.
2. Match each curve to its corresponding energy. Justify.
3. Determine the stiffness k of the spring.
4. a. Determine the pseudo-period T of the oscillations of (G).
b. T is very close to TO [the proper period of the oscillations of (G)]. Why? Deduce m.
5. Determine the maximum speed attained by the block.
6. Determine the total loss in the mechanical energy after a long time.

t t
t t
l
tL i t I t !
t 1 1[
r
I l. '
! �I l l
t-

! !
J

I+lI II
I
4.2 L '
r + !

Il r
..I I
t
JI
t
t

f t
t t

tI I
I I
- t s)
1.08 2.16 3.24
Fig. 18
Solution
1. The mechanical energy decreases with time => Fl'ff damped meehanieal osclllattons.
2. M.E = KE + EPE. At an instant t, the ordinate of a point on curve (a) is the sum of the ordinates of
the two points on curves (b) and (c) which correspond to the same instant. Then curve (a) represents
the variation of the mechanical energy ME.
Or: KE� 0 and EPE� 0, but M.E = KE+ EPE =>ME� KE and ME� EPE then curve (a)
represents the variation of the mechanical energy of the system (Oscillator; Earth).
At to= 0, x =Xm(O) , but EPE = ik x2 => EPE is maximum at to= 0 => Curve (b) represents the
variation of the EPE.
At t0= 0, KE = i m v2 = 0 (since v0 = 0) => Curve (c) represents the variation of the KE.
3. EPE = 6x10-3J = ikX�=>6x10-3 = fk(0.1)2=>k•l,2Nlm.
0
4. a. Tenergy = 1.08. But T = 2 Tenergy = 2 (1.08) => T • 2,16 S,
b. Damping is very slight => T is very close to TO • TO = 2 1t ,fi- => TJ = 4 n2 ( f )
=> (2.16)2 = 4 n2 ( �
1.2
) => m • 0.14 kl .
5. From curve (C), KEmax = 4.25 X 10-3 J => 4.25 X 10-3 = im V�ax = i(0.14) V�ax
=> Vm • 0.246 mis
6. After a long time, ME decreases to zero then ME1°'' • � • 6 X 10-3 J ,

80
>" Time equation of the motion of the block (+)
The differential equation that governs the variation of the abscissa x ofthe horizontal elastic pendulum is:
h K
rx" + - x' + - x = 0
Three cases of damping
* Slight damping and large damping

If � < � , the solution ofthe above differential equation is:

2m '1;;
or
The constants A, cp and 0 are determined from the initial conditions ofx0 and v0 •

The expression ofthe amplitude ofthe abscissa x is:

This expression shows that the amplitude ofthe oscillations decreases exponentially with time.
rois the pseudo-angular frequency ofthe oscillations.

lro� J•, 2 - ( � ) 2 1 where w, � l is the proper angular frequency ofthe oscillations ofx.

The pseudo- period ofoscillations is • . Then the pseudo- period of oscillations increases with
the value of h.
Note: w < W 0 => - < - => 2n T > 2 n T0 =>
2 it Zit
T T0
For h = 0, ro= w0 , Xm = Xm(o) and x = Xm sin (rot+ cp ). This is the case offree undamped
mechanical oscillations.

- If � f!. the
« ..,J-;
2m ' X,
oscillations are:

Figure (19) shows the

variation ofthe abscissa
x and the amplitude Xm
, as a function oftime in
a case ofslight damping
( 1o = 0 , X = Xm(O)).

- If� f!. the

:5 ..,J;, Fig.19
oscillations are (Figure 20).
2m

* Critical damping: If zhm = l,

the system does not oscillate. This is the case of
Critical Damping is the damping that allows the system to move back to its equilibrium position in the
quickest possible time without oscillating.
* Over damping: If �
2m
> � , the system does not oscillate. This is the case of
'1;;;
Over damping is the damping that forces the system to take a relatively long time, to move back to its
equilibrium position without oscillating.

81
Figure (20) shows the four above cases of damping (Chosen initial condition: at t0 = 0, x = Xm)

Over
damping

l'ig. ?O

Dete.nniaadoll ofA, h. and k

The abscissa of the block of a horizontal elastic pendulum is given by
where A, h, m, � and <pare constants (A and.hare positive). At to= 0, Xo = Xm(o)l (initia1 amplitude) and
Vo= 0 whe.rev i:s. the�brak�ofthe-Ydoci.ty of the block. Usen2 = 10.
1� Use the e�om: oftl!re friction f = -hv, to prove that the unit ofh is kg/s.
2. a. Prove 1!lnat
b.. Determine the expressi:oo ofv.
c.. Substitute v0 = 0 in too expression of v to prove that:
3. Write the expression of x at:
F
L t = ' ff is the pseudo-period of 1lhe- oscillations of x); IL t=2 T .
f
� Dedu£e tha.t the expressioo o h iis:
4.. 'Th.emass oftlhe- block ism = h kg. Figure (2]) shows the variation ofx as a function of time. Use
the figure to: fO.ll x (Ill)
a. indicate T. Deduce w.
b. determine h. Deduce cp.
e.�A
to
cakutate w0 • Deduce that
cJaimpmg is very slight. Deduce @

tk � K of the spring.
Solw.tioa
f
..l()JOS
1. h = then the unit ofh is�
_ N _ kg .m/s2
[h] --- O.] ... ._l
m/s m./s
=> 1• ..,..
 2. a. At to= 0, x0 = Xm(O) , substitute in the expression of x: Xm(o)= A e0 cos (0 +<p) => A= Xm(o) .
cosq,
(-b) b
b.v = x' => v = -Ae 2m t [zm cos(rot+ cp)+rosin(rot+ cp)].
c. At t0 = 0, v0 = 0, substitute in the expression ofv: 0 = -A [--h cos (cp) + w sin(<p)]
2m

- cos(<p)
But A* 0 => [-h
2m
+ w sin(cp)] = 0 => _ cos(cp) = - w sin(cp) => tan cp = 2mw·
_h
2m
-h

3. a. :xm = Ae-(2�)T cos(roT+cp)

-(� )C2T) -( )T
X(2T) = Ae 2 m cos ( 2 co T + cp)=> X(2T) = A e !. m cos( 2ooT + cp).
-(E.. )r
A e m cos (2 w T + cp) _ 2 1t
b. X(2T) __ h ' bu t wT--. T - _ 2 T[
X(T) A e-(zm)T cos ( w T + cp)
T
X(2T) _ e -(m T cos (4n + cp) _ -(�)T cos cp _
=>---
)
h
-e z m --- e -(�
cos cp
)r
2m =>-i;O -----=>
n
X(2T) _ hT b-
2m
_ --
- Z m -r;D
O (--
X(2 T))
xcr) e -C-zhm)T cos ( 21t + cp ) X (T) T X ( T) •

Zn Zn
4. a.T = 2 s , but ro = 1 = 2 => ro = ff rad/s .
-2m z - 2 (1)
b. h = fn [xc r>] = fn [o.oa] => h = O.l2 kg /s.

= =
T X(T) 2 0.09

tan<p= 2 � = ; �-�! = - 0.0119 =><p -1.1° or <p 179° . But A and Xm(o)are positive
h
w (
=> cos<p> 0=><pis in the forth quadrant=> cp :!! -l.1 ° = - 0.019 rad.
Xm(o) =
c. A = => A :!! 0.1 m .
0.1
cos cp cos (-1.1)
2
5. w = Jwo -( �) => re=
2 2 Wo - 2 Gc��) 2
=> 00o = 3.14057rad/s.
000 :!! Ol=> Damping is very slight
w� = !. m
=> k = w� . m = (3.14057) 2 (1)=> k :!! 10 N/m.

5- Driven Oscillations
In many real systems, dissipative forces such as friction retard the motion. Consequently, the mechanical
energy of the system diminishes and the amplitude of oscillations decreases with time. As explained
before, the motion is said to be damped. In order to make the oscillator oscillate with constant amplitude,
we should drive the oscillations. The oscillations are then called driven oscillations.
In driven oscillations:
• the oscillator oscillates with an external intervention.
• the system is provided by amounts of energy just enough to compensate the loss, in order to
oscillate with constant amplitude.
• the oscillator then oscillates with the same original amplitude Xm(O) , as if there is no damping.

Application 6
Figure (22) represents the variation of
the abscissa x of the center of mass (G)
10
x(cm)
I
of the block of a horizontal elastic 5
pendulum. The block starts from rest at
t0 = O. K = 20 Nim.
Take the horizontal plane containing 1 4
(G) as a reference level of gravitational
potential energy. -5
1. Determine the period T of the
f
oscillations of x. Indicate the name -10
of this period.
Fig. 22

83
 2. Determine the initial mechanical energy of the system (Pendulum, Earth).
3. Calculate the mechanical energy of the system (pendulum, Earth) at the instant t = T.
4. a. Calculate the work done by friction during the first oscillation.
b. Deduce the energy needed to drive the oscillator during the first period.
c. Deduce the average power needed to drive the oscillator each period. (Assume that the period of
oscillations in the driving phase is equal to the period T).
Solution
1. 9 oscillations take 8 seconds=> T = � => T = 0.89 s . This period is called the pseudo-period.
2. ME0 = EPE0 + KE0 + GPE 0 • When x = X m , v = 0=> KE0 = 0. Also, the altitude of (G) relative to
i
the reference level is zero=> GPE0 = 0. Th9n: ME0 = EPE0 = (20) (0.1)2=> ME0 = 0.1 J.
1 2
3. MEct = r) = 2 (20) (0.09) => MEct = T) = 0.081 J .
4. a. �E = L Wnon-conservative forces = Wj = 0.081 - 0.1=> Wi = • 0.019 J .
b. The loss of energy over the first period = ME0 - ME(t = T) = 0.1 - 0.081 = 0.019 J.
The energy needed to drive the oscillator is equal to the lost energy=> Ed riving = 0.019 J.
Edriving 0.019 0.0 9
c. pav = 11t = T = 0.819 => pav .., O•Oll W·

Reading
Relation between uniform circular motion and simple harmonic motion
Consider a particle (P) moving in uniform circular motion in the anti-clockwise sense. (P) moves at a speed v along
the circumference of a circle whose center and radius are O (0 , 0)
and R respectively.
The angular abscissa of the particle at an instant t is 8 =(OR, OP).
The motion is uniform circular => 0 = 0't + 00 where:
00 is the initial angular abscissa and
0' is the angular velocity of the particle 0' = w = i
The projection of the position vector OP along the x-axis is I

x = OP cos 8 => => - R :::;; x :::;; R. ·········· ··························--��········ ··········•

The obtained equation is the time equation of a simple harmonic x' • 01 x R x
motion of amplitude Xm = R and of initial phase cp = 80 •

The algebraic value of the velocity along the x-axis is:

Vx = x' = - w R sin (wt+ 00 ) = - v sin (wt+ 00 )
=> Ymax = v; the amplitude of the speed of the simple harmonic
motion is equal to the speed of the uniform circular motion. Fig. 23
Conclusion
The orthogonal projection of a uniform circular motion of speed v and of period T, at any diameter of the circle is a
simple harmonic motion of period T.
The amplitude of the abscissa of the S.H.M is equal to the radius of the circle and the maximum speed of the S.H.M
is equal to v.

84
 Problems
1. Positions of a particle in S.H.M at specific instants /
A particle moves in simple harmonic motion with a frequency of3 Hz and amplitude of5 cm.
a) Calculate the total distance covered by the particle during one oscillation.
. b) The time equation ofthe particle is x = Xm sin w0 t.
i. Deduce the expression ofthe maximum speed ofthe particle in terms ofw0 and Xm.
ii. Determine the position ofthe particle when the speed is maximum.
c) Determine the magnitude ofthe maximum acceleration a ofthe particle.
d) Specify the position(s) ofthe particle when a is maximum.
2. Graphical determination of the stiffness and the initial phase ../
The adjacent figure represents the variation ofthe
abscissa x ofthe center ofmass (G) ofthe block ofa
8
horizontal elastic pendulum (S).
6
Given : mass ofthe block is m = 400 g.
4
Refer to the figure to answer the following questions:
2
a) Pick out the amplitude ofthe oscillations.
b) The mechanical energy of(S) is conserved. Why? Ot--t----t�..,_--t-�1--t-�P---+---1,.....-o11
c) Pick out the proper period. Deduce the proper
angular frequency. Deduce the stiffness ofthe
spring.
d) Specify the sign ofthe algebraic value ofthe
velocity at: to = 0.5 s; t = 1.5 s and t = 2.5 s.
e) The time equation ofthis motion is . Determine the initial phase cp.

3. Determination of the initial phase and the amplitude of oscillations

T�� t�motion �the center ofmass (G) ofthe block ofa horizontal elastic pendulum
1s. .......... . W 0 -3 rad/s.
x is the abscissa at any instant. <p and A are constants and A< 0.
At 4, = 0, the initial abscissa and algebraic value of the velocity of(G) are x., = - 5 cm and
v0 = - 0.26 mis respectively.
Determine the values ofA and <p. Deduce the amplitude Xm ofthe oscillations.

4. Time needed by a block to reach the equilibrium position

Consider a mechanical oscillator which is formed ofa solid (S) ofmass m = 480 g and a horizontal light
spring ofstiffness k = 24 Nim. (S) may move
without friction on a horizontal track, with its I ,., K m (S)
center ofmass (G) on a horizontal axis x'Ox. x' � '.:::::
1 �:
The solid is shifted horizontally from its
equilibrium position O by a certain distance
and then released without initial velocity.
At the instant t0 = 0: x., = OG 0 = - 4 cm and v0 = 0.25 mis.
Take the horizontal plane containing the origin O as a reference level ofgravitational potential energy.
a) Calculate the proper angular frequency w�d T0 ofthe oscillations of x.
b) The time equation ofthe motion of(G) is ............
Deduce the values ofthe constants cp and Xm .
c) Determine Xm again by applying the principle ofconservation ofmechanical energy.
d) Determine the instant at which (G) passes by O for the first time. Deduce the instant at which (G)
passes by O for the third time.
e) Draw roughly the graph that represents the variation ofx as a function oftime.

85
5. Graph of x versus t /
Consider a mechanical oscillator that is formed of a solid (S) of mass m = 500 g and a horizontal light
spring whose stiffness is k. (S) may move without friction on a horizontal track with its center of mass
(G) on the axis x'Ox. The solid is shifted horizontally from its equilibrium position Oby certain
distance, and then it is released without initial velocity .
Take the horizontal plane containing the origin O as a reference level of gravitational potential
v
energy. At an instant t, the position of (G) is defined by its abscissa x = OG , and its velocity is = v r
whose algebraic value is v = x' = :: .
At the instant t0 = 0: x0 = 0 and (G) is moving in the negative direction.
a) Write the expression of the mechanical energy of the system [(S); spring; Earth] in terms of:
m; k; x and v. Deduce the second order differential equation that governs the variation of the
abscissa x of (G).
b) Apply Newton's z nd to determine again the differential equation in x. Deduce the nature of motion
of (G).

i
c) Veri that the time e uation (solution) of the above differential equation is of the form:
w0 = and Xm and q> are constants.
d) Determine the initial phase q>.
e) i. One of the three figures (a), (b) or (c) represents the variation of the abscissa x of (G) as a
function of time. Specify which one.
ii. Deduce the amplitude Xm and the proper angular frequency w 0 of the oscillations.
l
x(cm) x(cm)
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
t(s) i(s)
0 0 0
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3

Fig (a) Fig (b) Fig (c)

iii. Deduce that the maximum speed of the solid is Ym = 9.42 cm/s.
iv. Determine the average speed of (G) between t1 = 1.5 s and t2 = 2.5 s.
t) Calculate the mechanical energy of the system. Deduce the stiffness K of the spring.

6. Simple harmonic motion with different initial conditions /

A mechanical oscillator is formed of block (S) of mass m connected to the ends of two identical
horizontal light springs each of stiffness k and of natural length f0 • The other ends of the springs are
fixed to two movable supports (A) and (B). The center of mass (G) of (S) can slide without friction on a
horizontal surface. At equilibrium, (G) coincides with the origin O of a horizontal axis x'Ox .
At an instant t, the abscissa of (G) is x and the algebraic value of its velocity is v = x'.
Take the horizontal plane containing (G) as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
The aim of this problem is to study the oscillations of the block in two situations with different initial
conditions.
A. First situation lo lo
At equilibrium, the two
springs are neither
compressed nor elongated, x' x
K 0 K
so each spring has its (A) (B)
natural length f 0 (Figure 1 ).
Fig .1

86
(S) is displaced by a distance Xm and then it is released from rest.
a) Write at an instant t the expression of the mechanical energy ofthe system [(S), two springs, Earth]
in terms ofm, v, k and x.
b) Deduce the differential equation that governs the variation of x of (G). Deduce the nature ofmotion
of(G).
c) Write the expression ofthe proper angular frequency ofthe oscillations of(G).
B. Second situation
At equilibrium, each spring is elongated by a distance �t (Figure 2). (S) is displaced by a distance Xm
and then it is released from rest.
a) Write at an instant t
the expression ofthe
mechanical energy of
the system [(S), two x'
springs, Earth] in
terms ofm, v, k, �t
and x. Fig. 2
b) Deduce the differential equation that governs the variation ofx of(G).
c) Write the expression ofthe proper angular frequency ofthe oscillations of(G).
c. Conclusion;
Compare the proper angular frequencies in the two cases. Interpret this result.

=�==........-====�--�
Consider the system ofproblem 6 (first situation). Given k = 25 Nim; m = 2 kg and Xm = 8 cm.
a) Calculate the initial mechanical energy ofthe system [(S), two springs, Earth].
b) Deduce the maximum speed of(G).
c) When (G) passes through the origin 0, one ofthe two springs is removed and the system [(S), one
spring] continues oscillating.
i. Specify the value ofthe mechanical energy ofthe system [(S), one spring].
ii. Deduce the new amplitude of oscillations of(G).
iii.. Specify whether the proper angular frequency increases, decreases or remains the same.
8.Expr ion of the ten.sion fo re In a horizontal elastic penduJum
The adjacent figure represents a horizontal elastic
pendulum, which is formed ofa bloclc (S) of mass K . m
of m = 800 g attached to the right end. ofa light -, X
spring. The spring ofstiffness K is horizontal and x' ..1.+IHl�+*fHI-IMIHt*"-"I
its left end is fixed to a support. When the spring . 0
is in its- equilibrium position, the center ofmass·
(G) ofthe block coincides with the origin O ofthe axis x'Ox .
The block (S) is shifted horizontally to the right then it is released from rest, so the system starts its
motion along the x'ox axis. Neglect all frictional forces. Take rc2 = 10
At an instant t, the abscissa of(G) is x = OG and the algebraic value ofits velocity is v = x' .
In this problem, we intend to determine the expression ofthe tension force exerted by the spring on the
block (S) as a function oftime.
A. Ih1orct1ca1 atv4Y
The expression ofx is: where Xm and <pare constants, and w 0 is the
proper angular frequency ofthe oscillations ofx.
a) Determine the expression ofthe acceleratio·n a in terms ofXm, w 0 , <p and t.
b) Apply the theorem ofthe center ofmass I: Fext = m aG to show that the expression ofthe tension
force T exerted on (S) is: T = - v m 2 K T O sin (w 0 t + cp) 1 where TO is the proper period.
1[

87
 B. Experimental study
The table below represents over one period the recordings ofx and v at some particular instants:

v (mis)
a) Use the table to:
i. pick out X 0 and v0 .
ii. pick out TO •

iii. specify the maximum speed Vm . Deduce <p.

iv. specify the value ofXm. Deduce M 0 and K.
b) Write the expression of the tension as a function of time.
9. Variation of the algebraic value of the velocity v as a function of x ./
Consider a horizontal elastic pendulum. The
stiffness of the s rin is K. The time equation is:
Where:
* x is the abscissa of the center of mass (G) of
the block whose mass is m;
* Xm and cp are constants;
* w0 is the proper angular frequency of the
oscillations. :x (m)
a) i. Write the expression of the algebraic
measure v of the velocity of (G .
ii. Deduce that v2 = [ X 2 - x2 w� .
b) Prove the above expression again by
applying the principle of conservation of
mechanical energy.
c) The figure shows the variation of v as a function of x.
i. The motion of (G) is simple harmonic. Draw out two pieces of evidence from the figure .
ii. Indicate the amplitude X m of the abscissa and the amplitude Vm of the algebraic measure of the
velocity of (G).
d) Deduce the proper angular frequency M 0 .
e) Deduce the stiffness of the spring if the mass of the block is m = 1 kg.
10. Differential equation and time equation in v
Consider the oscillating system shown in the adjacent figure.
The left end of the horizontal elastic spring,
whose mass is negligible and stiffness is K = 10
Nim, is fixed to a support. The right end is
connected to a block of mass m and of center of
mass (G).
The point O is the equilibrium position of the Fig.1
spring (Figure 1).
We shift the block horizontally by a distance Xo = OA in the positive direction, and then we launch it
with a horizontal velocity of algebraic value v0 at the instant to= 0.
At an instant t, the abscissa of (G) is x = OG and the algebraic value of its velocity is v = dx .
dt
Neglect friction and take the horizontal axis x'Ox containing (G) as a reference level of gravitational
potential energy.
A. Ibeorettca1 study
a) Give at an instant t the expression of the mechanical energy of the system (Spring, block, Earth) as
a function of m; k; x and v.
b) Prove that the differential equation that governs the variation of v of (G): --

88
 c) The solution of the obtained differential equation has the form where Vm ,
w 0 and <p are constants. Deduce the ex�rms of k and m.
d) The abscissa of the block is given by: ---- where Xm is the amplitude of
oscillations. Deduce the relation among Xm; w 0 and Vm·
e) Deduce that
B. Experimental study
Figure (2) shows the variation of 0.64
v as a function of time.
a) Indicate the type of the motion 0.32
of the block.
b) Use figure (2) to pick out the 0

,-1
values ofv0 , Vm and the 0,25 3,25
proper period To . Deduce w 0 -0.32
c) Deduce Xm; <p and Xo-
d) Determine m. -0.64
Fig. 2
11. Linear momentum of the block of a horizontal elastic Pendulum
Consider two blocks (A) and (B) of masses

mmm
m1 and m2 = 0.4 kg respectively. (B) is B A
x'�IDm�K
connected to a spring of turns and of
negligible mass having a stiffness
K = 78 N/m. The other end of the spring is
connected to a fixed support. (B) and the
spring form a horizontal elastic pendulum Fig. 1
which is initially at rest.
The block (A) moves horizontally towards (B)
with a speed of 4 mis (Figure 1 ). x' ...-ii..+ill**Hl-+HHt-H-H.fHH-,1,
The block (A) enters into a head-on collision with
(B), they stick together and form one block (S) of
mass (m = m 1 + m2) and of center of mass (G). The Fig. 2
oscillatory motion starts att0 = 0 right after collision.
At equilibrium, (G) coincides with the origin O of the axis x'Ox.
At an instant t, the abscissa of (G) is x = OG and the algebraic
value of its velocity is v = x'. 0.2 --,-----�,......��--e--i
Take the horizontal plane containing (G) as a reference level of o .........-+.....i.-+--+---4...............�
gravitational potential energy (Figure 2).
The curve of figure (3) represents the variation of the algebraic
- 0.4
value of the linear momentum P of (S) as a function of time.
Fig. 3
A. Mechanical energy of the system [(S) , spring, Earth]
a. Refer to figure (3) to answer the following questions:
i. Pick out the algebraic value of the linear momentum of (S) at t.i = 0 (right after collision).
Deduce that m1 = 0.1 kg. Deduce that the speed Vm of (S) right after collision is 0.8 mis.
ii. Specify the direction of motion of (S) at t = 0.2 s.
iii. Prove that the mechanical energy of system [(S) , spring , Earth] is conserved.
b. Calculate the mechanical energy of the above system at t0 = 0. Deduce the maximum elongation
Xm of the spring.
c. Determine the speed of (S) when x = 3 cm.
B. Verification of Newton's 2 nd law
a) The expression of the linear momentum of (S) in figure (3) is:
i. Refer to fi gure (3) to pick out Pmax and to determine, W 0 and q>.
ii. Deduce :: as a function of time.

89
 b) The expression of the abscissa x of the (S) is:
i. Deduce the expression of the algebraic value of the acceleration a of (S).
ii. Deduce the algebraic value of the resultant force acting on (S).
C. Compare the answers of parts (B - a- ii) and (B - b- ii). Is Newton's z nct law verified?
12. &ff ct of collision on amplltud and p riod of o cillation•
A horizontal spring of negligible mass and of stiffness k = 10 N/m is connected from one end to a
wall and from the other end to a ball (M) of mass m 1 = 1 kg. The system (Ball, spring) forms a

-
horizontal elastic pendulum.
Wall
tOem

I
�M) frln1
(N) V1
i• • �
1., •YAAYA
..-v...-+ ttil ..x
c B A

The point O is the equilibrium position of (M).

The ball (M) is displaced horizontally to the right by a distance OA = 10 cm and then it is released
from rest at t0 = 0, so (M) performs oscillations of amplitude X m .
Another ball (N) of mass m2 = 0.5 kg is shot horizontally at t0 = 0 from a point C with a velocity
VN of magnitude 0.75 m/s. (N) moves towards the oscillator along a horizontal path CA.
Take the horizontal plane containing the axis (0, i) and the centers of mass of the balls as a reference
level of gravitational potential energy.
Use 1r: = {Io and take 3 digits after the decimal point.
Neglect all frictional forces. Given: OB= OA = 10 cm and CB= 0.75 m.
A. Motion of CMl before the comston with CN}
a) Specify the amplitude X m and calculate the proper period of the oscillations of (M).
b) Calculate the mechanical energy of the system [ (M) , spring, Earth].
c) Deduce the speeds of the ball (M) atthe points O and B.
B. Motton of CM> after collision wtth CNl
The ball (N) and the ball (M) meet and enter into a head-on collision. The velocity of (M) right after
collision is v�= 0.5 t (mis).
a) Determine the time needed by (M) and that needed by (N) to reach B. Deduc� that the collision
takes place at the point B.
b) Determine the velocity v� of (N) right after the collision.
c) Determine the new amplitude of oscillations of the motion of (M).
d) Specify whether the period of oscillations of (M) increases, decreases, or remains the same..
· 13. Graph of a versus x
A horizontal elastic pendulum is formed
of a block (S) of mass m = 500 g
connected from one end of an elastic x
spring (R) of loops, of stiffness k, and
of negligible mass. The other end of the 0
spt:ing is connected to a fixed support Fig.l
(Figure 1).
At equilibrium, the center of mass (G) of th� block coincides with the origin O of a horizontal axis
x'Ox. The block is shifted horizontally by a distance X m and then it is released from rest.
v
At an instant t, the abscissa of (G) is x = OG and the algebraic value of its velocity is = x'.
The line (D) of figure (2) represents the variation of the acceleration a = x" of{G) as a function
of x. Take the horizontal plane containing (G) as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
a) Refer to figure (2) to determine the equation of (D).

90
 b) Deduce the differential equation that governs the variation of the abscissa x of (G). Specify the
nature of motion of (G).
c) What can you conclude about:
i. the existence of friction?
ii. the mechanical energy of the system [(S), (R),
Earth]?
d) Determine the angular frequency w 0 • Deduce the x(m)
value of k.
e) Refer to figure (2) to pick out the amplitude Xm. -0,1 -0,05 -5
Deduce the maximum speed attained by (G) during -10
oscillating. -1.5
-20
f) In reality, friction is not neglected. The amplitude -25
of oscillations becomes then 80 % of its initial
value at the end of the tenth oscillation.
i. Determine the variation of the mechanical energy Fig. 2
of the system during the first 10 oscillations.
ii. Deduce the variation of the internal energy of the system [ (R), (S), table, atmosphere, Earth ].
14. Bullet-Block com ion • Oscillations
The diagram below is composed of two figures:
* figure ( 1) shows a horizontal elastic pendulum formed of an elastic light spring of force constant K
fixed from one end to a wall, and a wooden block (B) connected to the other end of the spring and
can slide without friction along a horizontal support.
* figure (2) shows a person sitting in a light swing.
The horizontal plane , which contains the center of mass (G) of the system (Person, swing) and the
center of mass of the block (B), is taken as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
g = 10 m/s2. Neglect all friction.

Fig. 2
--v
Fig.1

A· Determination of the speed Y of the bullet

The system (Person, swing) is initially at rest at the equilibrium position. The person considered as a
particle of mass µ = 50 kg fires att0 = 0 a b�llet of mass m = 30 g . The bullet moves with a velocity v
whose direction is along the axis of the spring.
v
Right after firing the bullet, the system (Person, swing) moves with a velocity 1 of magnitude v 1 , and
then the light rope holding the swing deviates by a maximum angle a such that 1- cos a = 2.25 x 10-3.
The length of the rope holding the swing is f = OG = 2 m.
a) Apply the principle of conservation of mechanical energy to determine v 1.
b) i) Show that the system (Person, swing, bullet) is isolated during the firing of the bullet.
v
· ii) Deduce that t�e magnitude of is 500 m./s.
B· o,cmatton of the ,ratem <Sprlng. block. bullet)
The bullet reaches the wooden block with the speed v = 500 m/s. The bullet enters the block
and becomes embedded in it. Mechanical oscillations take place with an amplitude Xm = 15 cm.
Let M·be the total mass of the system (Block, bullet). ·
a) Determine in terms of the mass M the speed v0 of the system (Block, bullet) right after collision.
b) Apply the conservation of mech�nical energy to prove that M x K = 104 kg.Nim.

91
 c) The system takes 6.3 s to complete 10 oscillations.
i. Calculate the proper period of the oscillator.
ii. Write the expression of the proper period TO in terms of M and K. Deduce K.
iii. Deduce the mass M of the system (Bullet , block).
15. Simple harmonic motion of the system (two springs, block)
A block of mass m = 0.5 Kg and of center of mass (G) is connected to two horizontal springs each of
natural length fO• The other ends of the springs are connected to two fixed supports (Figure 1-a).
Spring (A) has a force constant K1 = 2 Nim and spring (B) has a force constant K2 = 6 Nim ..We fix the
block at a point 0, while each spring is elongated by a distance ll.f = 10 cm (Figure 1-b ). At t0 = O, we
release the block without initial velocity and (G) starts oscillating without friction along the table.
At an instant t the abscissa of (G) is x = OG and the algebraic value of its velocity is v = : (Figurel-c).
x'Ox is a horizontal axis oriented positively to the right.
Take the horizontal plane containing (G) as a reference level of gravitational potential energy.
Use TI = 3.14 rad.
fo lo

Fig (1-a)
X' x
(A) � (B)

lo + fl.I /0 +4/

Fig (1-b)
X'
/0
x

I x
i-
Fig (1-c)
X' x

A- Theoretical study
a) At to = 0:
i. Calculate the magnitudes and specify the directions of the tensions T1 and T2 exerted on the
block by (A) and (13) respectively.
ii. Deduce that (G) starts moving at this instant and specify the direction of its motion.
iii. Calculate the mechanical energy of the system (S) (Two springs, block, Earth).
b) Determine the expression of the mechanical energy of the system S at an instant t.
c) Deduce that the differential e uation that governs the variation of the abscissa x of (G) is :

d) The motion of (G) is simple harmonic of proper angular frequency . Deduce the
value of the proper period TO of oscillations.
B- Verification of the conservation of the mechanical energy
An appropriate device gives the variations of the abscissa x and the algebraic value of the velocity of
(G) as a function of time, as shown in figures (2) and (3) respectively.
a) The center of mass (G) oscillates with an amplitude X m about a point of abscissa x1.
Refer to figure (2) pick out x 1 and X m .

92
 b) Pick out the period of the oscillations of (G). Compare its value with that calculated in part (A-d).

10 0.2
7,5 0.1
5 0,--+�-+-�--��-+----1:---+-�+--->J>
2,5 - 0.1
- 0.2
0,251T 0,51T 0,75lT tr
Fig. 2 Fig. 3

c) Refer to figure (3), to pick out the maximum speed of the oscillations of (G).
d) Use the figures to determine the mechanical energy of the system (S) at the instants:
t0 = 0 ; t1 = 0.125n s and t2 = 0.251t s.
e) Deduce that the mechanical energy of the system S is conserved.

16. Free undamped oscillations of a vertical elastic pendulum

A vertical light spring of initial length l0 and of force constant Fig (c)
Fig (a) Fig (b)
k = 100 N/m is fixed from its upper end (Figure a).
We attach a particle (S) of center of mass (G) and of mass
m = 500 g to the lower end of the spring.
Neglect friction and use g = 10 m/s2•
x'Ox is an axis oriented positively downward.
A. First experiment
We hold the solid to make it fall down slowly and reach its
equilibrium position at 0.
At equilibrium, the string elongates by a distance !::..f while
(G) coincides with the point 0, and the system is at rest
(Figure b).
a) Apply the condition of equilibrium to determine the
expression of the elongation !J.l of the spring in terms of
m, g and f. Calculate !J.l .
b) We pull the spring from its equilibrium position by a
displacement OA = x0 , and then we release it from rest
at to= 0.
Take the horizontal plane containing the equilibrium A
position O of the spring as a reference level of gravitational
potential energy. At an instant t, the abscissa of (G) is
x = OG and the algebraic value of its velocity is v = x' = : .
x
i. Write the expression of the mechanical energy of the
system ((S), spring, Earth) in terms of x, v, k, g, !)./ and m.
ii. Determine the differential equation that governs the variation of the abscissa x of (G). Deduce that
the motion of (G) is simple harmonic and deduce the expression of its proper angular frequency
w 0 • Indicate whether W 0 depends on g or not.
B. Second experiment
The spring is still vertical. In this experiment, the solid (S) is attached to the lower end of the spring and
then it is released suddenly without initial velocity at t0 = 0. So (S) starts moving downwards (Figure d).
The origin O' of the x'O'x coincides with (G) at to = 0.

93
 Take the horizontal plane containing O' as a reference level of gravitational x'
potential energy. At an instant t, the abscissa of (G) is x = O' G and the
algebraic value of its velocity is v = x'
a) Write the expression of the mechanical energy of the system [(S),
spring, Earth] in terms of x, v, k, g and m.
b) Prove that the differential equation that governs the variation of the 0

I<
abscissa x the motion of (G) is "+ - x =
c) The solution of the differential equation has the form:
= Xm sin (w t + q>) +:
0 where w 0 = �.
Determine the expression of v. Deduce the nature of motion of (G).
d) Use the initial conditions to prove that Xm = ':g and <p =-¥rad.
Fig (d)
17. Marble-block collision ·Oscillations
A vertical spring of natural length .fO and of force constant K = 300 Nim is fixed from its upper end to a
point A (Figure a). We attach a solid (S) considered as a particle of
mass m = 3 kg to the other end of the spring. The system is brought to :x
rest (equilibrium position), so the increase in the length of the spring (b) (a)
is L1f (Figure b).
A marble of mass m 1 = 20 g is launched vertically upwards towards
(S). The marble reaches (S) with a velocity V1 and collides with it.

(•
Right after collision, the marble bounces back and (S) moves with a
velocity V0 = 4 t, which starts the oscillatory motion about the
equilibrium position O at t0 = 0
Take the horizontal plane containing O as a reference level of -.------- -"----
gravitational potential energy. Use g =10 mls 2 • Neglect all friction. [ iii
!
a) Apply the condition of equilibrium to (S) to prove that before
collision, 11.f = 10 cm. i . ___ Reference level
b) Apply the principle of conservation of linear momentum to ofGPE
determine V1 just before collision.
c) Prove that the value of the mechanical energy of the system [(S),
spring, Earth] is 25.5 J at t0 = 0.
d) At an instant t, the abscissa of (S) is x and the algebraic value of
its velocity is v. Write the expression of the mechanical energy of B
�
the system [(S), spring, Earth]. Deduce the differential equation
that governs the variation of x during the oscillations. Deduce the nature of motion of (S).
e) The solution of the obtained differential equation is = - 0.4 sin w t + TC .
Determine the instant at which the algebraic value of the velocity of (S') becomes v = - 2 mis for the
first time.
t) i. Determine the expressions of the gravitational potential energy of the system [(S); spring; Earth]
and the kinetic energy of (S) as a function of time.
ii. Deduce the expression of the elastic potential energy as a function of time.
iii. The graphs (a), (b), (c) and (d) of the figure below represent the variations of the kinetic, elastic,
mechanical and gravitational potential energies as a function of time.
Specify the form of energy represented by each graph.
iv. Refer to the figure to determine the period of the energy of graph (c).Compare this period to the
proper period TO of the oscillations of x.

94
-4
-8
-12 t
18'. Effect of friction on oscillations ./
The stiffness of the spring and the mass of the block of a horizontal elastic pendulum are k = 9.725 Nim
and m = 0.2 kg respectively.
The block is displaced from its equilibrium position O by a distance x0 = 12 cm and then it is released
from rest at t0 = 0 .
The expression of the frictional force acting on the block is fr= - h v, where h is a positive constant
and vis the velocity of the center of mass (G) of the block.
An appropriate device gives the variation of the abscissa x = OG of (G) as a function of time.
Take 3 digits after the decimal point.
A- Case of slight damping
Figure (1) represents the variation of the abscissa x of (G) in the case of slight damping.

x(cm)
12
9
6
3 t(s)
0
1 2 3 4
-3
-6
-9
-12 t
a) Indicate the type of the oscillations. Fig.1
b) Pick out the pseudo-period Tof the oscillations. Indicate whether Tis slightly greater than,
slightly smaller than or equal to the proper period of the oscillations. Support your answer by
calculating the proper period TO of the oscillations.
c) Knowing that here w and w 0 are the pseudo- angular frequency and
the proper angular frequency of the oscillator respectively. Deduce the value of h.
d) Give the relation between v and :: . Deduce the value of x when v is zero.
e) Determine the value offr at the instant t = 2 s.
t) Determine the work done by friction between t = 0 and t = 6 s.

95
 B- Case of critical damping
The magnitude of friction is increased.
Figure (2) represents the variation of the 12
abscissa x of (G) in this case.
a) Refer to the figure to prove that the
oscillator does not perform oscillations.
b) The curve of figure (2) represents the
variation of x as a function of time in the 3
case of critical damping of the oscillator.
t(s)
In this case 2: = w 0 • Deduce the new
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8
value of h. Compare this value to that
determined in part (A-c). Fig. 2

19. Driven oscillations ./

Consider a horizontal elastic pendulum composed of a massless spring of stiffness Kand a solid (S)
The system starts from rest.
Take the horizontal plane containing the center of mass of the solid as a reference level of gravitational
potential energy.
a) In case the forces of friction are negligible, the pendulum performs 20 oscillations during 42.3 s.
Calculate the proper period TO of the oscillations.
b) In reality, the forces of friction are not neglected. We record the amplitudes a0 = Xm, at t = n T
where n is the number of the oscillations and T is the period.
The results are tabulated below:

i. Indicate the type of oscillations.

ii. Calculate the pseudo-period T of the damped oscillator if it performs 9 oscillations
during 21.3 s. Compare T and T0 •
iii. 1. The loss of the mechanical energy of the system (Pendulum, Earth) during the first oscillation
is 1.952 x 10-4 J. Determine k.
2. Deduce the loss of the mechanical energy between the eighth and the ninth oscillations.
iv. 1. State the meaning of "driven oscillation".
2. Deduce the average power of the force needed to drive the above oscillations. (Assume that the
period of oscillations in the driving phase is equal to the period T).

20. Energy needed to drive the oscillations over one period

Consider a horizontal elastic pendulum composed of a massless spring of stiffness Kfixed from one
extremity, and a solid (S) of mass m attached to its free extremity. The pendulum is subjected to a
v v
force of friction f = - h where h is a positive constant and is the velocity of the center of mass (G)
of the block at any instant. The system is driven to perform a simple harmonic motion with a constant
amplitude Xm
a) The driving force ( Fdrive) is chosen so that Fdrive= - f. Apply Newton's z nd to prove that
the oscillator oscillates with it 1 frequency 00 0 •
b) The expression of x of (G) is , and the power of the friction force is p�f = dW1
dt
. W1 is the work done by the friction.
Determine in terms of h, Xm and 00 0 the expression of the energy lost due to friction over the
first period of the oscillations.
c) Deduce the expression of the energy delivered by the driving force to the oscillator over each
period.

96
21. Slight damped mechanical oscillations ( GS students)
Consider a horizontal elastic pendulum composed of a light spring of stiffness k and a block (B) of
mass m = 500 g placed on a horizontal surface. We displace the center of mass (G) of the block from its
equilibrium position by a distance Xm(o), and then we release it from rest at the instant t0 = 0. At an
instant t, the position of (G) is expressed by the abscissa x = OG on the x'Ox axis whose origin O is
at the equilibrium position of the block.
v v
While oscillating, the block is affected by a frictional force f = - h where is the velocity of the
Block, and h is a positive constant called the coefficient of damping.
Take the horizontal plane containing (G) to be the reference level of gravitational potential energy.
The curve below shows the variation of x as a function of time.

8
6
4
2 t (s)
oi--__,..---+�-#-�-+-�+-�-1-�1---,f.--1�-+�-+-�+-�+-�+----jf----+�-\.---+�-4
-2
-4
-6
-8
a) Specify the type of oscillations of (G).
b) Indicate the period T of oscillations. Indicate the name of this period.
dME
c) The power of the friction force is P�f = dt = - h v2, where ME is the mechanical energy of the
system (Pendulum, Earth).
Show that the differential equation that governs the variation of x is:
d) The solution of the differential equation is:
_
...................-......... __.
where: A and cp are constants, A > 0, and

i. Use the initial conditions to prove that and

-hT
xct = ZTJ = ezin = C = constant
ii. Use the time equation to prove that .
X(t=T)
iii. Refer to the graph to calculate the value of C. Deduce h.
iv. Deduce k, cp and A and then write the time equation of the motion of x as a function of time.
22. Damped oscillations under constant friction
wConsider a horizontal elastic
pendulum composed of a
12
spring of stiffness K and of
negligible mass, and a block 8
of mass m = 0.65 kg. The 4
block is movable on a t(s)
horizontal table and subjected 0
to a frictional force of -4
constant magnitude f, . The
-8
block is shifted from its
equilibrium position O by a -12
distance x0 =14 cm, and then Fig. 1
it is released from rest at the
instant t0 = 0. Take the horizontal plane containing the center of mass (G) of the block as a reference level
of gravitational potential energy.
Figure (1) shows the variation of the abscissa x of (G) as a function of time.

97
Figure (2) shows the variation of the mechanical energy
of the system (Spring, block, Earth) as a function of x
during the first half oscillation. 70
5!l
a) Refer to figure (1) to prove that friction exists. 42
b) Refer to figure (2) to: 2B
i. pick out the initial mechanical energy ME0 of the 14
x(o:n)
system (Spring, block, Earth). Deduce that -12-10-8-6-4-2 0 2 4 68101214
K= lON/m. Fig. 2
ii. determine the speed of the block when (G) reaches the origin O for the first time.
iii. determine the value of fr .
c) i. Use figure (1) to determine the work done by the friction during the first oscillation.
ii. Deduce the mechanical energy of the system (Spring, block, Earth) at the end of the first oscillation.
23. Determination of the mechanical energy of an oscillator under free
damped oscillations
Consider a horizontal elastic pendulum. The center of mass (G) of the block can move along a horizontal
surface. The abscissa of (G) relative to x' Ox is given by x = OG, and the algebraic value of its velocity
is v = :: . 0 is the equilibrium position of the block. During its motion, the block is submitted to a
friction force of algebraic value f = - h v (h is a positive constant).
Hint: y = f(x) .If :: = 0 for a certain value of x, then for this value of x, y is maximum or minimum
depending on the signs of ::
A. Theoretical study
a) Prove that if x = ± X m then v = 0. ( X m is the amplitude of x) .
-------
b) Indicate the external forces acting on the block.
=
c) Apply Newton's z nd law to prove that k x- h v m v1 Deduce that, when
v = ± Vm , = =F 1iv.l where Vm is the maximum value of the velocity of (G).
B. Experimental study
The figure below represents the variations of x and v each as a function of time.
Given: the mass of the block ism = 0.5 kg and the stiffness of the spring is k = 100 Nim.
Let the horizontal plane passing through (G) be the reference level for gravitational potential energy.

ldivL
1.7 ldiv

t(s)

Scales:
For x: I div-+ 5 cm;
For v: I div -+ 0.5 mis

a) Use the figure to:

i. pick out the value of the pseudo period T of oscillations of (G).
ii. calculate the speed and the abscissa of (G) at the instant t 1 . Deduce that h == 2.17 kg/s.
b) Deduce the mechanical energy of the system (Pendulum, Earth) at t 1 .
c) Determine the mechanical energy of the system (Pendulum, Earth) at the instant t 2 = T.

98
 5 Mechanical Oscillations (2)
Torsion, Compound and Simple Pendulums

Fixed end 0
'!� Pivot
I
I
I
Suspension I
I
wire I
I
I
I
I
I

Mg

Body
Equilibrium
position

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
•!• Determine the differential equations that govern the simple harmonic motion of torsion,
compound, and simple pendulums.
•!• Determine the expressions of the proper periods of torsion, compound and simple pendulums.

99
Prerequisites
"' Ife is a small angle (0 :5 10° ) then: cos e � 1 - � and sin e � e ' where e is expressed in rad.
2

"' Work done by a moment ofa force: The general rule ofthe work done by the moment Mofa force
relative to a fixed axis ofrotation (.1) is: dW = M . dO => = Jt M . de (0 is the angular abscissa).
- IfM = constant => = M . .10 where .10 is the described angle in rad.
"' Average power and instantaneous power:
The average power ofa moment when it performs a work .1W during a time interval ,M is: av --:it·
As .1t approaches 0, Pav approaches the instantaneous power Pins : Pins = P = T
=> P = M�: => P = M 8 where 8' is the angular velocity. In S.I units, P is expressed in W, Mis
e

expressed in N.m and 8' is expressed in rad/s.

"' Differential equation offirst order
Ifx is a function oftime t, then :: + a x = b (a and b are constants) is the first order differential
equation in x. The solution of this differential equation is: x =Ce-at + �a where C is constant
that depends on the initial conditions
1-Torsion Pendulum
A torsion wire is an elastic wire which stores elastic potential
energy when twisted from its ends about its axis. Support
Figure (1) shows a torsion pendulum which is formed of a rigid
body (disk) suspended from the lower end of a torsion wire whose
upper end is fixed to a support.
Torsion wire
The disk is rotated from its equilibrium position in the horizontal
plane, about a vertical axis passing through the torsion wire. During
the rotation of the disk, the wire is twisted (deformed) and then it Body
exerts a restoring force (torsion couple) on the disk. The restoring
force tends to oppose the deformation of the wire and bring the disk
back to its equilibrium position.
When the disk is rotated by an angle 0 (without exceeding the limit
of elasticity of the wire), the wire is twisted through the same angle. Fig. 1
The moment M of the restoring torsion couple is proportional to the
angular displacement 0.
I M = - ce I where: Analogy between torsion
* Mis the restoring moment exerted by the wire in N.m. pendulum and horizontal
* The minus sign means that M tends to return the wire to its elastic pendulum
equilibrium position. When a spring of stiffness K
* C is the torsion constant of the wire. C is a characteristic of the is elongated by a displacement
wire; it depends on the: length, cross sectional area and nature of x, it exerts a restoring force
the wire. S.I unit of C is N.m/rad. (tension) T = - k x which is
* e is the angular abscissa (in rad) of the torsion wire relative to analogues to M = - C 9.
the equilibrium position which corresponds toe= 0. The elastic potential energy
stored in the elongated spring
Torsion energy (Elastic potential energy)
When the torsion wire is twisted by an angle 0 (without exceeding
i
is EPE = Kr which is
analogues to the stored energy
the limit of elasticity of the torsion wire), it stores torsion (elastic)
in the twisted torsion wire
potential energy due to the work done by the restoring moment M: 1
The work WM done by M results in the variation of the elastic EPE = 2 C 9 2 ·
potential energy of the torsion wire : WM = - .1EPE =>
.1EPE = - IM I
de = - - c e de = � c 9 2 + const. Fore= 0, EPE = 0 => const = 0 =} IEPE = � c 02 j

100
Dffferential equation and time equation of free undamped oscillations of the torsion pendulum
Consider the torsion pendulum of fi gure(1).
The disk is rotated from its equilibrium position in the horizontal ,,,., 7
plane about a vertical axis passing through the torsion wire, by an ToniellcallltentC
angle 8 1 and then it is released from rest. The restoring moment tends ne torsion c:ms11ant ofa torsion
to return the disk to its equilibrium position. cytindric:aJ � wire
At an instant t the angular abscissa of the disk relative to the depends Oil hs lengda '· hs
ffl8llleW d .. the substance
equilibrium position is 8 and its angular velocity is 8' = :: . forming the wire.
Take the horizontal plane containing the center of mass of the disk as C = -jl -where pis a comumt
d"

a reference level of gravitational potential energy. e

cbaracteris1ic ofthe wire.
Expression of the mechanical energy
The expression of the mechanical energy of the system(Torsion pendulum, Earth) at any instant is:
ME = KE + EPE+GPE
i
Where KE = I (8') 2 . I is the moment of inertia of the disk with respect to the vertical axis.
EPE = i C 8 and GPE
2 = mgh = 0(since h = 0) �I ME = i I 8' +i C e i
2 2

Differential equation
If no non-conservative forces are acting, the mechanical energy of the system is conserved (restoring
moment is a conservative force).
DHferential equation using; the,
ME = -I (8 ) 2 + -2 C 8 = constant� - =0
1 , 1 2 d ME
2 dt theorem of the angular· momentum
�0 = 2( !2 I 8' 811) +2( !2 C 8 8')�8'(I 811+ C 8) = 0 The external forces acting on the:

I
But 8' = 0 is rejected� le"+ � e = 0 This is the 2 nd order
differential equation that governs the variation of 8.
body are:
its weight m1 and the tension of
the torsion wire whose moment M ==­
Nature of motion
- ce and the tension T ofthe wire
The differential equation has the form: 8"+ w� 8 = 0 which is vertically upward.

Wherew0 = $ = constant > 0 �

� M�xt = dt Ila - 19"
· �
Mmt + M + M,r "" I 9"
Nature of the motion of the disk is angular simple harmonic. But Mmf = M;t = 0
Time equation mg and T pass through the axis of
The time equation(solution) of the differential equation has the rotation • - C 9 = I 8 1�
form: e = A sin(Wot+ q:,) or e = A cos(Wot+ 0 • 0 11 +£9..,o
I
* 8 is the angular abscissa of the disk at any instant.
* em = IAI > 0 is the amplitude of the oscillations or the maximum angular abscissa of the body
8 and8m have the same unit.

* I m0 = $ I ffio > 0 is the proper angular frequency of the pendulumw0 is expressed in rad/s.
* (w 0 t+ q>)is the phase at any instant t(in rad). -1:S sinw0 t+ <p) :Sl�-8m:S 8 :S em·
* cpis the initial phase(in rad). (j) depends on the initial conditions 8 0 and8�.

* The proper period of the pendulum is: IT0 = � = 21t $

* The proper frequency of the pendulum is: I I
f0 = * = � (fa in Hz).

101
Application 1
A torsion pendulum consists of a uniform homogeneous thin rod AB of Fixed end
length C = 50 cm and of mass m= 0.6 Kg connected from its midpoint to
a vertical torsion wire of torsion constant C= 0.02N.m/ rad.
The rod is rotated from its equilibrium position in the horizontal plane
about a vertical axis(�) passing through the torsion wire. AB is rotated by Torsion wire
an angle of � rad(within the elastic limit) and then it is released from rest
at the instant to= 0.
At an instant t, the angular abscissa of the rod relative to the equilibrium
.....
••
••• 9
,

position is 9 and its angular velocity is 9'= :: .

Take the horizontal plane containing the rod as a reference level of
·····
A ••••• B

gravitational potential energy. Fig. 2

1 2
Given: The moment of inertia of the rod with respect to(�) is I= 1 2 m £ .
Use rr2 = 10 and neglect friction.
1. Calculate, at t0= 0, the mechanical energy of the system(Rod, torsion wire, Earth).
2. Determine the differential equation that governs the variation of 9. Deduce the nature of the motion
of the pendulum.
3. a. Verify that
��----.---
= cos {!1>0t + cp) is a solution of the above differential equation, where em and cp
are constants and w0= $-
b. Deduce the values of w0 , <p and em.
c. Determine the expression of the maximum angular velocity of the pendulum in tenns of w 0 and
em, and then calculate its value.
4. Apply the principle of conservation of mechanical energy to:
a. determine Smagain.
b. determine the angular speed of the pendulum when its angular abscissa becomes e= 0.15rr rad.
5. In reality, the rod is submitted to air resistance f whose moment relative to(�) is � = - h 0'.
The damping coefficient h is a positive constant.
a. Determine the differential equation that governs the variation of e. Use !__
8
____

b. The solution of the differential equation is = -h

A eTIt sin wt+ g>J where:

A and <p are constants, and m is the pseudo angular frequency

Use the same given initial conditions to determine the expressions of A and cp.
c. Calculate h if w = ill rad/s.
d. Determine the work done by the friction between t0= 0 and t= T(T is the pseudo period).
Solution
_ _ 1 ·_ 1 (n ) 2
1. ME O - KE O + PE to rsi o n + GPE - O + 2 C e o2 + O - 2(0.02) 5 => MEo _
- 4 x 10 -3 J.
i 2
i
2. At any instant t: ME = I e' + C 92 • There are no non-conservative forces in the system then

i i
the mechanical energy of the system is conserved.
2
ME= I e' + C 92= constant. Derive both sides with respect to time:
ME' = 2( � I 8' 9") + 2 ( � C e 8') = O => 8'(I 8" + C 9) = 0, but 9'= O is rejected=>
0" + f 0 = 0 Differential equation in 8 .
2 2

The equation has the form of 8" + w� 9= 0 then the nature of the motion is simple harmonic.
3. a. 8 = 9m COS (u.> 0 t + <p) => 9' =-
W 0 8m sin (ro 0t + <p) and 8"= - W� 8mCOS (w 0 t + <p)= - W� 8.
f
Substitute e and 8" in the differential equation: - w� e + e = - w� e + w� e = 0.
Therefore 8= em cos(w 0 t + cp) is a solution of the differential equation.

102
 m f 2 = 12 (0.6)(0.5) 2=0.0125 kg.m2 => Wo = �{c � ,r:,;:
1 1
b. I = 12 I
=
�o.oizs = v1.6 =>Cito,=1..2'5ndls..
e=em cos(wot+ <p). At to= 0, e =�rad=> � = 0.2 n=em cos <p....eq (1)
8' = - Woem sin(Wot+ <p). At to = 0, 8' = 0 => 0 = - Wo em sin <p , but Wo em 0 => sin <p = 0 *
=> <p = 0 or <p = TI rad . From eq(1) cos <p > 0 since em> 0=>cp=O.
o.2 n
Also Sm = co s o => Om = O.lw: rad.
C, 8' = - W0 8m Sin(W0 t+ (f)) , but -1 $ Sin(W0 t+ (f)) $ 1=> - W0 8m $ 8' $ W0 8m => 0� = ± W0 8m
. The maximum angular velocity is I 8� I = w0 em . I 8� I = fil x 0.2n=> II� Ii= 9.1 rad's.
4. a. ME0 = ME = i 2
i
I e' + C 8 2 . When 8 = Sm , 8' = 0=> ME0 = i C 8�
=> 4 X 10-3 = i (0.02) 9� => Om O.lw: rad . =

b. ME i I (8') + i C 8
= 2
4 x 10- J=> i (0.0125) (8') + i (0.02) (0.15 n) = 4 x 10- J
2 = 3 2 2 3

5. a. ME i I (8') + i C 0
=> 0' = 0.53 rad/s.
2 2
= Derive both sides with respect to time:
ME' 2( i I 8' 0") + 2( i C 8 8')
•

= - h (8') => 8' ( 18"+ C e + h 8' ) 0 , but 0' 0 is

= 2 = =

rejected=> 0" + � 0' + £ 0 = 0 Differential equation in 8.

b' At t0 = 0 ' 8 = �5 rad= A sin rn
't' => A = -•-· - 5 sin1p •

8' =A[�� e�� t sin(rot+ <p)+ roe��t cos(rot+ <p)], but 8� = 0=> 0 = A [�� sin(<p)+ ro cos(<p)].
z I
But A = Ois rejected=> �� sin(<p) + co cos(<p) = 0=> tancp= : . f=-hv
C ro = wo2
2 _ (.!:_)2 => (.!:_)2 = w2 _ co2 f
• 2 1 21 o => h =--
Jw�
v
=> h = 2 I - ro 2 = 2(0.0125) -V1.6 - 1.5 => h = 1.9 x 10-3 N. s/m. => unit of
d. T= �1[ = �=5.16 s.
2 hisN.s/m
-hT 2 -hT -7.9x10-3x5.16

=
At t = T: 8'=0 and e = Ae21 sin ( � T+ <p) = A e21 sin(<p) = A sin(<p) e 2 xo.om
T
From part 5-b: A sin <p =�=> e = �(0.196 )=> 8 0.124 rad
i i
=> MEr = C 82 = (0.02)(0.124)2=1.5376 x 10-4 J.
But �ME = L Wnon-conserva ive forces => W7 = MEr - MEo = 1.5376 X 10-4 - 4 X 10-3
t
=> wi =-
3.85 x 10-3 J.

Application 2 ii!:11
Consider a homogeneous disk of moment of inertia 6.93 x 10-3 kg.m2 relative to
a vertical torsion wire passing through its axis (Figure 3).
The disk is in simple harmonic motion of proper period T O
Torsion
The time equation of the disk is: wire
$ (�0t+ CR) where: em , <p are constants, w0 is the an gular frequency.
8 is the angular abscissa of the disk relative to its equilibrium position.
8
The curves of fi gures(4-a) and ( 4-b) represent the variations ofe and e•= ddt as
respectively a function of time. Use the two graphs when needed. Fig. 3
1. Prove that the expression of the maximum angular speed is 9� <o0 9m . =
2. Pick out the values ofem and 8� . Deduce the torsion constant C of the
torsion wire.
3. Pick out the values of 8 0 and 8� . Deduce <p.
4. Calculate the mechanical energy of the oscillator.
5. i. Specify the angular velocity of the disk when its angular abscissa is - 0.4 rad:·

103
 ii. Apply the conservation of mechanical energy to verify the answer of part(5).
6. Refer to figure(4-a) to determine the instant at which the torsion potential energy becomes equal to
the kinetic energy of the oscillator for the first time.

8' (rad/s) I

I
2.5 ...-2,15
0.8
2

1
0.6 1.5
0.4 1
0.2 0.5 t (s)
0
0
-0.5
-0.2
-1
-0.4 -1.5
-0.6
-0.8
-2
-2.5 t
Fig (4-a) Fig (4-b)
Solution
=
1. 8 = 8m sin( W 0 t+ <p)� 8' = W 0 8m COS( W 0 t+ <p)� 9� W o 9 m ,
e'
2. 9,m = 2.5 rad/s and 9m • 0.8 rad� w 0 = _m9 = -
m
z.s =
0.8
� C = w� I=(3.125)2 (6.93 x 10-3)� C • 0,068 N,m/rad.
3.125 rad/s, but w0 =
J
-1

3. 80 • 0.4 rad and 9 0 • 2.15 rad/s .

T[
8 = em sin(mt+ cp)� 0.4 = 0.8 sin <p � <p = � rad or \ rad.
But 8' = 8m m cos(mt+ cp)� 8� = 2.15 = 8m m cos cp � cos cp > 0 � q> •irad.
4. ME = % I (8� )2 = %( 6.93 x 1 o-3)(2.5)2� ME• 0,0217 J.
5. i. From figure(4-a): at t = 1 s , 8 = - 0.4 rad . From figure(4-b) : at t = I s, 9' !!!!- 2.1 rad/s.
ii.M E = % C 82 + % I(8')2 � 0.0217 = %(0.068)(-0.4)2+ %(6.93 x 10-3)(8')2
� 19'1 • 2.16 rad /s.
6. PE to rsion = KE � M.E = 2 PE to rsion = 2( % C 82) � 82 = 0.0217 I(0.068)� 8 = 0.56 rad.
From figure(4-a): t !!!! 0,1 s.

2- Compound Pendulum
A compound pendulum is a rigid body that oscillates under the action of
its weight around a horizontal fixed axis which is not passing through the
center of mass of the pendulum(Figure 5).
DHTerentlal equation and time equation of free undamped osclllatlons
of the compound pendulum
Consider the compound pendulum of figure(5).
The pendulum (rod) is shifted in the vertical plane from its stable
equilibrium position, about a horizontal fixed axis(.1) passing through the
upper extremity O of the rod. The rod is shifted by a small angle 8m 0=0
(8m ::=: 10° ), and then it is released it from rest. Fig. 5
At an instant t, the angular abscissa of the rod relative to its equilibrium
position is 8 and its angular velocity is 8' = �� . Neglect friction.

104
The horizontal plane containing the equilibrium position of the center of mass G0 of the pendulum is
taken as a reference level of gravitational potential energy.
Expression of the mechanical energy 0
The expression of the mechanical energy of the system(Compound
pendulum, Earth) at an instant t is: ME = KE + GPE.
i
KE= I e' where I is the moment of inertia of the rod with
2

respect to the axis(�).

GPE = m g hG , but hG= GH= a - a cos 8 , where a = OG = OG0
(Figure 6) => GPE = m g a (1 - cos 8). Refere.;;,a c '---.=.u.--•--
n.a.ae
92 1
For 8m ::; 10° , cos 8= 1 - - => GPE = - m g a 8 2 level of GPE H
=> For small angles: =! I:012 +lmga82 Fig. 6

Differential equation
There are no non-conservative forces then the mechanical energy of the system is conserved.
2 ct ME
ME=! 2
I e' + ! 2
m g a 82 =constant=> dt = 0=> 2(!I 2
8' 8") +2 (!mg 2
a 8 8 1) = 0
=> 8'( I 8" +m g a 8) = 0, but 8'= 0 is rejected Differential equation using the theorem
of angular momentum
=>le"+ � 8= 0 j z order differential equation in 8.
nct
External forces R
acting on the
Nature of motion pendulum: O
The differential equation has the form: 8" + w 0 2 8= 0 with Weight mg;
w 0 = jm � a = const > 0=>The nature of the motion of the Reaction R at the
axis (a).
compound pendulum is simple harmonic. Mw ... O since R +
passes through

J
Time equation
The time equation of the motion of the compound pendulum the axis (a)
Mmf ... • mg a sin9
mg
has the form: 8= 8m sin(w 0 t + cp)
=> The rod oscillates between - 8m and 8m with a proper ( a "' 00). For small Fig. 7
angles sin 9 .. 9cna) • Mmt ;;; • mg a9
angular frequency I W 0 = jm � a I
'--��====--����= !: ;;;
I M1111t .. 19"• Mmf + Mr ... I 9".
and with a proper period ITo= z2- = 2n � I • -mga9+0•10" • 8 11 +.!.!!...l! 9ee0
I

Note: If the axis of rotation passes through the center of mass (G) of the compound pendulum, then a = 0 and T0
tends to infinity thus we have no oscillations.

Application 3
Consider a uniform homogeneous thin rod of length e = 0.6 m and of mass
M = 2 kg. The rod can rotate without friction in the vertical plane about a horizontal
axis(�) passing through its midpoint 0. A particle(A) of mass mA = 0.5 kg is fixed
to one extremity of the rod, and a particle(B) of mass m 8 = 2 kg is fixed to the
other extremity(Figure 8).
1
Given: moment of inertia of the rod about(�) is Irod = 2 Mf 2.
1
The pendulum [(A) , (B), rod] is shifted by an angle of 0.08 rad from its stable
equilibrium position in the vertical plane, and then it is given an angular velocity of
0.58 rad/s. At an instant t, 8 and 8' are the angular abscissa and the angular velocity
respectively. The maximum angle performed by the system is 8m < 10°.
Take: Fig. 8
O
the origin of time t0 = 0 when 8 = 0 and the rod is rotating in the negative
sense;

105
 O
the horizontal plane containing the equilibrium position of the center of mass(G) of the compound
pendulum as a reference level of gravitational potential energy.
92
g = 10 m/s2, (1- cos8) �
2 for small angles and neglect friction.
O

1. Determine the abscissa xa = OG = a of the center of mass of the system [(A) ,(B), rod] relative to O.
x' Ox is an axis along the rod and is oriented positively from(A) to (B).
2. Determine the moment of inertia I of the system [(A) ,(B), rod] relative to (.1).
3. Determine the differential equation that governs the variation of8, in terms of I, a, g , 8, m and t.
4. The time equation of the motion is given by 0 = 0m sin (w0 t + cp). 8m and <p are constants
a. Determine the expression of the constant w 0 •
b. Determine the value of <p.
5. Determine8m and the maximum angular speed of the pendulum.
6. In order to prevent the pendulum from oscillating, the value of a = OG must become zero. To
achieve this, the position of the particle(B) is changed, while(A) remains at the upper extremity of
the rod. Determine the new position of (B) relative to 0.
7. Solution
mAxA +m8 x8 +Mx0 = 0.5(-0.3)+ 2(0.3)+0
1. xa = a = � a = Ol. m.
mA +m8 +M 0.5+2 + 2
2. I = Irod + I(A) + I(B) =
1
2 Mf
2
+ mA ( f) 2
+ mB ( f ) 2 =0.06 + 0.045 + 0.18 �I= 0.285 kg.m 2
•

i i I e' 2 + i m g a82
1
3. ME = KE + GPE =
2
I e' + m g a (1- cos 8) = (m = mA + m8 + M)
There are no non-conservative forces in the system �ME = const.
d ME 1 , 1
0
�- = 0 = 2( - I 8 8") + 2( - mg a 88') = 0
dt 2 2
�8'( I 8" + m g a 0) = 0, but8' = 0 is rejected
0" + m: a 0 = O 2 nd order differential equation in8.
4. a. 8 = 8m sin( W 0t + <p) � 8' = Wo 8m COS ( W0 t + <p)
m) = - wo2 8
�8" = - w o2 8m sin(w o t + "t'
Substitute8" in the differential equation: Refere_n_ce__�...;:G'""0___...__
level of GPE
� - w o2 8 + Ig a 8 = 8 (- w o2 + Ig a ) = 0
m m H
Fig. 9
� w o2 = Ig a � wo =
m jm g a
8 = 0 is reiected
� I .
b. 80 = 0 � 0 = em sin <p � <p= 0 or <p= 1t rad.
8� =Wo 8mcos <p, but(G) moves in the negative sense at t0 = 0 � cos <p < 0 � q> = 1t rad.
5. Applying the principle of conservation of the mechanical energy:
•!• ME0 =i I (8�) 2 + i mga8� i(0.285)(0.58) + i(4.5) (10)(0.1)(0.08) =0.062 J.
= 2 2

MEce=em) i mga8� = i(4.5)(10)(0.1) 8� 2.25 8� (when8=8m ,8'=0)

= =

ME0 = MEce =Bm) � 0.062 J=2.25.8m 2 �Om =0.166 rad.

•!• MEo= MEequilibriumposition
1
MEequilibriumposition-- 2 I (8m,
) 2 - 2 ( 0.285) (8m
1 , , ) 2 (when8 ,--8m
) 2 -0.1425 (8m , ,8--0 )

� 0.062 -- 0.1425 (8m , ) 2 � Om, - -0.66 rad/s.

m m
AxA + 8 x8 + Mx0 - _0.5(-0.3)+ 2(xs)+O _-
6. OG--a-_ mA+ms+M 2 +0.5+0.5 O � xa _- 0075
. m - 7 • 5 cm.

106
3- Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum consists ofa body taken as a particle suspended from a light 0
and inextensible string oflength l'which is fixed at the upper end (Figure 10).
Expression of the mechanical energy
Consider the pendulum offigure (11). The particle P has a mass m and the String
length ofthe string is -e. The system oscillates in the vertical plane about a
horizontal axis (b.) passing through the fixed point O ofthe string.

Particle
Equilibrium position
Fig.10
::::}
0
There are no non-conservative forces in the system I \

d ME :8 \
::::} ME= const::::} dt = 0 ::::} 0 = 2 ( �2 m -e 2 8' 8") + mg -e 8' sin 8. I
\ l
I \

f 8= 0I z
For small angles sin 8 � 8cra d )::::} 0 = 8' (m f 2 8" + mg f 8) = 0. \
\
\

But 8' = 0 is rejected::::}! 8" + nd

order differential equation in 8.
I
�

�--·- -·- p
The ex ression ofthe proper angular frequency ofoscillations ofthe particle Reference • •
level of GPE H

b l:
is w O = �l .
Fig.11
Then the expression ofthe proper period is: = 2 TI The simple pendulum is a special case
The expression ofthe proper period leads to the following of the compound pendulum where:
conclusion: • the position of the center of mass G
of the system relative to the fixed
The proper period ofthe simple pendulum is: point O of the string is OG = a = e.
ofo independent of the mass m of the particle. • the moment of inertia of the system
ofo directly proportional to the square root of the length of the relative to the axis (�) is I = m e 2.
string and inversely proportional to the square root ofthe 0" + mg a 0 = 0 � 0" + mg f 0
gravitational acceleration in the place of the experiment. I mf2

=>&!
Application 4
A simple pendulum is formed of a particle ofmass m suspended 0 Reference
from an inextensible string ofnegligible mass and oflength level ofGPE
f = 0.98 m. The pendulum is displaced from the equilibrium
position (8 = 0) in the vertical plane by an angle of10°. :9
At an instant t, the angular abscissa (angle between the string and

=
the vertical) is 8 and the angular velocity ofthe pendulum is
8' = :: . Use sin 8 8(rad) for small angles and1t2 = 10. .
Neglect friction and take the horizontal plane containing the
upper end O ofthe string as a reference level of gravitational
potential energy.
··
Equilibrium
..... Particle

1. Determine the differential equation that governs the position

variation of8.
Fig.12
2. Determine the expression ofthe proper period TO of the
pendulum in terms of-e and g.
3. The pendulum performs 10 oscillations during 20 s. Deduce the value ofthe gravitational
acceleration in the place ofthe experiment.
4. The particle is replaced by another one of mass M = 2 m. Specify the value ofthe period.

107
Solution
1. The expression of the mechanical energy of the system (Pendulum, Earth) is
i
2
ME = KE + GPE = I 8' - m g f cos 8. There are no non-conservative forces in the system
d ME
=>ME=const => ctt =0 =2 (
1
2 I 8' 8") + mg t 8' sm 8 ( sin 8
m g
8crad)) =
=> 8' ( I8" + mg f 8) = 0 , but 8' = 0 is rejected => 8" + 1 t 8 = 0, but I= m t
2

=> 9" + : 9 • 0 2 nd order differential equation in 8.

2. The differential equation has the form: 8" + w� 8 = 0
By comparison: wo =�f
[i_ ' but To = �
W o => TO • 2 ff �I . f!
f 10 f 10 x 0.98
3. 10 To=20 s => To = 2 s => 2 = 2 1t - => 1 = TI2 - = - => g= 1 => g • 9.8 m/s.
g
� g g
4. The period remains 2 s since it does not depend on the mass of the particle.

The table below shows the analogy between the free undamped mechanical oscillations of four harmonic
oscillators.
Horizontal Torsion Compound Simple
Elastic Pendulum Pendulum Pendulum Pendulum

Abscissa x Angular abscissa 8 Angular abscissa 8 Angular abscissa 8

Algebraic value of the Angular velocity

velocity
Angular acceleration Angular acceleration Angular acceleration
Acceleration.

massm Moment of inertia I Moment of inertia I Moment of inertia I

Stiffness� Torsion O

x"+ -x
m
K
0 f
8"+ 8 = 0 (9 � 9limit) 8"+
m
�
a
8 = 0 (9 �10 °) 8"+ ff 0 = o (9 � 10 ° )

wo =Jg
m
wo = Jf
I
W o =j
mg
I
a
wO = }f

To =2TitK
TO =2TI c Jf TO = 2n j m
I
ga
TO =2TI ig

108
 Problems
eZ
Whenever needed use: for small angles, cos B = 1 - 2 and sin B z B (rad) and g = 10 m!s2
In all the problems, the angular abscissa fl is taken zero at the equilibrium position.

1. Determination of the height of a tower /

A long simple pendulum extends from the top ofa tower to the ground. The period ofthis pendulum is
12 s. Determine the height ofthe tower (Use g = 9.8 m/s2).
2. Simple and compound pendulums of equal periods
A compound pendulum is formed ofa thin uniform and homogeneous rod oflength f and ofmass m.
The rod oscillates in simple harmonic motion in the vertical plane about a horizontal axis ("1) passing
2
through one ofits end. The moment ofinertia ofthe rod with respect to ("1) is I = m £ . Neglect friction.
3
a) Write the expression ofthe proper period ofthe compound pendulum in terms of g and t.
b) Prove that the period ofa simple pendulum, whose length is also ,£, is greater than that ofthe above
pendulum.
c) Determine, in terms of,£, the length f' ofa simple pendulum that has a period equal to that ofthe
above compound pendulum.
3. Large-amplitude oscillations of a simple pendulum /
The adjacent figure shows a simple pendulum formed ofrod ofnegligible mass and oflength .f = 72 cm
suspending at its lower end a particle (P) ofmass m = 200 g. The pendulum is shifted by an angle
Om = 30° from its stable equilibrium position in the vertical plane, and then
0
it is released from rest. At an instant t, the angular abscissa ofthe rod is 8 and
its angular velocity is 8' = �:. Take the horizontal plane passing through the
lowest position A ofthe particle (P) as a reference level ofgravitational
potential energy. Neglect friction.
a) Prove that the differential equation that governs the variation of 8 is:
8" + _g_ sin 8 = 0 � - - - - (P)
f
b) Is the motion of(P) simple harmonic? Why? Reference • A •
level of GPE H
c) Indicate the type ofthe oscillations ofthe system [(P); rod].
d) Determine the speed of(P) when it reaches the point A.
e) In reality, friction is not neglected. Assume that at the end ofeach oscillation the amplitude is
divided by the same factor b = 1.025. Determine the number ofthe oscillations described by the
oscillator during the time needed by the amplitude to drop from 10° to 6.9 ° .
4. Determination of the torsion constant and the moment of inertia ./
A torsion pendulum is formed by attaching a torsion wire oftorsion constant C
Fixed
to the center O ofa uniform and homogeneous thin disk. The disk ofradius
support
R = 50 cm and ofmoment ofinertia I with respect to the wire can oscillate in
the horizontal plane about the wire.
Take the horizontal plane containing the disk as a reference level gravitational
potential energy and use n2 = 10. Neglect friction. Torsion
A. First experiment wire
The wire is twisted by rotating the disk from the equilibrium position in the
horizontal plane.
At an instant t, the angular abscissa and the angular velocity ofthe disk are 8
and 8' = �: respectively.
Disk
a) Prove that the motion ofthe disk is simple harmonic. Deduce the
expression ofits period.
b) The pendulum performs 10 oscillations during 30 s. Deduce the relation between I and C.

109
 B. Second experiment
We fix a particle of mass 0.14 kg at the rim of the disk.
a) Calculate in terms ofl the total moment of inertia l to tal of the system(Disk, particle) with
respect to the wire.
b) We repeat again the first experiment and the pendulum performs 10 cycles during 40 s.
Determine a new relation between I and C. Deduce the values of C and I.
5. Determination of the position of the center of mass of a chair �
A chair of mass m = 2 kg is suspended at a point O from a horizontal metal rod which is fixed through a
vertical wall. The chair is free to oscillate under the action of its weight about a horizontal axis(�) along
the rod. Then the chair is a compound pendulum(Figure).
Initially, the chair is at rest in its stable equilibrium position, and its center of
mass(G) coincides with the point G0 •
The horizontal plane containing G0 is taken as a reference level of gravitational
potential energy.
I is the moment of inertia of the chair relative to(�) and a = OG. Neglect all
friction. The chair is shifted by a small angle from its stable equilibrium
position about(�), and then it is released from rest at an instant t0 = 0.
At an instant t the angular abscissa of the chair is 8 = G 0 0G and its angular
de
ve1oc1ty
. 1s. 8' = dt .
a) Prove that(G0) belongs to the vertical axis passing through the point 0.
b) Determine the differential equation that governs the variation of 8.
c) Prove that the motion of the chair is simple harmonic. Deduce the expression of its proper period.
d) The chair completes 10 oscillations during 18 seconds. Calculate the proper period of the chair.
e) The mechanical energy of the system (Chair, Earth) and the maximum angular speed attained by the
chair are ME = 0.121 J and 0' m = 0.61 rad/s respectively. Determine I .
f) Deduce a.
6. Spiral spring
A spiral spring is a wire coiled usually in a flat spiral or in a helix. In this question, we study a

--------
pendulum composed of a rod and a spiral spring. The uniform homogeneous rod 00' is of length f and
of mass m and movable in the vertical plane about a horizontal axis(�) passing through 0.
The rod is connected to the extremity of a spiral spring of torsion constant C.
The spring exerts a restoring moment M = - C 0 with
respect to(�). The rod is shifted by a small angle 8m
(8m :::; 10 °) from its equilibrium position in the vertical
plane about a horizontal axis(bi) passing through its
extremity 0, and then it is released from rest.

mt
The moment of inertia of the rod relative to(�) is
I= . The horizontal plane containing O is taken as a
reference level of gravitational potential energy GPE.
Neglect friction.
a) Determine the expression of the mechanical energy of the system(Rod;
spiral spring; Earth).
b) Determine the differential equation that governs the variation of the angular abscissa 0. Deduce the
nature of motion of the system(Rod-spring).
c) Deduce the expression of the proper period of the oscillator in terms of m, g, f and C.
7. Periods of oscillation of a compound pendulum
Consider a compound pendulum formed of a uniform and homogeneous rod of length f = 50 cm and of
mass m. The pendulum(rod) is shifted by a small angle 8m (8m :S 10 °) from its stable equilibrium
position in the vertical plane about a horizontal axis(�) passing through its extremity 0, and then it is
released from rest.

110
 At an instant t, the angular abscissa of the rod relative to the equilibrium 0
position is 8and its angular velocity is 8' =�� . Neglect friction
Take the horizontal plane containing the center of mass G 0 of the rod in the
equilibrium position, as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
The moment of inertia of the rod with respect to (Ll) is: I= mt
.------,,,=,,,,
a) The expression of the proper period of the oscillations is O = 2x
where a = OG. Deduce the expression of TO in terms off and g.
b) A particle of massm' =�is fixed on the rod at a distanced from 0.The period of oscillations does
not change. Determined (d 0). *
8. Effect of f and g on the period of a simple pendulum ./
A particle is attached to the free end of a massless and inextensible string of length I = 90 cm whose
other end is fixed to a point 0, thus the formed system is a simple pendulum (p).
The pendulum (p) is shifted by an angle Om1 =5 ° from its equilibrium position, in the vertical plane
about a horizontal axis (L1) passing through 0.The particle is released then without initial velocity at
t0 =0 . Neglect friction.
Take the horizontal plane containing the equilibrium position of the particle as a reference level of
gravitational potential energy.
a) Calculate the period T0 of the pendulum. Deduce the instant t 1
when the particle reaches the equilibrium position for the first 0
time.
b) A nail is fixed at a point O' below Osuch that 00' = i.
when
the string reaches the vertical position, the new pendulum (P')
which is composed of the particle and the string of length i,
continues to the left side and attains a maximum angle Omz
i. Apply the principle of conservation of mechanical energy to
determine Omz.
ii. Calculate the period T� of the pendulum (P').
iii. Deduce the instant t2 when the pendulum (P') attains the angle
Omz for the first time. .............•...��.f!:r.!:�ce level
c) Suppose that the above system is taken to the moon where the ofGPE
gravitational acceleration is gm = 1.63 m/s 2 , and we repeat the
same experiment. Answer part (b-iii) again.
9. Determination of the initial phase and the amplitude of oscillations ./
A torsion pendulum (S) is formed of:
• a rigid thin rod of length t = 20 cm and of moment of inertia I
about a vertical axis (L1) perpendicular to the rod at its center;
• a vertical metallic wire of torsion constant C =0.0115 N.m/rad
fixed to the midpoint of the rod; Torsion wire
• two identical particles each of mass m = 40 g fixed to the
extremities of the rod.•
The rod is shifted by an angle Om from its equilibrium position in the
horizontal plane about the wire, and then it is released from rest. m
We observe that the rod oscillates around the axis (L1) with almost same
amplitude during the first6 oscillations. Rod
At an instant t, the angular abscissa of the rod is 8and its angular
velocity is 8' =��.Take the horizontal plane containing the rod as a reference level of gravitational
potential energy. Use 1t2 =10

111
12. Free undamped and free damped osclllatlon · of a compound pendulum
A compound pendulum is composed of:
* a uniform homogeneous rod (R) of mass m and of length .f = OA = 1 m;
0
* a block (S) taken as a particle of mass m' = m.
(G) is the center of mass of the pendulum [(S); (R)] and a = OG.
x is the position of (S) along the rod (R). The x-axis of origin O is oriented
positively from O to (G).
The pendulum can oscillate in the vertical plane around a horizontal axis
(.:l) passing through the upper extremity O of the rod.
The pendulum is shifted from its equilibrium position in the vertical plane
around (.:l) by a small angle O m and then it is released from rest.
At an instant t, the angular abscissa and the angular velocity of the
pendulum are 8 and 8' = �� respectively.
The moment of inertia of the rod about (.:l) is 1 = � m .f 2.
0

Take the horizontal plane containing the lowest position of (G) as a

reference level of gravitational potential energy.
A. Free undamped oscillations
The block is at a distance x from the point 0. Neglect all friction.
a) Determine the expression of:
i. a as a function of x.
ii. the moment of inertia I of the pendulum [(S), (R)] relative to (.:l), in terms of x and m.
b) i. Determine the expression of the mechanical energy of the system (Pendulum , Earth).
ii. Show that the nature of the motion of the pendulum is sim le harmonic.
Deduce that the expression of the proper period is O = 21t ::
o
\1
5
( x ::; .f = 1 m).
3r+1
c) i. Let = Prove that y decreases for O::; x::; 0.264 m and y mcreases for x � 0.264 m.
ii. Calculate T0 for x = 0 and for x = 0.264 m.
B. Free damped oscillations
In reality, the system is subjected to a friction force f of moment M� = - b 9 relative to (M.
h is a positive constant.
The system is shifted by a small angle of 0.1 rad, and then it is released from rest at t0 = 0.
a) Given: = P� = - b (8')2 Deduce the differential equation that governs the variation of 8.
b The solution time e uation) of the above differential equation has the form:
lit
= Ae - ii sin � t + •) where A, <p and T are constants.

Determine T for x = 0.264 s.

iii. Use the initial conditions to prove that:

13. Motion of a whe I
A wheel taken as a hoop of mass m and radius R = 10 cm is free to rotate in the vertical plane about its
fixed axle (.:l) passing through its center 0.
Two identical particles (S) and (S'), each of mass m, are fixed diametrically opposite on the periphery of
the wheel. The center of mass of the system (Wheel, particles) is coinciding with the point 0.
Consider horizontal spring of turns, of stiffness K = 30 Nim and of negligible mass. The right extremity
Q of the spring is connected to one of the spokes of the wheel at a distance r (0 < r::; 10 cm) from its
axle, while the left extremity is fixed to a wall.
Assume that the spring remains horizontal during the oscillation of the wheel with small angles.
The diameter AB of the wheel is vertical at equilibrium.

114
 We rotate the wheel from the
equilibrium position in the positive
sense by a small angle Om (so the
spring elongates by Xm ), and then we
release it from rest at t0 = 0. At an
instant t, AB makes an angle 9 with the R
vertical line Oy and the algebraic value
of the angular velocity of the wheel is
9' , while the abscissa of the end Q of
the spring is x =r 9. Take the
horizontal plane containing O as a
reference level of gravitational potential
energy . Given: I hoop = 10 =m R2
Wheel B
relative to (.1). Neglect friction.
A. Simple harmonic motion
a) Determine in terms ofm, and R the expression of the moment of inertia I of the system (Wheel ,
particles) with respect to (.1).
b) Determine the expression of the mechanical energy of the system (Wheel, particles, spring, Earth)
in terms ofm, k, r, R, 9 and 0'.
c) Deduce the differential equation that governs the variation of 8.
d) i. Deduce that the wheel performs simple harmonic motion and determine the expression
of its period T O in terms ofm k, r and R.
ii. Deduce the value of T0 forr-+0 . What do you conclude?
iii. Forr= 6cm, the system performs5 oscillations during a time of i:1t=5.23 s.
Prove thatm == 100 g.
iv. Specify the value ofr when T0 is minimum. Calculate the minimum value of T 0 •
e) Forr = R = 10 cm, the magnitude of the maximum angular velocity of the wheel is 0 ' m = 1 rad /s.
Apply the principle of the conservation of mechanical energy to determine Sm .
B. Rotational motion of the wheel
The spring is cut when the angular velocity of the wheel is 0' = 1 rad /s.
a. Apply the theorem of the angular momentum to prove that the wheel continues in a uniform
rotational motion.
b. Determine the time needed by the wheel to complete 5 cycles.
C. Stopping the wheel.

it is suddenly subjected to a braking force of moment """"""-=""'

constant. (Spring is still cut).
a) Determine the differential equation that governs the variation of the angular velocity 0'.
b) The solution of the obtained differential equation is '= t
-t where Tis constant.
i. Substitute the solution in the differential equation to determine the expression of T in terms of h
and I.
ii. The practical time needed by the wheel to stop is5 't = 157s. Determine h.
iii. Determine the number of cycles performed by the wheel during the last 157seconds,

A uniform homogeneous diskD of massm=2.7 kg and of radius R= 10 cm can rotate about a

horizontal axis (11) which is perpendicular to its plane and passing through its center 0.
During its motion, the disk does not touch the ground at its lowest point.
The upper extremities M and N of two identical springs each of stiffness K =200 Nim are fixed to the
periphery of the disk. The lower extremity of each spring is fixed to the ground (Figure).
Given: Moment of inertia ofD relative to (.1) is I= Yim R2 and g = 10 m/s2.
The horizontal plane containing O is taken as a reference level of gravitational potential energy.
The point N coincides with the origin of the vertical x-axis when the disk is in equilibrium position.

115
A. The disk is in equilibrium
The figure shows the system S
(The two springs; disk D) at
equilibrium where each spring is
stretched by an elongation !J.l.
a) Calculate the moment of inertia I of
the disk relative to (11).
b)Determine !J.l if the magnitude of
the reaction of the axis at O is 43 N.
B. Free undamped oscillations
The disk is rotated from its equilibrium
position by a small angle Om = 0.1 rad
in the clockwise sense. The system
then is released from rest and the
oscillatory motion starts.
Practically, the springs remain vertical
during the oscillations. At any instant,
the angular abscissa of the disk relative
to the equilibrium position is Oand the angular velocity is 0'. Neglect all friction.
a)
where x is the abscissa of the extremity N.
b) Prove that the differential equation which governs the variation of 8 is: . Use 8 =�.
R
c) The solution of the above differential equation is: where w 0 and q> are
constants.
i. Deduce the expression of the proper period T0 of the oscillations and calculate its value.
ii. At t0 = 0, 0 = 0.05 rad and the disk is rotating in the anti-clockwise sense. Determine q>.
C. Free damped oscillations
In reality, a resistive couple of moment is acting on the disk while oscillating. h is a positive
constant called the coefficient of damping. The value of h in this experiment is 0.2 kg/s.
a) The expression of the sum of the moments acting on the disk is:
Apply the theorem of angular momentum to deduce that the differential equation that governs the
variation of 8 is: &•
b) Knowing that . Use parts 8 (n.d)
0.1
(B-a) and (C-a) to deduce the expression
of the power Pcouple of the resistive 0.08
couple in terms of h and 8'.
c) The solution of the above differential 0.06
equation is:
0.04
where w and A are positive constants.
The adjacent curve shows the variation of
0.02
Oas a function of time.
i. Does the graph show slight damping or
large damping?
ii. Use the graph to determine the pseudo­
-0.02
period T of oscillations. Deduce the
angular frequency of oscillations.
iii. The initial angular velocity is O� = 0 rad/s, and from the graph 0 0 = 0.1 rad. Determine the
values of A and <p.
iv. Use the coordinates of the point P indicated on the curve to verify the value of the coefficient of
damping h.

116
 6 Forced Oscillations­
Mechanical Resonance

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
•:• Define forced oscillations.
•:• Explain the phenomenon of amplitude resonance in slight and large damping.
•!• Give some examples on forced oscillations.

117
Prerequisites
Every oscillator oscillates freely with its:
•!• proper (natural) frequency f0 if friction is negligible (no damping).
•!• Pseudo-frequency f if friction is not neglected (damping exists).
Pendulums, tuning fork, eardrum, ruler, bridge, ship ... are examples of oscillators.
Introduction
In 1940 in Washington State, USA, the Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge collapsed just three months
after opening as steady cross winds set the bridge vibrating. By chance, these vibrations matched the
natural frequency of the bridge. This phenomenon is called mechanical resonance.
Also in 1850, over 200 French soldiers died when the bridge they were marching over oscillated with
great amplitude, entered into resonance with their steps, and collapsed. This is why soldiers are forbidden
to march over a bridge.
Resonance also causes the violent vibrations of a washing machine at some spin speeds.
Wind instruments produce sound by forcing the air inside the tube to resonate.
1. Forced Oscillations
Forced oscillations : Oscillations of an oscillator due to a periodic energy supplied by an external
system. The oscillator is called the resonator, and the system that supplies energy to the resonator is
called the exciter.
"Forced oscillations" is a type of oscillations.

2. Experimental Evidence of Forced Oscdlat1om; .. Amplitude,,,R,esona.nce

Experiment 1: Forced oscillations-Case of slight damping (small friction)

> Equipment
Consider the setup of figure ( 1) which shows
the system (Exciter; resonator).
* The resonator is a light pendulum (rod) ofproper
frequency f0 ; (f0 = 1 Hz).
* The exciter is a heavy pendulum (rod-body) of
frequency fE which can be adjusted by changing
the position of the body on the rod.
* The spring couples the resonator to the exciter to
transmit the energy from the exciter to the
resonator.
> Procedure and observation
• Fix the body in a position close to the suspension
point A. Shift the exciter by a small angle a and
release it from rest. Measure in the steady state Fig. 1
the amplitude em described by the resonator.
• Increase the frequency fE of the exciter by fixing the body at a lower position on the rod. Shift the
exciter by the same angle a and measure the amplitude em in the steady state.
• Repeat the previous step. You observe that the response of the resonator is not the same for different
values of the frequency of the exciter. For fE = f1 = 0.99 Hz which is slightly less than f0 = 1 Hz, the
resonator oscillates with a maximum amplitude 8m1 .
• Table (1) shows the recordings of the amplitude em and the frequency fR of the oscillations of the
resonator with the corresponding values of fE
fl;' (Hz) 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.99 1.03 1.1 1.2 1.3
Om,\ 3.3 3.8 4.8 8.6 15 30 25 13 7 4.5
fR (Hz) 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.99 1.03 1.1 1.2 1.3
Table. 1

118
 • Figure (2) shows the (0.99 Hz; 30°)
variation of the amplitude 30
em of oscillations of the
resonator as a function of 25
the frequency fE of the
exciter.
» Conclusion
• The resonator always 15
20
It
oscillates with a frequency
fR equals to that of the 10
exciter.
• When the frequency of the
exciter is slightly smaller 5l--,i,..----�
than the proper frequency
of the resonator, the 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6
amplitude of oscillations is maximum. Fig. 2
We say that the resonator enters into resonance with the exciter.
This phenomenon is called amplitude resonance.
• As the frequency fE approaches the proper frequency of the resonator, the amplitude of
oscillations increases.

Experiment 2: Forced oscillations-Case of large damping (large friction)

» Procedure and observation
• To increase damping, we must increase friction. For this, we fix a light disk to the light rod
(resonator) in order to increase its surface area thus suffering larger air resistance. We repeat the
same procedures of experiment (I).
• Table (2) shows the values of the amplitude em and the frequency fR of the oscillations of the
resonator with the corresponding values of fE .
fErHz) 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.98 1.03 1.1 1.2 1.3
8m/\ 3.3 3.75 4.6 7.4 10.8 13 12 9.14 S.8 4
fD 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.98 1.03 1.1 1.2 1.3
Table. 2
• Figure (3) shows the
variation of the amplitude 9�
em as a function of fE . 30
The graph shows that:
• when the frequency fE of 25
the exciter becomes very
close to that of the proper 20
frequency of the resonator,
the resonator oscillates with 15 (0.98 Hz; 13 °)
a maximum amplitude
Om2 < Om1 10
• the resonance frequency
(f2 = 0.98 Hz) in experiment 5
(2) is slightly less than the
resonance frequency (f1 = 0
0 0,2 0.4 018 1 1,2 1,4 1,6
0.99 Hz) in experiment (1).
Fig.3

119
 • Curve of figure (3) is more flattened than that of figure (2).
> Conclusion
When damping increases and becomes large (but not extremely large):
• the amplitude in case of resonance (resonance amplitude) decreases .
• the value of the resonance frequency decreases.
• the graph of Om versus fE becomes more flattened.

> Proscduu and 21>11tyJttoo

• We repeat the experiment but
with very large friction.
• Figure (4) shows the variation
of the amplitude e m as a
function of the frequency fE
> Conclu1ton
In the case of extreme damping:
• The curve becomes more
flattened than in the case of
large damping.
• The phenomenon of the
amplitude resonance fi (Hz)
disappears, and the
resonator performs only 0,.2 0,4 0,8 o.e 1 1,.2 1,4 1,e
forced oscillations with a
frequency fR equals to that Fig. 4
of the exciter fE
• For a certain range of the frequencies of the exciter ( fEl s; fE s; fEZ ), the resonator oscillates
with an amplitude which remains practically constant.
If the frequency of the
0
exciter is not within the ' 901 °
(f1 "" 0.99 Hz; 30 )
above range, the amplitude 30 �
of oscillations of the
resonator is negligible. 2e ,
Figure (5) shows the three curves
of figures (2), (3) and (4). 20 •

Reading 1� �
In the case of resonance, we
define the bandwidth as the set 10 ,
of frequencies for which the
amplitude of oscillations of the
resonator is greater than :; ti (Hz)
where 8 0 is the resonance O,;.+...,...'*""f-�i-t-1"""'*'*'*""'*"**'�"*'*"*""""'**'*''**',i,,,;..�i,,,j,,,,j�ot,,;11
amplitude. 0.2 o.4 o.� o., 1 J 1,4 111;
Fi . 5

120
The eardrum and the membranes ofthe loudspeaker and the microphone are examples of extremely large
damped oscillators.
The eardrum (resonator) performs forced oscillations due to the energy received by sound ( exciter). The
ear drum is an extremely large damped oscillator; it does not enter into resonance with the received
sound. The eardrum is sensitive to a bandwidth offrequencies ofsound
(20 Hz::;; f::;; 20000 Hz). If the frequency ofthe sound is not within the
above range, the amplitude of vibrations ofthe eardrum is very small, so
we cannot detect the received sound.
3. Examples on Mechanical Resonance
Example 1: When a glass, whose proper frequency is f0 , receives a sound
offrequency very close to fO , it enters into resonance with the sound. The
oscillates then with maximum amplitude which eventually might break the
glass (Figure 6). In this example, the glass plays the role ofthe resonator,
and the sound plays the role ofthe exciter. Fig.6
Example 2: Consider the tuning fork of figure (7).
The air inside the tuning fork has a proper frequency f0 •
The tuning fork is designed such that when it is stroke by
its hammer, it vibrates with a frequency fE = f0 • As a
result, the air inside the box enters into resonance with the
tuning fork and vibrates with maximum amplitude so the
emitted sound has maximum amplitude.
In this example, the air plays the role of a resonator, and
the tuning fork plays the role ofthe exciter.
Example 3: During an earthquake, buildings oscillate.
If the frequency ofoscillations ofthe ground (exciter) is Fig. 7
close to the natural frequency ofthe building (resonator), amplitude resonance takes place which may
cause severe damage
(Figure 8).
Example 4: When the
frequency ofthe waves
(exciter) becomes very close
to the proper frequency ofthe
ship (resonator), the ship
oscillates with maximum
amplitude and it might sink
(Figure 9). Fig. 8 Fig. 9
Application 1
A horizontal spring of
negligible mass and of
stiffness k = 20 Nim is
attached to a solid ofmass m
x
from one end, and is connected to
a motor rotating at an adjustable
Fig.10
period T from the other end. The
system (Spring , solid) performs forced mechanical oscillations.
The table below gives the values ofthe amplitude Xm (in the steady state) and the period TR of the
oscillations of the system (Spring, solid) with the corresponding values of T ofthe motor.
T (t) 0,1 l i 2,1 !
Xin (@m) 0,4 l,7 (i,4 31,f) 11,ft 1,1 1,!
Ta(�) l,! 3,1
Table. 3

121
 1. Indicate the resonator and the exciter.
2. Complete the table.
3. a. Draw the curve that represents the variation of Xm as a function ofT.
b. The curve shows evidence of a physical phenomenon. Indicate its name.
c. Deduce the approximate proper period of the resonator. Deduce the mass m of the block.
4. Damping increases slightly. Draw roughly (on the same figure) a new curve that represents the
amplitude Xm as a function of the period T.
Solution
1. Resonator: Block.spring system. ; Exciter: Motor.
2.
T (s) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3-,S
Xm (cm) 0.4 1.7 6.4 31.9 12.8 8.8 7.3
TR(s) 0.5 1 1.S 2 2.5 3 3.S
3. a. Figure (11). Table. 4
b. Amplitude resonance..
c. The resonator oscillates with maximum amplitude for T = 2 s � T0 5! 2 s.
4
Ta = 2rr '1k
� � 2
2
= 4 TI2 ( mk ) � m -
- x 20 �
4 x 3.142
::=t 2 kg.
m. -
4. Figure (12).

32 Xm(cm) 32 Xm (on}

28 28
24 24
20 20
16 16
12 12
8 8
4 4
T(s} T(s)
0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 00 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5
Fig.11 Fig.12
Application 2 Theoretical study of forced Oscillations-Amplitude resonance (GS students)
Consider figure (13). The
spring-block system
(resonator) is coupled to an
exciter (E). The exciter exerts x 0 x'
a periodic force F on the Fig.13
resonator at a oint A.
= =flm sin -Mt+ !P. where Fm is the amplitude of the algebraic value of F, w is its angular
frequency, and cp is a constant. Therefore, the exciter supplies the resonator, whose proper period and
Zn
proper angular frequency are TO = and w 0 respectively, with energy of period is T = 3-2: .
W0 W

The block oscillates along a horizontal table. At an instant t, the abscissa of the center of mass (G) of the
block relative to x'Ox axis is x = OG, and the algebraic measure of its velocity is v. 0 is the equilibrium
v
position of the block. The resonator is submitted to frictional force 1 = - h where h is positive constant.
1. Indicate the external forces acting on the block.
2. Apply the theorem of the center of mass to determine the differential equation in x that governs the
motion of (G).

122
3. The solution ofthe differential equation in the steady state is oc = Xm sin wt where Xm is constant
for a certain chosen value of w.
a. Compare in the steady state the angular frequency ofthe resonator to that ofthe exciter.
hw
b. Prove that [w0 2 - u/] sin cot + mt = � sin (mt+cp) where w 0 = -'./[.
m cos m Xm ;:;;
c. 1. Substitute wt = 0 and wt � (rad) in the above equation to prove that:
=

Fm
� - ..,2) and X m
tan cp = m (..,Ii.., .J(h w)2 + [m (w02 - w2)]2 ·
2. Deduce the expression of Xm when w � 0.
=
3. Amplitude resonance takes place For w w0 . • Deduce the expression ofXm. Deduce the limit
ofXm when friction is neglected .
Solution
1. The external forces acting on the block are: the weight m g , the normal reaction N ,
the tension T = - k xi , the friction force { = - h v , and the force ofthe exciter F .
Note: the spring is massless, then the exciting force F is transmitted totally to the block.
2. Theorem ofthe center ofmass: L FExternal = maG = ma
�mg +N+ r+1+F = ma. mg +N o �r+1 +F = ma =

These forces are collinear, and then the vector relation can be written in the algebraic form:
T+ f + F = m a �- k x - h v + Fm sin ( w t+cp) = m a
�m x" + h x' + k x = Fm sin (wt+cp) Differential equation that governs the variation ofx.
3. a. The time equation ofx is x = Xm sin mt �The resonator oscillates with the angular
frequency w which is equal to that ofthe exciter.
b. x' = m Xm cos mt and x" = -m 2 Xm sin mt . Substitute in the differential equation:
�-m m2 Xm sin mt+ h m Xm cos mt + k Xm sin mt = Fm sin (mt +cp)
2 . h.., cos mt + - k . Fm . ,
�-m sm mt + - m sm mt m X m sm (mt+cp)
= --
m
� [(J)� - o>2 ] sin IDt + h.., cos IDt = ...!!!..._ sin (IDt + «p) .
m mXm
h X h 00
c. 1. For cot = 0 � mw = � sin cp � sin cp = m ... eq (1)
m Xm Fm
n 2
For mt = -2 � ( w °2 - m ) = _ F m_ cos cp � cos cp = m X m ( w O2 - w 2 ) . . . eq (2)
m Xm Fm
Divide eq (1) by eq (2)�tan «p =
..,
m (..,o
� - ..,2)'
X h w 2 (m X m ) 2 (w� -(1)2 ) 2
Square eq(l) and eq(2) then add them�cos 2 cp+sin 2 cp = ( m ) + =1
Fm Fm
� Xm (h m) 2 + m ( w� - w2 ) 2 ] =Fm 2 �Xm =
2[ 2 Fm
j
(h ..,)2 + [m (..,� - ..,2)]2
2. For w --+ 0 � Xm -+ --; .
3. For m = ffl(l)o
w 0 (Amplitude resonance), Xm = (1)Fmh.
Xm =F m ; ifh ---t O�X -+ oo.
roh
m
0
0.4
0,32
(Xm increases indefinitely since energy is given
continuously to the resonator without any loss). 0,24
Figu.re (14) shows the variation ofXm as a.function oft». 0,16
Numerical values: m = 0.2 kg; k = 8 Nim; h = 0.4 N.s/m, 0,08
Fm = JN and m0 = 6.32 rad/s. O+-IH-+-1-1-�:.:;.::::i-4-4--
0 1 2 34 567 8
Amplitude resonance takes place when tn = 6.28 rad/s. 9(rad/s)
Fig. 14

123
1, Car shock absorber
The suspension system of a car is composed of four
identical springs. Each spring comuictli the body of the car
to the axle of the wheel. Spring
The !ldjacent figure shows one of these springs with a
11hock absorber in the middle. The shock absorber is
designed to increat1e the amount of damping in the sy11tem.
A shock absorber coll!lists of a piston having a circular
base with two holes. The piston oscillates in a chamber
filled with viscous liquid such as oil.
As the piston moves downward, the oil is squeezed
through the boles upward llnd vice vena causing a
damping of the piston's oscillotioll!I. The green arrow
reprelients the direction of the liquid as the pi11ton move11 Fig.15
down.

2, IlleJDirrowave oyee
Resonance is the rea1mn behind beating food in the microwave
oven.
The frequency of the microwave11 is almost equal to the pr(}per
frequency of the water molecules in the food. The water
molecules (re1mnator) enter into re1mnance with the micrnwnves
(exciter), 110 these mohicule11 vibrate with nuudmum mupUtude.
A!! a re1mlt, the lnt@rnal en@rtw of the fuod increases iQ it g@ts
ootter.

l, Magnetic resonanee imagtng CMRI)

Mn�tili r@11onanc@ imajing i§ btt§@d on th@ MIU S4!onner Cutoway
resonanc@ phenomenon: lt u11es the body'§
ooturnl ma�tic prnpertie11 to produce
image11 of th@ body.
R1u1io
Our bodle§ @1mmin ll lot Qf hy@rntl,m in wnt@r Ji'rfguepe_
imd in fut. The prnton in ll hydrog@n nu@leY§ "-41011
§pim, §g it iJ@t§ mi ll tiny bllr mllllfl@t, The§"
! 'bllr fflllllfl@t§' §pin in the bi:uty with tb@ir
1

!l\e§ ranoomly llli�d,

Fir§tlyi th@ bgdy i§ pla@@d in th@ §tnm1
mllllDCti@ fi@M gf th@ MRI §Q!lMtlf, §!} tM
!lff,@§ gf th@§@ mll�t§ line YP and fgrm ll
m11;neti@ v@etor whi@h romte§ (Hk@ 11
ID"}'tl§@!lp@), i@@9ndly, f!ltU@ W!lV!! i§ Md@d tg
@JI.lite th@ byEiro�@n 11-t@m§, Tb@ rndig wav@ Fig.17
fi:@qY@JWy OW) tb11-t @llY§@§ th@ hydrgi@n
HY@l@i ffl r@§@n11-t@ d@p@nd§ gn th@ hydrt1s@n 11-00 tm th@ §tren�b gf th@ mllllfl@tiiJ field (rnnje§ betw@en O.!
11-nd L� t@§lll), Diff@r@nt §li@@§ gf th@ body wm r@§Onllt@ 11-t diff@r@nt fi:eqY@niJi@§ arut thi§ 1.11m be !fgn� by vary!ns the
§tnmfh @ftb@ ma�ti@ ff@l!i,
Wlwn th@ §@Yf@@ @frndi@ W!lV!!§ i§ §WiMu!d gffi the pniton§ @mit §itmlll§ whi�h u11@d w immte th@ MR imllj@§,
MIU lm§ no bi9l9lli@!ll h11-�11rd§ b@@llY§@ it i§ btl11@d gn Y§ins rndi@ w!lv@. wbi@h llf@ ngt hiih @nerll@ti@.

124
 Problems
1- Resonance curves of a horizontal elastic pendulum ./
A horizontal elastic pendulum is under
the action of an exterior sinusoidal Xm (cm)
force of frequency f exerted by an 10
exciter (E). The adjacent figure shows
the graphs of the amplitude Xm of the
oscillations of the pendulum in three
a
damping situations, as a function of
the frequency f.
6
a) Indicate the type of oscillations
of the pendulum.
b) Indicate the name of the physical 4
phenomenon which is shown in
each curve.
c) Which curve corresponds to the
largest damping? Justify by
giving three pieces of evidence. f(Hz)
d) Determine the approximate
proper frequency of the pendulum. 0,25 0,5 0,75 1 1,25 1,5 1,75 2 2,25
e) If the chosen frequency of the exciter is
f = 1.75 Hz, specify whether the elastic pendulum oscillates with a frequency smaller than, equal
to or greater than 1.75 Hz.
2- Forced and free mechanical oscillations ./
A mechanical oscillator (C) is formed of a solid (S) of mass m and of center of mass (G) attached to
the extremity A of a horizontal light spring of stiffness k = 80N/m. The other extremity B of the
spring is connected to a motor which rotates at an adjustable frequency f.
The position of (G) which moves on a horizontal rail is located at an instant t by its abscissa x = OG
where O is its equilibrium position.
For each frequency f, we record the corresponding amplitude Xm of oscillations in the steady state.
The table below shows the values Xm with their corresponding values off.
1.5 2.5 2.8 3 3.2 3.3 3.5 4.5
0.4 0.7 1.1 1.7 2.3 2 1.2 0.3
a) Indicate the exciter and the resonator.
b) i. Use a scale 1 cm-+ 0.3 cm along the vertical and lcm-+ 0.5 Hz along the horizontal to plot
the graph that represents the variation of Xm as a function off.
ii. Deduce the approximate value of the proper frequency fO of the resonator. Deduce the value
of m.
iii. If the forces of friction are extremely large, can we determine the value offO by performing
this experiment? Why?
c) The frequency of the exciter is chosen to be f = 3.5 Hz, according to the above table, the
amplitude of oscillations of the resonator is Xm = 1.2 cm. At a certain instant when the abscissa
of (G) is x = 1.2 cm, the motor stops functioning, and the friction becomes negligible.
Indicate the type, the frequency, and the amplitude of oscillations of (G).
3- Amplitude of resonator under forced oscHlations
An oscillator (A) has a proper frequencyfA = 2 Hz is coupled to another oscillator (B) of proper
frequency f8 = 1 Hz, so that forced oscillations take place.
During the oscillations, both oscillators oscillate with a frequency of 1 Hz.
a) Specify which oscillator plays the role of the exciter. Indicate then the name of the other oscillator.
b) The frequency of the oscillator (B) can be adjusted.

125
 i. Indicate the approximate value off8 so that oscillator (A) oscillates with maximum amplitude.
ii. Indicate the name of the phenomenon that takes place when (A) oscillates with maximum
amplitude.
iii. When the frequency of (B) is f81 = 1.8 Hz, the amplitude of oscillations of (A) is Xm1 .
When the frequency of (B) is f82 = 3 Hz, the amplitude of oscillations of (A) is Xmz
Compare Xm1 and Xm2 . Justify.
4.. Advantag of hock absorber In c r ./
A car with dysfunctional shock absorbers bounces up and down with a period of 0.8 s (approximately
equal to its proper period T0) while passing over a bump. The car has a mass of 1000 kg and is
supported by four springs of same force constant k.
Consider the car and the springs as a mechanical oscillator of proper period T0•
a) Determine the force constant k.
b) The car moves horizontally with a constant speed of 18 km/h on a road containing successive bumps
separated by a distance d . These bumps force the car to oscillate vertically, then the type of the
oscillations of the car is forced oscillations.
i. Indicate the exciter and the resonator.
ii. Calculate in terms of d the time �t needed by the car to cross between two successive bumps.
iii. The car enters into resonance with the exciter and oscillates with
an amplitude Xm 1. Determine d.
c) The shock absorbers of this car are replaced by effective ones which
damp vertical oscillations. Due to this damping, amplitude
resonance takes place for T = 1.2 s. The car moving on the same
road enters then into resonance with the exciter at a speed V' and
oscillates with an amplitude Xmz (Xmz « Xm1).
i. Determine the new speed V' of the car.
ii. Indicate the advantage of shock absorbers in cars. Patb of oscillations

Consider a horizontal elastic pendulum (Spring, block) of proper frequency fO• The pendulum is under
forced oscillations provoked by an exciter whose frequency is f.
Figure (1) shows (in the steady state) the variation of the frequency fR of the oscillations of the
pendulum as a function off. Figure (2) shows the variation of the amplitude Xm of the oscillations of the
center of mass (G) of the block as a function off.

ij fR(Hz)

1
f(Hz) .

Fig.1 Fig. 2
a) Refer to figure (1) to draw out a conclusion.
b) Refer to figure (2) to answer the following two questions:
i. Indicate the maximum amplitude Xm 1 of (G).
ii. This figure shows an evidence of a physical phenomenon. Indicate its name.
iii. Deduce the approximate value offO •
iv. Determine the range of frequencies of the exciter for which the amplitude of oscillations
of the resonator is x � x 1 .
:J'z

126
 c) The expression of the abscissa of (G) in the steady state is s'. wt where e.u = 2 n f.
The frequency of the exciter is chosen to be f = 2 Hz. Represent roughly in the steady state the
graph that shows the variation ofthe abscissa x of (G) as a function of the time t. Take x 0 = 0.
d) F whose magnitude is F is the force exerted by the exciter on the resonator.
i. Indicate the external forces acting on the block.
ii. The block is taken as a particle. Apply Newton's second law and use the above expression of x

-----
to prove that in case of amplitude resonance, F must be at any instant equal to the magnitude f,.
ofthe friction force acting on the resonator (F = f,.
= ...
iii. The expression ofthe force given by the exciter is f 1.4 cos (wt S.I units.
Knowing that f,. = - h v (h is a positive constant). Use the result of the previous part to
deduce h.
e) The damping increases slightly.
i. The graph of figure (1) is not affected by this increase. Why?
ii. Three main changes will be observed in the curve offigure (2). Draw the new curve on figure
(2) to show these changes.
e.. Priod and amplitude of an I stlc p
oscillations
The amplitude X m and the period T are two
characteristics of any oscillatory motion.
In this problem, we intend to study the effect of
the following factors: (time , initial conditions,
the mass m; the stiffness K , the coefficient of
damping h, the amplitude Frn _ of the exciting Fig.1
force, and the period TE ofthe exciter), on the period T and the amplitude X m ofthe oscillations of an
oscillator. The study will be done for three types of oscillatory motion: free undamped, free damped,
and forced mechanical oscillations. For this, we perform six experiments.
Consider the oscillator shown in the figure (1). An elastic horizontal spring of negligible mass and of
stiffness K = 80 N/m has one end fixed to a support while the other end is connected to a block (S) of
mass m = 800 g and center ofmass (G). The point O is the equilibrium position of the spring.
While oscillating, (G) moves with a velocity of algebraic value v, and its position at any instant is the
abscissa x = OG.
A. Free undamped mechanical oscillations
First Experiment: The block is displaced by a distance x0 = X m , and then it is released from rest at
t0 = 0. (S) performs simple harmonic motion.
Second Experiment: We bring the spring back at rest at its equilibrium position, and then we give (S) an
initial velocity V0 = VO 1 . (S) performs simple harmonic motion.
Figures (2-a) and (2-b) represent the variations ofx of (G) as a function of time in the first and in the
second experiments respectively.

10 6
7.5
5 4
2.5 2
0 0
-2.5
-5 -2
-7.5 -4
-10 -6
Fig (2-a) Fig (2-b)
a) Use figure (2-b) to determine V0 .
b) Write the expression of the proper period T0 of the oscillator. Deduce the factors that affect the
period of oscillations of (G) in case of free undamped oscillations.
c) Use figures (2-a) and (2-b) to confirm the previous result.

127
 d) Indicate the amplitudes ofoscillations Xm(a) and Xm(b) in figures (2-a) and (2-b) respectively.
Deduce the factor that affects Xm in the above two experiments.
B. Free damped mechanical oscillations
In reality, (S) is submitted to a frictional force having the expression f = - h v, where h is a positive
constant called the coefficient ofdamping, and v is the velocity of(G) at any instant.
First Experiment: We stretch the spring by a distance x 0 = Xm, and then we release the block from rest
at t0 = 0.
Second Experiment: we repeat the same procedure after increasing the coefficient ofdamping h.
Take three digits after the decimal point.
Figures (3-a) and (3-b) represent the variation ofx of(G) as a function oftime in the first and in the
second experiment respectively.
12 12
8
8
4
4
Oi----�1---,..�+--....�+--,.�+-�•
1, 26 t(s) Ot---+---t�-1---t�"""r--t�_..:;;+;;;:_41
-4
-8
-12
Fig (3-a) Fig (3-b)

a) Indicate the periods ofoscillations Ta and Tb in figures (3-a) and (3-b) respectively.
b) Deduce the third factor (among the factors given at the beginning ofthe question) that affects the
period ofoscillations ofthe oscillator in the case offree damped oscillations.
c) The expression ofthe amplitude ofoscillations of(G) is . Xm(o) is the initial
amplitude ofoscillations. Deduce the factors that affect the amplitude ofoscillations of (G) in
free damped oscillations.
C. Forced mechanical oscillations
Figure (4) shows a motor connected to the left end
ofthe spring in order to obtain a horizontal elastic k (S)
�
pendulum under forced oscillations. The motor is
moving at an adjustable angular velocity co . � "-l!!l......... '1Rooo9�-:
The motor transmits to the pendulum a sinusoidal 0
exciting force which is parallel to x'ox and has the Fig. 4
expression iii;; • Fmis the amplitude of F.
The force offriction has the expression i = - h v. The block is initially at rest.
Figures {5-a) and (5-b) show in the steady state the variation ofx of (G) for two chosen values ofthe
period ofthe exciter: TE( a) and TE (b) .The coefficient ofdamping is the same in the two experiments.

6.25
1.2
3.75
0.6
1.25
0 0
-0.6 -1.25
-1.2 -3.75
-1.8 -6.25
Fig (5-a) Fig (5-b)

128
 a) Indicate the values of the period of oscillations of (G) in figures (5-a) and (5-b).
Indicate the factor that affects the period of oscillations of the oscillator in case of forced
oscillations. Justify the name ''Forced oscillations''.
b) The expression of the amplitude of oscillations of (G) in the steady state is
w 0 is the proper angular frequency of the resonator.

i. The expression shows that X m depends in general on five factors in case of forced oscillations.
Pick them out.
=
ii. When w is very close to w 0 ; w w 0 , amplitude resonance phenomenon takes place .
Determine the expression of X m when amplitude resonance takes place.
iii. Figure (5-b) is for the case of resonance. Justify. Deduce the relation between Fm and h in this
case.
iv. Use figure (5-a) to determine another relation between Fm and h. Deduce the values of Fm and h.
7- Coefficient of damping-Mechanical energy of a forced oscillator
A motor rotating with a constant
angular velocity ro is connected to
the left end of a spring whose k (B)
stiffness is 90 Nim, in order to x
obtain a horizontal elastic pendulum __..,..
under forced oscillations.
The wheel transmits to the pendulum
a sinusoidal exciting force parallel to x'ox and has the expression:
At an instant t, the abscissa of the center of mass (G) of the block is x = OG and the algebraic value of its
velocity is v . Given: The mass of the block ism = 250 g and (G) concides with Oat equilibrium.
The horizontal plane containing (G) is taken as a reference level for gravitational potential energy.
A. Differential equation
a) Indicate the exciter and the resonator.
b) Given: * d:/ = P i + P F where P i and P F are the powers of the friction force and the excitng
force.
v
* f = - h (h is a positive constant)..
Show that the differential equation that governs the variation of xis:
B. Case (I) == 000
The solution of the obtained differential equation in the steady state is - .
=
The proper angular frequency of the exciter is chosen to be very close to that of the resonator ( w w 0 ).
a) Amplitude resonance takes place. Why?
b) Determine the expression of h in terms of X m K , m and Fm .
c) For Fm = 0.175 N and X = 12 cm. Calculate h.
d) Prove that
e) Substitute the solution in the expression of the mechanical energy to prove that the mechanical
energy of the system (Pendulum , Earth) remains constant in the case of amplitude resonance.
C. Case (I) # 000
The angular fre uenc of the exciter is chosen to be different from that of the resonator (w > w 0 ).
a) Prove that
b) Prove that the mechanical energy of the system (Elastic pendulum , Earth) is not constant.

129
 7 Special Relativity

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

•!• Define inertial and non-inertial frames.

•!• Explain the principles of Galilean relativity.
•!• Indicate the two postulates of special relativity.
•!• Solve problems by applying the consequences of special relativity, time dilation, and
length contraction.
•!• Calculate the relativistic kinetic energy, the rest energy, and the total energy of an
object.

130
Introduction
Most of our everyday experiences and observations are with objects that move at speeds much less than
the speed of light in vacuum. Newtonian mechanics was formulated to describe the motion of such
objects, and this formalism is still very successful in describing a wide range of phenomena that occur at
low speeds. It fails; however, when applied to particles whose speeds approach that of light.
For example, it is possible to accelerate an electron to a speed of 0.99c (c: speed of light in vacuum) by
applying a potential difference of several million volts. According to Newtonian mechanics, if the
potential difference increases by a factor of 4, the electron's kinetic energy is four times greater, and its
speed should be double to 1.98 c. However, experiments show that the speed of the electron or any other
particle always remains less than the speed of light c, regardless of the size of the accelerating voltage.
1- Relativity of Motion
An observer standing on the ground observes a plane moving horizontally with a constant velocity
r r r
Vo = Vo = 115 (mis). At to= 0, the plane, which is at the position O = 0 drops a box (Figure 1).
Neglect air resistance.
During the motion of the box:
• Relative to the observer:
* the trajectory of the box is a parabola
(projectile motion);
a
* the acceleration of the box is = g

+
* the velocity of the box is V = V0 t - g t J;
* the abscissa and the ordinate of the box
1
are: x = V0 t and y = - 2 g t2 ;
* the box reaches the ground at an instant t 1•
• Relative to the plane:
* the trajectory of the box is a vertical
straight line;
a
* the acceleration of the box is = g ; Fig.1
* the velocity of the box is V = - g t J;
i
* the abscissa and the ordinate of the box are x = 0 and y = - g t2 ;
* The box reaches the ground at an instant t 1•
Conclusion: In general, some physical quantities such as trajectory, abscissa, ordinate and velocity are
not necessarily the same relative to two observers. Since physical quantities differ when measured in
different frames of reference, we need relativity in order to relate these quantities together.
2- Inertial and Non-inertial Frames
Inertial frames are the ones which move with constant velocity or remain at rest, relative to Earth
and therefore relative to each other.
The earth rotates around its axis and revolves around the sun. But the acceleration of the earth is very
small compared to the gravitational acceleration g. Then Earth can be considered as an inertial frame of
reference
Non- inertial frames are the ones which accelerate relative to Earth.
Application 1
Indicate whether the following frames of reference are inertial or non-inertial.
1. The frame of reference is the driver of a car moving at a constant velocity.
2. The frame of reference is a student sitting in a roller coaster in rotational motion.
3. The frame of reference is the driver of a car in the stopping phase.
Solution
1. The driver is an inertial frame of reference.
2. The student is a non- inertial frame of reference.
3. The driver is a non-inertial frame of reference.

131
 Newton's laws in inertial and in non-inertial frames
A ball is attached to the lower end of a string whose upper end is fixed to the ceiling of a car. An
observer is standing on the ground.
• The car moves in a uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion
During the motion of the car, the ball makes a certain angle
a *O with the vertical (Figure 2-a).
..,.-�!"""'!'�!!'!!'!"--..,.----
The external forces acting on the ball are its weight mg
(vertically downward) and the tension of the string T (along
the string).
Relative to the observer (inertial frame):
The ball moves with an acceleration a as that of the car.
--+
Apply Newton's z n d law : L Fext =mg + T =ma. Fig (2-a)
--,.----+ -+

- Relative to the driver (non-inertial frame):

The ball is at rest and even though, L Fext = mg + T * 0 . So the principle of inertia (Newton's
first law) is not applicable in non-inertial frames of reference! !!
• The car is at rst e
or in uniform rectilinear motion
In this case, the string remains vertical ( a = 0) (Figure 2-b).
The observer and the driver are inertial frames. The sum of the
external forces acting on the ball, relative to the diver and the
observer is mg + T =0 which is compatible with Newton's
first law.
So the two frames are called inertial since the principle of inertia
is applicable. Fig (2-b)

Conclusion:
..;. In an inertial frame of reference, Newton's laws are valid (or applicable).
if. In a non-inertial frame of reference, the laws of mechanics are not applicable due to the
acceleration of that frame with respect to Earth. Therefore, the laws of mechanics have to be
amended in order to be applicable in non-inertial frames of reference .
.EictdiottsioLCe ( •)
In non- inertial frames of reference, the laws of mechanics are amended by adding a fictitious force to
the external forces acting on the system. The fictitious force is not due to interaction between two
bodies. It is equivalent to a force applied on a body in an inertial
frame, and it has the expression ffi ctitious =- ma wherea is the
acceleration of the frame of the body relative to Earth.
-Relative to the ground in figure (2-a): L Fext =mg + T =ma.
-Relative to the car (non-inertial fram e), we must add the fictitious
force ffi ctitious =- ma to the external forces, so:
L Fext =mg + T + ffi ctitious = 0 (Figure 2-c).
Fig (2-c)
Application 2 ( +)
A student is sitting in a car moving with a constant velocity. Suddenly, the driver applies the car brakes
violently, so the body of the student moves forward. Explain what happened in the following frames of
reference : 1. the ground; 2. the car.

·------·•
Solution
1. Relative to the ground, when the car decelerates the student's body moves
forward due to its inertia which tends to keep the body moving with the same icar Year
original velocity.
•
2. Relative to the car (non-inertial frame), the fictitious force ffi ctitious =- ma of G ...
Fnctitous
forward direction opposite to that of the acceleration of the car makes the
upper part of the body move forward. Fig. 3

132
J .. Galilean Transformations
Galilean transformation relates
some physical quantities such as
position, velocity, acceleration ...,
Fn,me moving at V11
in two inertial frames moving
relative to each other with a z relative to O
constant velocity of magnitude Frame fixed
much smaller than that of light. relative to Earth
Consider two observers O and 0 1 •
O is standing on the ground while Fig. 4
01 is sitting in a car moving with a
r,
constant velocity V0 =V0 t relative to 0. (0, J, K) and (0 1 , r, J, K) are two inertial frames (Figure 4).
Observer 0 1 , which is initially at 0, launches a ball M at t0 =0.
r,
• The position vector of the ball in the frame (0 1 , J, K) is 0 1 M = i\.
• The position vector of the ball in the frame (0, T, J, K) is OM = r
But OM = 00 1 + Oifv1 => r =001 + ri => + r1 ...eq (1)
r = Yo ti
Derive both sides of equation (1) with respect to time: v v
= Y0 i + 1 . . . eq (2)
v r, r,
Where Vi and are the velocities of the ball in the frames (0 1 , J, K) and (0, J, K) respectively.
Derive both sides of equation (2) with respect to time: a a
= 1 . . . eq (3).
I:Fext =ma=mai => the sum of external forces acting on the ball is the same in the two frames.
For the two observers:
• The time separating two events is the same; �t = �t 1 •
• The distance L separating two points A and B is the same.

Principles of Galilean relativity:

* All the laws of mechanics are the same in all inertial frames.
* The distance separating two points and the time interval separating two events are the same in all
inertial frames.
* Some physical quantities such as abscissa, ordinate, velocity... are not the same relative to two
different inertial frames. These quantities are related according to Galilean transformation:
* X l + Y J + Z k = (V0 t + Xi) l + Yi J + Zi k
T ;, ...... � ._ �

* Vx T + Vy J + Vz k = ( V0 + Vx 1) T + VYl J + Vz1 k
II< 3x l + 3y j + 3z k = 3x 1 l + 3y 1) + az/

4 .. Einstein's Postulates of Special Relativi!,I

The most famous experiment which revealed the failure of Galilean transformation is known as
Michelson- Morley's experiment and was performed in 1881. The experiment was designed to measure
the speed VO of the earth relative to the sun.
At that time, they used Galilean transformation, so they considered that if an observer (A) measures a
light signal to travel with a speed c, then another observer (B) moving relative to (A) with a velocity V0 in
a direction parallel to that of the motion of light will measure the same light signal to travel with a speed
different from c; c ± V0 •
But the experimental results contradicted the above assumption. The experiment was repeated at many
different times and always gave negative results. Therefore, Galilean transformation had to be amended.
In 1905, Albert Einstein published the theory of special relativity which is based on two postulates.

133
Postulates of special relativity
°" The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames ofreference (from Galilean relativity).
"' The speed of light in vacuum has the same limiting value c = 3 x 10 8 mis in all inertial frames
regardless of the speed of the observer or the speed of the source of light. Also, c is the ultimate
speed of moving particles.
Note: Special relativity is applicable in inertial frames, while general relativity (not required) is
applicable in non- inertial frames.
5- Consequences of Special Relativity
Special relativity solved many contradictions. It has some consequences like time dilation, length
contraction, and mass-energy equivalence.
a- Time dilation
A mirror is fixed to the ceiling of a space shuttle which is moving to the right relative to ground with
a speed v comparable to that of light. Dani is standing in the space shuttle where a laser light is
placed at a distance d below the mirror.
At an instant t, the laser emits a signal of light directed towards the mirror (event 1). At some
later time after reflecting off the mirror, the signal arrives back to the laser (event 2) (Figure 5).
According to Dani, the signal moves with a speed c and of vertical straight line trajectory.
2d
Dani measures the time interval !J.t0 separating the above two events such that: !J.t0 = - ...eq (1)
c
Time dilation

Fig. 5
Lara is another observer at rest on the ground.
Lara measures the time interval !J.t separating the two events (emission of the laser signal and its
reception by the source). According to the second postulate of special relativity, both observers
measure c for the speed of light then:
2L
!J.t = - ...eq (2).
c
By comparing the two equations: Mirror Mirror Mirror
L > d :::} � t > � t0 , then Lara, which is III I I I lltl IL
outside the frame of the events, measures a
longer time.
I
To obtain the relation between !J.t and !J.t0 we id
use the right triangle shown in figure ( 6).
The mirror receives the signal when it
v lit
moves to the right a distance 2 v
(v tit)2
L2 = -- + d 2 ...eq (3) 2
2 Fig. 6

134
 Substitute the first two equations in the
third one:
vM 2
( M) = (
2 c Mo 2
) => c2 ,1t 2 = v2 ,1t 2 + c2 ,1t o2 =>,1t 2 = ,1t 2 + ,1t 2
c v
2
) + (
2 2 2 c2 o

2 v2 2 M0 1
and �= �v then N.-
J
=> M (1 - �) = M 0 => Llt = Let y =
1- �
vz ,.--------;z
l lfv «.�then � ::::t O ==>y
.j - �
...___�--'-��
1 1:::>At �a�oo,�
:;::i::

y and Llt = y Llt0 • But v < c then y > 1 => Llt > Llt.,. ��is�ed-
�
Conclusion: The time interval Llt separating two events measured by an observer outside the frame of
events is longer than the proper time Llt0 measured in the frame of events.
This consequence is known as time dilation.

Application 3
A spaceship moves at a speed v = 0.8 c and carries a pendulum
According to an astronaut inside the ship the pendulum oscillates with a period of 2 s.
1. Determine the period of the pendulum relative to an observer at rest on the ground.
2. The spaceship changes its speed, so the period of the pendulum measured by the observer on the
ground becomes 10 s. Calculate the new speed of the spaceship.
Solution
1. The astronaut is in the frame of events then he measures the proper time Llt., = 2 s.
The observer on the ground (outside the frame of events) measures the time interval At such

J J
Mo 2 2 2
that: Llt = = = -.36 -=> At = 3..333 S.
l _ � l _ co.�r2 ,./1 - 0.64 ,./0

J
v v _ r..:-;;;;;-
=> 1 - � = 0.04 => � = 0.96=> V::: �o, 96 �.
2. L\t = M0 2 4 2 2

=> 10 = vZ => 100 =

,.--------;z 1- �
�
- �
.ji - �

Application 4 �
An astronaut traveling with a speed v relative to the Earth takes his pulse and finds that his heart
beats once every 0.85 s. Mission control on Earth, which monitors his heart activity, measures one
heartbeat every 1.25 s. Determine the speed of the astronaut relative to the Earth.
Solution
The astronaut measures the proper time Llt0 = 0.85 s (astronaut is in the frame of events)
Relative to the Earth the time interval is Llt=>Llt = � => 1.25 = �
.jl - � .jl - �

=>
R =
0.85
1
.2
5
y2 y2
= 0.68 =>1 - � = 0.4624=> � = 0.5376=>v = vO. 5376 c.
����������

Application 5 �
An observer at the equator measures a time Llt0 = 10 years. Determine the
corresponding time interval Llt measured by another observer at the pole. What Pole
do you conclude?

R�
Given: speed of a point at the equator relative to the pole is v = 465 mis;
c = 3 x 108 mis and for�« 1, (1 + �)° = 1 + n �.
Lit� � , � Lit, (1 -
Ji �
P')-i since �2 « 1=>Lit� Lit, (I+ 0.5 �')
1 - �

=>Llt = Llto [ 1 + 0.5 (3 : :08

6 f] =>Llt = Llt0 + 0.5 C :6: ) 2 Llt
08
0

Llt = 10 + 1.20125 x 10- years=>�t = 10 years and 0.38 ms.

11

Conclusion: The time interval between two events at the equator is nearly equal Ml• uf tho :t:uth
to that at the pole. Fig. 7

135
b- Length contraction
Consider a spaceship travelling with a speed v from the earth towards a star. There are two observers: one
on Earth and one(astronaut) in the spaceship(Figure 8).

V= Lo (a)
�t

V=­L
�to
Earth Star
I,

-------L------....,
(b)

Fig. 8
Event 1: the spaceship leaves Earth Event 2: the spaceship arrives at the star.
The observer on Earth:
This observer is at rest relative to Earth and also assumed to be at rest relative to the star. So he measures
the distance between Earth and the star to be the proper length L0 .
According to this observer, it takes the spaceship a longer time �t to complete the journey.
v = Lo ...eq(l)
�t
The observer in the spaceship:
The astronaut is in motion with respect to the measured path then he measures the distance between Earth
and the star to be L.
The astronaut is at rest with respect to the spaceship, so he measures the proper time �to between the two
events.
L
v = _ _ ...eq(2) (By comparing the equations �t0 < �t => L < L 0 (Length contraction) .
j
R
� to
V = V => __!'.._ = Lo => L = Lo �to = Lo Mo 1 - v
2
=>

R
L= L 0
M0 M M �t 0 c2

Proper lonath L,
< 1 => L < Lo(length contraction). i11 tht diatlneo
betwQQn two point&
Remarks: - An observer measures a contracted distance AB, only if he/she moves Ill fflQM\U'QO by lffl
(relative to AB) in a direction parallel to the line AB. Obl!OfVQf It ffll!t
- If v « c => L :::::: L0 • Nl!liivt to thorn,

Conclusion: Consider two points A and B.

• An observer at rest relative to AB measures the distance between A and B to be L0 •
• An observer in motion relative to AB in a direction parallel to the line AB measures the distance
between A and B to be L.
• L < L0

136
Application 6
A ruler AB, whose proper length is AB = 30 cm , moves relative to an observer with a speed of 0.6 c
along a direction parallel to AB.
Calculate the length of the ruler as seen by the observer.
Solution
The observer is in motion relative to AB, so he/she measures the contracted length L.
j
L = Lo 1 -
vz 3 I (O.fi c) z
= 0 1 - c2 :::} L = 24 cm.
c2 ...J

Aoolication 7 Twin paradox

Astronaut Fadi leaves Earth and travels to star leaving his 40-year-old twin brother Dani behind on Earth.
Fadi travels at 0.98c and is 25 light-years from Earth.
A light-year is the distance travelled by light at c during one year. !Light-year = c. y
1. Relative to Dani:
a. Calculate the duration of the journey.
b. Deduce the age of Dani when Fadi arrives to the star.
2. Relative to Fadi:
a. Determine the age of Fadi when he arrives to the star.
b. Calculate the distance covered by Fadi.
Solution
Event (1): Leaving Earth Event (2): Arriving to the star.
1. a. Dani is not in the frame of the events then he measures �t, and he is at rest relative to the star and
the earth so he measures the proper length L0 •
v= - Lo 25 c.y At lllll 25 •51 year.
Lo = --:::}
!). t :::} ut = -
A
v 0.98 c (,,1

b. Age = 40 + 25.51 :::} Age• 65,51 years. (Old !!!!)

2. a. Fadi is in the frame of the events then he measures the proper time �t0 :
Llt =
1- �
I
/).toy 2 :::} �to= (25.51 y) ...J 1 - (°"98c c)2 :::} 6.tq• S.08 year. Age = 40 + 5.08
R
:::} Age 2 45,08 year (Young!!)
b. Fadi is in motion relative to the distance covered then he measures the contracted length L:
L = v. �t0 = (0.98c) (5.08y):::} L II 4,98 e.y.
j j c 0 98 c
Or: L = L0 1 - :� = (25) 1 - · c )2 :::} L ii 4,97 c.y.

c- Relativistic kinetic energy

Consider a particle of mass m moving with a speed v.
* Rest energy: IErest = m c2I (mass- energy equivalence)
This energy is called the rest energy of the particle since it does not depend on its soeed.
mc2 =
* Total energy: the total energy of a particle is Eto tal = m c2 + KErelativistic
J
1- �vz

Then the relativistic kinetic energy of the particle is:

KErelativis tic
mc2
m C2 :::} KErelativistic mc 2 (-s-1)
j1- �

137
 In case v
z
« c �(D « 1 � KErelativistic = m c z [ 1 + i G) z - 1] (v) = 1- m v
1 - 2
(m c 2 ) -
2 c 2
z

Conclusion: If V « C � KErelativistic = KEc1assical ·

Classical mechanics is valid when v S 0.1 c.
KE
Divide the last obtained rule by m c2
mc2

C, � � -1)
� KE"�";;'' �
2
KE re1at,v,st,c
·· ·
As v � c .' m c2
� oo � c is the ultimate 1.5
speed of a particle .
Divide the classical kinetic energy by m c2 1
KE c1assica1 1 v2 KE
�
m c2 = 2_
_ c2 •
As v � 00 '• _
m c2
� 00

Figure (9) represents the variation of the relativistic 0.5

and the classical kinetic energies per mc2, for a
particle of mass m as a function of its speed v .
0.5 c 1c 1.5 c 2c v
Fig. 9

Application 8
An alpha particle of mass 6.6425 x 10- 2 7 kg moves with a speed of 0.9 c.
1. Calculate the rest energy of the alpha particle.
2. Calculate the relativistic kinetic energy of the alpha particle. Deduce its total energy.
3. Calculate the classical kinetic energy of this alpha particle.
Solution
1 • Erest - me2 = 6.6425 X 10- 2 7 X ( 3 X 10 8 ) 2 � Erest = 5.97825 X 10- 10 J.
1 1
2 • KErelativistic = m c 2 [- -2 - 1] = 5.97825 x 10- 10 ( - 1)
,.---;z
_,1 / (0.:2c) 2
"'1
-� -
� KErelattvistlc = 7.736 X 10- 10 J.
Etotal = KErelativistic + Erest = 7.736 X 10- + 5.97825 X 10-lO � Etotal = 1.37 X 10-9 J.
10

3. KE c 1assi cal = i m v = i (6.6425

2
X 10-2 7) ( 0.9 X 3 X 10 8 ) � KEc1asslcal
2
= 2.421 X 10-10 J.

138
 Problems
Use when needed c = 3 x 10 8 mis.
1. Speed of light /
A spaceship moves with a velocity V of magnitude V = 0.9 c.
A light signal is sent from Earth
towards the spaceship in a direction
parallel to V
a) Specify, according to Galilean
relativity, the speed of the light
signal measured by an astronaut
in the spaceship if it is moving:
i. away from the Earth;
ii. towards the Earth.
b) Answer the previous part according to special relativity (Einstein's postulate).

2. Time difference between two flashes /

In a restaurant, a neon lamp flashes on and off once every 4.5 s as measured by an observer standing on
the ground. Determine the time elapsed between two consecutive flashes of the lamp as measured by an
astronaut in a spaceship moving towards Earth at a speed of 0.84 c.

3. Rectangle or square
A rectangular plate has sides AB = 10 m and BC = 8 m in A
Fadi
the proper frame.

A
The rectangular plate moves with a velocity V relative to
an observer Fadi.
Determine the line of action and the magnitude of V if
Fadi observes a squared plate of side 8 m. c D

4. Contraction of the diameter of the Earth

A space shuttle moves vertically upwards with a velocity V of magnitude 0.8 c relative to the ground.
An astronaut inside the space shuttle measures the diameter d' of the earth parallel to V. Calculated'.
Given: The diameter of the earth relative to the ground is d = 6400 km.

5. Angle between a rod and the horizontal axis /

An astronaut inside a spaceship holds a stick and observes that its A
length OA is 0.5 m and it makes an angle of 60° with the
horizontal axis. The spaceship moves with a velocity V of
magnitude V = 0.943 c along the vertical direction.
Determine the angle between the stick and the horizontal axis as
seen by an observer at rest relative to Earth.

6. Speed. of an electron /
Given me = 9.1 x 10-31 kg.
Calculate in terms of c the speed of an electron that has a kinetic energy of 10-13 J using the:
a) relativistic expression of the kinetic energy;
b) classical expression of the kinetic energy.

139
7. The ultimate speed
A particle has a relativistic kinetic energy equal to its rest energy.
a) Determine the speed of the particle in terms of c.
b) Determine the speed of the particle in terms of c and kif the relativistic kinetic energy of the
particle is ktimes its rest energy. Deduce the limit of the speed of the particle ask-+ oo.

8. Real and apparent weight t/

Lama stands on a scale inside an elevator.
Hint: The scale measures the magnitude of the normal reaction it
exerts.
a) During the upward motion of the elevator, which is composed of
three phases, the scale reads:
• 660 N during the first phase of motion;
• 600 N during the second phase of motion;
• 555 N during the third phase of motion.
Use g = 10 m/s 2.
i. The elevator is at rest and the scale reads 600 N. Determine the
real weight of Lama. Deduce her mass.
ii. Apply Newton's z nd law to determine relative to Earth the
algebraic value of the acceleration of the elevator during the first,
the second and the third phases of its motion.
m. Specify in which of the above phases the elevator is an inertial frame.
b) The elevator moves downward with an acceleration of 1.5 m/s 2. Determine the reading of the scale
(apparent weight).

9. The life time of a muon v

The muon is a subatomic unstable particle formed at about 15000 meters altitudes in the atmosphere
and moves at a speed 0.9994 c relative to Earth. Relative to the muon, its life time is 2.2 µs before it
decays (transforms) into an electron or a positron.
a) Calculate relative to the muon, the distance it covers during its life time.
b) Determine the life time of the muon and the distance covered by it during its life time relative to
an observer at rest on the ground. Does the muon reach the sea-level? Why?

1 O. Time taken by a fast particle to reach the surface of Earth

An unstable particle is created from a cosmic ray in the upper atmosphere and travels straight
downward towards the surface of Earth with a speed of 0.9954 c relative to Earth. According to a
scientist at rest on Earth's surface, the particle is created at an altitude of 45 km.
a) Determine relative to the scientist the time taken by the particle to travel the 45 km to the
surface of Earth.
b) Calculate, the distance covered by the particle when it reaches earth, as measured in the
particle's frame.
c) Determine, in the particle's frame and by two different methods, the time taken the particle to
travel the 45 km to the surface of Earth.

11. Motion of a roller coaster ( +)

In a roller coaster, when a car reaches the top of the roller coaster, it continues its rotational motion and
the persons inside it do not fall. Neglect friction.
Explain what happens relative to the frame of reference (Car).

140
In 1800, Volta created the first modem day battery, but it was not until December 1879 that Edison invented the first
successful light bulb model.
The first city to use electric street lights was Wabash, Indiana in USA. On March 31, 1880. Wabash became the
"First Electrically Lighted City in the World"
The first public power station was the Edison Electric Light Station, built in London at 57 Holbom Viaduct, which
started operation in January 1882.
In September 1882 in New York, the Pearl Street Station was established by Edison to provide electric lighting in
the lower Manhattan Island area. The station used reciprocating steam engines to tum direct-current generators.
Because of the DC distribution, the service area was small and limited by voltage drop in the feeders. The War of
Currents eventually resolved in favor of AC distribution and utilization, although some DC systems persisted to the
end of the 20th century.

141
 windinss Inside stats to
produce magnetic field (ROTOR)
(STATOR)

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
,
. I

•!• Define the magnetic flux. i

•!• Define the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.
•!• Analyze experimental evidences on variation of the magnetic flux.
•!• State and apply Lenz's law.
•!• State and apply Faraday's law.
•!• Define the equivalent generator of a coil.
•!• Explain the power distribution of a coil-magnet system.
•!• Explain the functioning of alternators and DC electric motors.

142
Prerequisites
1- Magnetic field created by a magnet
M
a. Bar magnet
A and M are two points that belong to the axis of
a bar magnet (Figure 1-a). Fig (1-a)
The bar magnet creates at the point M a magnetic
field BM directed away from its north pole, and creates
at the point A a magnetic field directed towards its south pole .
The magnitude ofthe magnetic field decreases as we move away from the magnet.
b. U-shaped magnet
Figure (1-b) shows the lines ofthe magnetic field created by a U- shaped
magnet. The field lines between the poles of a U-shaped magnet are
parallel straight lines.
2- Magnetic field created by current-carrying wires
a. Long straight wire (Figure 2-a).
In air, the magnitude ofthe magnetic field created by a long straight wire,
· · (z xlo-') i
at a pomt · M wh.1ch 1s· at a distance d from the wire 1s: B = d
b. Circular coil ofradius R and ofnumber ofloops N (Figure 2-b).
The magnitude ofthe magnetic field in air created by a circular coil at its
. (2n: x 10- 7) Ni
center 1s: B = R Fig (1-b)
c. Solenoid oflength .f and ofnumber ofloops N (Figure 2-c).
In air, the magnitude ofthe magnetic field created by a solenoid at any point inside it and away from
. .. . (4n: x lo-') Ni .
its extrem1t1es 1s: B = 1 . The soleno1d has two 1.c.aces: N-1.ace
c. and S-1.ace.
c.
Inside the solenoid, the lines offield are parallel to its axis and directed from S- face to N- face.
The directions ofthe above mentioned magnetic fields obey the right hand rule.
I (Wire)
I

_,
B t
0 B
i
®
-------+.
ii0 S-face --+ i
d M

Fig (2-c)
Fig (2-b)
Fig (2-a)
3- Uniform magnetic field
A magnetic field is said to be uniform in a certain region if, at any ---+
A BA
instant, it has the same magnitude and the same direction at any
point ofthis region (Figure 3). D a;
* The magnetic field between the poles ofa U-shaped magnet is a
uniform one (Figure 1-b). c
* The magnetic field, which is created by a solenoid due to its
own current, is uniform inside the solenoid and away from its �
extremities (Figure 2-c). Fig. 3
* The terrestrial magnetic field in a small region ofspace is
considered to be uniform.

143
4- Magnetic force (Laplace's force): A straight conductor oflength
.f, carrying a current i and placed in a uniform external magnetic
field B, is acted upon by an electromagnetic force F (Figure 4).
The characteristics of F are:
point of application: Midpoint of the straight conductor;
line of action: Perpendicular to the plane formed by the
conductor and the magnetic field;
direction: obeys the right hand rule;
magnitude: F = i I x B => F = i I B sin a Fig. 4

Introduction: Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday on August 29, 1831. The
discovery of electromagnetic induction has led to a big development of the use of electricity. Nowadays,
all power plants generate electric energy by alternators whose functioning is based on the electromagnetic
induction phenomenon.
1. Ma2netic Flux q>
The magnetic flux crossing a loop is a measure of the
strength of the magnetic field over a given area ii :
perpendicular to it.
Consider a loop of surface area (S) placed in a uniform
magnetic field B of magnitude B (Figure 5).
The unit vector ii
n,
To specify the direction of the unit vector which is
perpendicular to the plane of a loop, we choose a
positive sense. When the fingers are curled in the
Fig. 5
positive sense, the thumb points to the unit vector n
(Figures 6 and 7).

Fig. 7
Fig. 6
Expression of the magnetic flux
n
The magnetic flux cp through a loop is given by: cp = B . s = B s cos (B , n)
B is the magnitude of the uniform magnetic field whose S.I unit is Tesla (T), S is the area of the loop
n
whose S.I unit is m2, is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the loop and a = (B, n)
is the
n.
angle between Band The S.I unit of cp is Weber (Wb).
In case of a coil of N identical loops each of area (S), crossed by uniform magnetic field, the magnetic
flux crossing the coil is given by: I cp = N B . n s = N B s cos (B n)
:
I
The flux cp is an algebraic physical quantity depending on the direction of n:
For O :S a< %, cos a > 0 => <p > 0 (Figure 8-a);
For a = %, cos a = 0 => cp = 0 (Figure 8-b);

144
 For �2 < a :::; n , cos a< 0 =} cp < 0 (Figure 8-c).

Fig (8-a) Fig (8-b) Fig (8-c)

2. Electromagnetic Induction

> Equipment
• A copper coil (Solenoid);
• A bar magnet;
• A galvanometer with central zero;
� Connecting wires.
> Procedure and obseryatlop
• Connect the galvanometer across the
terminals of the coil (Figure 9).
• Move rapidly the north pole of the
magnet towards the coil, you observe
that the needle deviates in a certain
direction. Move the north pole away
from the coil, the needle deviates in the opposite direction. Fig. 9
• Repeat the same procedure by keeping the magnet fixed and moving the coil towards and away
from the magnet. The needle also deviates in two opposite directions.
• When the coil and the magnet are fixed, the needle is not deviated.
> Interpretation
When the magnet moves relative to the coil, the magnetic field at all points of the coil is varied,
and the coil is crossed by a variable magnetic flux. This variation in the magnetic flux induces
an electromotive force "e" across the coil.
The coil circuit is closed by the galvanometer; then electric current flows in the coil.
The coil is called the induced circuit, while the magnet is called the inducing source.

Electromagnetic induction: is the induction of a potential difference or electromotive force e. m.f "e"
in a conductor when it is placed in a varying magnetic flux.
When a conductor is crossed by a variable magnetic flux, we say it is the seat of electromotive force.
If the circuit including the conductor is closed, a current flows in it.
The source of the magnetic field is called the inducing source, while the circuit or the conductor which
becomes the seat of electromotive force is called the induced circuit.

145
 3� Variatwg qt the M31m,Ue Flux
Tht: magnetic flux q> crossing a given area (S) depends on the area (S), the magnitude B of the magnetic
n
field B, and the angle a between the direction of B and that of the unit vector normal to the plane of
(S).
The magnetic flux can be changed if at least one of the three above factors changes. For example, in
experiment (1) when the magnet approaches the coil, the magnetic field vector Bat all points inside the
• coil is varied. As a result, the coil is crossed by a variable magnetic flux.

Here are two examples of the variation of the magnetic flux:

• Variation ofmawtlc ftn.,du,e ta platiye mJation of the magnet-conductor mtem
In figure (10-a), the conducting loop is rotated about a vertical axis (�) between the poles of a U-shaped
magnet. During the rofation, the angle between the uniform magnetic field B and the unit vector ii is
• varying. Then the magnetic flux crossing the loop is varying, so the loop becomes the seat of an
induced electromotive force "e" and carries an induced current if its circuit is closed.
In figure (10-b) the magnet rotates about a horizontal axis perpendicular to the plane of the page.
During the rotation, the angle between B and ii as well as the magnitude of B are varying at all
points inside the loop. Then, the magnetic flux crossing the loop is varying, so the loop becomes
the seat of an induced electromotive force "e" and carries an induced current if its circuit closed.

!i \
Sense of ,.. ... ---

+ I
l
"
rotation ,'

t
I
I
I
r

'
I
I

Fig (10-a) Fig (10-b)

• Variation of the magnetic flu due to uriation of the ara swept by a conductor
Figure (11) is a diagram of Laplace's rails. Initially, the rod and the ammeter (A) form a closed circuit
which does not include a generator. When the rod moves along the rails, the surface area swept by
the rod varies, which results in a variation of the magnetic flux through the swept area. The rod is
the seat of electromotive force "e" and electric current flows in the circuit since it is closed.

Fig. 11

146
Application 1
Figure (12) shows a solenoid (M) whose axis makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal.
The solenoid of 500 loops is placed in a uniform magnetic field Bwhose lines are horizontal.
The magnitude of Bis 0.25 T, and the area of each loop is 20 cm2.
1. a) Calculate the algebraic value of the initial magnetic flux <p
crossing (M). (M)
b) The solenoid is at rest. Is an electromotive force induced
in the coil? Why? , '?�:·::. � . · . e
2. The axis of (M) is rotated clockwise in the vertical plane by an
angle of 60°.
a) Determine the new magnetic flux cp' crossing (M).
b) Name and justify the physical phenomenon that takes place
during the rotation of the solenoid.
c) Does an electric current flow in (M) while rotating it? Why? _____ c .
30"' ::
3. The positive sense is reversed. Calculate again the algebraic Fig.12
value of the initial magnetic flux <p crossing (M).
Solution:
1. a) <p =NB s cos (B'n) = (20) (0.25) (500 x 10-4) cos (30°) ::::} q, = 0.2165 Wb.
b) The solenoid is crossed by a constant magnetic flux, then no induced electromotive force in it.
2. a) The axis of the solenoid becomes perpendicular ton ::::} <p' = (20) (0.25) (500 x 10-4) cos (90°)
::::} q,'=0.
b) Name: Eledromagneticindoction. While rotating the solenoid, the angle between and Bis n
varying. The solenoid is then crossed by a variable magnetic flux, so it is the seat of an induced
electromotive force.
c) The coil circuit is open, then no current flows in it.
3. Relative to the new positive sense: (B, n) = 150° ::::} <p = (20) (0.25) (500 x 10-4) cos (150°)
::::} • = - 0.2165 Wb.

4. Lenz's Law
When an em.f is induced due to a variation in the magnetic flux, the direction
of the induced current is such that its electromagnetic effects oppose the cause
that is producing it.
To understand Lenz's law consider the following experiment which includes three
steps shown in three figures. In this experiment, we have a bar magnet and a coil
connected in series with a galvanometer (A).
Figure (13-a)
The north pole of the bar magnet is approaching the coil. lleim:ich Lenz
Observation: (llM-1865)
The current flows in the
coil from left to right.
Interpretation:
Interpretation (1):
According to Le:nz"s
law, the right face of the (a)
coil acts as a north-face
to repel the 3\]J]J.maching
(b) (A)
noli1h pole of the magnet.
Then the direction of the
m.ooced magnetic field

Fig.13

147
coil by the induced current is horizontally to the right. Then according to the right hand rule, the induced
current flows in the coil from left to right.
Interpretation (2):
According to Lenz's law, the direction of the induced magnetic field Bind , created by the induced
current inside the coil, is horizontally to the right to oppose the increase of the magnitude of the magnetic
field created by the bar magnet at each point inside the coil. Using the right hand rule, the induced current
flows in the coil from left to right.
Figure (l3-b)
Observation: No current is induced in the coil.
Interpretation: The coil and the bar magnet are at rest relative to each other, then there is no variation in
the magnetic flux crossing the coil, so no current is flowing in the circuit.
Figure 03- c)
The north pole of the bar magnet is displaced away from the coil.
Observation:
The current flows in the coil from right to left.
Interpretation:
According to Lenz's law, the right face of the coil acts as a south-face to attract the outgoing north pole of
the magnet. The direction of the induced magnetic field Bind created by the induced current inside the coil
is horizontally to the right. According to the right hand rule, the induced current flows in the coil from
right to left.
Application 2 �
Consider figure (14). The cursor (C) of a rheostat Rh is
w
...· -��ffi·).]· D: ·
displaced in the direction of the green arrow on the

.· ).][J.J.J·D·
. . .. ..... ...
............ ......
... .. .... . . .......
figure.
1. Indicate the inducing source and the induced
;-� \ ! .... � .. \
" .. .. . .. .
circuit.
2. Explain the existence of the induced current in the
lamp L during the displacement of the cursor. L
3. Determine the direction of the induced current in
coil (D). Fig (14)
Solution:
1. Inducing source: Coil (A).
Induced circuit: Coil (D).
2. During the motion of the cursor of the rheostat, the current flowing in (A) changes, and then the
magnetic field Bcreated by (A) at all points of coil (D) changes too. Then (D) is crossed by a
variable magnetic flux, so it is the seat of induced electromotive force.
A current flows in coil (D) since the circuit is closed.
3. The current flowing in the circuit of coil (A) increases due to the motion of (C), and then the
magnitude of the magnetic field Bat all points inside coil (D) increases. According to Lenz's law,
the direction of the induced magnetic field Bi nd inside (D) is horizontally to the left, to oppose the
increase of the magnetic field created by coil (A).
According to the right hand rule, the induced current i i nd flows in (D) from right to left.

Application 3 �
1. In figure (15), the magnet is rotated by 90° in the anti-clockwise sense beside a conducting loop.
Determine the direction of the induced current flowing in the loop during the motion of the magnet.
2. Figure (16) is a diagram of Laplace's rails. The conducting rod MN forms a closed circuit with an
ammeter (A), while placed between the poles of a U-shaped magnet. The rod is given an initial
velocity which is directed horizontally to the right. Determine the direction of the induced current in
MN during its motion.

148
 1. While rotating the magnet,
Solution
'I
its south pole approaches 'I
the loop. The right face of
Sense of
the loop acts then as a south
J
I rota1ion
•I
face to repel the
I

,
Dirfflion of
approaching south pole.
I
motion of rod
The direction of the •I

induced magnetic field Bi nd 't

created inside the loop due

to the induced current is
Fig. 15 Fig.16
directed horizontally to the left. According to the right hand rule, the induced current flows in the
loop in the clockwise sense (viewed from the right side).
2. During the motion of the rod, the area swept by it increases. According to Lenz's law, the
electromagnetic force created due to the induced current has a direction opposite to that of the
· motion of the rod. According to the right hand rule, the induced current flows in the circuit in the
clockwise sense ( i passes in the rod MN from M to N).

5. Faraday's Law

Experiment 2: Experimental evidence of Faraday's law

>
A copper coil (Solenoid);
Eauipment

A bar magnet;
11111
+­
• A galvanometer; Fut
Connecting wires.
>
• Connect the galvanometer across the
Progdure and observation

terminals of the coil.

• Move the magnet slowly towards the Fig (17-a) Fig (17-b)
coil, you observe that the needle is deviated slightly to the right (Figure 17-a).
• Move the magnet quickly towards the coil, you observe that the deviation of the needle increases
(Figure 17-b).
>
When the magnet is moved faster, the change in the magnetic flux increases, and the needle shows a
Intmprptlon

larger induced current due to a greater e.m.f. Then, the larger the change in the magnetic flux is, the
greater the induced electromotive force becomes.

Faraday's law: The induced electromotive force "e" in a circuit at any instant
is equal to the opposite of the derivative of the magnetic flux crossing the
circuit, with respect to time.

e =- * I
The S.I unit of: <pis (Wb), t is s and "e" is Volt (V).
e is an algebr"aic quantity.

To understand the relation between the signs of e and i, we consider a closed

SigJu of e and i

conducting loop oriented positively in the clockwise sense. Miehael Faradly

(1791-18',7)

149
* In figure (18-a):
The magnet is moving
towards the loop.
According to Lenz's
law, the induced +
magnetic field at the
center of the loop is
directed horizontally
to the left. According
to the right hand rule,
the induced current
flows in the circuit in Fig (18-a) Fig (18-b)
the negative sense ( i < 0) .
While the magnet is moving towards the loop, the magnitude (B) of its magnetic field increases at all
points inside the loop, so the magnetic flux cp crossing the loop increases, then:
� d
dt > 0 ' but e = - dtq, => e < 0 .
* In figure (18-b): The magnet is moving away from the loop. According to Lenz's law, the induced
magnetic field at the center of the loop is directed horizontally to the right. According to the right hand
rule, the induced current flows in the loop in the positive sense (i > 0).
While the magnet is moving away from the loop, (B) decreases at all points inside the loop, so the
d
magnetic flux decreases, then: d<pt < 0 , .but e = - d q,t => e > 0 .
d
Conclusion: Remark
In the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, when the coil acts as a generator: When the coil
e . i > 0 . Then: acts as a receiver:
• If e > 0, i flows in the induced circuit in the chosen positive sense; e. i <O.
• If e < 0, i flows in the induced circuit opposite to the chosen positive sense . (Studied later)

6.. The Equivalent Generator

If a coil, a circuit, or any conductor is crossed by a variable magnetic flux and acts as a generator, the
characteristics of this generator are:
• Electromotive force e = - :: ;
• Internal resistance r which is the resistance of the wire forming the coil.
The conductor is then equivalent to a series combination of ai;i ideal generator of electromotive force e
and a resjstor of resistance r (Figures 19-a and 19:b).

B
i

Fig (19-a) Fig (19-b)

General expression of the voltage across a generator • i and e are substitmed in
Generally, if a coil (or a conductor) in an induced circuit is oriented alge!muc valm;s.
posi�ively from A to B then: • The e;,q,ression of llMJ �
m>t changed ifth# directi1m

I
The potential difference between the terminals A and B is given by: of the egm,u js reveJSl!d.
j uAB = r 1 - e (Figures 19-a and 19-b). • j = 0 if the coil circuit is
open, then liAB = - e .

150
Application 4
In figure(20), a coil of 100 identical square loops, each ofside a = 10 cm, is connected in series with a
resistor of resistance R = 45 n. The internal resistance ofthe coil is r = 5 Q, and it is crossed by a uniform
magnetic field whose magnitude B varies with time according to the graph offigure (21).
1. Consider the time interval [O ; 8 s]:
a. Determine the algebraic value ofthe induced electromotive force e 1 in the coil.
b. Deduce the direction of the ---•+
induced current i 1 in the coil.
c. Determine the direction ofthe 1
induced current i 1 again by using
Lenz's law. 0,8
d. Determine the algebraic value of
0,6
the current i 1 flowing in the coil.
e. Calculate the voltage uMN .
f. Draw the circuit ofthe
equivalent generator of this coil. 0.2
t(I)
2. Determine the value of the
induced current during the time Fig. 20
interval [8 s; 12 s]. Fig. 21
3. During the interval [12 s; 16 s], the expression of the
magnitude ofthe magnetic field is
B = 0.4 t - 4.6 (S.I)
a. Determine the algebraic value of the induced electromotive force e3 in the coil Deduce the
.
algebraic value ofthe induced current h flowing in the coil.
b. Calculate the voltage uMN .
c. The positive sense is reversed. Determine the voltage uMN again. Deduce whether uMN depends
on the choice ofthe positive sense.
4. Draw, during the interval [O; 16 s], the variation ofuMN as a function oftime.
Solution:
1. a. The magnetic flux crossing the coil is cp = NB S cos a = NB a2 cos(180) = -100 B (0.1)2 = - B.
d<p dB dB dB
Faraday's law: e = - ctt =-( - dt)� e = dt, but dt ts . the slope of the graph ofB.
dB 02 1
� = · - = - 0.1 Tis • e1 • .. 0.1 V.
dt 8- 0
b. The coil acts a a generator� e. i > 0. But e 1 < 0� i < 0; the direction ofi 1 is opposite to the
chosen positive sense, so 11 ls antl-clockwlse.
c. B decreases with time. According to Lenz's law, the direction of the induced magnetic field due to
the induced current is outwards to oppose the decreasing of B. According to the right hand rule,
the direction ofi 1 is anti-clock wise.
. e = - o.1
d. uMN = 1 r - e and uMN = - .1 R � 1. r - e = - .1 R� .1r + .1R = e� .1 = -- --
r + R 5 + 45
3
� i • - 2 l< 10- A•· 2 mA •
e r
e. UMN =- iR = -(- 2x10-3)(45)� UMN• 0.09V•90mV.
f. Figure(22).
dB
2. B is constant� = 0� "'2 • 0� i = 0.
dt
dB 04
3 • a. e3 = dt � •-1 .... • O. 4 V � i 3 = --=L = · � t�� • 8 )( 10-3 A.
r+ R 50
b. UMN = i 3 r - e3 = (8x10- 3 x 5) - 0.4 • UMN - .. 0.36 v. Fig. 22
c. Relative to the new positive sense:
i 3 = - 8x 10- 3 and e 3 = - 0.4 V .

151
 uNM = i3 r-e3 =(-8 x 10- 3 x 5) -(-0.4)
=>uNM =0.36V 90
11(£)
=>'1ltN = -0.36V=-360mV. 0
Then uMN does not depend on the chosen 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
- 90
positive sense. - 180
4. Figure(23). - 270
- 360
Fig. 23

7. Power Distribution in the Induced Circuit

Figure(24) is a diagram of the equivalent generator of a coil. The coil is oriented positively from B to
A, then uBA= r i - e =>e= r i - uBA =>e = r i + uAB
Multiply the obtained equation by i : i e = r i 2 + i uAB (uAB > 0)
This equation can be written in the following form I Ptotal = P1os t + Puseful I where:

I Ptotal = e . i I is th� total electric power induced in the e ......,__+___

eqmvalent generator.
I Pios t = r i
2
i is the po�er lost by joules effect in the resistor
of the c01l.
- -us-efu-1 =
�i P �I is the useful electric power supplied by the
- -i u- AB
equivalent generator to the exterior circuit.
Depending on the nature of the loads in the exterior circuit, this Exterior
electric power can be transformed into kinetic energy, light energy, circuit
heat energy, ...
Conclusion: In electromagnetic induction, when the coil acts as a generator, Fig (24)
the magnet-coil system is a converter which converts mechanical energy into electric energy.

Application 5
A resistor of resistance R= 2.2 n is connected between two long parallel conducting rails QP and MN.
The circuit is placed in the horizontal plane in the region of a uniform magnetic field 8 of magnitude
B= 0.2 T and of direction perpendicular to the plane of the conductors. A horizontal straight metal rod
CD of length t = 10 cm is moving between the two conductors with a horizontal velocity of constant v
speed v =0.5 mis, under the action of a horizontal constant force F of magnitude F.
Figure(25) is a diagram of the top view(horizontal plane) of the circuit.
v
The frictional force f is directed opposite to and has a constant magnitude of 2 x 1 o-s N.
Neglect the resistance of the rails and assume that the internal resistance of the rod is r = 0.3 n.

·11 ---- ----- ··-··---· ·�······· -··

- -- __ __
....;:.:_ .....:::..
c --
p
I\
x x x x x x x x
R Rod
x x x n x -+
x x x x
0 ------------Q9----------
x x :x x x
v
x
______ .,..x L
x x
x x x x x x x
�
,v
M D
Fig. 25

152
1. Specify the chosen positive sense of the circuit.
2. Indicate the name of the phenomenon that takes place in the above circuit. Apply Lenz's law to
determine the direction of the induced current in the circuit.
3. Determine the expression of the magnetic flux crossing the closed circuit in terms of B,e , v and the
time t, knowing that at t0 = 0, the flux crossing the circuit is zero.
4. Calculate the e.m.f "e"induced in the circuit.
5. Deduce:
i. the direction of the induced current. Compare this direction to that determined in part "2".
ii. that the algebraic value of the induced current is -4 mA.
6. Calculate the potential difference uQM across the resistor R.
7. i. Calculate the magnitude F e .m of the electromagnetic force Fem acting on the rod.
ii. Apply Newton's 1st law to determine the magnitude of the force F.
iii. Compare the mechanical power of the force F to the total electrical power induced in the circuit.
Explain this result.
iv. Calculate the heat power dissipated in the resistor R.
8. The area of the circuit QCDM and the magnitude of the magnetic field remain constant, but we
rotate all the circuit (rails-resistor-conductor) in the horizontal plane, about a vertical axis. Specify
whether e.m.f "e"is induced in the circuit.

Solution:
n
1. is directed inwards then the circuit is oriented positively in the clockwise sense.
2. Electromagnetic induction. According to Lenz's law, the created electromagnetic force acting on
the rod is directed horizontally to the left to resist the movement of CD to the right.
By applying the right hand rule, the induced current flows from D to C through the rod.
3. <p =BS cos a = BS cos (0) =Bf x, but x = v t + x0 (vis constant)=><p =Bf v t + B .e x0
But B f X0 = <po = 0=>cp = B l V t .
d
4. e =- : = -Bf V = -(0.2)(0.1)(0.5) = -0.01 V.
d
5. i. e < 0=>i < 0 (since e .i > 0 ), then the direction of the induced current is opposite to the chosen
positive sense, so i is directed from D to C through the rod. The directions are the same.
ii. i = _e - = - o.Ol = -4 x 10-3 A => i = -4 m A.
R+ r 2.2 + 0.3
6. U = i R -4 X 10-3 ( 2.2) = -8.8 X 10-3 V =>U = 8.8 X 10-3 V.
MQ
=
QM
°
7. i. Fem = Iii f B sin � (� = 90 is the angle between the direction of i in the rod and that ofB).
Fem = (4 x 10-3)(0.1)(0.2) sin(90 °) = 8 x 10-s N.
ii. The external forces acting on the rod are: its weight mg, the normal reaction N, the friction
force f, the electromagnetic force Fe .m , and the applied force F.
Apply Newton's 1st law L Fext =ma =>mg + N + f + Fem + F = 0 project the equation
along the direction of the motion of the rod: 0 + 0- 2 x 10-5 -8 x 10-s + F = 0 (vis
constant)=>F = 104 N.
iii. Pmee h = F .v = ( 10-4) (0.5) cos(0) => Pmecb = 5 X 10-5 W.
Pelee = e. i = (-0.01)( -0.004) = 4 x 10-5 W => Pme eh > Pelee . Then part of the mechanical
power is converted into heat due to the work done by the friction force.
iv. Pheat = i2 R =(4 x 10-3)2 (2.2) = 3.5:2 X 10-s W.
8. The magnetic flux crossing the circuit does not vary=> no induced e.m..f.

153
 8. Applications on Electromagnetic Induction
A. Alternator (Dynamo)
The principle of the alternator is to vary the magnetic flux by rotating a coil (rotor) between the fixed
poles of a magnet (stator).
According to Lenz's law, when the coil is rotated in a specific sense, the induced current flows in the coil
in a direction such that the created electromagnetic forces tend to oppose this rotation.
In figure (26), F and f tend to rotate the coil in the anti-clockwise sense which is opposite to the original

�·.
sense of rotation.

'•

..,

�--"'
,
,•
J'

'
:'
,
•'
, I

Dynamo
Fig.26
Expression of e
The coil is rotated with a constant angular velocity 8' = ro => -..-.:....;.-.a where 8 is the angle between B
and at any instant while 80 is the angle between them at t0 = 0.
n
The expression of the ma netic flux crossin the coil is:
cp =NB S cos 8 => + 8 (sinusoidal
flux).
d (cos (wt+ 8 0))
e = _ � = _ [NB S
dt dt
]
=> e = N B S w sin ( wt + 8 0)
=> The expression of the induced electromotive force due to
the variation of the ma netic flux crossing the coil is:
e =NB S w sin ( wt + 8 0)
Fig.27
=> e = emax sin (rot + 80 ) where emax = NB S w is the amplituµe of e .
Figure (27) shows that e is a sinusoidal function of tim� which varies between emax and - emax .
In Lebanon, the effective value of the voltage of the mains is Ueff = 220 V, but Umax = U eff . {2
=
Then Umax = 220 . -VZ 3.11.13 .V

Application 6
A constant magnetic field, whose field lines are horizontal and oriented r(d)
outwards, has a magnitude B = 0.5 T. A loop of area 0.09 m2 , placed in the
vertical plane, is rotating about a vertical axis (Li) passing through its center i
(Figure 28). 0
1. Let 8 be the angle between the magnetic field and the unit vector which is
perpendicular to the plane of the loop. Give the expression of the magnetic
flux through the loop as a function of 8.
n
+!
2. The loop is rotating about (Li) at a constant angular speed
ro = 6 rad/s. Determine the expression of the e.m.f "e" induced in the loop as A7
a function of time, knowing that B and have the same direction at to = o.
n
Fig.28

154
Solution:
1. cp = B S cos e = (0.5) (0.09) cos e = 0.045 cos8 .
2. e = mt+ 8 0 (uniform rotational motion). At t0 = 0, 8 = 0 � 8 0 = 0 � 8 = mt = 6 t
dcp ct[o.04s cos C6t)J = . · a smus01 ·
e= - =- O.045 x 6 sm 6 t � e = 0.27 sm
• 6t (e 1s · ·da1 funct10n
· of time) .
dt dt

B. DC electric motor
DC motor converts part of the electrical energy into useful
mechanical energy.
Consider figure (29) which shows a rectangular coil (rotor), ofN
turns each of area S, placed between the poles of a U-shaped
magnet (stator). The magnetic field is uniform of magnitude Band
is directed horizontally to the right.
The terminals of the coil just touch two metal slip rings that are
connected to an ideal generator of electromotive force (E).
The coil is placed in the vertical plane. When we close the circuit, a DC motor
current flows in the coil. F 1 and F 2 form a rotating couple,
which tends to rotate the coil with an angular frequency w in the
sense indicated in the figure.
During the rotation of the coil, the magnetic flux crossing the
coil varies, the coil becomes then the seat of induced
electromotive force "e". This is the case of electromagnetic
induction taking place in a current-carrying circuit.
According to Lenz's law, "e" tends to oppose the rotation of the
coil, so it is called " Back electromotive force" .
The magnetic flux crossing the coil is <p = N B S cos (wt + 8 0) •
But. e = - �: � e = N B S w sin (wt + 8 0) � emax = N B S w .
Orient the circuit positively in the direction of the current i. Then
voltage across the coil is: uco = u = ri - e .
"e" tends to oppose the flow of the current, then the coil acts as
a receiver, so e and i have opposite signs.
e. i:::;; 0 � lul > lel .
Conclusion: The electric motor functions only if the applied
voltage between its terminals exceeds the back electromotive
force. Fig. 29
If lul ::; lei, the motor does not rotate, it acts as a resistor of
resistance r � u = r i. (Actually, the created electromagnetic
force is not able to rotate the coil, so there is no variation in magnetic flux and then "e" does not exist ).

155
 Reading
Eddy currents
Eddy currents: When a piece of metal moves in a magnetic field or placed in a changing magnetic field, it becomes
the seat of electromotive force which sends electric currents in the piece of metal. These currents are called eddy
currents (Figure 30).
Eddy currents can be large because the resistance of the metal is very low. As a result, the metal becomes very hot.
Eddy currents are involved in many applications; for example, induction heating, the metal detector, electromagnetic
brakes, ...etc.
Induction beating
The functioning of the electric cooker is based on eddy currents. The ceramic hob is a type of electric cooker (Figure
31). This cooker is composed of three or four flat coils embedded in a ceramic surface. When we turn on the cooker,
alternating current of high :frequency (about 18 kHz) flows in the coil. When a metal pan is placed over the coil,
eddy currents are induced in its base and in its sides due to the variation of the magnetic flux crossing it. As a result,
the pan becomes hot, and the food is cooked.
The metal detector
Figure (32) shows a diagram of the metal detector, which is a device used to detect the existence of metals
underground.
The search head includes a coil. When an alternating current flows in the coil, it creates a variable magnetic field.
Now, if there is a metal body below the search head, eddy currents are induced in this metal. This means that energy
is transferred from the search coil to the metal body, so the current in the search coil changes. The control box
detects the current variation and produces a sound.

Fig. 31 Fig. 32

156
 Problems
1. Lenz's law ./
Apply Lenz's law to determine the direction of the induced current in the closed circuits of the following
figures:

�
I
I

Fig. a: The coil is moving A

away from the magnet.

Sense of Fig. b The coil, placed initially in the horizontal plane,

�rotation is rotating in the clockwise sense. 0:S a :S 90 °.

• • •
•B: outwards Motion of circuit
�

• • • •
• • • •
Rod

• • • •
Fig. c : The loop is rotating in the Fig. d: The circuit (rails-rod-ammeter)
anti-clockwise sense. o::; a ::; 90°. enters a region of uniform magnetic field.

2. Magnet- metal ring ./

The adjacent figure shows a bar magnet approaching a
s s
metal ring.
a) Name and justify the phenomenon that takes place N N
during the motion of the bar magnet in each figure.
b) i. Specify the figure in which an induced current
flows in the ring.
ii. Determine the direction of this induced current.
c) The magnet and the ring of figure (a) are both
moving vertically downwards with a speed of (a) (b)
20 cm/s. Does a curent flow in the loop? Justify.
3. Determination of the side of a squared loop x x ""x x
The adjacent figure shows a squared loop of side .f, rotating in the
vertical plane about a horizontal axis passing through its center of x
mass. The loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field whose lines x x
are horizontally oriented inwards and whose magnitude is 0.2 T.
The absolute value of the magnetic flux crossing the loop is x x
4.8 x 10-3 Wb. x�....-.�_J x
a) Determine the side of the loop.
b) Does an induced current flow in the circuit? Justify. x x

157
4. Identification of the poles of a magnet
A bar magnet has two poles, (P) and (Q). The aim of this problem is to identify the poles (P) and (Q) of a
bar magnet. For this we use a coil, two LEDs, connecting wires and the magnet.
Hint: If the current flows in the branch AD
from: Coil
• A to D, LED (I) glows while LED (2)
does not glow and acts as an open switch.
• D to A, LED (2) glows while LED (I)
does not glow and acts as an open switch.
a) In the adjacent figure, the bar magnet is
being moved rapidly towards the coil. We
observe that only LED (2) glows.
i. Indicate, inside the coil, the direction of LED (2)
the induced magnetic field Bind created
by the induced current. A 'l D
ii. Apply Lenz's law to determine the I
direction of the magnetic field B created LED (1)
by the bar magnet along the dashed line
shown on the figure. Deduce the narture of the pole (P) of the magnet.
b) The magnet in the figure is being moved rapidly away from the coil, describe what we observe.
Justify.
5. Variation of the magnetic field crossing a loop ./
A circular conducting loop of area S = 100 cm2 and of resistance
r = 0.2 n is placed in a uniform magnetic field B whose magnitude
varies with time such that: 0
• B = 2t + 1 for O � t � 2 s. t in s ; B in T B
• =5 for 2 s � t � 4 s .
The terminals A and B of the loop are connected to a load.
a) For each interval of time:
determine the expression of the magnetic flux crossing the
loop as a function of time.
i. apply Faraday's law to deduce the algebraic value of the Lead
induced electromotive force (e) and the direction of the
induced current in the loop.
b) Choose a convenient scale to represent graphically the variation of (e) with respect to time.
c) During the interval O � t � 2 s, the current flowing in the loop is 20 mA.
i. Calculate the total electric power induced in the loop and the power dissipated by Joule's effect
in the loop. Deduce the power supplied to the load.
ii. Determine the potential difference u8A by two different methods.
iii. The load is a resistor of resistance R. Calculate R.

&. Electromagnetic induction through a square-shaped loop ./

A conducting loop of terminals A and D has the shape of a square of side 0.3 m. The loop of resistance
R = 3 .Q is placed in a uniform magnetic field B whose direction is perpendicular to the plane of the loop
(Figure 1 ). The magnitude B of the magnetic field B varies periodically with time according to the graph
of figure (2).
A. The terminals A and D of the loop are connected by a wire of negligible resistance (Figure I).
a) Explain the existence of the induced current during the time interval [O; 2 ms], and apply Lenz's
law to determine the direction of the this current.

158
 +--- +---
s B (mT) s
0
4 0
3

2
A D
A D 1
Fig.1
o..._____ 1-l......-1---..--1--1---i--i--i--l�----1----"""'
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910111213141516 Fig. 3
Fig. 2
b) Determine the expression of the magnetic flux cp crossing the loop as a function of B.
c) Determine the electromotive forces induced in the loop during: [O; 2 ms]; [2 ms; 4 ms] and
[4 ms; 7 ms]. Deduce the directions of the induced current during these intervals of time.
d) Deduce the algebraic values of the induced current during one period.
e) Calculate the total electric power induced in the equivalent generator and the power dissipated in
the loop during [O; 2 ms].
B. The wire joining A and Dis removed. A and D are connected to an oscilloscope (Figure 3).
Consider the time interval [O; 2 ms]:
a) Draw the equivalent generator of the loop.
b) Choose a convenient scale to draw a graph of the voltage displayed on the screen of the
oscilloscope.

7. Maanetic flux through a flat coll ./

Consider a flat circular coil (C) of100 loops each (S)
of area 10 cm 2 placed at the center of a long
:- (C)I:\
solenoid (S) and connected across the terminals of a I\�+
lamp L that glows under a small voltage. - ----•---
1
The axis of (C) and (S) are confounded, and each
loop of (C) is oriented positively as shown in the i
figure. An electric current i flows in (S) and has a
direction shown in figure (1). Figure (2) represents
the variation of i as a function of time.

a) Identify the south and the north faces of (S). K

b) Use figure (2) to specify the interval of time,
during which the lamp glows. Fig.1
c) The expression of the magnetic field crossing
(C) is: "" 0.02 S.I.
�A}
Deduce, as a function of time, the expression of the magnetic
flux crossing (C) during the time interval [O, 2 s].
d) The lamp is considered as a resistor of resistance R = 2 n. J
Neglect the internal resistance of (C). Determine the algebraic
2
value and the direction of the induced current in the coil (C)
during the time intervals: i. [O, 2 s] ii. [2 s, 5 s]. 1
e) At the instant t = 5 s we open the switch, we observe that the
lamp glows for a very short time Lit. Explain what happened and
1 :2 3 4 5 fcs}
specify the direction of the current through the lamp during Lit.
Fig. 2

159
8. Rotation of a coil in a uniform magnetic field ii'
A solenoid (coil) ofinternal resistance r = 20 !l and ofnumber ofloops N = 100 each of area 320 cm 2,
is oriented positively from D to C. The coil, whose axis is horizontal, is placed between the poles ofa
U-shaped magnet whose magnetic field 8 is uniform and ofmagnitude B = 0.2 T.
At t0 = 0 s, the axis ofthe coil is parallel to the magnetic field •••••••••••
lines as shown in the adjacent figure.
The coil is made to rotate at an angular frequency of100 1t rad /s.
around a vertical axis (Ll). The axis ofthe coil remains horizontal.
a) Determine, as a function oftime, the expression ofthe angle
9 between 8 and the unit vector ii which is perpendicular to
the planes of the loops ofthe coil.
b) Deduce, as a function oftime, the expression ofthe
magnetic flux crossing this coil due to 8.
c) Deduce the expression ofthe e.m.f induced in the coil. c D
d) i. Deduce the expression ofthe voltage u 0c . Deduce the
type ofthe voltage lloc-
ii. Choose a convenient scale to draw a graph that shows the variation ofu0c as a function oftime.

9. Alternating sinusoidal voltage

A solenoid (C) ofradius 12 cm and of1000 loops is rotating in a uniform magnetic field B of
magnitude B at a constant angular speed w.
The adjacent figure shows the variation ofthe 2
electromotive force e induced in (C) as a
function oftime.
The expression ofe is: iiiltiiidfii
a) Use the graph to:
i. determine the angular frequency w of(C).
ii. write the expression ofe as a function of 0
time.
b) deduce the expression ofthe flux cp
crossing the coil as a function oftime.
Knowing that at t0 = 0, the angle between B
n
and the unit vector perpendicular to the plane ofeach loop is 90 °.
c) deduce the magnitude B ofthe magnetic field B.
1 o. Variation of the magnetic flux crossing a coll
A coil, ofinternal resistance r = 2 !l and ----+
of1275 circular loops each ofarea
S = 314 x 10-4 m2, is placed in a uniform

·\·· ij·\\···
· �\\· · �\.···
..... . ,....... ....... ,.....

( ( ( (
.
magnetic field 8 ofmagnitude B.
The coil is connected to a switch K and a
resistor ofresistance R. An oscilloscope is
c
•..... . ....
.. .
D
connected between the terminals C and D
ofthe coil. For no voltage, the luminous y
line is along the central horizontal line of
the oscilloscope.
The coil is oriented positively from
n
C to D, so is the unit vector
K

perpendicular to the plane ofeach loop

(Figure 1). R
Fig. 1

160
 The ma itude of the magnetic field crossing the coil varies linearly with time:
=:..=!C.L+=w . Ba and a are constants.
a) Show that an electromotive force is induced in the coil.
b) Indicate the name of the phenomenon that takes place in the coil.
c) Determine the expression of the induced electromotive force "e" in the coil in tenns of N, S and a.
d) Graphs (a) and (b) in figure (2) are displayed on the screen of the oscilloscope. (a) and (b) represent
the variations of the voltage unc as a function of time, when the switch is open and when it is
closed respectively,
i. Use graph (b) to prove that the current flows in the �\
{h),
resistor from D to C (clockwise). f--

ii. Deduce, using Lenz's law, whether the magnitude of B

>----f--+-- - --

increases or decreases with time.

iii. Use figure (2) to determine the:
1. value of e 2. value of the resistance R.
iv. Calculate the algebraic value of a.
Fig. 2 Sv = 2 V/div
B- The magnetic field is constant
The coil is disconnected from the circuit of figure (1) and placed in the region of a constant uniform
magnetic field of magnitude B = 0.4 T and of field lines oriented horizontally to the right. The coil is
rotating in the anti-clockwise sense at a constant angular velocity 9' = w = n rad/s, about a vertical
axis (Ll) perpendicular to its horizontal axis. At ta = 0, the coil is in the position shown in figure (1).
a) Derive the expressions of the magnetic flux cp crossing the coil and that of the induced
electromotive force e in terms of N, B, S, wand t.
b) i. Determine the instant t1 when the value of the magnetic flux crossing the coil becomes zero for
the first time.
ii. Is the value of e, at the instant t1, zero? If not, calculate its value.
c) Calculate the values of e and cp at the instant t2 = 1 s.
d) Conclude whether e and q> are directly proportional or not.
11. Decelerated motion of a rod along Laplace'• ralle ./
Consider a copper rod MN of mass m = 12 g and length f = MN = 79 cm. MN can slide without
friction on two horizontal, parallel and conducting rails ab and cd, whose plane is within a vertical
uniform magnetic field of magnitude B = 0.8 T as shown in the figure below. During its motion, MN
remains perpendicular to the rails.
The terminals a and c are b
connected by a resistor of
resistance R = 9.2 0.
The rod MN has a resistance
r = 0.8 0 while the rails have no a
resistances.
At ta= 0, the abscissa of the
center of mass G of the rod is
Xa = 0 and it is given an initial velocity V0 along the positive direction of the x-axis.
a) Write the expression of the magnetic flux q> crossing the area aMNc in terms of B, f and x.
b) Deduce that a current is induced in the circuit. Determine its direction by applying Lenz's law.
c) Deduce the polarity of the points Mand N of the rod.
d) Detem1ine the expression of the induced e.m.f in terms of B, f and the speed v of MN.
e) Knowing that the expression of the algebraic value of the velocity of G is - o.33 S.I.
i. Deduce the initial speed VO of the rod and the nature of its motion along the rails.
ii. Determine the expression of the current in the circuit as a function of time.
iii. At t = 3 s:
1. calculate v, and deduce the value of the electromotive force;

161
 2. deduce the voltage llNM and the magnitude ofthe electromagnetic force acting on MN.
12. Determination of the currents flowing in a parallel circuit
Consider a copper rod MN ofmassm =8g and oflength t =MN = 78 cm. MN can slide without
friction on two horizontal, parallel and conducting rails ad and be whose plane is within a vertical
uniform magnetic field ofmagnitude B = 0.8 T (as shown in the figure below). During its motion, MN
remains perpendicular to the rails. A resistor ofresistance R1 = 4 0 is connected between the terminals
2
°
d and c, and a resistor ofresistance R2 = 3 0 is connected between the terminals a and b. The rod MN
and the rails have negligible resistances.
At t0 = 0, the center ofmass (G) ofthe rod is at the origin O ofthe x-axis (initial position ofMN is
v
shown in dashed line), and it moves with a constant velocity whose magnitude is V = 80 cm/s, along
the positive direction ofthe x-axis. At an instant t, the abscissa of(G) is x = OG, and the blue area
(NMM 0N0) in the figure is the area swept by the rod during the time interval [O ; t ].
a) Determine, at an instant t,
the expression ofthe a
magnetic flux crossing the
swept area in terms ofB, .f,
and x.
b) Deduce the expression of · d
the induced electromotive
force in the rod, and
calculate its value.
c) Calculate the resistance Req
ofthe equivalent resistor ofR 1 and R2•
d) Deduce the algebraic value ofthe induced current flowing in the rod. Deduce its direction.
e) Deduce the algebraic values ofthe currents flowing in the resistors ofthe circuit.
13. Determination of the gravitational acceleration
The aim ofthis problem is to determine the gravitational
acceleration by two experiments. Figure (1) shows two long Oscilloscope
conducting and parallel rails AB and CD that are placed vertically
in a uniform magnetic field B whose field lines are horizontal and R
A

fe
perpendicular to the plane ABDC and whose magnitude is 0.5 T. c
We connect a resistor ofresistance R = 1.5 n and a switch K , in ®
series, between the points A and C. •G
A conducting rod MN, whose center ofmass (G) is coinciding with M N
the origin O ofthe x-axis, is released from rest at the instant t0 = 0.
MN slides vertically downward without friction and remains v
horizontal in contact with the rails. At an instant t the abscissa of(G) ®
is x = OG and its speed is v. e
We connect an oscilloscope between the terminals A and C ofthe
rails. Given: mass ofMN ism = 1g, its length is t =MN= 10 cm
and its resistance is r = 0.5 n . B D
A- Fi rst experiment: The switch Kis open
In this experiment, the switch remains open.
a) Prove that during the motion ofthe rod, the circuit is the seat of Fig. 1
an induced e.m.fand no current flows in it.
b) Determine, in terms of B, t and v, the expression ofthe induced
e.m.f ( e) in the rod.
c ) Prove that-.
d) Apply Newton's z nd law to the rod and use the expression ofuAc
t
Sv = 0.1 V/div
to prove that Vb = 0.2 s/div
e) Figure (2) represents the variation ofuAc as a function oftime. . t{s)
Deduce the value ofg. Fig. 2

162
 B- Second experiment: The switch K is closed
In this experiment, the switch K is closed and the rod is again released from rest from the top, at the
instant to= 0.
a) i. Determine, in terms of B, -e, v, r and R, the expression of the induced current in the circuit.
ii. Deduce its direction. A ply Lenz's law to verify the obtained direction of the current.
b) Prove that
c) Figure (3) represents the variation of uAc as a function of time.
i. Pick out the maximum value of uAc .
ii. Deduce the value of the maximum speed (limiting speed)
Vmax attained by the rod.
d) Determine, in terms of B, -e, v, r and R, the expression of the
magnitude of electromagnetic force actin on the rod.
�t2,v 8v"" 0.1 V/div
e) i. Apply Newton's 2 nd law to prove that
ii. Indicate the value of a when v becomes maximum ( Vmax ). t(s)
iii. Deduce the expression of Vmax . Deduce the value of g. Fig. 3
14. Free damped oscillations of the system (Rod-Spring)
Consider a homogeneous copper rod MN of mass m and of length t = MN can slide without friction on
two horizontal parallel conducting rails PP'and QQ', whose plane is within a vertical upward uniform
magnetic field of magnitude B.

M P'

Q
+ N
The terminals P and Qare connected by a lamp Land considered as a resistor of resistance R. The
center of mass (G) of the rod is attached to the right end of a horizontal massless spring of stiffness
k = 100 Nim. The left end of the spring is attached to a fixed point A. At equilibrium (G) coincides with
the origin O of the axis AOx
The rod is displaced horizontally to the left, thus compressing the spring by a distance Llt = 10 cm.
Then it is released without initial velocity at the instant t 0 = 0, so the system (Rod, spring) performs
oscillations. At an instant t the abscissa of G is x = OG and the algebraic value of its velocity is v
Neglect the resistance of the rails and that of the rod.
During its motion, MN remains perpendicular to the rails.
A. Consider the motion of the rod along the positive direction of the ox axis:
a. Prove that a current i is induced in the circuit, and specify its direction by applying Lenz's law.
b. Determine the expression of the induced e.m.f in the rod MN, in terms of B , -e and v. Deduce
again the direction of the induced current.
c. Determine the expression of the magnitude of the electromagnetic force acting on the rod in terms
of B, f,v and R.
d. Specify the type of oscillations of (G).
B. At an instant t 1 the elongation of the spring is maximum (Xm) for the first time, and the speed of
the rod is V 1 = 0.
a) Indicate the values of the electromagnetic force F and the current i, at the instant t1.
b) Write the expression of the tension force T exerted by the spring on the rod at t1 and indicate its
direction.

163
 c) The rod finally stops. Determine the total electric energy consumed by the lamp during the
motion.
C. Indicate the direction of the induced current and that of the electromagnetic force during the motion
of the rod along the negative direction of the x-axis.
D. This part is for G.S <Students
a) Apply the law of addition of voltages to determine a relation between B, f,v , Rand i.
b) Apply Newton's z nd law to the rod to prove that:
c) Deduce that
d ME
d) Knowing that dt = P-F = i t B v where ME is the mechanical energy of the system (Rod,
spring, Earth) and PF is the power of the electromagnetic force (which acts as a resistive force),
deduce again the differential equation in x.

e) The solution of the above differential equation is where A and

(A) are constants. Detennine the expressions of A and (f) in terms of <D, t , B, m and R
15. Determination of the nature of motion of a rod (G.S :student<s)
In this problem, we intend to determine the nature of motion of a homogeneous copper rod MN of mass
m and of length f during its sliding down along two inclined metal rails AH and DJ .
MN can slide without friction along the rails which are
inclined by an angle 9 with respect to the horizontal.
The points A and D are connected by a resistor of
resistance R. The resistances of the rod MN and the rails
are negligible. The circuit is placed in a uniform
magnetic field B of magnitude B. B is perpendicular to
the plane formed by the two rails.
The rod is released from rest at the instant t0 = 0 from
the top AD of the inclined plane.
During its sliding, the rod remains perpendicular to the
rails. At an instant t, the abscissa of the center of mass
(G) of the rod is x = OG, and its linear speed is v. H
a) Determine the expression of the induced
electromotive force (e) in the rod, in terms ofB, f
and the instantaneous speed v.
b) Apply the law ofaddition of voltages to determine a
relation among the induced current i, B, t , v , and R.
c) Deduce, in terms ofB, t, v and R, the expression of the magnitude of the electromagnetic force
acting on (G) during its motion.
d ) Apply Newton's z nd law and use the answers of the arts to show that the differential
equation that governs the variation of v is:
e ��-��1�/�;1 · �
e ) The solution of the obtained differential equation is: v = g���: ( 1- e-.:f ) = ot!v.._:._� :J iI.: �
where T is constant . Write the expressions of v at t 0 = 0 , at t = 1T , at t = 5T and as t - oo. Deduce
that the motion of (G) is accelerated then uniform rectilinear motion.
16. Determination of the mass and the intemal resistance of a conducting
rod (G.S <students) (+)
A copper rod MN of mass m and length t = MN = 40 cm can slide without friction on two horizontal,
parallel and conducting rails ab and cd whose horizontal plane is within a vertical uniform magnetic
field B of magnitude B = 0.8 T (as shown in figure (1)). During its motion, MN remains
perpendicular to the rails, and its center of mass (G) moves along the Ox axis. The terminals a and care

164
connected by an ideal generator of electromotive force E . The rod MN has a resistance (r), while the
rails have no resistance.
At t0 = 0, the abscissa of (G) is x0 = OG = 0. MN, carries an electric current and placed in a magnetic
field, so it is acted upon by an electromagnetic force Fe.m whose direction is indicated in the figure.
MN starts from rest. At any instant t , x = OG and v are the abscissa and the algebraic measure of the
velocity of G respectively. The closed circuit is oriented positively in the anti-clockwise sense.
A. Determination of the differential equation that governs the variation of v

Fig.1
a) Indicate the name of the phenomenon that takes place in the circuit during the motion of MN.
b) Determine the expression of the magnetic flux crossing the area acNM in terms of B, t and x.
c) Deduce the expression of the electromotive force "e" induced in MN.
d) Deduce that the rod acts as a receiver.
e) Apply Newton's 2 nd law to prove that the expression of the current in the circuit is:
f) Apply the law of addition of voltages to prove that the differential equation in v is:

B. Expressions of i and v
The solution of the above differential equation is: A is a constant and T is the time
constant, which is the time needed for the speed to become v = 0.63 Vmax where Vmax is the maximum
speed attained by the rod MN.
a) Use the differential equation to show that and
b) Deduce the expression of the current i in terms of E ; r ; B ; .f; t and m.
C. Determination of r and m
Figure (2) shows the variation of the algebraic value of the velocity of MN, and figure (3) shows the
variation of i.
a) Use figure (2) to determine E.
b) Use figure (3) to determiner.
c) Determine the time constant T. Deduce m.

I _____ _ -r--.--,-- _i(A} ___ I ____________ J ___ I ____ I ___

.25 _ v(m/s) ______=.:.;.,;;.;;,......... 4
3,7
.2,96 I
I

1
15
.2,2:2-
10 1,48
5 0,74
I (s) t (s)
0

165
 •
lir
.,
. tJ• ._,•

Learning Outcomes
At the end ofthis chapter, the student should be able to:

•!• Define and explain the phenomenon ofself induction.

•!• Determine the expression ofthe inductance ofa coil.
•!• Determine the expression ofthe selfinduced electromotive force.
•!• Determine the expression of the magnetic energy stored in a coil.
•:• Analyze the graphs ofgrowth and decay ofthe current in an R-L series circuit.
(• Derive the differential equation that governs the variation ofthe current in growth and decay phases.
•) Determine the expression ofthe energy delivered by the generator and that consumed by the resistor
during the growth and the decay ofthe current.
•:• Justify the appearance ofsparks due to switching off R-L circuits oflarge inductances.

166
Prerequisites
1) Grouping of batteries
The adjacent figures show a portion of an electric circuit
where two batteries G 1 and G2 of electromotive forces E 1
and E2 respectively are connected.
In figure (1-a), G 1 and G2 are connected in series, so each I I
one acts as a generator and supplies energy to the circuit.
The current flows out from the positive pole of each
generator.
E2 <E1 E2 <E1
In figure (1-b), G 1 and G2 are connected in opposition. Fig (1-a) Fig (1-b)
Since E2 is less than E 1 , G2 acts as a receiver and consumes
energy from G 1 which acts as a generator. The current
flows out from the positive pole of the generator G 1 and enters the positive pole of the receiver G2 •
2) Square (rectangular) voltage

A low frequency generator is adjusted to a square signal u, such that: u = {:

Figure (2) shows the variation of the voltage u over one period T.

I
E = Sv . Y where Sv is the vertical sensitivity (Amplitude
gain) of the oscilloscope, and Y is the number of divisions Voltage
measured relative to the time axis.
The period of the square voltage is given by: T = Vb • x
where Vb is the horizontal sensitivity (time base) of the
oscilloscope, and x is the number of division measured
horizontally over one cycle. Ei--------.1 time
Introduction 0
In the previous chapter, you have studied the phenomenon T T
of electromagnetic induction in which an electromotive force 2
is induced in a circuit due to a variation in the magnetic flux Fig. 2
crossing it from a neighboring circuit or magnet.
But what happens if the current flowing in a in a coil varies?
1. Definition and Explanation of the Self-Induction Phenomenon

Experiment 1: Experimental evidence of tile self-induction pllenomeaoa

> Equipment:
An ideal generator of electromotive force E; Coil
A coil of internal resistance r;
Two identical lamps L 1 and L2 of rated voltage
slightly less than E ; R
• A rheostat adjusted to a resistance R = r ;
A double switch K and connecting wires.
> Procedure and observation:
• Connect the circuit of figure (3). K (2)
• Tum the switch to position (1), you observe that L 2
glows instantly, while L 1 glows with a certain delay
(the brightness of L 1 increases gradually till it finally cni___,...11--�
glows like L 2 ) . E
• Tum the switch to position (2), you observe that L2 Fig. 3

167
 dies out instantly, while L 1 dies out with a certain delay (the brightness of L 1 decreases
gradually till it finally goes off).
> Interpretation
• When we turn the switch to position (1 ), the current flowing in the coil increases from zero to a
certain value i 1 , the magnitude of the magnetic field created by the coil increases, and then
the coil is crossed by a variable magnetic flux. Thus, the coil is the seat of induced
electromotive force which, according to Lenz's law, tends to oppose the increase of the
current (Delays its growth).
• When we turn the switch to position (2), the current flowing in the coil decreases from i 1 to
zero, the magnitude of the magnetic field created by the coil decreases, and then the coil is
crossed by a variable magnetic flux. Thus, the coil is the seat of induced electromotive force
which, according to Lenz's law, tends to oppose the decrease of the current (delays its decay).
The magnetic flux which crosses the coil due to its own current is called self-flux or proper flux.
The electromotive force induced in the coil due to a variable current flowing in it is called
self induced-electromotive force. Therefore, this phenomenon is called self-induction.
Self-induction: is the induction of an electromotive force in a circuit when the current in that
circuit is varied.

Experiment 2: Growth and decay of the current in a coll under a square slpal

> Eauinment:
..i. A low frequency generator adjusted to a square
signal;
• A coil ;
• A resistor of resistance R = 500 O;
• An oscilloscope of channels Y I and Y2;
nil,, Connecting wires.
> Procedure and observation:
• Connect the circuit of figure (4).
• Adjust the L.F.G to a square signal such that:
E=4V O <t<
- - :!:2 ; T = 5 ms.
uAc = ua = { }
O :!:<t<T
2 - -
• Choose the vertical sensitivity Sv = 1V/div
and the horizontal sensitivity Vb = 1 ms/div.
• Connect the oscilloscope such that:
Y I measures the voltage uAc = u a across the ·
generator and Y2 measures the voltage uBc = uR
across the resistor.
The graphs of figure (5) are observed on the
screen of the oscilloscope.
According to Ohm's law: uR = R i, but R is I
t I
constant then i is directrly proportional to uR , Fig. 5
so the graph of uR is similar to that of i to a multipying
factor (graph of uR is the image of i).
• When ua jumps from Oto 4 V, uR increases gradually from zero to a certain value (growth of the
current); when ua drops suddenly from 4 V to O, uR deccreass gradually to zero (decay of the
current).

168
 ),> Interpretation
When the current flowing in the coil
varies, the coil is the seat of self-induced
e.m.f "e". According to Lenz's law,
"e" tends to oppose the variation of this
current, so it delays the growth and the
decay of the current.
Transient (state) phase and steady state
In the previous two experiments, the phase of the growth
of the current from zero to its maximum value Im, and
the phase of the decay of the current from Im to zero, are
called transient phases.
The steady state or the permanent phase is attained when
the current becomes constant. In the growth process, the
steady state is attained when i = Im , while in the decay
process, the steady state is attained when i = 0.
In general, a steady state is attained in an electric circuit
when the electric current flowing in this circuit (or the
voltage) becomes constant or varies steadily with time .

2. Inductance of a Coil L
The self-flux crossing a coil depends on the current flowing in it L opposes the variation of the current
I
and is given by the following expression: cp = L i ! while the resistance R opposes the
flow of the current.
cp is the self-flux in Wb and i is the current in A.
Lis the inductance of the coil. The S.I unit
ofL is the henry (H).
For a coil without a soft iron core, Lis
constant and it is a characteristic of the coil. ii
The introduction of a soft iron core inside a __ .... -------,.,,--- .....
coil increases its inductance.
L then varies with the current and is no
longer a characteristic of the coil. ----.,,..------ ---------- +
---t---�- ...... +�
�
According to figure (6): i > 0 and cp > 0. ii
According to figure (7): i < 0 and cp < 0.
Fig. 6 Fig. 7
Therefore, i and cp always have the same
sign thenL > 0.
Reading
Expression of the inductance L Introduction of a soft Iron core inside the coll
To determine the expression ofL, consider figure (8) The magnetic field of a solenoid is greatly increased
(often by hundreds or thousands of times) when an
which is a diagram of a solenoid without a soft iron iron core is placed inside the coil.
core, of Nidentical loops and of length f. The core becomes magnetised, and then the resulting
The magnetic field inside the solenoid and the unit magnetic field is the sum of the magnetic field due to
vector perpendicular to each loop are indicated on the current 81 and that due to the iron core BM ,
the figure. µ0 NI µNI
where Bi = - - and BM = --, but BM>> Bi
The expression of the magnetic field vector created - w ... µNI
Then Btotal = t:11 + BM !:!!! -;::
1 1

. . -+ =4TIx10- 7 Ni -> t:IM = -1- where µ 1s the

ms1de .
the c01·1 1s: B -e n magnetic permeability of the material inside the coil.
The self· flux crosing the coil becomes cp = µ � 5 i =
2
The expression of the self-flux crossing the coil is:
L' i � L' = µ � , butµ generally varies with current,
25

cp=NS B. n (S is the area of each loop) then, the inductance changes with the current.
_
=>cp-NS [
4TI X 10- 7 Ni -, -, =4TI X 10- 7 N2 S i
-e n ] .n -e
.. t
ButL= � =4TIX1�-
i
7
N
2
Si =>I =4Tix1o
L

The obtained expression shows again thatL > 0.

;
7 N2 s
J
Fig. 8
169
3. Expression of the Self-Induced Electromotive Force
The self- induced electromotive force (e) at any instant is equal to the opposite of the derivative of the
self -flux with respect to time.
d <jJ d(Li)
e = - - = - -- . For a c01·1 wit"hout a soft"iron core, L"1s constant, then I e - L-
di
ctt dt) dt
.
But L > 0 � e and:: have opposite signs .

4. Ohm's Law Across a Coil

The coil of figure (9), whose characteristics are its inductance L and its internal resistance r, is oriented

� uAD = r i- (-L :�) � luAD = r i + L *I

positively from A to D, then: uAD = r i - e , but e = -L : �

�
+----

Steady state: In the steady state, the current is constant then:: = 0. Fig. 9
� uAo = r i � The coil acts as a pure resistor of resistance r since the
inductance of the coil has no effect.
Purely inductive coil: If the internal resistance of the coil can be
neglected, the coil is said to be purely inductive.
The purely inductive coil acts as a connecting wire in the steady
state.
Role of the coil
Figure (10-a) is a diagram of a coil which carries a current i from
AtoD.
The coil is oriented positively from A to D.
• If i increases with time, then : : > 0 � e < 0.
But i is positive � e . i < 0 . Fig (10-a)
� The coil acts as a receiver (Figure 10-b).
• If i decreases with time, then � < 0 � e > 0 e

H L___.:;_J
dt
But i is positive � e . i > 0 . r
� The coil acts as a generator (Figure 10-c).
-----

A ,
• If i is constant, then �d t = 0 � e 0 � The coil
=

acts as a pure resistor . Fig (10-b) Fig (10-c)

Application 1
A coil, without a soft iron core, of inductance L = 10 mH
and internal resistance r = 5 n is connected in series with a
resistor of resistance R = 15 n, a switch K and an ideal
generator of electromotive force E = 12 V (Figure 11).
The switch K is closed at t0 = 0.
1. At t0 = 0: E
a. Indicate the value of the current i in the circuit. ---1

b. Apply the law of addition of potential difference to -D � 1----

determine the voltage uAB across the coil.
c. Calculate the algebraic value of the self-induced Fig. 11
e.m.f in the coil. In this chapter, it is preferable
d. Deduce the value of dt .
di to take the positive sense in
the direction ofi. If the
2. At an instant t 1, :: = 441.455 Ns, determine the current i flowing positive sense is taken in a
in the circuit at t 1. direction opposite to that of
3. After a certain time the current reaches its maximum value Im the current, the algebraic
(steady state). value of E becomes µegative.

170
 a. Determine the expression ofIm , and then calculate its value.
b. Deduce the maximum self-flux that crosses the coil.
4. The coil carries the following indications: number ofloops is N; area of each loop is
4n x 10-7 N 2 S
S =40 cm2, length ofthe coil is f =0.5 m. Use L = to calculate N.
.e
Solution
1. a. At t0 =0 , i = 0.
b. UDM = UDA + UAB + UBM => E = 0 + UAB + i R = UAB => at to =0 , UAB = E = 12 V .
c. uAB = i r - e =0 - e => e = - uAB = - 12 V.
di di :. = -12
d ' e =- L dt => dt = - L -
0.01
=> at t° =0 ' di
dt
= 1200 A/s
di di
2• E = UDA + UAB + UBM =O + 1. r + L dt + 1. R =1. ( R + r) + L d t
=> 12 = i(15 + 5) + (0.01) (441.455 ) => i = 0.379 A.
. di . di
3 . a. E = ir + L dt + 1. R . In the steady state 1 =I m =constant=> dt
= O => E = Im ( R + r )
12
=> I m = _E R +_r => I m =- => I m = 0. 6 A.
5 + - 1- 5
b. The maximum self- flux is : 'Pmax = L Im = 0.01 X 0.6 => 'Pmax = O.OO(i Wb.
4. L = 4 rr x 101:-1 N s => 0.01 = 4 rr x 10-1 :� ( 40 x 10-4) => N == 998 turns.
2
s

Application 2
The coil offigure(12-a) ofinductance 20 mH and ofinternal
resistance r =2 .!1 carries an electric current whose value varies
with time according to the graph offigure(12-b).
1. Specify the name ofthe phenomenon induced in the coil during the +
time intervals [O; 8 ms] and [12 ms; 16 ms]. Fig (12-a)
2. Specify the roles ofthe coil(generator, receiver or resistor)
between [O; 16 ms]. i(A)
3. Determine the algebraic values ofthe electromotive force(e) 1,6
during [O; 8 ms] and [12 ms; 16 ms]. 1,2
Solution
1. Name ofthe phenomenon: Self induction. 0,8
During these two intervals, the current flowing in the coil 0,4
varies so the coil is crossed by a variable selfflux, and then it t(ms)
is the seat ofself-induced e.m.f. 4 8 12 16
2. [O; 8 ms]: i > 0 and decreases with time. - b)
d' d' 1g
F. (ll
=> .2. < 0 => e = - L .2. > 0 => e . i > 0=> The coil acts as a generator.
dt dt
[8 ms; 12 ms] : i =constant=> e = - L :: = 0 => The coil acts as a resistor.
[12 ms; 16 ms] : i > 0 and increases with time=> :: > 0 => e = - L :: < 0=> e . i < 0.
Therefore the coil acts as a receiver.
d'1 0 2 -1
3. [O; 8 ms]: : e1 = - L dt1 = - (0.02) 8 -0. x 1 - 3 = -(0.02)(-100)=> e1 = 2V.
C ) 0
For [12 ms; 16 ms] : e 2 =- L
d'1
d
= t
-(0.02)
1.
\
02
c16 -1 � x· 10 - 3
= -(0.02)(400) => e2 = - 8 V.

5. Magnetic Enere;y Stored in a Coil

Figure(13) is a diagram ofa coil oriented positively from B to A: uBA =r i - e =r i + L : �
Multiply the equation by i to get: i u 8A = r i2 + Li : �
During the growth of the current:

I
The obtained equation can be written in the following form:
+
5otal � P1os1 �- Pmaj!nf'f1.- wh�r�:
Fig. 13
171
 I P total 1 UsA is the total electric power received by the coil during the growth of the current.

I P1ost =r i I is the power lost due to Joule's effect in the coil.

*
2

I Pmagnetic = Li I
is the magnetic power(Rate at which the magnetic energy is stored in the
=- e. i
coil).
Magnetic energy stored in a coil
The expression of the instantaneous power of an energy convertor is: P= d w � d W=P. dt
dt
� W=f Li :: dt =f Li di = �L i2 + const , when i=0 , W=0 � const = 0 � W = �L i2 J
The obtained expression shows again that:
r�����
I
• During the growth of the current,(W) increases and then the coil is storing magnetic energy, so it
acts as a receiver.
• During the decay of the current, (W) decreases and then the coil is restoring(supplying)
its energy to the circuit, so it acts as a generator.
• At the end of the growth of the current, the steady state is attained: i=Imax � W = L I�ax . i
• At the end of the decay of the current, the steady state is attained: i=0 � W =0 .

Application 3 �
The circuit of figure(14) includes: a coil of inductanceL=1 mH and of internal resistance r = 2 .Q; a
resistor of resistance R=8 .O.; an ideal battery of electromotive force
E=10 V; a motor Mand a double switch K.
The switch is turned to position(1) at t0=0. l 2
1. Use the expression of the magnetic energy to prove that,
at t0=0, the current sent by the generator is zero.
2. The steady state is attained at an instant t 1 • E
a. Calculate the value of the current Im in the coil at t 1 • Deduce the M
maximum magnetic energy(Wmax ) stored in the coil.

1
b. The electric energy delivered by the generator between O and
t 1 is 8 Wmax . Deduce the heat energy dissipated by the
resistors of the circuit during the time interval [ 0 ; t i ]. +
c. Specify the role of the coil(generator, receiver or resistor)
between t0=0 and t i . Fig.14
3. The switch remains in position(1) till an instant t2 •
a. The magnetic energy stored in the coil remains constant during the interval [t i ; ti]. Justify.
b. Deduce that the magnetic power received by the coil is zero during [t 1 ; t2 ].
c. Specify the role of the coil between t i and t2 •
4. At an instant t2 , the switch is turned to position(2).
a. Specify whether the electric energy consumed by the motor is greater than, less than, or equal to
Wmax when the coil supplies(restores) all of its stored magnetic energy.
b. The magnetic energy of the coil is converted into another two forms of energy. Indicate them.
Solution
1. W= �2 Li 2 . At t0=0 , WL = 0 � lo • 0 .
b. a. Im =�= =lA•Wmax =2Lim = 2( 0.001)(1) =5 x10 J.
E 10 1 2 1 2 -4

C. WG = Wheat + Wmax � Wh eat = 8 Wmax - Wmax = 7 Wmax =7 x 5 x 10-4 = 35 X 10-4 J.

z+s

d. The current flowing in the coil increases, so the coil is storing magnetic energy, then it acts as a
receiver.
2. a. Since the current remains constant; equal to Im .
_ dW g di _
b. Pmag - -d-tma- , Wmag -_ constant � Pmag -_ 0 . (Or Pmag _- LI• dt - 0).
· di di .
c. uA8= 1 r + L dt , but 1.=constant � dt = O � uAB=1r , so the cm· 1 acts as a resIstor .

172
 3. a. The coil has an internal resistance, so part of the stored magnetic energy is converted into heat
energy by Joule's effect. Then electric energy consumed by the motor is less than Wmax
b. Thermal energy and mechanical energy.
6. Graphical Study of Growth and Decay of the Current in an R-L Series Circuit
Under Square Signal (GS studentsl

Esperlment 3: Growth and decay of the current In an R-L series circuit

> Equipment: Yi
A low frequency generator; Iii>+
A•'----------------------...
Two coils of equal internal resistances (r = 20
Q) and of inductances L 1 and L2 ;
A rheostat of adjustable resistance R;
• An oscilloscope of channels Y 1 and Y2; L,
• Connecting wires.
> Procedure and observation:
• Connect the circuit of figure (15).
• Adjust the L.F.G to a square signal such that: B
E = 10 V O <t< :!:. Vi
uAc = Uo = { - - 2 } ; T = 10 ms.

rr-
0 :!:.<t<T Fig. 15
2- -
• Connect the oscilloscope such that:
Y 1 measures the voltage uAc = u0 across the 10 ..
generator and Y2 measures the voltage u8c = uR
across the resistor.
(i = uRR ; the current is directly proportional to uR). 6

t
• Adjust the resistance to a value R = R 1 = 80 n. I
4
- When the coil of inductance L 1 = 60 mH is used, the f
steady state is attained when the maximum value of 2
the current is Im1 = u Rm
R
1
= �
80
= 0 .1 A . , t(ms)
The practical time needed by i to reach its 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 ·10
maximum value is t 1 = 3ms (Blue curve in figure 16- a). Fig (16-a)
- When the coil of inductance L2 = 90 mH is used,
the maximum value of i remains 0.1 A.
10 =Uc
The practical time needed by i to reach its
R1 , L1 Steady state
maximum value is 4.5 ms> t 1 (Green curve in a UBC
figure 16- a). St�ady state

1
6
• Adjust the resistance to a value R = R2 = 45.5 n and

=
use the coil of inductance L 1 = 60 mH . --1--
I
The maximum value of i is Im2 = 4:.s 0.154A > Im1.
The practical time needed by i to reach its new
2 ..
. t(ms)
maximum value is t2 = 4.5 ms> t 1 (Green curve in
figure 16-b). 00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10
Fi2 (16-b)
> Conelmion
1. When the inductance of the coil increases or/and the resistance of the R-L series circuit
decreases, the growth and the decay processes become slower.
2. The maximum value of the current attained in the steady state is not affected by the value of
the inductance, but it increases as the resistance of the circuit decrease.

173
7. Differential Equation and Expression of the Current for the Growth and the
Decay Processes {GS students) +
The circuit offigure (17) is composed ofa coil (L; r), a
resistor (R) and a function generator ofvoltage:
O ::;t ::; �
UAc = UG = { E } ( L,r)
0 :!:<t<T
2 - -
A. Growth of the current R
Differential equation
Law ofaddition of voltages: uAc = uAB + uBc
uAc = E during the growth of the current . Fig.17
Apply Ohm's law across each component in the circuit
=> E = r1+
. L-+ R.1 => (r+ R).1+ L -= E DUTerentJal equation in YB.
dt dt UAC = UAa + Use
di d
i

I f I First order differential equation that • E =fl+ di +

. L- dt UR
=> :ti + �i =
governs the variation ofthe current
But UR = Ri!.2. R �
dt
= dt
=
during its growth under a constant voltage. =E= rtR)+.!:.c
R R dt
d
"R)+uR

Exgression of the current • � + (r + R) UR = �

dt L L
The solution ofthe above differential equation is: i = Im (1 -e- ; ) I
which represents the variation ofi during its growth under a constant volta e
I
E ('+R)t
where and • = -- are constants, then i = -- ( 1 -
e -
r+R
Bi] ._____.._r -'-+-"R,________.
-L- )

Tis the time constant; it is a characteristic ofthe (R-L ) series circuit.

The expression ofthe current shows that it increases exponentially with time.
Unit of T: The unit ofTcan be obtained by dividing the unit ofthe inductance to that ofthe resistance:
[!] = !:!. - => [.] = -1 -2 = 1-= l_ = s The S.I unit of. is second.
fl ' but W .!.2 L i => lH 11 fl. A J/s
= 2 =
A2 W

Verification of the solution

i = Im (1 -e-T ) Im - Ime- T => -= ....!.!!.e- T . Substitute in the differential equation:
t t I t
dt
d
= i
T

7eT+ [Im ( 1 -e_T) ] = L => 7eT+ � [Im (1 -e T)] = L

Im _ .!_ (r + R) .!_ E Im _ .!_ 1 - .!. E
--
L
::::}-eT+ --eT = ::::} ( 1
Im _.!_ Im Im t E E(R+ r) E --------------.
L R +r) L L Im ('r ; Im) = Im r
T T T
So the solution is verified.
i1

Particular values of i (Figure 18).

Consider the expression ofthe current: i = Im (1 -e-T )
• At t = 0 , i = Im (1 - 1 )= 0 => i0 = 0 .
t
l'-
=
• At t = T, i = Im ( 1 - e-T ) Im (1 - 0.37) = 0.63 Im
-T

=> i =
0.63 Im .
Fig. 18
t
=> At t = T: 63 % of the whole growth process is completed.

=
• At t = 5T, i = Im (1 - e-T-) Im (1 - 0.007) Im => i = 0.99 Im
-ST
I =
=> At t = 5 T : 99% of the whole growth process is completed. Practically, the steady state is
=
attained.

174
Remark: uR and i are directly proportional, and then the graph of u E
uR is similar to that of i to a multiplying factor, so uR increases
exponentially with time.
Also, uAB = uL = E - uR at any instant, and then uL decreases
exponentially with time (Figure 19).
t
Tangent to the curve i = f(t) at t0 = 0
t
Consider the expressions of i: i = Im (1 - e- � ) .
t

0 Fig. 19
d
The derivative of i with respect to time is: i = � e - �
dt ,:
� ( d i) !..!!!. slope of the tangent to the curve i = f(t) at t0 = 0.
d
t t=O
= ,: =
Graphically, the slope of this tangent is: tan 8 = Im (Figure 18). By comparison !..!!!. =
t1 ,:

Conclusion: The tangent to the curve i = f (t) at t0 = 0, meets the horizontal asymptote of equation i 1 = Im
at a point of abscissa'!.

B. Decay of the current

The decay of the current starts at an instant t0 = 0, taken as a new origin Differential equation in Y.a
of time. UAB + Uac+ UcA =O
=n+ L -+ua+O=O
. dt
Law of addition of voltages: uAB + Use + ucA = 0 .
!: • d11R di
dt
uAc = 0 during the decay of the current � r i + L +Ri+0 =0 B UtUR = R•=-=R­

� (r + R) i + L � =0 � J� J
+ (r +L R) i = 0 First order differential
==
UR
dt
1. d UR
dt
r (R) + R (di""") + UR O
d Uff + (r + R)
=
dt -L-UR = Q
dt . dt
equation that governs the variation of the current during its decay.
Expression of the current
The solution of the above differential equation is: Ii = Im e- � I Equation of i during its decay.

Where I Im = � I and I• =
r
� R I are the initial current and the time constant �I i ;h
= e-(T) t I

The obtained expression shows that the current decreases exponentially with time.
Verification of the solution
d
i = Im e- � � dit = - !..!!!. e- � . Substitute in the differential equation: - !..!!!. e- � + (r + R) Om e - �) O
' ' L
� - !..!!!.
' e-� + !..!!!. e-� = 0 . So the solution is verified.
'
Particular values of i (Figure 20).
Consider the obtained expression of the current: i = Im e-�
t
------ -
• At t0 = 0 , i = Im e0 � to = Im .
• At t = 'C, i = I0 e--:;- = 0.37 Im � · = 0.37 Im .
At t = T : 63% of the whole decay process is completed.
• At t = 5 T, i = I0 e-,-
-5 T
0.01 Im � = .
0.01 I 0 = = t
At t = 5 T: 99% of the decay process is completed.
Practically, the steady state is attained. t 1 = '[ i1 = 0
• Fig. 20

Time constant 'T of the R-L series circuit is the time needed by the current flowing in the coil to grow or
decay 63 % of its maximum value.

175
Tangent to the curve i = f(t) at t0 = 0
di - Im - � di Im = slope of the
The denvatlve
. . of.1 wit .
. h respect to time .1s: - = - e , => (-d ) = - - tangent to the
dt T t t =O T
curve i = f(t) at the instant t0 = 0
.
Graphically, the slope ofthis tangent is: - tan 8 = - Im (Figure 20). By comparison - !.!!!.. = - !.!!!.. => t 1 = T.
t1 T t1

Conclusion: The tangent to the curve i = f(t) at t0 = 0, meets the horizontal asymptote of equation ii = O
at a oint of abscissa •.
Remark
During the decay of the current uAB + uac
� t
= 0 ::::> ,....,_....;...:.,.,..
t. --
i = Im e - i • ua = R Im e - i ,
•
I

!R
1
At the beginning of the decay process: i = Im =

!
r 0
and (Figure 21) tI

Remark: Consider an R-L series circuit fed by ·Rim

Fig. 21

--
a square voltage of period T.
f,
* If 5T > the steady state of the current is not Voltage - t -
attained; current neither reaches its maximum value Uc
nor its minimum value (Figure 22),
T t -! l t
* Ifs't >> T2, but t S 2 • ; « 1 => e J a: - ;
• i • I m (l • e�) a: Im (1 - 1 + !f ) "' !m.
i
t
So i varies linearly with time with a slope Imt
Fig. 22

Application 4 ---++
The adjacent circuit includes:
an ideal generator ofconstant voltage E = 20 V;
a coil ofinductance L= 100 mH and ofinternal
resistance r = 5 Q;
a resistor ofresistance R = 15 Q;
a switch K and connecting wires.
The switch is closed at t0 = 0.
1. Calculate the current Im flowing in the coil in the
steady state.
2. Derive the differential equation that governs the Fig. 23
variation ofthe current i flowing in the circuit.
3. The solution ofthe obtained differential equation is :.i=. where aand M are non zero
constants. Determine the expressions of aand Min terms ofL, r , R and E, and then write the
solution in terms ofE, r, R, Land t.
4. Calculate the time constant Tofthe circuit.
5. Draw roughly the graph that represents the variation ofi as a function oftime, and show on the graph
the tangent to the curve i = f (t) at t0 = 0.
Solution
1. In the steady (permanent) state, the maximum value ofthe current is: Im = -E = � lA.
+R r 15 + 5
2. Apply the law ofaddition ofvoltages: uAc = E = uAB + uBc => E = ir + L:: + i R
=> L :! + l (R + r) ""' E ( Differential equation in i).
3. i � M ( 1 - e-at) = M- Me-at => :: = Mae-at . Substitute in the differential equation
=> LM ae-at + M (R + r) - M (R + r) e-at = E

176
 =>Me-at (aL -R-r) +,M( +r) =
�.By comparison:M(R +r)
= E, and the
'- � 1
Varfrlble Const Const
variable term is zero:Me-at ( aL -R-r) = 0
=>M= _!_ R+r andM ae-at(aL- R-r) 0
=
1,2
ButMa e-nt = 0 is rejected. 1
R+r 0,6
=>aL-R-r = O=>a= L
O Jl
Therefore i = Mr
E
J 1 .. e
-(ll+r)
· 1, t OA
]• 0,2 t(m�)
4. T = _L_ � = = 5 x 10-3 s =Sms. 00 10 15 20 25
R + r 15 + 5
5. Figure (24). Fig. 24

Application 5 �
A purely inductive coil of inductance L , a resistor of
resistanceR = 16 n, and a double switch K are connected in
series across an ideal generator of constant voltage E c
(Figure 25).
1. The switch is turned to position (1). A
Determine the expression of the current Im that flows in B
0
the circuit in the steady state.
2, The switch is turned abruptly to position (0) at an instant '----���---411--�-·· -��-
taken as a new origin of time. 1 K
a. Determine the differential equation that governs the
variation of the current i. Fig. 25
b. The solution of the differential equation is -
where D and a are non zero constants. i (A)
0,5
Determine the expressions of D and a.
c. Figure (26) shows the variation of the current i as a 0,4
function of time, and the tangent to the curve i = f(t) at
t0 = 0. 0,3
i. Determine E. 0,2
ii. Determine 'tby two different methods.
iii. Deduce L. 0,1
t )
Solution
0 2 3 4 6 1
1 • uAB = UAc + UCB => E = L di + 1. R
i.
dt Fig. 26
In the steady state i = Im = constant=> :: = 0 =>E = Im R => Im •
2. a. uAc + uc8 = 0 => L :! + i R • 0 (Differential equation in i).
b. i = D e at =>:: = D ae at Substitute in the differential equation : LD aeat + D Re at = 0

f,
=>De at (L a +R ) = 0.
But De at = 0 is rejected, then La + R = 0 => a • •
Using the initial condition: at t0 = 0 , i = Im=> Im = De 0 = D => D • Im,
E
c. i. Im = R => E = Im x R = 0.5 x 16 = 8 V,
ii. First method: In the decay process of the current, at t = 't, i = 0.37 Im = 0.37 x 0.5 = 0.185 A
Graphically, i = 0.185 at t = 1 ms. Therefore 1' • 1 mt,
Second method: The tangent to i = f(t), at t0 = 0 , cuts the horizontal asymptote of equation
i = 0 at a point of abscissa 1 ms, then 1' • 1 mt .
iii• • = .!'..R => L = .R = 1 x 10-3 x 16 = 16 x 10-3 H => L • 16 mH .

177
8. Energy Distribution in an R..L Series Circuit Under a Constant Voltage ( +)
Growth process
In the adjacent R-Lseries circuit, the switch is closed at
t0=0. The expression of the current flowing in the circuit
t
during its growth is: i=� (1 - e- � ). The voltage across the
"1 t
purely inductive coil is: .uL=uAB=L- d =E e - �
dt
Recall that the energy stored in the coil at any instant is
1
. . by: WL = 2 L 1· 2 .
given
Fig. 27
A. Expression of the energy delivered by the generator
PG =ddwtG =i E ::::}dWa=i E dt ::::} Wa=f,0t i E dt Decay process
During the decay process,
::::}WG J; E [ � (1 -:-- e- � )] dt . WG = 0 and the energy
Ez
::::} WG = -
R
fO
-t
(1 - e�) dt =
Ez
-[t+
R
-t t
• e� ] O
dissipated by the total
resistance of the circuit at
E2 =._! any instant is equal to that
::::} WG = -
R
[ (t + 't et )-(0 + • )]::::} supplied by the coil.
2 _ !. L i2
WR= !.2 L 1m
B. Expression of the energy dissipated by the resistor 2
PR =dtt =i uR::::}dWR=i uR dt ':" i2 R dt::::} WR=J;i 2 R dt �WR= Wo _ !.2 L i2 where
Ez t -2t -t Ez -2t -t t W is the energy stored in
WR= - f,0 (1 + e-t- - 2e�) dt = - [t - �2 e-,- + 2 • e�· ] O

E2 Q the coil at the beginning of

3t t =11 =--!
::::} R = -[t--- -e, +2te• the decay process.
Also, you can calculate WR using: [ WR = WG - WL I
C. Some particular instants

=R
O At to= 0: WG = We =WR =0.
· E2 5 E2 L E2
o At t = 5 T: i =Im::::} WL = Yi LI� ; Wa = R [5T-'t + T (e- )] (4-r)=4( R2) = 4 LI� = 8 WL .
::::} WR =WG - WL = 8 WL - WL = 7 WL .

Application 6 �
A purely inductive coil of inductance L is connected in
---++
series with a lamp, considered as a resistor of resistance R,
and a switch k, across an ideal generator of electromotive
force E= 60 V (Figure 28). K
The switch k is closed at t0=0 .
Figure (29) shows the variation of the magnetic energy WL
stored in the coil as a function of the current i during the
transient phase.
1. a. Pick out from the graph the maximum value of the Fig. 28
current Im and the maximum value of the magnetic
energy stored in the coil. 480
b. Deduce the values of Land R. 400
c. Deduce the time constant T of the circuit. 320
d. Determine graphically the magnetic energy 240
stored in the coil at the instant t=T . ��
160
2. The expression of the current is i = 4(1 - e-250 t) (S.1).
a. Determine the electric energy supplied by the 80
generator (Wa ) between t0=0 and t=T
o+-.....�+--+-�l---+--4�-+-��...:-�
2 3 4
b. Deduce the electric energy Wiamp consumed by the Fig. 29
lamp between O and t = T.

178
 c. Calculate the consumed power (Piamp )by the lamp at the instant t = T.
3. a. Apply the law of addition of voltage to determine:: at the instant t = T.
b. Deduce the magnetic power (PL)of the coil at the instant t = T.
4. a. Determine by two different methods the electric power ( P0) delivered by the generator to the
circuit at the instant t = T .
b. Calculate the average power cPav)delivered by the generator during the time interval [ 0 ; i- ].
c. Deduce that the electric power delivered by the generator is not constant.
Solution
1. a. Im= 4 A and WL(max) = 480 mJ.
- 2 x 0.48
b. WL(max)- 1 L Im=> L- = 0.06 H = 60 mH.
2
- 2

6
uAc = uAB + Use=> E=L:: + i R. In the steady state, i = Im = constant=> R = ,: = : = 15 0.
42

L 0.06
c. i-= -R = - = 4 x l0-3 s => T = 4 ms .
d. At t = i-, i = 0.63 Im = 0.63 x 4 = 2.52 A . From the graph for i = 2.53 A , WL = 190.5 mJ.
5
1

d G
2. a. PG = W r r
=> WG = PG dt = O Eidt = O E 4(1 - e- 250 t) dt = 4x 60 J,\1
I - e-250 t)dt
=> WG = 240 [ t + _1_ e-250 t] = 240 [(O 004 + 0 +
dt T O
_1_ e- 250 xo.004) - ( _1_ eo)]

=> WG = 240 [ 5.47 x 10-3 - 4 x 10-3)] => WG :!! 0.353 J.

250 O • 250 250

b. Wo = WL + w,amp => W1amp = 0.353 - 0.1905 => W1amp = 0.1625 J.

C, P1amp = R i2 = 15 x (2.52) 2 => Piamp = 95.256 W.
E - iR 60 - 2.52 x 15
3• a. E=L + i R=> i = • At t = i-
L ' dt = = 370 Als .
di d di

b. P L =Li . At t = i-, PL = 0.06 (2.520)(370) = 55.944 w.

dt dt 0.06
di

4. a. First method: P0 = Piamp + PL . At t = i-, P0 = 95.256 + 55.944 = 151.2 W.

dt

Second method: P0 = i E. At t = i-, P 0 = (2.52)( 60) = 151.2 W.

b ' pav = Wti G = 0.004
.3 3 = 88 25 W
t
0 5

c. The instantaneous power delivered by the generator at t = T is not equal to its average power
' '

between O and t = T, so the electric power delivered by the generator is not constant.

When a circuit oflarge inductance is opened abruptly, ----.

9. Sparks Due to Switching off a Circuit (GS students)
f""'Y"'Y""V""'B .---R M
sparks appear at the switch contacts due to a very high
voltage across its terminals originated from the high L, r
r. Ar
electromotive force induced in the coil. K
To understand this phenomenon, consider the circuit of
figure (30)which carries a current i. The switch is opened E
suddenly at an instant t, so the current decreases to zero
during a time �t.
During the transient phase, the coil is the seat ofa self- Fig. 30
induced e.m.fofaverage value eav = - L tii .
Reading
The equivalent resistance ofthe open circuit During the growth of the current (closing the switch) the
tit

is very large, so �t is very small=> eav is very
large.
uFM = E= uFA + uAB + usM = uK + ir - e +
i R => uK = E + e - i ( r + R)
"e" is much greater than E and [i( R + r)],
current increases from zero to its maximum value during a
time �t. The average self-induced e.m.f "e" in the coil is:
eav "" - L � with � t "" 5 "C' '"' S _RL • The equivalent
resistance of the closed circuit is much smaller than that of
..t eq

the open circuit, then �t of the closed circuit is much

then uK is much greater than E, so sparks greater than that of the open circuit • ec1os11d << eopen
appear at the switch contacts due to electric
discharge between its terminals during the decay ofthe current.

179
A voiding the damage
One of the practical solutions to avoid the damage of the switch is to connect a resistor and a diode
between the terminals of the coil.
Figure (31) shows a resistor ofresistance R' and a diode (D),
connected across the coil.
R' J-
When K is closed, no current passes in the branch ofthe
diode. D iode is reverse biased, so it acts as an open switch. A R M
When k is opened, a current ( i) passes through the diode (D)
since the coil acts as a generator. The stored magnetic energy K
in the coil is converted into heat energy in the resistor R'.
Another method to avoid the damage is to connect a E
capacitor between the terminals of the switch. When the
switch is opened, energy decreases gradually while oscillating
between the capacitor and the coil (See chapter 12). Fig. 31

..

180
 Problems
In all the following problems, we consider coils without soft iron cores unless if stated otherwise.
1. Calculation of L and r of a ceil ./
A coil of inductance L and of internal resistance r, a resistor
of resistance R = 20 n, and an ammeter of negligible
resistance, are connected in series across an ideal DC �
generator of electromotive force E = 4 V.
The switch is closed at t0 = 0, so the current increases from
zero to a maximum value Im = 0.1 A (Steady state).

_____
Apply the law of addition of potential difference to determine: E
a) the internal resistance r of the coil; N
p
b) the value of L, knowing that at t0 = 0, :: = 61.5 A/s.
.....,

2. Role of the coil ./

Consider a coil of inductance L and of internal resistance r.
A- Experimental study
The coil is connected in the circuit of figure (1).
a) The switch is turned to position (1) at t0 = 0 .
An electric current flows in the circuit and increases from
zero to become Im = constant.

f
i. Describe, with justification, the brightness of the lamp
during the transient phase and then during the steady
state. O
--�--2
ii. Apply Lenz's law to specify the sign of the self-induced
e.m.f (e) during the transient phase.
b) The switch is turned abruptly to position (2). 1
Describe, with justification, the brightness of the lamp.
Fig.1
B- Graphical study
The adjacent figure shows the variation of the 1
current i flowing in the coil, in the above
experiment.
a) Pick out the time interval during which
the brightness of the lamp is steady.
b) Use the expression of the self- induced
e.m.f (e) to determine the signs of (e) and 0 2 3 4 5
F·1g. 2
the roles of the coil between t0 = 0 and t = 6 ms .
c) Indicate the time interval during which the coil is storing magnetic energy, restoring (supplying)
energy to the circuit, and neither storing nor supplying energy to the circuit.
C-
a) Indicate the name of the phenomenon that takes place due to the variation of the current in the coil.
b) Indicate the main difference between the above phenomenon and the electromagnetic induction
phenomenon.
3. Determination of the length of a solenoid
The adjacent figure shows a solenoid of 500 loops each of radius I 500 turns
I
C(IIIIJ;D
r = 5 cm. The electric current flowing in the solenoid is i = 10 A,
and the self flux crossing it due to the magnetic field created by i is
0.05 Wb.
a) Calculate the inductance L of the solenoid.
b) Determine the expression of the inductance L of the solenoid lOA
in terms of r, N and f where f is the length of the coil and N is
the number of its loops.
c) Deduce the length f of the solenoid. Use n 2 = 10.

181
4. Current flowing in a coil R
The adjacent circuit includes:
- a coil of inductance L and of internal resistance r = 15 O;
- a generator of e.m.f E = 8 V and internal resistance r' =20;
- a lamp considered as a resistor of R = 10.O; A B
- a switch K and connecting wires.
(L; r)
The switch is closed at t0 = 0. +
In the steady state:

--
- E, � },,___�_+___.!
a) Indicate the role of this coil.
b) Deduce the main current I sent by the generator.
c) Calculate the current IL flowing in the coil.
1
5. Determination of the internal resistance and
the inductance of a coil
Consider a coil (C) of terminals A i(A)
and B, which has an inductance L 12 u(v1
11 0,6
and an internal resistance r. Steady
10 State
The coil is oriented positively {}
from A to B. 8
Figure (1) shows the variation of 7
the voltage uAB = u across the 6.36-
coil, as a function oftime. 5
4
Figure (2) shows the variation of 3
the current i flowing in the coil as 2
a function of time, and the tangent 1 t (ms)
to the curve i = f(t) att = 0.25 ms. 0.5 0.75
0 0.25 0.5 0.75
a) Write the expression of uAB in Fig.1 Fig. 2
terms of r , i, L andt.
b) Use the two figures to: K
i. prove that the internal resistance of the coil is r = 5 O; -------
B 1
-----�l\f
2
ii. determine the value of the inductance L.
c
6. Growth and decay of the current in a coil II'
The circuit of figure (1) includes:
- a coil of inductance L and internal resistance r = 10O;
- two resistors ofresistances R 1 = 40 0 and R2 = 100O;
- an ideal DC generator of electromotive force E = 10V;
- a double switch k.

I
A- Growth of the current E
The switch K is turned to position (1) at t0 = 0. D
Figure (2) shows the variation of the derivative of the current
i with respect to time ( :: ) during the growth process, as a Fig. 1
function of time.
50
a) Use figure (2) to:
i. prove that L = 200 mH;
1
40
ii. determine the value of i at the instant t =2ms;
30
i
iii. specify the practical time needed by the current to
reach its maximum value Im ; 20
iv. determine the sign of the self-induced e.m.f (e)
during the growth of the current. 10
t(ms)
b) Calculate Im .
c) Deduce the 11]-aximum energy stored in the coil. 4 a 12 16 20
Fig. 2
182
 B- Decay of the current
K is turned abruptly to position (2) at an instant taken as a new origin of time. A transient current,
whose value is decreasing with time, flows in the circuit MCDF.
a) Apply Lenz's law to determine the direction of the transient current.
b) At t0 = 0:
i. determine the potential difference uFM·
ii. deduce that uco = - 20 V.
iii. determine the algebraic value of the self-induced e.m.f in the coil. Justify its sign.
c) Determine the electric energy consumed by the resistors of the circuit MCDF when the current
decays to half of its initial value.
7. Determination of the magnetic energy stored in a coil
The adjacent circuit includes:
- an ideal generator of E = 12 V;
- a coil of characteristics L and r = 2 O;
- a resistor of resistance R ;
- a light emitting diode (LED); A c
a switch K and connecting wires.
The switch is closed at t0 = 0.
The current flowing in the circuit during the growth of the current has
the expression: 1' = 1.2 (1 - e-soo t) S.I
a) No current passing through the LED. Why?
b) i. Calculate the value of the current at t0 = 0, and when the
steady state is attained. E
ii. Deduce the value of the resistance R.
c) Determine the expression of the self-induced electromotive force (e) in the coil, in terms of L and
the time t. Deduce that the coil acts as a receiver.
d)
i. Determine the voltage uAB across the resistor at t= 3 ms. Deduce the voltage u8c across the coil
at this instant.
ii. Deduce the inductance L.
iii. Calculate the energy stored in the coil when the steady state is attained.
e) The switch is opened at an instant t. The LED glows then for a very short time. Explain.
t
8. Determination of L and r by electromagnetic induction and self lnductlon ./
2
Consider a solenoid (M) of N = 2000 loops each of area 10 cm . The coil is oriented positively from D to
C. In this problem, we intend to determine the inductance L and the internal resistance r of (M) by two
different methods:
A. Fi rstmethod: Electromagnetic n i duction
The coil (M) is connected in series with a resistor of resistance
R = 8 n and an ammeter A with negligible resistance (Figure 1). n
The circuit is crossed by a magnetic flux from a neighboring
circuit. This flux varies with time according to the following
express10n: =- 0.02 where tis expressed ins and <pin Wb. c
a) The ammeter reads i i nd = 2 mA.
i. Explain the existence of the induced current in the circuit.
ii. Calculate the algebraic value of the induced electromotive
Fig. 1
force in (M) and deduce the direction of the induced current.
iii. Calculate the resistance r of (M).
b) i. Calculate the value of the self-flux created by (M) knowing that the value of the magnetic field,
which is created inside the coil by the induced current, is B i nd = 6 x 10-6 T.
ii. Deduce the value of the inductance L of (M).

183
B. Second method: Self induction

a) First, we connect the coil (M) in series with a resistor ofresistance D

R 1 =14 n and an ideal DC generator of E =16 V (Figure 2).
(M)
When the steady state is attained, the current in the circuit is lA.
Deduce the value ofthe resistance r of (M).
b) Second, the ideal generator is replaced by an AC generator which
sends a triangular current.
A c
Fig. 2
The expression ofthe voltage across the coil between O
and 2 ms is: (t in s ; udn V).
4
i. Figure (3) represents the variation of
the current carried by (M) as a function oftime. 2
Use the graph to determine the expression of
the current between O and 2 ms.
ii. Deduce the expression ofthe voltage u0c across (M) -2
in terms ofL and t.
iii. Deduce the inductance L of(M). -4
Fig. 3
9. Determination of the inductance L by three methods ./
In this problem, we intend to determine the inductance L ofa coil by three different methods. For this,
consider a coil (D) ofinternal resistance r =10 n, oflength t = 62.8 cmand ofnumber ofloops N = 500
each ofarea 60 cm2.

A. First method:
In figure (1 ), the coil (D) carries a current i.
a) Determine the expression ofthe self-flux crossing (D) in
terms ofN, S, t and i.
b) Deduce the expression ofthe inductance L.
c) Calculate the value ofL.
M
B. Second method:
In figure (2), the coil (D) is connected in series with a resistor of Fig.1
resistance R = 40 n, a generator ofa constant voltage u Ac = E = lOV
and a switch K. The switch is closed at t0 = 0. Coil
M
a) Calculate the current flowing in the circuit in the steady state.
b) The total electric energy delivered by the generator to the circuit
:_
during the transient phase is Wto tal = 4.8 x 10 4 J.
This energy is transformed into magnetic energy WL, stored in R
the coil, and heat energy Wheat , lost due to Joule's effect in the k
resistors ofthe circuit.
i. Knowing that Wheat = 7 WL , determine the magnetic energy
stored in the coil in the steady state.
ii. Deduce the inductance ofthe coil. ---1 Generator •---C
C. Third method: Fig. 2
In this experiment, the resistor in figure (2) is replaced by another one
ofresistance R' = 2 kQ, and the generator is replaced by another one which sends a triangular current.
An oscilloscope is used to display the voltages u AM and ucM· For no voltage, the luminous line is
confounded with the central horizontal line ofthe oscilloscope. The vertical sensitivity is Sv = 0.3 V/div
for both channels, while the horizontal sensitivity is Vb=1.5 µs /div.
a) Show on the circuit the connections ofthe two channels ofthe oscilloscope,

184
 b) Write the literal expressions of uAM and ucM, in
terms of i, r, R, L, and t.
-r L ducM
c) Deduce that·. uAM = - R'
ucM - - --
R' d
d) Figure (3) shows the variations of the voltages as
displayed on the screen of the oscilloscope.
Use figure (3) to:
i. pick out the value of ucM at the instant t2;
ii. calculate uAM at the instant t2;
iii. determine d��M at the instant t2 •
e) Deduce the inductance L of the coil.
f) Use figure (3) to specify two intervals of time during
which the coil acts as a generator. Fig. 3

1 O. Determination of the expression of the voltage across a generator

A generator G feeds a series circuit composed of a resistor y Oscilloscope
of resistance R = 10 0 and a purely inductive coil of
inductance 100 mH. L
A
An oscilloscope is connected across the terminals of the coil c
to display the potential difference u8c (Figure 1).
For no voltage, the luminous line is confounded with the
central horizontal line of the oscilloscope.
Figure (2) shows the variation of u8c as a function of time.
a) Calculate the period and the amplitude of u8c.
b) Determine the expression of the voltage u8c in terms Fig. 1
of the current i and the time t.
c) Deduce, as a function of time t, the expression of i
during the time interval:
0 o.5 T ''
i. [O, � ] knowing that at t0 = 0 , i = O;
ii. [ �' T ] knowing that i is continuous at � .
d) Determine the expressions of uAc = Uc during [O, �]
and [ �' T], as a function of time. Fig. 2 0,1 Vid1v
1 ms/div

All the following problems are required only for GS students

11. Duratio11s olgrowth an�decay of th_e current in Eth it!I. series ch·cult v
The circuit of figure (1) includes: K
- a coil of inductance L = 45 mH and of internal D 1 2
resistance r = 2 0 ; ----... N
- two resistors of resistances R 1 and R2 = 23 0 ;
- an ideal DC generator of electromotive force E; F
a double switch k.
A- Growth of the current
The switch K is turned to position (1) at t0 = 0. A current i
flows in the circuit CDFH.
a) Write the expression of the maximum current Im in the
steady state, in terms of R1, r and E.
E
b) Apply the law of addition of voltages to determine the
differential equation in i.
c
Deduce the expression of � at t0 = 0 .
Fig. 1

185
 c) The solution of the obtained differential equation is: = -t
A 1 - e7 Where A and Tare constants.
i. Determine the expressions oh and A in terms of L, E, rand R1.
ii. Write the expression of i in terms of Im , T andt. i(A)
0,,8
d) The graph of figure (2) represents the variation ofi as a function oft. 0,7
i. Determine the value of T. Deduce R 1. 0,6
ii. Deduce the value of E. 0,5
e) i. Determine, by two different methods, the slope of the tangent to 0,4
the curve i = f(t) at t0 = 0, in terms of Im and T. 0,3
ii. Deduce the equation of this tangent. 0,2
iii. Deduce that the above tangent cuts the asymptote of equation 0,1 t(ms)
i 1 = Im at a point of abscissa 3 ms . 0 6 12 18
0
B- Decay ofthe current Fig. 2
K is turned abruptly to position (2) at an instant taken as a new origin of time. A transient current i
flows in the circuit FHMN.
a) Prove that the voltage uR = uMN represents the image of the current i.
b) Determine the differential e uation that governs the variation of uMN = uR.
t
c) Verify that aJ! U:a't�)
:� e- T' is a solution of the differential equation where -r' = _L_ and
r + R2
m
UR( ax) is constant.
d) Determine the expression of U R(max) in terms of E, r, R 1 and R2, then calculate its value.
e) i. Write, in terms of -r', the practical time needed by u R to become zero.
5
ii. Specify, without calculation, which of the following ( ;' ; greater than s;· or less than s;·) is the
0
time needed by uR to become R<;ax).
iii. Support your answer by determining the above time.
12. Voltage across a coil during the growth and the decay of the current
The circuit of figure (1) includes: (1) K +
an ideal generator of constant voltage E;
a purely inductive coil of inductance L ; • (2)
a resistor of resistance R1 = 5 11;
a lamp considered as a resistor of resistance R2 ; H
a double switch K and connecting wires. •C
The voltage across the coil is uco = uL and the current
R2
flowing in it is i.
Figure (2) shows the variation of uL as a function of time, �
during the growth and the decay processes of the current.
A. Growth ofthe current ·D
The switch is turned to position (1) at t0 = 0. B
Fig.1
a) Prove that the differential equation that
governs the variation of uL is: )
duL R1 _ 10 UL (V
+ Q
dt LUL-
' b) The solution of the above differential
-t
equation is: uL = UL<max le� where ULmax
is constant. Determine the expression of the
time constant T of the R-L series circuit.
c) Prove that the voltage across the coil at
t0 = 0 is U1 = UL (max) = E. -12
d) Use figure (2) to: Fig. 2
i. pick out the value of E.

186
 ii. determine the value of T. Deduce L.
e) Write the expression of the current flowing in the coil in the steady state and calculate its value.
B. Decay of the current
The switch is turned abruptly to position (2) at t = 10 ms which is taken as a new origin of time t0 = 0.
a) Specify the direction of the current. Specify its value at t0 = 0.
b) Determine the expression of uL = Ucn in terms of R 1 , R2 and i. Deduce the sign of uL.
c) Deduce that the expression of the voltage across the coil at t0 = 0 is: Uco = U2 = - (R 1 + R2) �
R1
d) Use figure (2) to determine R2.
e) Using the expressions ofU 1 and U2 , compare IU 1 I and IUz I.
13. Determination of the characteristics of two electric components and the
consumed energy t/

r
The circuit of figure (1) includes: A (l) K �i-----.
(2)
- an ideal generator G of electromotive force E = 20 V;
- a coil of inductance L and of internal resistance r;
- two resistors of resistances R 1 = 8 0 and R2 ;
- a double switch K. (L,r) Rz
G :+
In this problem, we intend to determine the characteristics of
the coil and the resistor R2 , as well as the energy dissipated
by Joule's effect during the decay process of the current. c..._--c�--...._---
R1 D
H
Fig.1
A. Determination of L and r
The switch is turned to position (1) at t0 = 0. At any instant, the current that flows in the circuit is i.
a) Write the expression of the current Im flowing in the circuit when the steady state is attained.
b) Determine the differential equation that governs the variation of i.
c) The solution of the above differential equation is:
-t
i = K eT + M Where K, M and T > 0 are constants.
i. Use the expression of the current in the steady state u(V)
to prove that M = Im. 20....-------------------------
ii. Use the initial condition to prove that K = - M.
iii. Determine the expression of T in terms of L, r and 16 (2)
R 1.
d) Figure (2) shows the graphs that represent the 12
variations of the voltages uAc = uc, uFn = uL and
Unc = uR1 as a function of time. B
i. Curve (2) represents the variation of uR 1 . Justify. (3)
ii. Curve (3) represents the variation of uL . Justify. 4
iii. Use curve (2) or curve (3), to determine a relation t(msJ
between r and R 1. Deduce the value of r. 1 2 3 4 5
e) Use curve (2) to determine T. Fig. 2
f) Deduce that L = 0.01 H.
B. Determination of R1
The switch is turned abruptly to position (2) at an instant taken as a new origin of time t0 = 0.
a) Indicate the expression of the current flowing in the circuit at t0 = 0.
b) Determine the differential equation that governs the variation of the current i.
E - (r + R2 )t
c) Verify that the solution of the above differential equation is: i = -- e L
r± 1
d) Figure (3) shows the graphs that represent the variations of the voltages uFn = u L and uuF = u R2 as
a function of time.

187
 i. The curve (1) represents the variation of uHF = u R2 .
,e
Justify.
ii. The curve (2) represents the variation of uFo = u L. Justify. 24
iii. Determine R2.
12
C. Determination of the consumed energy during the decay t (ms)
of the current 2 2,5
In this part, we intend to determine the heat energy dissipated
by r and R2 during the decay of the current.
For this, use the following data: At t0 = 0, i 0 = 2 A ; r = 2 O; -2 4
R2 = 18 0 ; R1 = 8 0 ; L = 0.01 H.
a) Calculate the value of the magnetic energy stored in the coil
at to= 0. Fig. 3
b) i. Knowing that the instantaneous power dissipated in R2 is:
where WR 2 is the energy dissipated by R2, prove that the expression ofWR 2
. . . L R E2
dunng the time
. mterva1 [0 ; oo [ is: WR2 = 2 ( + R z ) 2Cr+ fuJ 2
_
ii. Calculate WR2
c) Deduce the energy dissipated by r during the time interval [O; oo[
14. Dissipation of energy during the decay of i In an R·L series circuit
The circuit of figure (1) includes:
an ideal generator of constant voltage E = 24 V; (1) K
a coil of inductance L and of resistance r = 10 O;
a lamp considered as a resistor of R = 20 O; 2
a double switch K and connecting wires. E� •( _) ________R __
The switch is turned to position (1). When the steady state
is attained, and the value of the current is Im , the switch is
turned abruptly to position (2) at an instant taken as a new
origin of time t0 = 0.
a) Prove that and calculate its value.
b) The expression of the current flowing in the circuit
-
during its decay is where T is the time Fig.1
constant of the circuit.
i. Deduce the expression of the magnetic energy stored in the coil, at any instant t, in terms of L , Im ,
t and T.
ii. Deduce the expression of the maximum energy WO stored in the coil.
c) The power dissipated by the resistance Rat any instant is P R= i 2 R. Prove that the expression of the
energy dissipated due to Joule's effect in the resistor of
resistance Rduring the time interval [O; t], is WR(mJ)
3,2
d) Figure (2) shows the variation of the energy WR 2,4
dissipated due to Rduring the time interval [O ; t], as a
function of time. 1,6
i. Use the graph to determine W0 • Deduce the values of L
and the time constant T of the R-L series circuit. 0,8
t (ms)
ii. Determine, by two different methods, the energy o�+-,t-+-+---t---t--t-+-+--+-�,................�
dissipated due to R during the time interval [O, T] . 0 O, S 1 1 ,S
iii. Deduce the energy dissipated due to r during the time interval [O, T] . Fig. 2
e) Verify graphically that at t = �,WR= 0.63 WR(max). Where WR (max)is the maximum value of WR .

188
15. Avoiding sparks when "switching off" a circuit of hi9h Inductance
In this problem, we intend to interpret the appearance ofsparks at the
switch contacts when switching off an R-L series circuit ofhigh
B
inductance, as well as to introduce a solution to avoid the damage. c
For this, consider a coil, with an internal resistance r = 2 n and an
inductance L = 1 H, connected in series with a resistor ofresistance
R = 8 n and a switch K across an ideal generator ofelectromotive force
E = 20 V (Figure 1).
In the whole question take the clockwise sense as the positive sense.

a) At t0 = 0, the switch K is closed and a current i flows in the circuit.

A. Interpretation of the appearance of the sparks

In the steady state: Fig.1

i. calculate the current I m flowing in the circuit and the magnetic energy stored in the coil.
ii. indicate the value ofthe voltage across the closed switch.
b) K is opened abruptly at an instant t0 = 0, taken as a new origin oftime.
i. Apply Lenz's law to determine the sign ofthe self-induced electromotive force (e) in the coil.
ii. Determine (e) assuming that the current i decays linearly with time and becomes zero during a
time interval L1t = 2 ms.
iii. Show that the voltage across the switch during the decay ofthe current is
where i is expressed in A and uK in V. Deduce the maximum voltage u K(max) across the switch
when i � 0.
iv. Deduce that sparks appear between the terminals ofthe switch.

One ofthe used methods to avoid the damage is to connect a resistor and a diode across the terminals of
B. A solution to avoid the damage of the switch

the coil. Figure (2) shows a resistor ofresistance R' = 1 0 and a diode (D) connected across the same
previous coil. Recall that the diode allows the current to pass through it from F to Hand not from Hto F.
Thus, when K is closed no current passes through the branch FHP, and the circuit is similar to that of
fi gure (1).
The switch is opened at an instant chosen as a new origin oftime t0 = 0. An electric current i flows only in
the circuit CFHPB.
a) Apply the law ofaddition ofvoltages for the ath CFHPB to show that the differential equation that
governs the variation ofthe current i is:
=
(Neglect the voltage across the diode ; urn 0) . R' H
b) The solution ofthe above differential equation is - where
I m = 2 A and T = --, .
L L, r
i. Deduce that the ex ression ofthe self-induced e.m.f in the coil is:
r+R B c

ii. Deduce that the coil acts as a generator.

m. Calculate the maximum value e max ofe.
R
c) Prove that the maximum voltage across the switch is:
Deduce that no sparks are produced across A�E
the terminals ofthe switch. M
Fig. 2

189
16. Free undamped mechanical oscillations of a rod
Consider that a copper rod MN of mass m and of length f.MN can slide without friction on two
horizontal, parallel and conducting rails ab and cd whose horizontal plane is within a vertical uniform
magnetic field B of
magnitude B. During its
motion, MN remains
perpendicular to the rails,
and its center of mass (G)
moves along the Ox axis.
a
The terminals a and c are
connected by a purely
inductive coil of inductance
L. The rod MN and the rails c
have no resistance.
The rod, initially in the position indicated in the figure, is given an initial velocity V0 horizontally to the
right at t0 = 0. x = OG and v are the abscissa and the algebraic measure of the velocity of (G)
respectively, at any instant t.

A. Determination of the differential equation that iOVerns the variation of v

a) Name and explain the two phenomena that take place in the circuit during the motion of MN.
b) Determine the expression of the magnetic flux crossing the area acNM in terms of B ,f and x, and
deduce the expression of the induced electromotive force (e) in MN.
c) AR 1 Newton's 2 nct law for MN to prove that the expression of the current in the circuit is:
... ......
.... d\l

e) The sum of the kinetic energy and the magnetic energy of the system (Rod; coil) remains constant.
Determine again the differential equation that governs the variation of v.

B. Expressions of the current and the alge�raic value of the velocity

a) The rod will oscillate. Justify. Indicate the type of its oscillations, and then write the expression of
the angular frequency of (G).
b) The solution of the above differential equation is: where <p and A are
'--���-¥.lllu-�......;.�
constants and A> 0.
i. Deduce the expression of the current i flowing in the circuit.
ii. Use the initial conditions to determine the expressions of A and <p.

17. Free damped mechanic�I oscillations of a rod (+)

Consider the same given of the previous problem. The rod is replaced by another one having a
. d . - m dv
resistance r. Knowmg
. thate = B r v an =
1 ii dt
t,

J: dv 83t2
a) Prove that + v=
-;r

b) The solution of the above differential equation is: where cp ; w and

A are constants.
i. Indicate the type of the oscillations of the rod.
ii. Determine the expression of the current i flowing in the circuit.
iii. Determine the expressions of A and tan <p.

190
18. Analogy : Growth of the current in a coil and growth of the speed of a
falling body in air
A) Growth of the current i �+
M
Figure (1) shows a purely inductive coil ofinductance L, R
a resistor ofresistance R, and a switch K connected in L
series across a generator that maintains a constant

"\
voltage E across its terminals.
The switch is closed at t0 = 0. E
a) Determine the differential equation that governs the
variation ofthe current i in the circuit. D �
b) The solution ofthe obtained differential equation has
!.(
the form: · = t- tiCt t Fig.1
i. Deduce the expression ofthe maximum current Im.
ii. Write the expression ofthe practical time needed by the current to attain its maximum value.
iii. Roughly draw the curve that represents the variation ofi as a function oftime t.
B) Growth of the speed v
Figure (2) shows a body (P), which is considered a particle ofmass m, falling
vertically downward in air.
(P) is released from rest at t0 = 0.
The body is submitted to an air resistance ....__...._ where h is a positive constant and
v is the velocity ofthe body.
a) Apply Newton's z nd law to show that the differential equation which governs the
variation ofthe al ebraic measure v ofthe velocity of(P) is:
��)
m:-!t,'h�� (g is the gravitational acceleration).
b) The falling ofthe body in air is analogous to the situation ofpart A. • !y
Each ofthe physical quantities in electricity L, R, i and E has an analogous Fig. 2
physical quantity in mechanics. Compare the two obtained differential equations
to identify these analogous physical quantities.
c) Use this analogy to:
i. deduce the expression ofv in terms ofm, g , hand the time t.
ii. deduce the expression ofthe maximum attained speed (limiting speed).
iii. write the expression ofthe practical time needed by v to attain its maximum value Vm .
iv. draw roughly the curve that represents the variation ofv as a function oftime t.

191
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
•:• Explain the phenomena of charging and discharging of a capacitor under constant voltage
and under square voltage.
•:• Determine the differential equations that govern the variation of charge, voltage and current
in the R-C series circuit.
•) Determine the time constant of an R-C series circuit.
•:• Determine the expressions of the energy stored in the capacitor, dissipated by the resistor,
and delivered by the generator in the R-C series circuit.

192
Prerequisites
Figure (I) shows a diagram of a capacitor of
capacitance C and of plates A and B.
A voltage uAB is applied across the terminals of the
capacitor.
The charges acquired by plates A and B are qA and q8
respectively, where � = C uAB ; gs = C uaA = - qA . Fig (1-a) Fig (1-b)
• If Uc = UAB � � = C Uc � Uc = � .

l
• If the positive sense enters the capacitor from plate A,
then·. i = d qA (Figure 1-a)·'
dt
If the positive sense leaves the capacitor from plate A,
then: i = - �� (Figure 1-b).
Introduction
In grade 11, we discussed the definition and the functioning of
the capacitor. Recall that a capacitor is an electric component
formed of two conducting surfaces facing each other and \ Fig. 2
separated by an insulator- the dielectric.
Capacitors are important in electric and electronic circuits. Capacitors are found in radios, computers and
TV sets. They are used in burglar alarms, flash unit of a camera ...etc.

bpertment 1: Charglq and discharging of a capadtor

> Equipment: q
- Low frequency generator adjusted to a square signal such that:

uAa = Ua = {E = lO
0
o $t$
:!:<t<T
-
f} ; T = 12 ms ;
B

2-

- A capacitor box of adjustable capacitance C;

- A resistor of adjustable resistance R;
- An oscilloscope and connecting wires.
)' Procedure and observation
Set up the circuit of figure (3) and choose R = lk.n and
C = lµF.
• Channel Y I displays the voltage uMB = uc ;
• Channel Y2 displays the voltage uAB = Ua-
The curves of figure (4-a) are observed on the screen of the
oscilloscope, while figure (4-b) is a diagram of these curves
over one period T of the voltage Ua·
Disconnect the oscilloscope from the circuit of figure (3) and
then reconnect Y I to A and the ground to M in order to display Fig (4-a)
uAM = uR.· 12 . Totally ch1rpd
...
Figure (4-c) is a diagram of the curves that represent the 10--+--�=---.. ""...
variation of uR as a function of time over one period. 8
6
Remark 4
uR = i R, but R is constant, then the variation of uR in 2
figure (4) represents the image of the current i. 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 1112
Fi 4-b

193
 ),, Interpretation
A. Charging phase: uAB = uG = lOV
IO
- The free electrons of plate M are attracted to the positive 8
pole of the generator, and then some of them are transferred 6
to this positive pole, leaving plate M with a positive charge. 4
The same number of electrons leave the negative pole of the 2 uc = O t(m1)
generator and accumulate on plate B which becomes Of--ii-+...;;;;p=-t--t--l--+---1-!:1,!..-,t-,1-,.
1 2 3 4 s e
negatively charged. So the direction of the charging current i -4
-2
is clockwise. -6
- The capacitor acts as a receiver and stores electric -8
energy during the charging process. -10
- The voltage across the capacitor increases (transient phase).
The capacitor is completely (fully) charged when the voltage Fig 4-c
between its terminals becomes Uc(max) = E = 10 V
uAB = uAM + uM8 (Law of addition of voltages) => E = uR + uc
But uR = i R (Ohm's law for a resistor) => E = Uc + i R => i = �
=> UR = UA M = i R = E .
• As time passes, Uc increases => i decreases.
• After a certain time, electric equilibrium is attained and the capacitor becomes fully charged:

I Uc = maximum = E f => I i = 0 I => uR = i R = 0. * During the charging

process, 1 entort the positive
B. Discharging phase: uAB = uc = 0 plate of the capacitor.
The electrons on plate B are attracted to the positive charge of plate * Durln1 the discharging
M, so the excess electrons are transfened to plate M through the proce�.1 loavc, tbe positive
resistor of the circuit, and then the direction of the discharging plate of tho capacitor.
current is anti-clockwise (opposite to the direction of the
charging current).We say that the capacitor discharges in the Remar�
resistor of the circuit. At the end of the charging
The capacitor acts as a generator and restores (supplies) energy process i = 0 and at the
to the circuit, during the discharging process. beginning of the discharging
The voltage across the capacitor decreases from E to zero, then the process i = - I m , then the
capacitor becomes completely discharged. uAB = uAM + uMB => current is discontinuous at the
0 = i R + Uc => i = - Uc R end of each half period
At the instant of starting discharging: Uc = E
=> UR = UAM = i R = - E
As time passes, Uc decreases => Ii I decreases.
When the capacitor becomes completely discharged: 1----:1
C. Durations of charging and discharging processes
� => I I
i = 0 => uR = i R = 0.

- When we choose a larger value of R or/and of C, charging and discharging processes become slower,
and then the duration of each process increases (Compare figures 4-b and 5-a ).
- When we choose a smaller value of R or/and of C, charging and discharging processes become faster,
and then the duration of each process decreases (Compare figures 4-b and 5-b ).
Charging and
12 12
discharging
1 o;---"'=--111\ 10-+-"'"-!I____ currents flow
a a in the circuit
6 6 until electric
4 4 equilibrium is
2 2 t(ms attained, then
0�-�� f......+ .....j.4 - ,j.-j r--=F7� - +==
����� O these currents
0 1 2 3 5 6 S 9 1 011 12 o 1 2 3 4 s e 1 a 9 10 1 112 are transient.
Fi 5-a Fi 5-b

194
2. Differential Equations in Voltage, Charge and Current
A. Charging Phase:
A neutral capacitor of a capacitance C, a resistor of resistance R and a
switch K, are connected in series across a generator of constant voltage
uAB = u0 =E (Figure 6). The switch is closed at t0 = 0.
»- Differential equation k
Apply the law of addition: uAM + uMB = uAs .
The voltage across the capacitor is uMB = Uc ::::} Ri + uc = E
The positive sense enters the capacitor from the plate of charge q
::::} i = + q = = C ue ::::} R C uc + Uc = E
d d(C uc) d d

ii
dt dt
+ = The first order differential equation that governs Differential equation in g
::::} � ii
the variation of uc during the charging phase. llAM + llMB = llAB = E

»- =>Ri+ .9.c = E
I I
Solution of the differential equation
=>R-+-=E
dq q
The solution of the differential equation is: Uc = E ( 1 -e- �) dt c
T= RC is the time constant; it is a characteristic of the (R-C) series =>-+-=-
dq q E
d t RC R
circuit
The above expression shows that uc increases exponentially with time. Differential equation in i
llAM + llMB = llAB = E
Verification of the solution =>Ri+ .9.c =E
Uc =E(l-e ), =E -Ee ,::::} dt = �e ., Derive with respect to time
_!_
ue _!_ d E _!_
di 1 dq
=>R-+--=0
dt c d t
Substitute in the differential equation: �e- � + Rc [E - Ee- � ] = :c
1
di
=>-+-=0 I
- !. dt RC
-e , + - - -e ,= - . So t he so1utlon
· 1s· ven·fied .
E _!_ E E E E E
::::} RC RC RC RC
::::} RC = -
RC

»- Particular values of Uc and q t

Consider the obtained expression of the voltage across the capacitor: Uc = E ( 1 - e - :;:) (Figure 7).
• Att0 = 0: Uc =E ( 1 -e- :;:) =E ( 1 - 1 ) = 0 .
0
Voltage
q = C Uc = 0 ::::} I Uc = 0 and I I q = 0 I E
(T,E) U G =E
:::,:::�..,-----��--i--�

• At�: uc =E ( 1 - e----:;:-) = E ( 1 - 0.37)

-T

::::} I Uc = 0.63E I
and q = C Uc = C (0.63E) ::::} lg= 0.63 Qm I 0.63E
At t = -c, the capacitor charges %63 out of
the maximum charge Qm .
-5T
• At�: uc =E ( 1 -e-,-) =E ( 1 - 0.007)
:::}I I
I = I
Uc =0.99E::E
and q = C Uc = C (0.99E) ::::} q = 0.99 Qm Qm 91 time
At t = 5 T : the capacitor charges 99 % out of the O Fig. 7 t1 = t
maximum charge Qm .
Practically, the capacitor is fully charged and the steady state is attained.
• Ast -t oo: e -� � 0 ::::} Uc """"? E :::}J Uc = E J and J q = Qm J
Unit of T: The unit of Tis the multiple of the units of the resistance and the capacitance: [.] = n . F
But R = �i and C = .9.u then [i] = A.':. . £
V =£
A
where C is coulomb and A is ampere while V is Volt.
But i = A = £s ::::} [.] = �
c = s ::::} The S.I unit of. is the second .
dq
::::}
dt

195
), The tangent to the curve u� = f(t) at t11 = 0
Consider the expression of uc: Uc = E ( 1 -e- �) , the derivative of uc with respect to time is
d uc E
-
_! (due)
11 t) at t e mstant t0 =0.
-E = sl ope of the tangent to the curve uc = �( h ·
t = -
-d- ,: e T ::::} dt t=O = '
Graphically, the slope of the tangent is: tan e = � (Figure 7). By comparison t� = �'! � t 1 = 1:.
t1 1
Conclusion
The tangent to the curve uc at t0 0 meets the horizontal asymptote of
=

equation u E at a point of abscissa 1:.

=

), Expression of the current i

. phase: U = E - Ee_!_, but 1. = C -
due = C -E e _!_,

I·
In the chargmg
...-----'-----.. dt '!
l(
c
c _!_ _!_ _! _!
::::} 1. = RCe , = R e , ::::} 1 = Re , = Ime , chargmg. current t
E E E
)
The expression of i can be obtained also from the addition of voltages: Fig. 8
. E - uc . 1 !_ E _ !_
Remark :
i = -- ::::} i = - [ E - ( E - E e _ , )] = - e ,
R R R Determination ofuc- from i
The current decreases exponentially with time (Figure 8). ct
If 1. = c -ctuc c
-t ::::} ctuc = 1. ctt ::::} Uc = i I I. dt ·
c
1
As a result, uR decreases exponentially with time, which
d uc h
T
ven"fi1es the curve of figure (4-c) during [ 0 ; 2 ]. Now, 1"f 1. = - c - ct-t t
c
en uc = - 1 I i dt

B, DJscharaine; phase:
The generator is disconnected from the circuit of figure (6). The new
circuit is closed at an instant chosen as a new origin of time t0 =0, and
c_

the capacitor starts discharging through the resistor (Figure 9).

M t:
+ .•
B
� Differential eguation
i +•
+
UAM + UMB = UAB = 0 (with UMB = uc) ::::} R i + Uc =0. q+ � K
. . sense remams
The positive . clockwise
. ::::} i. = + d
dq = C - due
uc
::::} R C d + uc =0 ::::} d
dt
I uc
. dt
+ �RC
=
�
?
Th: first or�:r differential
equation that governs the variation of uc during the discharging phase. Fig. 9
� Solution of the differential equation
The solution of the above differential equation is: I Uc = E e� I where T = RC.
t

uc decreases exponentially with time.

Verification of the solution
u
uc = E e- ; ::::} d c = - �e- ; Substitute in the differential equation: 0, but
dt
_! _!
T
E E
1 = RC , so - - e , + - e , O then the solution is verified.
RC RC
), Particular values of Uc and g
Consider the obtained expression of the voltage across the capacitor: Uc = E e (Figure 0
1 ).
t
T

• Att0 0: Uc = Ee-� :::}!uc =E! and q = C uc = CE :::}! q = Qm]

I
=

• Att T: Uc = E e-,, = E (0.37)

=
::::} Uc =0.37 E ! and q = C Uc = C (03
. 7 E)::::} jq = 0.37 Qm]
At t = T, Uc becomes 37 % of its maximum value E; the capacitor discharges 63% out of the
maximum charge Qm .
• Att = ST: uc = Ee-�' =0.01E:::} !uc=0.01E=:::o:::J and q = C uc:::}!q = O.OIQm= oj.
At t = 5 T: the capacitor discharges 99% out of the maximum charge Qm .
Practically, the capacitor is completely discharged, and the steady state is attained.

196
 II
t

I
• Ast--+ oo: For t--+ oo � e - � --+ 0
� uc --+ 0 � uc= 0 and [ q = 0 I I· E
Volt-age

),, The tangent to h

t e curve u!.; = f(t) at ti = 0
t
Consider the expression of uc: Uc = E e - � ,

[
the derivative of Uc with respect to time is
- =- - e ,
due
dt
E
,:
_!
� (-)
due
dt t=O
=
the tangent to the curve uc = f(t) at t0 = 0.
E
- - = slope of
,:
Uc
I
- I
I
I
Graphically, the slope of the tangent is: L
11u 0-E E .
- = -- = - - (Figure 10). ('t , o.37E) I
-n-+
11 t t1- 0 t1
By companson: - -
. E E
T
= - t1
- � t1 = -c .
Conclusion time
The tangent to the curve Uc= f(t) at t0 = 0, meets
the horizontal asymptote of equation u= 0 at a Fig.10
point of abscissa -c.
Theoretically, the capacitor needs an
Expressionof the currenti infinite time to become completely charged
or completely discharged since the graph of
t
In the discharging phase: uc= E e - � .
CE _ !, u11 is an asymptote to the curve uc.
1=+-= C -=--e , = --e ,
t
. dq due CE - .:.
--e
E

1· I.
T �
dt dt T RC R

1= - R E e _:, = - I m e _:, (1 ::; 0).

1
The direction ofthe discharging current is opposite to that ofthe
charging current (Figure 11).
The absolute value of the current decreases exponentially with time. As
a result, the absolute value of uR decreases exponentially with time,
which verifies the curve of figure (4-c) during [ T ]. f; Fig.I(
Time constant T: The time constant -c of the R-C series circuit is the tim�by
the capacitor to charge or discharge 63 % out of the maximum charge. l.!..-=..B..£J

Remark:
i,
• If S't > the capacitor neither charges nor
discharges completely (Figure 12).
• Ifs't>>-, T buttS -
2
T •-t « l •e-l
2 't
" 5!! l - 'tt-
•Uc= E(l- e-haB(l-t+!)•Uca!t.
't
So practically, Uc varies linearly with time.
't
0
Fig.12

Application 1
A neutral capacitor of plates M and D and of capacitance C = 2 µF is . "l&

connected in series with a resistor of resistance R = 1000 n, across an

,· ·,' ," i,,.r:-. �:

D
ideal DC generator (G) of constant voltage E = 12 V. The switch K is
closed at the instant t0 = 0, and the charging process starts (Figure 13). R
1. At t0 = 0: k
a. indicate the value of uMo = Uc.
b. determine the value of the current.
2. Verify that in the charging phase i and �: have the same sign.
3. a.Derive the differential equation that governs the variation of uc. Fig.13
b.The solution of the obtained differential equation is: where A , D and a are

197
 constants (D-::/= 0).Determine the expressions of A ,D and a, in terms ofE, Rand C.
c.Determine, as a function of time, the expression of the currenti flowing in the circuit.
4. Calculate the practical time needed by the capacitor to become completely charged .
5
5. a. Specify, without calculation, which of the following durations (�t � ' ; �t > ' or �t < �)

i
=

2 2 2
is the time needed by Uc to become
b. Support your answer by determining the time needed by uc to become in tenns of T. i,
6. When the capacitor is fully charged:
a. indicate the value of uMn, then deduce the value of the current.
b. calculate the absolute value of the charge Q stored in the capacitor.
c. calculate the number (N) of the excess electrons accumulated on plateD and deduce the number
of the electrons lost by plate M during the charging process. Given: qe - e - 1.6 x 10-19 C.
= =

Solution:
1. a. At t0 0, UMD
=
Uc = 0.
=

b. UBD E UBM + UMD

= =
i R+ UMD . At t0 0, UMD = 0 => E R i0
= = =

=> io I max �R .E_ 1000 0.012 A=>io 12 mA.

= = = = =

2. i leaves the positive pole of G then the direction ofi is clockwise => i > 0.
d d
q > 0 and its value increases during charging => dq > 0 . Thus i and dq have the same sign .
t t
3. a. E uBM + uMo R i + uc .
= =

d d MD due
The positive sense is directed towards plate M of charge q => i + d q => i C
=
C =
.
dt
=

t dt
d Uc d Uc Uc = E
=>RC--+ dt uc E => -+ - - .
=

dt RC RC
d
b.Derive Uc with respect to time: / c -aDe-at , substitute in the differential equation
=

t
A +De-at E
-aDe-a + t
RC RC
=>-RCaDe-at +A +De-at E =

t
=t_De-a (-RCa +j) + � '-?
=

VarJbie Const Const

By comparison: A= E ; and De-at ( -R Ca+1) 0 , butDe-at= 0 is rejected
=

1
then (-RCa+1) 0 => a = R c =

At t0 = 0, uc 0 = A+De-at => 0 A+D => D = - A => D = - E .

= =

t
. d . d c E e -n = E __t_
c. 1 =+dt q => 1 =+ C at R c => i =
Uc , b ut uc = E (1 - e �) Rc
Rc Re
-t

i = _E_e 1000 (2 x 10-6) => i= 0• 012 e-SOOt .

1000
5 T = 5 RC= 5 (1000) (2 x 10-6) = 0.01 s = 10 ms .
i
4. Llt =

5. a. At t T, Uc 0.63E > => the time taken by Uc to become 0.5 Eis smaller than T
= =

=> �t < 5 !
2
-� E -� 1 t t 1 t
b. Uc =E( 1 -e , ) => = E (1 - e , ) => = 1 - e , => e , = - ; = In 1
2 2 2 => lne 2
=>-�'t = In 0.5 => t = -T In 0.5 = 0.69 T < 2.5 T .
6. The capacitor is totally charged.
a. uMo = E 12 V . E = uMD + i R => i R =E-E = 0 => i = 0 .
=

b. Q C.uc 2 x 10-6x 12 = 24 x 10-6 C.

:i::9
= =

d. Q N.e => N = � = �:; 1.5 x 10 14 electrons.

1
= =

The number of electrons gained by plateD is equal to that lost by plate M.

So N1ost = 1.5 x 1014 electrons.

198
 Application 2 �
In the circuit of figure (14), a capacitor of capacitance C = 10 mF, is
initially charged (Uccmax) = E). The switch is closed at t0 = 0, so the
capacitor starts discharging through a lamp L acting as a resistor of
resistance R.
The graph of figure (15) represents the variation of the potential
difference uMB = Uc between the terminals of the capacitor, as a
function of time.
1. Verify that i and �: have opposite signs. Fig. 14
2. Determine the differential equation that governs the variation of
the voltage Uc across the capacitor.
3. The solution of the obtained differential equation is:
-t
uc = K eT . Determine the expressions of the constants K
(K -=f::. 0) and ,: in terms of E, R and C.
4. Use figure (15) to determine the:
i. value of E ;
ii. resistance R;
iii. instant at which the charge in the capacitor becomes Q = 10 mC;
iv. values of the current at t0 = 0 and at t = 6 s.
5. Determine the expression of the current in terms of E, R, C and t.
Deduce again its values at t0 = 0 and at t = 6 s.
6. The tangent to Uc = f(t) at t0 = 0 cuts the time axis at a point of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ��
abscissa t1 .Indicate the value of t 1 • Fig.15
Solution:
1. i flows in the positive sense=> i > 0 .
q > 0 and during discharging !qi decreases => �: < 0. Thus i and�: have opposite signs.
2. uMB + uB A + uAM = 0 => Uc + 0 - i R = 0
The positive sense leaves the capacitor from the plate of charge q=> i = - ��
. due due = due uc
But q = C uMB = C Uc => 1 = - C dt => Uc + R C dt 0=> dt + RC = 0 .
due = - K _!_
-e , . Substitute in the differential equation: - K e - � + � e :
t
3. uc = Ke-� => - dt T
= O
T Rc
_!_ -1 1 _!_ . . -1 1
=> Ke , ( -;- + RC ) = 0 , but Ke , = 0 1s reJected=>-;- + RC =O=>T = RC.
At t0 = 0 , uc = E => E = Ke 0 => K = E .
4. i. At to= 0, Uc is maximum; Uc(max) = 8 V=> E = 8 V.
ii. 0.37 E = 0.37 x 8 = 2.96 V. Graphically, at t = 1 s , Uc = 2.96 V=> ,: = 1 s.
But ,: = R C => R = 10 x\0 _3 = 100 0 .
1 0 x 10- 3 =
iii. Q = C Uc => uc =
10 x 10_3
1 V . Graphically, Uc = 1 V at t = 2 s .
0
iv. Uc = UMA = i R => i = �c . At t0 = 0, i0 = � = 0.08 A. At t = 6 s ;
1 0 - 0 = o.
10-

1 = - ctt - C ( - E� e- !., ) = RC
. dq - C du e CE - !. = E e- !,
5. = = e , .
=
dt R
At t0 = 0 ; i0 =
1 0 i
e- � = 0.08 A. At t = 6 s i =
1 0 e i -t
= 1.98 X 10-4 A 0.
6. The tangent to Uc = f(t) at t0 = 0 cuts the asymptote of equation u 1 = 0 at a point of abscissa T,
then t 1 = 't = 1 s.

199
 3. Energy Distribution in an R-C Series Circuit Under a Constant Voltage
The circuit offigure ( 16) includes a capacitor ofcapacitance C, a
resistor ofresistance R, a switch K, and an ideal generator of
electromotive force E. The switch is closed at t0 = 0, and the charging 1-B
___
process starts. At any instant, the current flowing in the circuit is i, the
voltage across the capacitor is uAB = uc , the voltage across the
resistor is u0A = uR and the voltage across the generator is R K
Uop = uG = E .
-t
d E E
In charging: uc = E ( 1 - e � ) where t = R C and i = ct: = R e
=._t_
T

Recall that the instantaneous power ofan energy converter is:

P = �: , where W is the energy. ++-­
Fig. 16
A. Expression of the electric energy stored in the capacitor
d
Pc = dwtc = i Uc => d W c = Pc dt = i Uc dt => Wc = f i U c dt Expression of Wc as a function of
d
=> We = f C dt ue Uc dt = f C uc due = .!.2 C uc 2 + const time(+)
We = -21 c uc 2 = -21 C E2 (1 - e T ) 2
-t
When Uc = 0 ; Wc = 0 => const = 0 then the ex ression of -t
1 -2 t
the stored electric energy is given by : W c = � C u� �We = 2 C E2 ( I - 2e7 + e-, )
At t ---+ oo Wc - � C E2 .
2
B. Expression of the energy dissipated in the resistor ( •) Figure (17) shows the variation of
d
P = WR = i UR => d W R = i UR dt = i2 R dt => W R = f i 2 R dt W R We as a function of time.
dt- t
Ez z E z _, =-3..!.
=
R f e T dt = R ( 2 e , ) + const We
E2 -Rc =-3..!. - c E 2 =-3..!. �C
2
E2
=> W R = - ( -- 2
e , ) + const =
-- 2
e , + const
R
-cE
2
c E2
But at t0 = 0 , W R = 0 => - 2
- + const = 0 => const = -- .
2
Then the expression ofthe dissipated energy in the resistor Tune
-2t
l
between t0 = 0 and t is given by: WR = 2 C E [ 1 - e-,-]
2
Fig.17
WR increases exponentially with time (Figure 18) .
C. Expression of the energy supplied by the generator ( •) 2 WR
Yz CE - - -----.:-:.::-:..----1
At any instant, the value ofthe energy supplied by the generator is the
sum ofthe ener ies consumed by the capacitor and the resistor ofthe
circuit: W G = We+ W R
TlDle
Expression ofW G as a function oftime:
dW Ez t O Fig.18
PG = _G = E i => dW G = E i dt => WG = E f i dt = - J e -� dt

----.:-- ----1
d t R
E z =...:. z WG
=> WG = R ( - T e T ) + const = -E 2 C e=...:., + const. CE ---
But at t0 = 0, W G = 0 => -E 2 C + const = 0 => const = E 2 C.
The exIJression ofthe electric energy delivered by the generator is:
-t
W G = C E 2 [ 1 - e �] .
WG increases exponentially with time (Figure 19). O Fig. 19
D. Some particular instants ( •)
Remark
When we substitute for the instants, t0 = 0 and t = 5T, in the above obtained During the discharging
expressions, we get: process, WO = 0, and the
Att0 0: W G = Wc = W R = O.
=
energy supplied by the
Att 5 T: W R = Yi C E2 ; We= Yi C E2; W G = C E2•
=
capacitor equals to the
Then by the end of the whole charging process, the capacitor will have energy dissipated by the
stored an amount of energy equal to that dissipated by the resistor. resistor.

200
Application 3
The circuit of figure (20) includes:
- an ideal generator of electromotive force E = 10 V;
- a resistor of resistance R;
- a capacitor of capacitance C = 20 m F;
L
- a switch (K);
- a lamp considered as a resistor of resistance r = 20 n.
A. Charging of the capacitor
(K) is turned to position (1) at t0 = 0 , so the capacitor, which is D M
initially neutral, starts charging .
Fig. 20
1. Indicate the direction of the charging current i and its expression in
terms of C , time t and Uc = uBo .
2. Calculate the electric energy Wc stored in the capacitor when it becomes fully charged.
3. a) At an instant t, the voltage across the capacitor is uc. Use Pa = d:G = E i to prove that the energy
supplied by the generator during the time interval [O ; t] of the charging process is
b) The capacitor becomes fully charged. Deduce:
i. the energy supplied by the generator;
ii. the energy WR dissipated by the resistor when the capacitor is fully charged.
B.
(K) is turned to position (0) at the end of the charging process.
1. Indicate the value of the current flowing in the circuit and the value of the voltage Uc .
2. Write the expression of the stored electric energy in the capacitor.
C. Discharging of the capacitor
The capacitor is fully charged, (K) is turned to position (2). The capacitor discharges through the
lamp.
1. Indicate the direction of the discharging current i .
2. Determine the consumed electric energy by the lamp when UJamp becomes 5 V .

Solution
d
A. 1. The direction of current i is clockwise . i = �� => i = C «:; .
i
2. Wc = C Uc 2 • The capacitor is fully charged uc = E => Wc = Weemax) = iCE 2

=> Wccmax) = i ( 20 x 10- 3

) (10) 2 => Wccmax) = 1 J.

3. a) dW a = E i dt => W a = f E i dt = fEC d:/ dt = C E f due = E C Uc + const

When Uc = 0 , W a = 0 => const = 0 => Wc = C E Uc.
b) i. The capacitor is fully charged Uc= E => W0 = C E 2 = ( 20 x 10- 3) (10) 2 =>We= 2 J.
ii.Wa =We+ WR =>WR = 2 - 1 =>WG == lJ.
B. 1. l = 0 ; Uc = E = 10 V .
2. We = iC E 2 .

C. 1. The direction oft is from N to M through the lamp (or clockwise).

2. When uL = uc = 5 V , the remaining energy in the capacitor is Wc = i (20 x 10-3) (5) 2 = 0.25 V.
The consumed electric energy by the lamp is W1amp = Wc(max) - 0.25 = 1 - 0.25
=> W1amp = 0.75J.

201
Application 4 (GS students) ( +)
Consider a copper rod MN of mass m and of length t =MN.MN can slide without friction on two
horizontal, parallel and conducting rails DD' and PP' whose horizontal plane is within a vertical uniform
magnetic field B of magnitude B. During its motion, MN remains perpendicular to the rails, and its center
of mass (G) moves along the Ox axis. The rod MN has a resistance r, while the rails have no resistance.
A neutral capacitor of capacitance C is connected between the points P and D.
At t0 = 0, the rod MN, confounded with DP, is given an initial velocity V0 horizontally to the right.
At an instant t, x = OG and v are the abscissa and the algebraic measure of the velocity of ( G)
respectively.
The closed circuit is oriented positively in the clockwise sense.

Fig. 21
A. The differential equation that governs the variation of the current i
1. Determine the expression of the electromotive force (e) induced in MN.
2. Determine the direction of the current induced in the circuit. Deduce that MN acts as a generator.
18
3. Apply Newton's z nd law to prove that the expression of the current in the circuit is:�=
dt m i.
4. Apply the law of addition of voltages to prove that the differential equation in i is:
di ( m + C B 2 f2 ) . _
- + 1 - O.
dt mrC
5. Consider the system (Rod ; capacitor). The sum of the kinetic energy and the electric energy of this
d
system is W. Knowing that := - r i2 , determine again the differential equation in i.
d

B. Expressions of the current and algebraic value of the velocity

-t
The solution of the above differential equation is: i = A e� where 1 and A are constants.
B-t'V 0 mrC
1. Show that A= -- r
and • = m + C 8 2 2 .
1
8 2 12
2. Deduce that the expression of v is: v = [(
m + Cv°z\
8 2
)(e-� - 1)] + V0 •
3. Draw, on two separate figures, the graphs that represent the variations of i and v as a function of time.
Solution
A. 1. <p=BS cos (8; n) = BS cos (180)= - B .C x. e= - ctt � e = B t v.
- .... d�

2. According to Lenz's law, the direction of the electromagnetic force Fe.m created due to i is
v.
horizontally to the left -opposite to that of the velocity Using the right hand rule, the direction
of i is clockwise ( i > 0).
i > 0 and e > 0 � e . i > 0 � The rod acts as a generator.
3. System: The rod MN
External forces: mg (weight of MN),
NM and NN (the normal reactions exerted by the rails at the points Mand N),
Fe.m (the electromagnetic force).
.... _. .... av
Newton's z nct law : L Fext = ma� m ....g + N + Fe.m = m-
dt
Project the equation along the x-axis:

202
 dv dv dv IB .
�o+ O-IF e.m l=m-dt � -i £ B sin 90 = m -dt � - - I.
dt m
4. Upo +uoM + u MN +uNP = 0 � uc+ 0 +ir -e + 0 = 0 ( take Uc=Upn).
d
� Uc + ir - B t v = 0 .....eq (*) . Derive both sides of eq (*) w.r.t time: ;te +r :: -B £ ::
=0
. _ dq _ i i di tB .
dt
du
[ BUtl -- - C -e � - =
dt
due
dt Then c]. c
+ r dt - B £ (- -;;:;- 1)=0
di . 1 B 2 t2 di +( m + C 8212
�-+1 (-+-)=0 � ) i= O.
dt rC mr dt mrC
dW dv due
5. W=KE +Wc =2.!. m v2 + 2.!. C uc 2 �dt =m v dt + C ucdt =_ r 1-2
fB . ) ·
�mv ( --1 m
+uc1 =-r1·2 � i (- v £ B +uc+r i)=0, but i=0 is rejected then
dv du di
(- v {.,o B +uc+r 1')=0 . Denve ·
· both s1"des w. r. t time: - {.,0 B + dte +r dt = O
fB "
� - -r;O B (--1+ ) -i + r-di -
- 0
di
� -+1-+-- -
1 ·c
B 2 f2 ) -
dt
di
0 � -+ (
m + c 9212 •
) I = 0.
m C dt dt rC mr dt mr C
di
B. 1. i =A e7 � _d =- � e 7 . Substitute in the differential equation:
t '(
A 2 m + CB 2 f2 2 .=!. 1 m + C B 2 f2 -
--:;e,+( m rC )A e,=O� Ae,(-;+ mrC ) 0
-t 1 m + CB f 2 2 m rC
Ae7=0 is rejected � -;+ mr c = 0 � 't' = m + c 8 2 1 2
. . - 8 fv
At t0- - 0 . F rom eq (*)·. 0 + I 0 r -B -r;o V0-
- 0 , Uc - - 0 � 1
0
- -- o •
r
81
But from the expression of i: i 0 =Ae =A � A= 0
Vo .
r
dv fB . fB . fB _.!. fBA - .!.
dt m J
2. - =- -1 � dv = - -1 dt =- - Ae ,dt �v=- -
m m J -
m (-Te , ) +const.
f8 A ' .!. f8 A '
� v = -- e- ,+const . A t t0 = O , v = Va _, ...,. Vo -- +const
m m
fBA, fBA, _ _!_T
-- fBA,
� const = Va - -- m � = m e
V +VO - -- m
fBA , -
� v= m ( e �-l)+Va .
B 2 f2 V m rC
Substitutefor A andt: v= [( r o ) ( + 2 2 ) (e-� -1)] +Va
t

m m CB f
+
2
� v = [( ; /� � 2\z)( e-� -1)] Vo
v

3. i =A e7 At t0 = 0 , i 0 =A= BfVo and as t -HlO, i � 0

r
8 2 f2 Va
v = [( ; (e-�-l)] +V0 �v is a decreasing function of time.
m + CB f2 )
B 2 f2 Va e m VO m Va
A S t � 00: V � V 0 - m +C B 2 f 2 < V0
m + C B2 f2 � V � m + C B 2 f2 • ·

m + C B 2 f2 t

Fig. 22 Fig. 23

203
 Reading
General expressions of thevol tage acrossthe capacitor during charging and discharging
A capacitor ofcapacitance C and a resistor ofresistance R are connected inseries across a L.F. G that maintains
across its terminals a square voltage Uo ofperiod T.
+ Chargingprocess
The differential equation that governs the variation ofthe voltage across the ca acitor when Uo = E,
is RC d;tc + Uc = E. The general solution of this differentialequation is iJiii ! .. lie*
where A is constant and depends on the initial conditions.
t t
Atto=O,Uc = Uo => Uo = E - A => A =E - Uo => uc=E - Ee-ic + 11oe-ic .
t t t
Therefore uc = E(l- e-ic)+ 11oe-ic If11o = Othesolutionbecomes uc = E(l -e-iic)

•> During discharging

The discharging process starts at an instant t0 =0, taken as a new origin oftime.
The differential equation that governs the variation of the voltage across the ca acitor when Uo = O,
is RC d�c + Uc = 0 . The general solution of this differential equation is where Bis constant
and depends on the initial conditions.
t t
Atto = 0, Uc = Uo => Uo = B Therefore uc =Uoe-ic IfUo = E => Uc = Ee-ic
T
Valuesof u'--at the en d of charging an d dischargingin case5 't > i
i
Given: E = 10 V , = 6 ms and t' = R C = 2.9 ms => 5 t' = 14.5 ms.
Consider the time intervals: [O, 6] ; [ 6, 12] ; [ 12, 18] ; [18, 24] and [24, 30] (ms).
To determine the values of Uc at the ends ofthe above intervals, we use the general expressions of Uc.
Take the starting instant ofeach interval as a new origin oftimeto = 0.

> [O, 6 ms]: Uo

=
= E. This is a charging phase.
t 6
11o = O=> uc = E(l- e-irc). Att = 6ms: uc = 10(1-e-u) 8.737V.
t
), [6ms , 12ms]: Uo= 0. This is adischargingphase. 11o = 8.737V=> Uc = 8.737 e-irc
6
At the end of this interval: Uc = 8.737 (e-u) = 1.104 V .
>
=
t t
[12ms,18 ms]:Uo= E. 11o= 1.104 V=> uc = E (1- e-irc) + 11oe-irc
6 6
At the end ofthis interval: Uc = 10(1 - e-u) + 1.10 3 e-u 8.876 V.
> [18 ms,24 ms]: Uo= 0, 11o = 8.876 V => Uc= 8.876 e-irc.
6
t

At the end ofthis interval: Uc=8.876 (e-2.9) = 1.121V.

> t t

=
[24ms,30 ms]:Uo= E , 11o = l.121V=> uc = E(l- e-irc)+ 11oe-irc
6 6
At the end of this interval: Uc = 10 (l - e-u) + 1.121e-u 8.878 V.
> After many charging and discharging process:
At the end ofeach charging process, ucbecomes very close to 8.878 V. Then, the values of Ile atthe ends of
charging phases arepractically equal.
At the end ofeach discharging, Ucbecomes very close to 1.121 V. Then, thevalues of uc at the ends of
discharging phasesarepractically eq ual.
12
10-+-----...
8
6
4
2 t(ms)
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Fig. 24

204
 Problems
1. Charging process
The adjacent circuit is composed of a battery, a resistor, a
switch and a parallel plate capacitor. The switch is closed at
t0 = 0.
a) Name the phenomenon that takes place in the capacitor.
b) At electric equilibrium, specify the sign of the charge at the
upper plate and at the lower plate of the capacitor.
c) Indicate the value of the current at electric equilibrium.
d) What happens to the charge of the capacitor when the
switch is opened?

2. Tables of charging and discharging of a capacitor ./

The adjacent circuit includes: a generator of constant voltage (K)
u A8 = E, a neutral capacitor of capacitance C , a resistor of (1) 2)
resistance R and a switch (K).
a) Complete the table below .

Phenomenon
Position
Time llAB llMN llDM i
D
!
of(K) (V) (V) (V) (mA) :/:R
0 10 1 E :::
'[

Charging (1) 2-r 1.35

5-r 9.93
c
00

B N
b) The capacitor becomes fully charged. The switch (K) is turned
to position (2) at an instant taken as a new origin of time. Complete the table below.

Position llAB llMN llDM f

Phenomenon Time
of(K) (V) (V) (V) (OJA)
0 -1
(2) 3.7
5-r -0.07
00

3. Charging of a capacitor by a constant currant

A neutral capacitor of capacitance C = 4 µF , a resisitor of resistance q
R = 16 k.O and a switch Kare connected in series across a generator
M N
(G) . The aim of this problem is to determine the charging time of the
capacitor in two cases: charging by a generator sending constant
current and charging by a generator of constant voltage. R K
A. (G) is a current generator that sends a constant current of value
I = 0.25 mA. The switch is closed at t0 = 0.
a) Calculate the voltage uAM = uR across the resistor during the
charging of the capacitor.
b) Calculate the charge Q acquired by the capacitor during a time of
0.16 s. Deduce the voltage uMN = uc across the capacitor at the instant t = 0.16 s .
c) Prove that the voltage uc increases linearly with time.
d) Determine the expression of the voltage across the generator as a function of time.
B. If (G) is replaced by a DC generator that maintains across its terminals a constant voltage E = 10 V.
Calculate the practical time needed by the capacitor so that uc becomes 10 V.

205
4. Determination of C using the curve We
A capacitor of capacitance C is charging under a constant We (mJ)
voltage E = 10 V. The adjacent graph represents the variation 50
of the energy Wc stored in the capacitor as a function of time. 40
a)The expression of the instantaneou�ower of the energy 30
. dW •
stored.mthe capacitor.1s: = dt = 1 u . 20
Prove that the expression of the energy W stored in the
i
capacitor at any instant is W = C uc 2 .
10
00 4 8
t(ms)
12 16 20 24 28
b) Use the figure to determine the capacitance of the capacitor.

5. Energy transformation In an R..c series circuit

The adjacent circuit includes: D
- a resistor of resistance R; \r----.•B
- a capacitor initially neutral of capacitance C; R
- a DC generator of e.m.f E = 80 V and of
negligible internal resistance; c
- a double switch and connecting wires.
(Neglect the resistance of the wires).
A. Charging process _______.____-_-_-_-_-_-� .......
+---I.
The switch is turned to position (1) at t0 = 0. M A
a) Indicate the direction of the current i in the circuit.
b) During charging, determine the expression of the current i in terms of E, R and uAB = uc .
c) At t0 = 0, the value of the current flowing in the circuit is 80 mA . Deduce R.
d) Indicate the component(s) that supplies/supply energy to the circuit and those which receive
energy during the charging process.
B. Discharging process
The switch is turned to the position (2) at an instant taken as a new origin of time t 0 = 0.
The fully charged capacitor discharges through the resistor. At t = 2 s, the voltage uc across the
capacitor becomes 0. 37 E.
a) Indicate the direction of the discharging current i.
b) Determine the capacitance of the capacitor.
c) Indicate the component that supplies energy to the circuit and the one that receives energy
during the discharging process.
d) i. Calculate the electric energy stored in the capacitor at t0 = 0 .
ii. Determine the average power of transformation of the electric energy into heat energy during
the interval [O ; 2 s] .

6. Main current of a circuit

In the adjacent circuit, the capacitance of the capacitor is C, the resistances of the resistors are R1 = 100

p
O and R2 = 200 0, and the generator is ideal of
electromotive force E . The switch (S) is closed, and A
the neutral capacitor starts charging.
At electric equilibrium, the main current flowing in the
circuit is 0.08 A. Given: e = 1.6 x 10- 19 C. E c
t
a) Determine the value of E.
b) Calculate the value of the voltage across the
capacitor when electric equilibrium is attained.
c) During the charging process, 2 x 10 14 electrons
are transferred from the upper plate of the
B
capacitor towards the positive pole of the generator. Deduce the capacitance of the capacitor.

206
7. Growth and decay of the current In an R.. c series circuit v'
The object of this exercise is to study the response of an R-C
Chl
series circuit to a square voltage. Ch2
In figure (1), a capacitor of capacitance C is connected in
c R = 10 kO
series with a resistor of resistance R = 10 KO across a
L.F.G adjusted to a square voltage of period T and of
maximum value E.
An oscilloscope is connected to display the variations of the
voltages u0M = uc and uFo = uR across the capacitor and the
resistor respectively. Figure (2) shows the displayed L.F.G
voltages on the screen of the oscilloscope over one period T.
a) Use figure (2) to:
u(V)
i. pick out the period T and the voltage E. Fig.1
ii. identify the four graphs with
justification.
1

14
--""""!�--""
1 6+-....
b) i. Determine the differential equation that 12
governs the variation of the voltage 10
Uc = uo M across the terminals of the 8
capacitor during the charging process. 6
4
ii. Verify that ( - 7, is a
-t

solution of the differential equation

2 ©. t(ms)
where T = R C. 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
iii. Use figure (2) to determine 't. Deduce C. Fig. 2
c) i. Use the time equation to determine the expression of d;tc at t0 = 0 . Deduce the equation of the
tangent to Uc = f(t) at t0 = 0.
ii. Deduce that this tangent cuts the graph of equation u 1 = E at the point k.
d) At t = 12 ms, taken as a new origin of time, the capacitor starts discharging.
i. Determine the differential equation that shows the variation of Uc during the discharging process.
ii. The solution of the obtained differential equation is = P e - y' where P and T' are constants.
t

Determine the expressions of P and T'.

iii. Use the expression of Uc during discharging to prove that T' has a time unit.
a. Durations of charging and discharging of a capacitor v
The circuit of figure (1) includes: q c
- a generator (G) adjusted to a square signal such that:

UAB = Uc = { E
i}
O ::,; t ::,;
M B

0 z- -
!<t<T
R
- a capacitor of capacitance C;
- a resistor of resistance R = 1000 0 .
A. The curves of figure (2) show the curve of the variation of the
voltage uM8 = Uc as a function of time and the tangent to uc = f(t) at
t0 = 0. Fig.1
a) i. Use figure (2) to specify the time constant T of the R-C u(V)
circuit, and deduce the practical time needed to fully =E
discharge the capacitor.
ii. Calculate the ca acitance C of the capacitor.
b) During charging, = D - 10 e- .
t

Use figure (2) to prove that D = E = 10 V

c) Draw the curves that represent the variation of uR = uAM as
a function of time over one period. o 1 2 3 4 5 e 1 a 91011 12
d) i. The discharging process starts at the instant t 1 = 6 ms. Fig. 2
207
 Determine, without using figure (2), the voltage across the capacitor ucat the instant t2 = 7 ms.
ii. Determine the total energy lost by Joules effect during the time interval [O ; 7 ms] , knowing
that by the end of the charging process, the capacitor stores an amount of energy equal to that
dissipated by the resistor during the whole charging process.
B. Figures (3-a) and (3-b) are obtained after doing certain modifications to the circuit of figure ( l ).
a) In which figure the processes of charging and discharging are faster than those of fi gure (2)? Justify
your answer.
b) Experimentally, we obtain figure (3-a) when some of the physical quantities among (E, R, C) are
modified. Indicate those ones and explain how.

u(V) u(V) UG

6 t (ms)
O
O O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112 o 1 2 3 4 s e 1 a 9 101112
Fig (3-a) Fig (3-b)

9. Determination of the sensitivities of an oscllloscope

A neutral capacitor of unknown capacitance C and a resistor of
resistance R =1 K O are connected in series across a DC.generator of q c
constant voltage u AB = E= 12 V (Figure 1 ). M
The switch is closed at t0 = 0.
An oscilloscope is connected to display the voltage u AM = u R on i
channel Y 1 and the voltage u MB =Ucon channel Y2 . R
The aim of this problem is to determine the vertical sensitivities, Sv 1
and Sv 2, and the horizontal sensitivity Vb of the oscilloscope.
Figure (2) shows the variations of u R and ucas a function ohime.
a) Redraw the circuit of figure (1) showing on it the connections of
+:;--
the oscilloscope . Fig.1
b) Use figure (2) to:
i. identify each of the waveforms (A) and (B;. u(V)
ii. determine Sv1 and Sv2.
c)
i. Derive the differential equation in the charge q.
-t
ii. ,..,., is the solution of the differential equation.
Deduce the expressions of the constants Qm and T in terms of
R, C and E.
t(ms)
iii. Knowing that the time needed by the charge to increase
from 20 % to 80% of its maximum value Qm is 2.77 ms, Fig. 2
deduce the value of T
d) i. Prove that at t = T , Uc= 0.63 E.
ii. Use figure (2) to determine the value of Vb .
1 O. Current and voltage of a resistor In charging and discharging phases ./
A capacitor of capacitance C and a resistor of resistance R = 80 0 are connected in series across a
generator (G) adjusted to a square signal, such that u c = u AB = Eduring the first half of a period and u c
= 0 during the second half of the same period. An oscilloscope is branched in the circuit in order to
display the voltage uc= u AM across the capacitor and u R = u MB across the resistor.
Note: The button "Inverse" of channel (2) is pushed in order that this channel displays uMB·
Figure (2) shows the displayed voltages on the screen of the oscilloscope.

208
A- Charging of the capacitor --•+ A Chi
Consider the charging phase ofthe capacitor:
a) Prove that the differential equation in the current i is:

b) Verify that is a solution ofthe above

differential equation, where Im is constant and T = R C.
c) The variation ofthe voltage uR represents the image of
the current i in the circuit:
i. Justify. --------ch2
ii. Deduce that curve (a) offigure (2) B
represents the variation ofuR as a Fig.1
function oftime. 12
iii. Deduce the direction of i and its 9 (b)
maximum value Im in the charging 6
phase .
3
d) Use curve (b) to prove that the sign of t(s)
the charge q ofthe upper plate ofthe or--t-�=r=�-:t--±--:t:---:-1::-::::;�
5 10 15 20 25 30
....��:
55
capacitor is positive. Deduce that the -3
capacitor acts as a receiver during the -6
charging phase. -12
B- Discharging of the capacitor
Consider the discharging phase ofthe Fig. 2
capacitor:
a) Specify the voltage displayed by each ofthe curves (c) and (d).
b) Use the graph to specify the direction ofthe current during discharging.
Deduce that the capacitor acts as a generator during the discharging phase .
c) i. Determine the differential equation in uR.
ii. Knowing that d:t = 2.2 V/s at the beginning ofthe discharging phase, determine the value of C.
d) Draw, on figure (2) over one period, the graph that represents the variation of u G as a function oft.

11. Consumption of energy by a resistor while charging a capacitor ./

An ideal generator of electromotive force E supplies electric energy to a
series circuit composed ofa capacitor ofcapacitance C, a resistor of (K
resistance R = 500 0, and a switch (K).
The switch is closed at t0 = 0 and the capacitor, which is initially neutral, D '
starts charging. At any instant t, the voltages between the terminals ofthe
capacitor and the resistor are U c = uMN and uR = uoM respectively.
E
A- Determination of C and E
a) In the charging phase, where T =RC.
Deduce then the expression of uR.
b) Prove that the ex ression ofthe natural logarithm of uR , as a function B
Fig.1
oftime, is ln (uR) = ln (E) - .!..11
c) Figure (2) represents the variation ofln (uR) as a function oftime ln(u R) (uR in V)
t. 1
i. Use the above equation to write the expression ofthe slope of 2
the obtained graph. Deduce the value of C. 1
ii. Prove that E == 20 V . O 4--+--+-_;::,,lr---li----l:J.!!�
-1
-2
Fig. 2

209
B- Consumption of energy by the resistor during the whole charging phase
Figure (3) represents the variation of the energyWe supplied by
the generator during the charging phase as a function of Uc .
a) Calculate the stored electric energyWe by the capacitor at
the end of the charging. 6 7.344
b) Pick out from figure (3) the electric energyWe supplied 4
by the generator during the whole charging process.
I
I
I
c) Deduce the heat energyWR dissipated by Joule's effect in 2 18.36 : u
,. c
the resistor during the whole charging process. Compare Q,-f"'----il----t----1--..::+-4-�
WcandWR . 01 5, 10 15- 20
Fig. 3
C- Rate of consumption of electric energy by the resistor in the charging phase
a) Determine the electric energy stored in the capacitor at t = 2.5 T.
b) Use figure (3) to deduce the electric energyWR1 dissipated by the resistor during (0 ; 2.5 ms].
Deduce the electric energyWR2 dissipated by the resistor between t1 = 2.5 't and t2 = 5 't.
c) CompareWR1 andWR2 . Interpret this result.

12. Lighting a lamp with the energy stored in a capacitor

The circuit of figure (1) includes:
R = 1000
- a capacitor of capacitance C; c:::::::r
- an ideal generator of emf E; -+ -+
- a resistor of resistance: R =100 O;
- a lamp which acts as a resistor of unknown
resistance r;
E T L
- a double switch K and connecting wires.
First Experiment: Charging of the capacitor
The switch K is turned to position (1) at t0 = 0 s, M
so the neutral capacitor starts charging. Fig.1
Figure (2) shows the variation of the current i as
i(miA)
a function of time t during the charging process. Figure (3) 120

shows the tangent to Uc = uAM = f(t) at t0 = 0. 100,

80
a)Determination ofE and C 60
i. Use figure (2) to prove that E =12 V. 40

ii. Deduce from figure (3) the value of the time constant T of t(s)
the circuit. 0.2 0,.4 o.e. o.e 1

m. Prove that the capacitance of the capacitor is C = 2 mF. Fig. 2

b)Expression of the potential difference uAM and the stored 14 u.(V)
energy in the capacitor
i. Determine the differential equation that governs the
variation of the voltage uAM = Uc
ii. The solution of the above equation has the form of:
*
where A, a and B 0 are constants. t(s)
Deduce the values of A, a and B. 0,1 0.2 0.3
iii. Deduce the expression of the current i. Is this expression Fig. 3
consistent with of the curve of figure (2)? Justify.
iv. Determine the stored energy in the capacitor when the current is 50 mA.
Second Experiment: Discharging of the capacitor- Lighting the lamp
The capacitor is totally charged. As we turn the switch to position (2), the capacitor starts discharging at
an instant t taken as new origin of time (t0 = 0).
The expression of the current, relative to the positive sense of the discharging circuit; is
a) Indicate the value of the potential difference uFN across the lamp at t0 = 0.
b) Prove that r = 200 0, and then write the expression of the current as a function of time t.
c) Deduce the expression of the potential difference uAM across the capacitor.

210
 d) The lamp stops glowing (brightness is very weak) when the instantaneous consumed electric power
becomes P < 0.1 W. Determine the instant t at which the lamp stops glowing.

13. Determination of the capacitance of a capacitor by three experiments

We intend to determine the capacitance C of a capacitor (N) by three different experiments.
A .First experiment
The circuit of figure (1) includes: -4 K D
- a DC generator of constant voltage E;
- the capacitor (N) of capacitance C;
- a resistor of resistance R1;
c�
E ..I_
- a switch K.
The switch is closed at t0 = 0.
The voltage across the capacitor at any instant t is uoF = uc , the voltage
across the resistor is uFM = uR 1 , the current flowing in the
circuit is i, and the charge
acquired by the plate D of the 24 u·c(V)
capacitor is q.
Figure (2) represents the 16
variation of uc as a function
of i, while figure (3)
represents the variation of uc 8
as a function of q, for the . q b1C)
whole charging phase. o++-+-+-+�i,...+-+-+-+-1-+-+-1""1,-+-+� �c.+-+-1.....-1-+-+-+-+-+-1-+-+-+-t-+-�
32 48
a) Apply the law of addition 0 3 16 24 0 16
of voltages to determine the expression Fig. 2 Fig.3
of uc as a function of E, R1 and i.
b) Use figure (2) to:
i. determine E ; ii. Deduce R1 .
c) i. Write the expression of Uc as a function of q and C.
ii. Use figure (3) to determine C.
B. Second experiment
The capacitor (N) is disconnected from the circuit of figure ( 1).
In this experiment, the capacitor (N) of plates g and m; being initially fully
charged, is connected in series with a resistor of resistance R2 and the switch K
(Figure 4).
The switch is closed at the instant t0 = 0. The voltage across the capacitor at any
instant t is uBH = uc , and the voltage across the resistor is uAH = uR 2 .
,. ___.___.H
a) Determine the differential equation that governs the variation of the voltage
UAH = UR 2 , Fig.4
b) Figure (5) shows the variation of uR 2 as a function of time.
Use figure (5) answer the following questions:
i. Prove that g is the positive plate of (N).
ii. The..... solution of the above differential equation is: 16
... �, . ' ��;."'"
. where H, P and T' > 0 are constants.
' 1'.;:: • '
.
Determine the values of the three constants 8
H, P and T'.
iii. Knowing that the maximum value of the current flowing in
the circuit is Im = 48 mA, determine the capacitance of the 1 2 3 4 5.
capacitor (N). Fig.5

211
C. Third experiment
In this experiment, the capacitor (N), being initially fully charged, is connected in series with a resistor
ofresistance R3 , a neutral capacitor (S), and the switch K (Figure 6). The switch is closed at t0 = 0.
Figure (7) shows the variation ofthe charge q of(N) as a function oftime and the tangent to the curve
q f(t) at t0 0.
= =

a) Specify whether the capacitor (N) discharges completely through the resistor and the capacitor (S).
b) The • ss ofthe curve q offigure (7) (N)
}".;", �:,,._�- �,v �i; q (µC)
48
1s: ....�:· - • ��'
where
���,' j
Z
constant, and Qm is the initial charge
is a
q ..
..
32
stored in the capacitor (N).
i. Determine Z.
..
.
16
ii. Determine the expression ofthe first
derivative ofq with respect to time, at
t0 0. 0
.
t (ms)
o 0,.4 O.a 1.2 1.6 2
=

iii. Deduce, graphically, the value ofthe term C R3. Fig. 6

Fig. 7
iv. Knowing that R3 = 600 0, deduce the value ofC.
14. Analogy: Growth of the voltage across a capacitor and growth of the
magnitude of the tension force of a spring
A. Growth of the voltage uc
Figure ( 1) shows a capacitor ofcapacitance C ,a resistor of
resistance R and a switch K connected in series across a generator
that maintains across its terminals a constant voltage E.
+

i
The switch is closed at t0 = 0. R
a) Determine the differential equation in the voltage u MD uc = k
�cross the terminals ofthe ci'acitor in terms ofE, C , R and the
BY
E
time t.
b) The solution ofthe obtained differential equation has the form
Fig.1
i. Determine the expression ofthe amplitude Um ofuc , and write the expression ofthe
practical time needed by Uc to attain its maximum value Um .
ii. Draw roughly, the curve that represents the variation Uc ofas a function oftime t.
B. Growth of the magnitude of the tension force of a spring
Consider a spring ofnegligible mass and ofstiffness K placed on a horizontal table.
Initially, the spring is neither compressed nor stretched, and its left end is fixed while its right end

.. Vooom.....
(0) is free. A horizontal constant force F of
magnitude F is applied at (0) at t0 0. During
=
f F
r -0 ___...
--+
...
frictional force where h is a positive
·---------·

Natural length f
v r
constant and = � is the�ocity of its end (0). Figure (2)
dt
Fig. 2
shows the external forces acting on the end O ofthe spring during its stretching to the right.
a) Apply Newton's z nct law to show that the differential e uation which governs the variation ofthe
algebraic measure ofthe tension ofthe spring is:
b) The elongation ofthe spring under the action of F is analogous to the charging ofthe capacitor
under a voltage E.
A physical quantity in mechanics is analogous to each ofthe following physical quantities in
electricity: C, R, uc, and E. Compare the two obtained differential equations to identify these
physical quantities.
c) Using this analogy:
i. deduce the solution ofthe differential equation obtained in part B-a.

212
 ii. write the expression ofthe amplitude Tmof T and write the expression ofthe practical time
needed by T to attain its maximum value Tm.
iii. draw roughly the curve that represents the variation ofT as a function oftime t.
15. Laplace's rails-Determination of the capacitance of a capacitor
( GS students) ( +)
Consider a copper rod MN of b
mass m = 10 g and oflength
f = MN = 20 cm. MN can slide
without friction on two horizontal,
parallel and conducting rails ab a
and kd whose horizontal plane is
within a vertical uniform magnetic
field B ofmagnitude B = 0.4 T
(Figure 1 ). During its motion, MN Fie.1
remains perpendicular to the rails, and its center ofmass (G)
moves along an Ox axis. An ideal generator ofelectromotive force E is connected in series with a
neutral capacitor ofcapacitance C, between the points a and k.
The rod MN has a resistance (r = 4 0) while the rails have no resistance. At t0 = 0, (G) coincides with
the origin O ofthe Ox axis, and it carries an electric current i. MN is placed in the magnetic field, so it
starts from rest under the action ofthe electromagnetic force Fe.m ofmagnitude Fe.m and ofdirection
same as that ofthe Ox axis. At an instant t, x = OG and vare the abscissa and the algebraic measure of
the velocity of (G) respectively. In this problem, we intend to determine the capacitance C ofthe
capacitor.
A. The differential equation that governs the variation of the current i
a) Indicate the direction ofthe magnetic field B.
b) Name the two phenomena that take place in the circuit during the motion of MN.
c) Determine the expression ofthe induced electromotive force e in MN.
d) Indicate the sign of the current. Deduce that MN acts as a receiver.
e) Apply Newton's z nd law to prove that :
f) Ap l the law of addition ofvoltages to prove that the differential equation in i is:

The solution ofthe above differential equation is: where T and A are constants.
E m rC
a) Show that A= -r and T = m +CB zfz .

b) Deduce that the expression of vis:

C. Determination of E and C
Figure (2) shows the variation ofthe algebraic value ofthe current flowing in MN, and figure (3) shows
the variation ofthe algebraic value ofthe velocity of (G). Use the two figures to:
a) prove that E = 10 V.
b) determine C by two different methods.
c) draw the tangent to each curve at t0 = 0.

0,08

t
2,5
2 0,06
1.S 0,04
1 0,02
0,5 t(ms) t(ms)
00 4 8 1'2 16 4 a 12 16
Fig. 2 Fig. 3

213
 8

al'
0
l
Cjl

·2

.4

·6
-8

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
t ms

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

•:• Define and determine the characteristics of the alternating sinusoidal current.
•:• Determine the phase difference between two sinusoidal functions.
•:• Compare the current in a resistor to the alternating sinusoidal voltage across its
terminals.
•:• Compare the current in a coil to the alternating sinusoidal voltage across its
terminals.
•:• Compare the current flowing in an R-L-C series circuit to the alternating sinusoidal
voltage across its terminals.
•:• Determine the average power consumed during a period of the alternating sinusoidal
voltage.

214
 1. Alternating Sinusoidal Current
), Sources of alternating sinusoidal current
We are interested in two sources ofalternating sinusoidal current:
The alternator (Dynamo) (Figure 1)
The alternator (discussed in chapter 8) converts mechanical energy
into electric energy and sends alternating sinusoidal current in the
circuit.
The function generator (Figure 2)
The function generator (or signal generator or waveform generator)
operates under alternating sinusoidal voltage. The output voltage of
this apparatus could be alternating sinusoidal, alternating
triangular, square, etc ...
Each of the frequency and the amplitude of a function generator
can be regulated over a range chosen according to the type of the
generator.
The low frequency generator (L.F.G) is a function generator with
a low range of frequencies.
� Definition and characteristics of the alternating sinusoidal
current
Alternating sinusoidal current is a periodic current which has a
variable value and changes its direction each half-period (Figure
3). The average value of this current during a period is zero . Fig. 2
The current that flows in an electric circuit, including resistors, coils and
capacitors fed by an alternating sinusoidal voltage (u), is an alternating sinusoidal current having the same
angular frequency as that of (u).
The alternating sinusoidal current (or voltage) has two half­ i
waves in each period, one is positive and the other is
. negative.
The general forms of the alternating sinusoidal current and
volta e in a circuit arerespectivel : T
· = I sin wt+ and where: . 0
• Im = const > 0 and Um = const ·> 0 are the amplitudes
of i and u respectively.
- Im ::; i ::; Im and - Um::; U::; Um·
• w = const > 0 is the angular frequency of i and u. Fig.3
2
w= 2 n f = Tn where f and T are the frequency and the period respectively.
• (wt + cp 1) is the phase of i at an instant t, while (wt+ cp 2) is the phase ofu at the instant t. These
phases could be equal or different depending on the initial phases cp 1 and cp2 •
• In S.I units, i and Im are expressed in A, 1! and Um in V, t in s, win rad/s and fin Hz.
� Effective value of an alternating sinusoidal current
The effective value of an alternating sinusoidal current of maximum value Im is the value of a direct
current which produces the same effect in the electric circuit during a period.
I max
I eff = Tz
For example, dunng a certain time interval, an alternating sinusoidal current of effective value Ieff = 2

J
A dissipates in a resistor (by Joules effect) the same amount of heat as a direct current ofvalue 2 A.
Similarly the effective value of an alternating sinusoidal voltage is given by: Ueff = �
Note: When a voltmeter and an ammeter adjusted to the alternating mode are connected in an electric
J
circuit they measure the effective values of the voltage and the ClliTent respectively.

215
2. Phase Difference
As mentioned before, if the current i flowing between two points in a circuit is alternating sinusoidally of
angular frequency w, then the voltage u between these points is also alternating sinusoidally of same
angular frequency w.
Example: and

I Acp = <pz - cp1 I is called the phase difference between i and u.

Consider the three cases:
* If A <p = 0 , we say that i and u are in-phase ; over a half period , i and u become maximum or
minimum simultaneously (Figure 4-a).
* If Acp > 0, we say that i leads u or u lags behind i; over a half period, i becomes maximum before u
(Figure 4-b).
* If Acp < 0, we say that u leads i or i lags behind u; over a half period, u becomes maximum before i
(Figure 4-c).
Remark: the above cases are valid if ILl<pl � TI.

Fig (4-a) Fig (4-b) Fig (4-c)

Application 1
The expressions of the current i sent by a L.F.G and the voltage across its terminals are:
i = 2 sin (10011 t + �) u = 220v'2 sin (rot + ; ) S.I.
1. Calculate the effective values of the current i and the voltage u.
2. Determine the frequency of the voltage u.
3. Determine the phase difference ILlcpl between i and u and indicate which one leads the other.
4. The graphs (a) and (b) represent the variation of i and u as a function of time.
a. Specify the graph that represents the
variation of i.
b. Verify graphically the above obtained
value ILlcpl of the phase difference
between i and u .
Solution:
1. leff =
I
lz 2 J-.
= '12 = v 2 A .
U eff -
_ U'12
m
_ 220 -/2 _ 220 V·
- '12 -
100 Fig. 5
2. The frequency of i is f = � Zn
= n = 50
2n
Hz. i is alternating sinusoidal of frequency f then u is
alternating sinusoidal of same frequency of 50 Hz.
3. The phase difference is Llcp = � - � = cs�: )n = 0. 3 ff rad. Llcp > 0 then i leads u by 0.3 ff rad.
4. a. From the expressions of i and u, i leads u � Curve (b) represents the variation of i.
b. The period of each curve corresponds to D = 4 div , while the phase difference corresponds to
d = 0.6 div.
D = 4 div -+ 2n rad 0.6 X 2 TI
{ } => --- = O. 31t rad .
=> d = o.6 div ""' ILlcrl 4 div

216
 --
3. Current in a Resistor and Voltage Across its Terminals
Consider a resistor of resistance Rconnected across a L.F.G that maintains
A R
across its terminal an alternating sinusoidal voltage u0 = Um sin (wt+cp). .....,',·.·::.·.·::· B

f
uAB = u0 = R= Um sin wt+<Q) . By applying Ohm's law for a resistor
u R= Ri ,we obtain Um sin( wt+cp)=Ri::::}i = u; sin (wt+cp)
L.F.G
Thus the current flowing in the resistor is: i = Im sin (wt+ <p ).
We deduce that:
• i is alternating sinusoidally of an angular frequency equal to that of UR.
• i and uR are in phase. Fig. 6
4. R-L Series Circuit Under Alternating Sinusoidal Voltage
Experiment 1: Comparison between the current in a coil and the voltage across its terminals

)- Equipment:
• A L.F.G with alternating sinusoidal output voltage;
• A coil of inductance L and of internal resistance r;
A resistor of resistance R;
• An oscilloscope with two channels Y 1 and Y2 and
connecting wires.
)- Procedure:
• Connect the circuit of figure (7).
• Y1 displays uAM = uL A
Y2+"INV" displays uMB = uR .
Fig.7
(uR= Ri ,but Ris constant then uR represents the
image of the current i).
)- Observation
The curves of figure (8) are observed on the
screen of the oscilloscope where:
• i and uL are sinusoidal and of same frequency.
• uL leads i.

Analytical study
The voltage across the generator is alternating sinusoidally and then the current flowing in th�
the steady state,is also alternating sinusoidal. Suppose that the current flowing in the coil is -­
. The voltage betwen the terminals of the coil oriented positively from A to M is:
uAM = UL= r i+L � ::::} UL= r Im sin (wt)+L w Im cos (w t) . Remark
dt
Using trigonometry: r Im sin (wt)+ L w Im cos (w t) = U Lm sin (wt+ <p) In an R-L series
where U L m > 0 is the amplitude of uL and <p > 0 is the phase difference circuit (Figure 7):
between uL and i. Then L = U sin wt+
=
•Uo UL+ UR
UL leads i by q>1 and
By comparing the expressions of i and uL,we deduce that: UR is in phase with
• uL and i are sinusoidal of same angular frequency w ; i • Uo leads i by
• uL leads i by q>. (pi :I: (1)1 •
Purely inductive coil • UO(max) > UR(max)
You have studied in chapter (8) that a coil is purely inductive if its internal • UO<-> > Uu->

217
 Conclusion
When a coil of inductance L carries an alternating sinusoidal current of angular frequency w and of
amplitude I m :
* The voltage across the coil is alternating sinusoidal of the same angular frequency w.
* the voltage across the coil leads the current by:
• <p i- � rad if it is a resistive coil.
• <p = � rad if it is a purely inductive coil.
* The maximum voltage (amplitude) across a purely inductive coil is: U m = L I m co.

Application 2
The current flowing in the circuit of figure (9) is i = Im sin cot B
R
The voltage across the coil is illMA =UL= U sin wt+ g> where <p is
the phase difference between uL and i .
The inductance of the coil is L and its internal resistance is r.
1. Write the expression of the voltage uMA = u L across the coil in
terms of I m , L, w, r and t.
2. Substitute for wt = 0 and wt = � rad to prove that : A
�<p= � r andU= Im + .
..Joo2 L2 r2
Fig. 9
3. Deduce <p and the expression ofU for r = 0 .
4. The expression of the voltage across the generator is �A= Uo = Um sin (rot + <i>1).
Apply the law of addition of voltages to prove that <p 1 > 0 ( uG leads i by <p 1).
Solution:
1 . uMA = 1. r + L dt
di = r I m sm
. cot + L co I m cos cot .
2. uL = U sin (wt+ <p) = r I m sin cot + L co I m cos cot
for co t = 0 => U sin <p = L co I m => sin q> = L :Im . . . eq ( 1) .
n
for co t = 2 rad => U cos <p = r I m => cos q> = m u ...
ri
eq (2)
L w Im
Divide eq (1) by eq (2): tan <p = r I => tan q> = �. r
m ·

C
2 2

)
2 2
Square then add the two equations : sin <p + cos <p (� ) + 1
�m
=

=> (L co I m ) 2 + (r I m ) 2 = U 2 => U = Im
Lw ·
.J
(L oo) 2 +
ff . (r)
2

3. tan <p = - . For r = 0, tan <p .- oo => q, = -2 rad .

.J
r
U = Im (L w)2 + (r) 2 . For r = 0, U = Im -J�(L_w_)2_ _+_(-0)-2 => U = Im L <.t> .
4. uBA = uBM + uMA => U m sin (cot + <p1) = R I m sin cot + r I m sin cot + L co I m cos cot
L w Im >
For wt= 0 => U m sin <p1 = L co I m => sin <p 1 = 0 => <Pt > 0 � Uc leads i.
Um

Application 3
Consider the circuit of figure ( 10). The coil is purely inductive and
the resistance of the resistor is R= 9 n. The current flowing in the
circuit is i
The voltage across the L.F.G is u = :!JG= U sin wt.
Figure ( 11) shows, in the steady state, the variations of ua = uAM
A
and uR = uBM as a function of time.
1. Show the connections of the oscilloscope in order to display + ..1111---
Ua = UAM and UR = UBM · Fig.10
2. Use figure (11) to answer the following questions:

218
 a. u 1 represents ua and u2 represents uR . Why?
b. Determine the values of co and U.
c. Calculate the phase difference between uR and ua.
d. Determine the expression of uR as a function of time.
3. Deduce the expression of the current flowing in the circuit
4. Write the expression of uL uAB in terms ofL and t.
=

5. Apply the law of addition of voltages and give cot a

particular value to determineL.
Solution:
1. See figure(12). Fig.11 Sv = 5 V/div
2. a. In an R-L series circuit, uG leads i( ua leads uR) Vb = 0.2 ms/div
u 1 leads u2 then the waveform of u 1 represents the variation of u G ,
and the waveform of u2 represents the variation of UR ,
Another method: The vertical sensitivities of the two channels are
equal and the amplitude of the curve of u 1 is greater than that of u2,
then the amplitude of the voltage u 1 is greater than that of u2. As a
result, u 1 represents the variation of ua and u2 represents the A
variation of uR. +.__

=
b. T = 6 x 0.2 ms = 1.2 ms. Fig.12
It = 2
co
=
\1.z :1�_ 3 � ro 5236
d x 2 it 0.6 x 2 it
rad/s . U = Sv x 3=
5 x 3 � U = 15 V .
c. l�<i>I <p = - =
- = -- 0.21t rad. =
0 6
d. UR(max) = 5 x 2.426 12.13 V. UR lags behind Ua by <p � UR UR(max) sin(cot- <p)
= =

=
� uR = 12.13 sin (5236t - 0.21t) (S.I) .
1 13
3. uR u8M i R � i \ sin(5236t- 0.21t) � i
= = =
1.348 sin (5236t - 0.2Tt) (S.I)
d'
4. UL= UAB L .2 L x 1.348 x 5236 cos(5236t -0.21t) �UL = 7058.128 L cos (5236t - 0. 2 Tt) (S.I).
= =
dt
5. ua uR + uL � 15 sin cot
=
12.13 sin(cot-0.21t) + 7058.l28L cos(cot- 0.21t)
=

For wt= 0: 0
= 12.13 sin(- 0.2 n) + 7058.128L cos(-0.2 n) � 0 = - 7.129 + 5710.1455L
=

�L 1.25 x10-3 H = 1.25 mH .

5. R�C Series Circuit Under Alternating Sinusoidal Voltai:e

Experiment 2: Comparison between the current in a capacitor and the voltage across its terminals

> Eguipment: a Y2
,. AL.F.G with alternating sinusoidal output voltage;
M B
A capacitor of capacitance C;
-. A resistor of resistance R ;
• An oscilloscope with two channels Y 1 and Y2 ;
"* Connecting wires.
> Procef!ure:
• Connect the circuit of figure (13). +
• y l displays UAM = UR Fig.13
Y2 + " INV " displays UMB = Uc .
> Observatign
The curves of figure(14) are observed on the screen of
the oscilloscope, where:
• i and uc are alternating sinusoidal and of same
frequency.
• i leads Uc by rad. i Fig.14

219
Analytical study
The voltage across the generator is alternating sinusoidal and then the - Recall that, if:
current i flowing in the circuit, in the steady state, is also alternating =
* i +!!.!:!.. == C due
=
dt dt
sinusoidal. The voltage across the capacitor is Uc = uMB .
=
Let ' I cos ro .
:::> dUc .!. i dt
i
1. = C dt
due
c J.
=> Uc = 1 I dt = -1 J(Im cos wt) dt = c
Im sm . wt . :::> Uc= fidt
• = dq
But sin rot = cos (rot - � ) => = ..!m.. cos (rot - � ) = Uccmax) cos (rot - � * • --;-
Similarly 1Jc = - .!. f i dt
c
The comparison ofthe expressions ofi and Uc, leads to the following
- Reading:
conclusion:
=
In reality, ifi Im cos O>t.
Conclusion: Ifthe current in a capacitor is alternating sinusoidal of = 1111 •
, uc c";' sm <ut + const •
angular frequency w and ofamplitude Im , then:
• the voltage across the capacitor is alternating sinusoidal ofthe same ·
=
But Uo UR + Uc where:
Uo and l1R are symmetric
angular frequency w. relative to the time axis. As
• the current leads the voltage across the capacitor by � rad . a result, Uc is also
* the maximum voltage (amplitude) across the capacitor is: Umax = �
Cw
symmetric relative to the
time axis � const 0. =
Remarks Reading : A method used to memorize if i leads or lags
• In the R-C series circuit of figure behind u in a coil or in a capacitor, is shown in the diagram
(13), ll<, = UR+ Uc· below. We write the word "Civil":
i
But Uc lags i by rad, while uR is in ./ in front of the letter C which corresponds to a capacitor
, i is before V, then i leads uc.;
phase with i.
i
:} Do lags behind i by IL1<f>I :/:. rad.
./ behind the letter L which corresponds to a coil,V is
before i, then uL leads i..
c i v i L
• Uc(max) > UR(max) and;
Capacitor/
'--14�
s V V leads i �Coil
Uc(max) > Uc(max) · i lead

Application 4 li!:ii
Consider the circuit offigure (15). q Ch2
The current flowing in the circuit is m�.-,.,.11 B D
Given: R =4 n; Vb 0.125 ms /div; Sv1 = 4 V/div for Ch (1) and
=

Sv2 = 0.25 V/div for Ch (2) .

The button «Invert» of channel 2 is pressed.
Figure (16) shows, in the steady state, the variations ofuR = uAB
and uc = u8D as a function oftime.
1. Indicate the potential difference displayed by each channel. Chl�
2. Use figure (16) to answer the following questions: Fig. 15
a. Curve (a) represents the variation ofuc and curve (b) represents the
variation ofuR as a function oftime. Justify.
b. Calculate the amplitude ofeach voltage and that ofthe current.
c. Determine the expression ofuR as a function oftime.
d. Calculate the phase difference between uR and Uc,
e. Deduce the expression ofuc = u8D as a function t.
3. Determine again the expression ofuc as a function ofC and t.
4. Deduce the value ofC.
Solution
1. Chl displays uAB • UR and Ch 2 + "INV" displays UBD = Uc.
2. a. i or uR leads Uc . Curve (b) leads curve (a), so curve (b) Fig. 16
represents the variation of ua and curve (a) represents the variation of uc.
1
.
b UR(max) = Ymax 1xSv1 = 3 x4=12V,but UR(max) = ImR => Im = : =>1m = 3A.

220
 Uccm ax) = Ymax2 x Sv2 = 4 x 0.25 = lV.
2 1t 2x 3.14
c. UR= R i = R Im cos wt = UR(max) cos mt, and w = = x _ =
T 8 0 _125 x 10 3 6280 rad/s .
=> UR = 12 cos 6280 t (S.I).
d. The period of each curve corresponds to 8 div = D, the phase difference between curves (a) and (b)
. dx2rr 2x2rr 1t
corresponds to d = 2 div => l�cpl = -- = -- => I Llq, I = «p = rad .
i>
z
2

z
0 8
e. Uc lags behind uR by an angle l�cpl =>Uc = Uc(max) cos (wt - l�cpl) =>Uc= cos (6280t- (S.I ).
3. Uc = f i dt = f Im cos wt dt
�m sin w t => Uc = 62;0 c sin 6280 t (S. I).
w
=

4. By comparing the two obtained expressions ofuc: Uccmax) = 62:0 c = 1 => C = 6:80 = 4.77 x 10 4 F.

6. R-L-C Series Circuit Under Alternating Sinusoidal Voltage

Experiment 3: Comparison between the current sent by the generator and its voltage

» Eouioment:
""' A function generator with an alternating sinusoidal A B
voltage of amplitude U = 10 V and of adjustable
frequency f;
A capacitor of capacitance C = 8 µF;
A coil of inductance L = 0.02 Hand of internal D
resistance r = 10 n; C Y2 R

*
4 A resistor box adjusted to R = 30 n;
An oscilloscope with two channels Y I and Y2 ;
4 Connecting wires .
Fig.17

)> Procedure and observation

Connect the circuit of figure (17).
Y I displays uAB = uG and Y2 displays unB = uR .

=
• Adjust the frequency of the generator to a value
f= f1 333 Hz . The curves of figure (18-a) are
observed on the screen of the oscilloscope, where:
* i leads uG ; Fig (18-a)
* the amplitude ofthe current is Im1 .
• Increase gradually the frequency f of the generator,
the amplitude of the current increases, whereas the
value of the phase difference between i and uG
decreases.
For a value f= f0 = 398 Hz, the curves of figure (18-b)
are observed, where:
* i and uG become in phase. Fig (18-b)
* the amplitude ofthe current becomes
maximum and equal to Imo Omo > Im1) .
• Keep increasing the frequency of the generator, the
amplitude of the current decreases, whereas the value
of the phase difference between uG and i increases.
For a value f= f2 = 500 Hz, the curves of figure
(18-c) are observed, where:
* liG leads i, Fig (18-c)
* the amplitude of the current becomes Im2 < Imo .

221
 > Interpretation:
You have studied the forced mechanical oscillations in chapter (6). The exciter supplies energy and
imposes its frequency fE to the resonator. fE could be less than, equal to, or greater than the proper
frequency fO of the resonator. If the frequency of the exciter is approximately equal to the proper
frequency of the resonator, amplitude resonance takes place, and the resonator oscillates with
maximum amplitude.
By analogy with mechanics, the L-C series circuit undergoes forced electromagnetic oscillations
where the function generator supplies energy and imposes its frequency to the R -L-C circuit.
The exciter is the function generator and the resonator is the L-C series circuit.
> Proper frequency of the L-C series circuit
When the frequency of the generator is equal to f0 , the amplitude of the current is maximum I mo
(Figure 18 -b). This phenomenon is called current resonance, and f0 is called the proper frequency
or the resonance fre uenc of the L-C series circuit.
1
f0 is given by: f0 = ,.---;. S.I unit of: f0 is Hz; Lis Hand C is F .
21tvL C
1 2LC = 11
wo = 2nfo = - - =>I�- �
{Le wo����-

=
The proper frequency of the L-C series circuit of experiment (3) is:
1 1

=
f0 = 21tvLC
,.---;.
=
_, 6
398 Hz , then the proper angular frequency of the circuit is
21tv0.02x8x10
W 0 = 2 1t f0 = 2 1t (398) 2500 rad/s.
Conclusion Reading
An R-L-C series circuit is under an alternating sinusoidal In an R-L-C series circuit:
voltage of frequency f. * When i leads Uo:
f0 is proper frequency of the L-C circuit, then: • the effect of the capacitance C is
predominant (Capacitive circuit).
• For f = f0 : • UqmaxJ > UUmax1 •
• the amplitude of the current is maximum Im = Imo , so
current resonance takes place ; * When i lags behind Uc;:
• the effect of the inductance L is
• i and uG are in phase. predominant (Inductive circuit).
• For f < f0 : • UL(max) > Uqmax) •
• the amplitude of the current is less than that in case of
current resonance ( Imt < Imo ); * When i and Uc; are in phase
• The current i leads UGJ . • the effects of Land C cancel
each other � uL + Uc = 0 where
• For f > f0 : di
• the amplitude of the current is less than Imo ( Imz < Im0 );
UL = UAff = L -dt and Uc = UHi)
• uG leads the current i.

Analytical study

. .
Apply the law of the addition of voltages for the circuit of figure (17). Suppose that the voltage across the
generator has the expression: e:M.-�m......-..Dm.a-
t. = +••
-•-=- •• .,Z4
UAB = UAH+UHD+UnB => u cos mt = r i+L�+uc+Ri �
dt
=> U cos mt = (r+R) i+L 4+.9.
=> cos et= �+ (r + .ll) � + q Differential equation that governs the variation of the charge q.
Solution:
The solution of the above differential equation is: q = 1st term+Qmax sin (mt+cp ).
But the 1 st term tends to zero after a very short time (Transient state) and cannot be seen on the screen of
the oscilloscope (but can be seen on di ital oscillosco e). Then the solution of the above differential
equation in the steady state is: + where Qmax and c.p depend on the angular

222
frequency w of the generator (proved in application 6) . Also, Qmax and cp are constant for a certain
chosen value of the frequency f of the generator.
Expressions of the current i and the voltages across the capacitor, the coil and the resistor
• i = + d : � = ID Qmax .cos (rot+ cp Then <p is the phase difference between i and ua.
d
cp could be: negative,
The amplitude of i is:
------ In R-L-C series
circuits under
• UR = Um = R i � i and uR are in-phase. sinusoidal voltage,
the amplitudes of Uc
• Uc = uHD = -q = -- Qmax · ( t +
sm m cp) and uL could exceed
� cos (mt + <p- � Uc lags behind i by� rad. that of the generator.
2
(See application 5)
• UAH = UL = r i + L � = r m Qmax cos (mt + (j) ) - L m Qmax sin (mt + cp)
If r ::::; 0 then uL leads i by� rad.

Remark : If the coil is purely inductive then uL leads i by � rad , but i leads uc by � rad. As a result
uL and Uc are in opposite phase with l.1cpl = n rad.

Application 5
A capacitor of capacitance C = 1.4 x 10-4 F, a coil of inductance L
= 2 x 10-2 Hand internal resistance r = 1.7 .Q and a resistor of
resistance R = 8 .Q are connected in series across a generator that I+
maintains across its terminals an alternating sinusoidal voltage of *
adjustable angular frequency m. C r,L R
An oscilloscope is connected in the circuit in order to display Ua 1------'
D M
and uR . The curves of figure (20) are observed on the screen of the
oscilloscope.
Given: Sv = 4 V/div on both channels; Vb= 1.57 ms/div and
:e!; • (S.I)

1. Use figure (20) to determine U, m and the phase difference

l.1cpl between Ua and uR.
2. Prove that the expression of the current is l = sin 800t-0.21t} (S.1).
3. a. Determine the ex ression of uL = u80 as a function of time.
b. Knowing that ain (800t + 0.266 x (S.1)
Determine UL(max). Compare UL(max)and U.
4. The expression of the voltage across the capacitor is: max sin
a) Indicate the value of the phase difference between i and Uc- Deduce cp 1 .
b) Use i = C d;c to determine Uc(max)·
c) Compare Uc(max) and UL(max)· Deduce whether the circuit is inductive or capacitive.(+)
5. We decrease the angular frequency of the generator gradually. For a
value w' we observe the curves of figure (21).
a) Figure (21) shows evidence of a physical phenomenon. Specify
its name. Deduce w'
b) The amplitude of the current becomes one of the following
values: (0.835 A; 1 A; 1.237 A) . Specify which one.
Solution
2n: 2 3.14
1. U = Sv x Y = 4 x 3 = 12 V; w = T = 1.s x5 x 10_3 = 800 rad/s.
7x Fig. 21
0
The period of each curve corresponds to 5 div. � l.1cpl = ·� :i! n � l.1cpl = 0.2 TI r a d.
2. uR lags behind Ua by l.1q>I � uR = UR(max) sin (mt - l.1q>I) = 4 x 2 sin (800t - 0.21r)
� uR = 8 sin(800t - 0.2n); but i = ; = � sin (800t - 0.21r) � i = sin (800t - 0. 211) .

223
 3. a. uL=ir + L :: =1.7 sin(800t - 0.2 n) + 800 x 2 x 10- 2 cos(800t - 0.2n)
� uL = 1.7 sin (800t - 0. 21t) + 16 cos (800t - 0. 21t) (S.I).
b. UL= UL(max) sin (800t + 0.2661t) = 1.7 sin(800t - 0.21t) + 16 cos(800t - 0.21t)

� 0.742 UL(max) = -1 + 12.94 � UL(max)

i
4. a) ll1q,I = rad. Since i leads uc by i�
=
Substitutefor t = O �UL(max) sin (0.2661t)= 1.7 sin(-0.21t) + 16 cos(-0.2rc)
16.1 V. UL(max) > U.
(800 t - 0.2n) - (800t + cp,)= qt1 = - 0.7n rad . i�
4
=
b) i=C ct;c = 1.4 x 10- x 800 Uccmax) cos(800t - 0.7 n) = 0.112 Uccmax) cos (800t- 0.71t)
� Im ::::: 0.112 Uc(max) =1� Uc(max) 8.93 V.
c) UL(max) > Uccmax) then the circuit is inductive (Effect ofLis predominant; ua leads 1).
5. a) The phenomenon is current resonance since i and u0 are in phase .
'2 1
In current resonance w LC =1 � w' = ,./ 7
1 2 x 1-·4 x 10 4 =59 .6 rad/ .
s
2 x 0
b) In current resonance the amplitude of i is maximum ; Im > Im�Im'= 1.237 A.

Application 6 li!:ii
Consider the circuit of figure (22). A capacitor of capacitance C, a purely inductive coil of inductance L,
and a resistor of resistance R are connected in series across a function generator.
The current flowin in the circuit in the steady state is � :fo The voltage across the terminals of
'
the generator is + where <p is the phase difference between i and u0 .
1. Determine the expressions of the voltages across the capacitor (uc =uAB) , the coil (uL = u80) and the
resistor (uR=uoM),
2. Apply the law of addition of voltage and articular values to prove that:
t

1
3. Compare the values of- Cw
and Lco when:
a) i leads u0 (Capacitive circuit); c L R
b) i lags behind u0 (Inductive circuit);
c) i and u0 are in phase ( Current resonance). Deduce then the D M
expression of Im .

z z
Fig. 22
Solution
1- i =C �� � Uc = f i dt= f Im sin (cot) dt � Uc = - c': COS c.,t.
c

uR = UoM = i R � Ua = RImsin <dt.

di
uL = uBo = L dt � UL = L (a)Im cos c.,t.
2- u0 = Uc + uL + uR �U sin (cot + <p ) = - �
c coscot + Lco Imcoscot + R Im sincot
(!)

Forcot = 0 � U sin <p = - �: + Lco Im� U sin q> = Im (L ro - c� ) ...eq (1)

Lf.0- ..!...
n
Forcot = 2 rad � U cos cp = cw
R Im •.• eq (2). Divide Eq (1) by eq (2) � tan <p
R
=
Square eq(l) and eq (2) then add them �U (sin cp + cos cp) = Im ( L w - c � ) +(R Im) 2
2 2 2 2 2

1
�U2 =Im2 [(Lw---) 2 +R2 ]�Im=
u .
Cw
�Cc� - L,.,)2 + R2
Lw- ...!....
3- tan <p =
R
c"' Consider three cases:
1
a. i leads u0 � <p < 0 � tan <p <
0 � c;;>Lc:o.
1
b. i lags behind u0 � <p > 0 � tan <p > O � c;-<Lc:o.
c. i and Ua are in phase � <p = 0 � tan <p = 0 � c";"
1
= L ro. (LCco 2 =1).
u u
Im = -fo+iJ � Im = ii = maximum.

224
Current resonance curves
Figure (23) shows the variation of the amplitude Im of the current as a function of the angular frequency
w, imposed by the function generator in an R-L-C series circuit, for three different chosen values of the
resistance R.
By analyzing the curves, we deduce that: l I�------- R3
3
"' the resonance frequency does not depend on R
* at current resonance, Im has a maximum value
which depends on the chosen value of R.
As R increases, the resonance amplitude Im
decreases: R1 > R2 > R3 => I, < I2 < h .
"' for small values of R, the curve is acute (sharp
resonance).
* for large values of R, the curve becomes more
flattened (Broad resonance).
7. Average Power and Power Factor
Electric power consumed under DC voltage Fig. 23
The electric power consumed between two points, A
and B in an electric circuit under a DC voltage is given by the following expression: P = I U 8 where I is
the direct current flowing in the branch A B, and UAB is the potential difference between A and B.
Electric power consumed under AC voltage

........ ....
Consider the branch AB of an electric circuit under an alternating sinusoidal voltage. The current flowing
in AB is i = Im sin wt and the voltage between A and B is uAB = U sin (wt+ cp) where cp is the phase
difference between i and uAB .
The expression of the instantaneous electric power consumed (or delivered)
between A and B, is: [t =
i uAB I=U Im sin (wt) sin (wt+ cp).
Theappnnt power of
tbebrandl AB ii the
Practically, we are interested in the avera e ower consumed during one maximum a.verap power
COIISUIDOd disbamch.
period of the sinusoidal voltage: Pav = Ieff Ueff cos cp
where Ieff is the effective value of i and Ueff is the effective value of uAB,
cos q> is called the power factor of the branch AB. SJunitofP..., isV.A
( )
In S.I units: Pav is expressed in watt W ; Ieff in A and Ueff in V.
Average power consumed by a resistor, a purely inductive coil and a capacitor
a) Resistor: The current flowing in a resistor and the voltage between its terminals are in phase
!
=> cp = 0 => Pav = Ieff Ueff COS O => Pav = Ieff Ueff But Ueff = R Ieff => Pav = I;ff R I
All the consumed electric energy by the resistor is converted into heat energy.
b) Purely inductive coil: The current flowing in a purely inductive coil lags behind the voltage between
i
its terminals by rad=> cos cp = 0 => Pav = 0
The average value of the consumed electric energy by a purely inductive coil during a period of the
voltage is zero. It just stores magnetic energy during the growth of the current, and then restores it during
the decay of the current.
c) Capacitor: The current flowing in a capacitor leads the voltage between its terminals by radi
=> COS cp = 0 => Pav = 0 .
The average value of the consumed electric energy by a capacitor during a period of the voltage is zero. It
just stores electric energy during the charging process and then restores it during the discharging process.
Conclusion: In an electric circuit under alternating sinusoidal voltage, the
average power consumed between two points A and B is equal to the power
consumed b the resistors of the branch AB.
Pav = Ieff UA B(eff) cos cp = Ieff 2 R (R is the equivalent resistance of the
branch AB).

225
Application 7
In the adjacent circuit: R = 10 O; C = 8 x 10-4 F; and S.I.
1. Determine the expression of the current i.
2. Deduce: -+
a) the apparent power consumed between A and F; Lr C R
b) the average power consumed between A and F;
c) in J, the energy consumed between A and F during 2 hours. L�I t-2�
3. a) Calculate the internal resistance r of the coil. Fig. 24
b) Deduce the average power consumed by the coil.
Solution
1. i = :; = C d;c = 8 x 10-4 x 100 x 15.5 cos(lOO t - �) => i = l..Ums(100t - ;) (S.I)
2. a) Papp = UAF (eff) leff = ,/2 x ,/2 => P411PP = U.4 V.A ·
2 0 1. 2 4

b) Pav = U AF (eff) Ieff cos cp, where cp is the phase difference between i and uAF
i = 1.24 cos (100 t - �) = 1.24 sin (100 t - � + �) = 1.24 sin (100 t + �)
TI 2 0 1.24 it
=> m
't'
= -6 rad => Pav = -
,/2 x -
,/2 cos -6 :::::> P.av = 11.1.31 W •
c) Wconsumed = Pav x t = (10.738)(2 x 3600) = ff.31UJ.
2 P 10.738
3. a) Pav = (R + r)Ierr => R + r = , ; 2 = .8768)2
0 (0
v
=
14 0 => r = 4 Q
b) The average power consumed by the coil is equal to that dissipated by its internal resistance
2
(1. 24
=> Pav(coil) = r leff = 4 ,/2 ) = J..115W.
2

Reading
lmpedap
lmpedanoe is a physi'C'al � wih.ioh �-��Ito the Row oftun'fflt in :aciroait.
The� Z ofa portion. AB of :an electrik: ciroait is dire qUOOfflt ofthe maxim.um voltage Ulffi roo the maximum
current lim � A Ito B; - • S.1 Wll.it ofZ is 0..
If the portion AB is a:
a) pure ftllstor of mi'Stance R, then UIR(lfflll� = Iim R. � Z = �,'••mm = «: IR � ••
wm

m •:m
=
b) pumy inducdve � of imlootance L, ltihen Ul!J(max 1 • L Im (ii) � Z = �,•. m = 11..U:' � (!!) L .
Then the impedanoe ofa purely inductive ooil (All'S'O rcalled inductive�} is -
c) aipadtor of capacitance C, drelll U,v�v.,. .- '- � z = l111,m = ..!..
........,.,, C• lm .C'<ll
Then the ·impedano'e of a capacitor (Also QQ:ed capacitive �ce) is -
fmnel':s SoJlltnldiop
Fresnel's construction is ,a oonstructi.on me1ihod used Ito determine Ure ainptitude Im oftlt'e �lt'ffit i flowia;g in a
portion AB of a circuit, :and the phase difference (41) between i :and the v@lta.ge betwe'en A :a1ll.d B.
In a :series circuit, Che same current i of m11,,ximum v.tl� Im ,asses m :aU oompmirents of dire dircuit.
The constntction is done acoordm,g lio the following*� The voltage iatross the resimr (u.11. and i :are
proportional) is represenled by :a horizontal vectror oi of ioertain diirection. fire wlftale :across :a oo�t (It,
between A and B, is represented by ,a vecltor of �tude Uo:max = Im ioo'ffl.lYGtrent which makes 'M.lti'h ITT ,an angle
equals to the phase difference between the CUl'l'fflt i and the voltage iatroS'S l1he oo�o� «. 'Ike eottsltructiou is
done also for the other components between A and 8 1 provided that each ve'Cltor starts from the tip of the previo\l'S
veclior.
Impedance, J, Qd tan• or11 mm B-L ctrs1tt
Consider a resistor of resistanoe Rand a purely inductive icoil ofinductanoe L ico1m� in series :across a L.F.G.
Uo = Utt + Ut . In ·fig\n (25) We represent:
• UR(ffllll) by a vector of magnitude Im R along the o1 axis, :since � is in plme wkh i.,;
• Ul(max) by :a vector of magnitude lmL (i) making :an angle of 90'0 with oi W'S sinoe Ut leads i by 90'0..

226
 Graphically: OM= ON NM .
+ By comparing this expression with Uo = uR + uL, 0 must be the phase difference
between uAB = Uo and i. Then uG leads i by 9.
2
From the figure: Uo(max/ = UR(max/ + U
=> (Z Im)2 = (R Im)2 + (Lw Im)2 =>
= UG(max) UG(mac)
=> Imax =>Im = .
z ,/R2 + L w2
w
and tan 0 = L Im => tan 0 = �
Rim R
R R
Also, cos <p = = 0 UR(max) = R Im N I
2 ,/R2 + (L w)2 •
Fig. 25
Impedence, Iro and tan of an R-C series circuit
A resistor ofresistance R is connected in series with a capacitor of
capacitance C across a L.F.G. Uo = uR + Uc. In figure (26), we
represent:
• UR(max) by a vector of magnitude Im R along the o1 axis; 0 Uamax) = I m R +�
• Uqmax) by a vector of magnitude �:, which makes an angle of
- 90° with o1 axis since Uc lags behind i by - 90° U C(max) = Im
From the figure: uG lags behind i by q>. Cw
Also, UG(max/ = UR(max/ + Uqmax 2

=> Om Z)2 = (Im R)2 + ( �: )2 =>

Fig. 26
= UG(max) =>I = UG(max) 1
=> Im Z
m
JRz+ (/.f Also tan (j) = - - and cos <p = ! ·
CwR Z

Impedence, Imand tan q, of an R-L-C seriescircuit

A resistor of resistance R, a purely inductive coil of inductance L and a capacitor of capacitance C are connected in
series across a L.F.G. We represent:
• UR(max) by a vector of magnitude corresponds to Im R along the o1 axis since uR is in phase with i;
• U max) by a vector of magnitude corresponds to ImL w making an angle of 90° with o1 axis (uL leads i by 90°)
L(
• Uqmax) by a vector of magnitude corresponds to � making an
Cw
angle of - 90° with o1 axis ( Uc lags behind i by - 90°) .
Uo = uR + Uc+ uL We have three cases:
Case
--- 1: L w > 2....
Cw
(Inductive circuit).
From figure (27-a): uG leads i by <p rad.
Also, UG(max/ = UR(mai + [UL(max) - Uqmax}]2
Fig (27-a)
=> Om Z)2 = (Im R)2 + (LIm w - �) 2
Cw =>
= UG(max) => = UG(max)
, bUt I m z I 2·
m
"fR 2 + (Lw- /.,)

Lw-__!_
cw andcos,n= -. R
Also' tanm -r = R 't' z
Case 2: L w < c� (Capacitive circuit).
From figure (27-b): uG lags behind i by q> rad.
Also, UG(max/ = UR(max/ + [Uqmax) - Uqmax ] 2
=> (Im Z)2 = (Im R)2 + ( � cw - LI mw) =>
2
Fig (27-b)
, bUt Im = UG(max) => I = UG(max)
Z m f z·
"R + (Lw-/.,)
2

__!_-Lw R
Also, tan q> = c "' and cos q> = -Z .
R
1
Case 3: L w = cw. From figure (27-c): 0
uG and i are in phase => Current resonance.
UG(max)
Also, Uo(max) = UR(max) => 'i!'t => I m = -- Fig (27-c)
R
- and q> = 0.

227
 Problems
1., Phase difference ./
Consider the following three voltages:
u 1 = 3sin(rot+ �); u 2 = 2sin(rot- �) and u 3 = 3cos(rot+ �).
a) i. Calculate the phase difference between u 1 and u 2 and between u 1 and u 3 •
ii. Deduce in each case the voltage that leads the other.
b) One of the three figures below represents the variations of u 1 and u 2 as a function of time on the
screen of an oscilloscope. (Sv is the same for each channel in all figures).
Specify the figure that represents the variations of u 1 and u 2 .

Fig.1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

2. Power and power factor ./ B

Consider the circuit of the adjacent figure. M
R
The volta e across the terminals of the A.C generator is
• • ti S.I , and the ammeter, of
negligible resistance, measures a current of 1.24 A.
Given R = 50 n, r = 10 0.
a) Calculate the average power delivered by the generator.
b) Deduce the power factor cos <p between A and M.
+ ..
4�--
3. R·L aerlu
circuit
The expression of the current flowing in the circuit of the adjacent
figure is . The volta e across the terminals of the
function generator is where q> is the
phase difference between i and uG . The coil is purely inductive.
a) Apply the law of addition of voltages and give wt two
particular values, to rove that:
and
b) Deduce from the expression oflm the effect of the increase of A ---+
+
the angular frequency w on I m .

4. R.C aeries circuit ./

The current flowing in the circuit of the adjacent figure is
The voltage across the function generator is D
. \ where <p is the phase difference
t):
"G"'f;�' '"J,�'� :p ·� �· '

' " .; ,.:

', . ' '

between i and uG .
a) Apply the law of addition of voltages and give wt two
articular values, to prove that:
r*....•"; ' 1' ,} '"'1 �'!>. '.�' .,>:; .� }".'.�·t�
and
' .. ' -�·� . �'
•
'
•c
.::

b) Deduce the effect of the increase of ro on I m .

228
&. Reaonance curve•
Im
A rheostat of variable resistance R, a purely 13 - - - - - - - - - - - 3
inductive coil, and a capacitor, are connected
in series across a L.F.G of adjustable angular
frequency w.
The adjacent figure shows the variation of
the amplitude Im of the current i in the
circuit as a function of w for three different R
values of the resistance R.
Given: R3 = 210 0 ; 13 = 0.476 A ;
R2 = 500 0 ; 1 1 = 0.05 A.
When current resonance takes place the
voltage across the L.F.G is u c = i R.
a) Specify, graphically, the proper angular
0 1000 1500 2000 a (ndls)
frequency of the L-C series circuit.
b) Calculate the amplitude of the feeding voltage.
c) Calculate 1 2 and R1 .
8. Relation between UL and uc In current resonance
The adjacent figure is a diagram of an R-L-C series circuit.
Two voltmeters are connected in the circuit to measure the
effective values of the voltages across the resistor and the
generator. An ammeter of negligible resistance adjusted to AC
mode is also connected in the circuit. The coil is purely
inductive.
a) Use the figure to calculate the value of R.
b) Deduce the average power consumed in the circuit between d
a and d.Deduce the phase difference between the current
and the voltage Uad across the generator.
c) Deduce that current resonance takes place.
d) The proper angular frequency of the circuit is 5 x 106 rad/s. Deduce the inductance L of the coil
knowing that the capacitance of the capacitor is C = 100 pF .
e) Knowing that the current is i = Im sin wt. Prove that Ube = - Ued .
f) Roughly draw the graphs of the variations of the voltages Ube and Ued as a function of time.
7. Qr11b1 of YL and u11 .;
The circuit of figure (1) includes a L.F.G adjusted to an alternating
sinusoidal voltage, a resistor of resistance R= 100 0 and a coil of
characteristics Land r.
The curves (a) and (b) of figure (2) represent the variations of the
voltages uL = uMA and uR = uBM on the screen of an oscilloscope.
Given:
A
a) Show the connections of the oscilloscope in order to display u8M
and uMA. Fig. 1
b) Curve (a) represents uR . Justify.
c) Determine, graphically, U R(max) , w and the phase difference
between uL and uR.
d) Deduce the expressions of uR and uL as a function of time.
e) i. Determine the expression of the voltage across the coil in
terms of Land r and the time t.
ii. Deduce Land r.
f) The voltage across the generator U c = uBA lags behind uL by
�rad.Deduce the amplitude U of the voltage across the L.F.G . Sv • 2,5 V/dfv, Vi, •4nu/4fv,
Fig. 2

229
8. Determination of the resistance of a resistor
A resistor ofresistance R and a capacitor ofcapacitance
Chl
C = 3.54 x 10- 5 Fare connected in series across a generator (G)
that maintains across its terminals an alternating sinusoidal A D
voltage ofangular frequency w (Figure 1 ). The curves (a) and (b)
offigure (2) represent the variations oftwo voltages on the screen

f
ofthe oscilloscope.
The vertical sensitivi Sv is the same on both two channels.
Given: (S.I).
a) Indicate the potential difference displayed by each channel.
b) Use figure (2) to:
i. prove that Uc leads Uc = u Bo . Fig.1
ii. determine Sv and the horizontal sensitivity V b ofthe
oscilloscope.
iii. determine the expression of Uc .

=-
c) i. Prove that the ex ression ofthe current in the circuit is
i sin 5001t1: - 0.295n) (S.I ).
ii. Deduce the expression ofthe voltage u R = u AB across the
resistor in terms ofR and t.
d) Knowing that (UG(max)) 2 = (UR(max)) 2 + (Uqmax)) 2 ,
deduce the resistance R ofthe resistor.
9. Determination of L and r by two methods ./ Fig. 2
The electric circuit ofFigure (1) includes:
• a coil ofinductance L and of internal resistance r; L.F.G
• a capacitor ofcapacitance C = 3.25 x 10- 6 F;
• a resistor ofresistance R = 100 n;
• a L.F.G which maintains across its terminals an alternating
+
sinusoidal voltage ofeffective value U and ofadjustable
frequency f. L.r R
We connect Ch1 ofan oscilloscope to display the voltage D F
Uc = u AF , and Ch2 to display the voltage u R = uoF .
Given: Sv = 2.5 V/div for both channels and Vb = 2 ms/div.
Fig. l
A. Determination of L and r using the phenomenon of current resonance
The frequency ofthe L.F.G is adjusted it to the value f0 .
The curves offigure (2) are observed on the screen of the
oscilloscope.
a) Redraw the circuit and show on it the connections ofthe
oscilloscope.
b) Use figure (2) to answer the following questions:
i. Graph (a), represents the voltage across the L.F.G. Why? r-ir-t------1----t-1.------t---#·-:t----1--+.--+--1-+---j
ii. Current resonance takes place. Justify.
iii. Determine U, f0 and the effective value 1 0 ofthe current �------'-----L.._-----'--------"-----,-'--.J...___J__�""'---L____J

in the circuit.
c) Calculate L.
d) Determine the average power consumed by the circuit. Deduce that r = 11.11 n ..
e) Draw roughly the graph that represents the variation ofthe effective value Ieff ofthe current i with
the frequency f ofthe generator, and locate on the curve the point ofcoordinates (1 0 , f0 ).
B. Determination of L and r using the law of addition of voltages
The frequency ofthe L.F.G is adjusted to f = 50 Hz, keeping the same effective value ofits voltage
value U so the hase difference between ucand u R becomes l<1>l = 1.4363 rad.
Given: ( S.I ) where w is the angular frequency ofi.
a. The voltage Uc lags behind the current i. Justify.

230
 b. Deduce the expression of Uc as a function of co and time t.
c. Determine the expressions of the voltages:
i. u L = u80 in terms of co , r, Land the time t.
ii. Uc = uAB as function of co and t.
d. Apply the law of addition of voltages and give rot two particular values to determine again the values
ofLandr .

1 o. Determination of w, • anct 1. in cu,rent resonance:

The adjacent circuit includes:
•!• a function generator (G) of adjustable angular frequency w;
•!• a purely inductive coil of inductance L= 0.318 H;
•!• a capacitor of capacitance C = 31.9 x 10- 6 F;
•!• a resistor of resistance R;
•!• an ammeter (A) of negligible resistance adjusted to AC-mode. L
•!• an oscilloscope to determine the phase difference <p between the
current i in the circuit and the voltage u c = uAM across the generator.
Given: m .
+ and == 1'f:',�iF.Mt c

... -
In order to show the effect of ro on the amplitude Im of the current i and on
the phase difference <p , we connect the circuit of figure (1 ).
The adjacent table shows the values of Im

.....
Fig.1
and the algebraic of <p for some chosen
values of angular frequency ro.

...
UJO 251 314
A· Experimental ftudy
••
1.,.1., 035 :2.U 10 l l.OJ
a) Refer to the table to: «11A1 0 1L4 14
i. pick out the angular frequency w0
which corresponds to maximum amplitude of the current i.
ii. pick out then the corresponding value of (f) . Deduce the name of the phenomenon that takes
place.
b) Verify that W 0 = �.
c) Refer to the table to specify whether i leads or lags behind Uc when:
i. ro < W 0 ;
ii. ro > W 0 •
d) Take the scale: 1 cm � 1 A for the vertical axis and 1 cm -+ 100rad/s for the horizontal axis to
draw the graph that represents the variation of Im as a function of co.

B- Theorettcat atudy
Determine, in terms of: Im , ro, L, C , R and the time t, the expressions of the potential
differences: uNM across the resistor ; uAB across the coil and u8N across the capacitor.
a) Apply the law of addition of potential difference and ive rot two particular values to prove

that: and

b) In case of current resonance:

i- Use the obtained expression of tan <p to determine the relation amongL; C and ro.
ii- Deduce the value of Im . Given Um = 100 V and R = 10 0.
iii- Prove that u8N = uc = - L !ti.

231
11. Studying three electrical components �
The object of this exercise is to identify three unknown electric
components X, Y, and Z, and to determine their characteristics.
Each one of these components could be a resistor of resistance
R, a purely inductive coil of inductance L, or a capacitor of
capacitance C. Use: v2 = 1.4.
A- First experiment x
We connect three branches in parallel across a DC generator. L1
•!• The first branch contains X and a lamp L 1 ;
•!• The second branch contains Y and a lamp L2 ;
•!• The third branch contains Z and a lamp L3 (Figure 1).
y
L2
When the switch k is closed, we observe that:
• L1 glows instantly;
• L2 glows with a certain delay;
z
L3
• L3 glows for a very short time then dies out.
Fig.1
Identify each of the three above components. Justify your
answers. ChlA --...+
B
B- Second experiment A
To determine C, Land R, we connect the three components in

=
series across a function generator that maintains across its terminals
an alternating sinusoidal voltage: tJ 1 . S. I
An oscilloscope is connected, so that Chl displays the voltage
uAM = uc across the generator and Ch2 displays the voltage
Uc = uEM across the capacitor (Figure 2) .
The vertical sensitivity on both channels is Sv = 5 v/div.
a) Use figure (3) to:
i. calculate the maximum voltage Um across the generator and
the maximum voltage U across the capacitor;
ii. calculate the phase difference between Uc and Uc. Indicate
which one leads the other. Fig. 2
b) Write the expression of the instantaneous voltage Uc = uEM as a
function of time.
c) i. Prove that the ex ression of the instantaneous current in
the circuit is: = 4 I S. I
ii. Deduce that the circuit is in current resonance.
iii. The ammeter, of negligible resistance, measures a current of
0.1 A. Deduce the capacitance C of the capacitor.
iv. Deduce the inductance Lof the coil.
d) Apply the law of addition of potential difference to determine
the resistance R of the resistor.
Fig. 3
12. Dlsglax of UL and UR v -+
The object of this exercise is to determine the resistance R of a resistor, the
inductance L and the internal resistance r of a coil, and the capacitance C of q
a capacitor. For this, we connect the resistor, the coil, and the capacitor in
series across a function generator (G) as shown in figure (1).
The alternatin sinusoidal voltage across the terminals of the generator is:
= u08 =8 sm{l�t� (u0 in V and t in s).
The circuit carries an alternating sinusoidal current: S.I.
An oscilloscope is connected in the circuit such that Y 1 displays the
variation of the voltage uL = uAM across the coil, and Y2 displays the
variation of the voltage uR = uMB across the resistor, provided that the
button "INV" is pressed (Figure 1).
Fig.1
232
The vertical sensitivity on both channels is Sv = 1 V/div.
a) Why should the "INV" button be pressed?
b) Use figure (2) to answer the following questions:
i. Identify the curves (a) and (b).
ii. Specify the curve which represents the image of the
current in the circuit.
iii. Determine R.
iv. Determine the horizontal sensitivity Vb selected on the
oscilloscope.
v. Calculate the phase difference between uL and uR.
Deduce that the value r can be neglected.
c) Calculate the average power consumed between D and B in Fig. 2
the circuit. Deduce again that R = 100 n.
d) Write the expression of the voltage uL across the coil in terms of L andt, and then use figure (2) to
determine the value of L.
e) i. Express the voltage Uc = u0A across the capacitor in terms of C and t.
ii. Applying the law of addition of voltages to determine the value of C.
13, Effect of the power factor on th transmission of el neray .!
The aim of this problem is to study the effect of
the power factor cos <p on the electric energy Elec\rlc meter
supplied by an electric distribution center to the
. ..
L'!1!"!.8! J!ne
components of its circuit. For this, we consider the I A -
circuit of the adjacent figure.
The voltage across the distribution center is
..\ ,
I
I
I

. .
M I '
'
alternating sinusoidal, and it supplies electric Distribution I
I
energy to a component (D) by means of
certter .
I
I (D)
transmission lines (MA) and (NB) of total
resistance R = 2 0. . ..
I
I
'
I

.
I
The electric power received by (D) is N--------- ' I
B
P = 1100 W under an alternating sinusoidal Tran1mi11lon lfne I

voltage of effective value U AB(eff) = 220 V.

An electric meter is connected in order to measure
the amount of the electric energy consumed by (D).
A· The power factor e1 the bqpeh AB h J
The component is a pure resistor, so the power factor of the of the branch AB is equal to 1.
a) Calculate the amount W of the consumed electric energy measured by the electric meter during
30 days.
b) Calculate the effective value of the current flowing in the circuit.
c) Deduce the heat loss in the transmission lines during 30 days.
d) Deduce the total energy delivered by the distribution center during 30 days.
s- De power wtor qt the branch AB h o.7
The component (D) is not a pure resistor, so that the power factor of the branch AB is equal to 0.7.
a) The consumed electric energy measured by the electric meter during 30 days is equal to that
calculated in part (A-a). Why?
b) Deduce the total energy delivered by the distribution center during 30 days.
c- conetvton
The average cost of 1 KW.h of electric energy is 50 L.L .
a) Calculate, during 30 days, the total cost of the consumption of electric energy by (D) in each of
the above two cases.
b) Compare the total energy delivered by the distribution center in each of the above cases.
c) Deduce the effect of the power factor on the transmission of electric energy.

233
14. Display of UL and u,
The adjacent circuit includes:
a low frequency generator adjusted to an alternating L.F.G
sinusoidal voltage of maximum value Um and of
adjustable angular frequency w;
a capacitor of capacitance C;
a purely inductive coil of inductance L; +
a resistor of resistance R = 5 v3 0 . R
The voltage across the capacitor is uAB = Uc ; the voltage D
across the coil is uBo = uL ; the voltage across the resistor is
M
uoM = uR. and the voltage across the generator is uAM = Uc
A. Case : (9 = 1 w
The frequency of the low frequency generator is
adjusted to a certain value 00 1 . 15 L
Figure (2) represents the variation of Uc and one
of the above mentioned voltages (u) as a function 10
of time. 5
t(ms)
a) Determine the angular frequency 00 1 of the 0+----'....�+-�..-�-1-�1r-�-1-�-,.�-+....:..
sinusoidal voltage. -5
b) i. Calculate the phase difference between
the two displayed voltages (uc and u). -10
ii. Deduce that u can't be the voltage u R. -15
c) The expression of the charge q acquired by
the plate A of the capacitor is: Fig. 2
(S.I)
i. Deduce in terms of C ; 00 1 ; L and t the expressions of Uc , the current i and the voltage u L.
ii. Verify that the voltage (u) corresponds to uL .
iii. Use figure (2) to determine the values of C and L.
iv. Deduce that the phenomenon of current resonance does not take place.

B. ,oH; w·w2
The frequency of the low frequency generator is adjusted to another angular frequency w 2
Figure (3) represents the variations of Uc and uL as a function of time t.
a) Use figure (3) to indicate the value of uL + uc.
b) Apply the law of addition of voltages to
deduce that current resonance takes place. 20
c) Deduce the values of co2 and the instant t 1 15
indicated on the time axis. 10
d) 5
i. Use figure (3) to prove that Im = 2 A.
·5
ii. Deduce the amplitude Um of the
10
voltage of the generator. .. 15
iii. Deduce the average power consumed
20
by the circuit. Fig. 3

234
15. Curve of average power-Determination of L and C
The adjacent circuit includes:
a low frequency generator adjusted to an alternating L.F.G
sinusoidal voltage of effective value Derr = 20 V;
a capacitor of capacitance C;
a purely inductive coil of inductance L;
+
a resistor of resistance R;
In this problem, we intend to determine C and L. L R
A. Analytical study D M
--------
The voltage across the capacitor is uAB = uc, the volta e across
the coil is uBo = uL, the voltage across the generator is """"""'--""'""'.._....._.,..................
the circuit at any instant is i
a) Determine the differential equation that governs the variation of the current i in the circuit.
b) The solution of the above differential equation in the steady state is:
= + g,J where Im is the amplitude of the current, ro is the angular frequency of the
voltage and <p is the phase difference between i and UG .
Apply the law of addition of voltages to prove that:

Um sin rot= R Im sin (rot+ q>) + Im cos (rot+ q>)[ Lu> - /00]

c) Substitute for ( wt + <p) = 0 and ( wt + <p) = % , to deduce that:

d) Substitute for cot = i - <p to deduce from part (b) that
B. Determinatjon of L and C
a) Write the expression of the average power consumed in the circuit between A and M.
b) Use the answers of parts (A-c) and (A-d) to
(W)
Cc;---i
Pav
= -R2-+ -.
2
R U
prove that: av 1
- Lw) 40
c) Deduce that when current resonance
takes place, the average power consumed
in the circuit is maximum.
30
d) The adjacent graph represents the variation of Pav
as a function of ro. 20
i. Refer to the graph to indicate the value of the
proper frequency w 0 of the L-C circuit. 10
ii. Prove that R = 10 0.
iii. Use the coordinates of the point Son the
graph to determine L and C. 5 000 10 000

1 e. Oppoaltlon to tile nowJtU1te,_1uttrent1n_ DC lloe

antllmeeilanca <•>
In this problem, we intend to study the factors that oppose the flow of the current in DC and AC
circuits. For this, we have got the following materials:
a DC generator of constant voltage E;
a function generator adjusted to an alternating sinusoidal
voltage of adjustable frequency f;
a capacitor of capacitance C;
a purely inductive coil of inductance L;
a resistor of resistance R; F
a switch K and connecting wires. R
Fig, 1
235
 Now consider the three following experiments:
A. Fiat experiment
In this experiment, the resistor, the capacitor and the switch are connected in series across the DC
generator (Figure 1).
a) Determine the expression of the current I flowing in the circuit at t0 = 0.
b) For a certain value of E, indicate the factor that affects the value ofl at t0 = 0.

B. Second mertment
In this experiment, the resistor, the coil and the switch are connected in
series across the DC generator (Figure 2).
a) Determine the expression of the current I flowing in the circuit,
E
when the steady state is attained.
b) For a certain value of E, indicate the factor that affects the value of
I in the steady state. o.......
-�=::!j........�
R
Flg.2
c. Third exvedment
In this experiment, the switch, the resistor, the capacitor
and the coil are connected in series across the function
generator (Figure 3).
The expressions of the current in the circuit and the
·
volta e across the enerator are: � I and
<p
where Um , co, are constants

When studying the opposition that an AC circuit presents to

the current, it is necessary to introduce the concept of impedance Z.
The impedance Z of a portion AB of an electric circuit is calculated by dividing the maximum voltage
Um between A and B to the maximum current Im flowing in AB:
a) Specify the unit of Z .
b) i. Determine the expression of the impedance of the circuit between A and B in terms of R, L, C
and w.
ii. For a certain value of Um , deduce the four factors that affect the opposition to the current in the
AC circuit.
c) i. Write in terms of w, C, Im and t the expression of the voltage Uc = uHn· Deduce the expression
of the impedance of the capacitor.
ii. Figure (4) represents the variation of U (V ) L(max) (V)
40 qmax)
the amplitude U C(max) of uc as a
function of the amplitude Im of i. 30
Use the figure to determine the
value of the impedance of the 20
capacitor.
10
d) i. Write in terms of w, L, Im and t
I(max) (A) I(max) (A)
the expression of the voltage
UL= u AH · Deduce the expression O O 0,05 0,1 0,16 0,2 0'.(34 O,OS Or12 o,16
Fig. 4 Fig. 5
expression of the impedance
of the coil.
ii. Figure ( 5) represents the variation of the amplitude U L(max) of uL as a function of the
amplitude Im of i. Determine graphically the value of the impedanre of the coil.
e) Knowing that ro = 5000 rad /s. Deduce the values of C and L.

236
 I •O
E t=

'
v
l=

'

- t=

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

•:• Analyze the free undamped electromagnetic oscillations in the L-C series circuit.
•> Analyze the free damped electromagnetic oscillations in the R-L-C series circuit without a
feeding voltage.
•:• Analyze the free damped electromagnetic oscillations in the R-L-C series circuit under a
constant voltage.
•> Analyze the free damped electromagnetic oscillations in the R-L-C series circuit under a
square voltage.
:• Analyze the forced electromagnetic oscillations in the R-L-C series circuit under alternating
sinusoidal voltage.

237
Introduction
You have studied in chapters (4) and (5) the different types of mechanical oscillations. The basis of all
these oscillations is the transformation between kinetic energy and potential energy (Gravitational, elastic,
and torsion) with or without energy losses.
Similarly, in this chapter you will study the different types of electromagnetic oscillations. The basis of
these oscillations is the transformation between electric energy stored in the capacitor and magnetic
energy stored in the coil with or without energy losses.
1. Free Undamped Electromagnetic Oscillations in an L-C Series Circuit
A. Interpretation of the phenomenon
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C whose charge
is Qm -::/= 0. The capacitor is connected in series with
a switch and a purely inductive coil. Figure (1) is a
diagram of the circuit which gives information t=O
about the current i and the charge q of the capacitor
at five particular instants over a period T of the
voltage across the capacitor. i=Im K
-+
At t0 = 0 we close the switch K. q= O
Figure (2) shows the variation of i during the time T
t = -4
interval [ 0 ; T ].
The switch is closed at t 0 = 0.
>to= O: K
- -+ i =O
At t0 = 0 , q = Qm , the energy stored in the q=-Qm
2 T
capacitor is We = ;me while the energy stored in the t = -2
coil is WL = 0 � i0 = 0 .

>ostsr --,...+ i= - Im K
q=O
The capacitor is discharging through the coil, and so
i flows out from the positive plate of the capacitor t = 3T
4
in the clockwise sense.
The coil is storing magnetic energy. Then, the
absolute value Ii I of the current increases until it i =O K
-+
reaches a maximum value I m when q becomes O . q=Qm
Electric energy is transformed into magnetic energy.
t=T
At t = :!:.4' We = 0 while WL = .!.2 L 1 m2 .
Fig.1
> !<t<!·
4-- . 2 i
i keeps flowing in the clockwise sense, and
then the upper plate of the capacitor becomes
negatively charged.
The coil is restoring (supplying) its energy to
the capacitor, so Iii decreases until it becomes
zero when q becomes - Qm 0 t
Magnetic energy is transformed into electric
energy.
Q 2
T
At t = - ' We = ....!!!...
2C
while WL = 0 .
2
Fig. 2

238
 3T
),.!..,...t< .
.;::,
2 - 4 ' * If i flows out from the
The capacitor is discharging through the coil, but i flows out from the positive plate of the capacitor,
positive plate (the lower plate) of the capacitor, then the direction of the capacitor discharges
current is opposite to that in [ 0 ; f ]. through the coil.
The coil is storing magnetic energy, then Iii increases till it reaches a * If i enters the positive plate of
maximum value Im when q becomes O . the capacitor, the coil supplies
Electric energy is transformed into magnetic energy. its energy to the capacitor.
3
At t = T We = 0 whileWL= .!.2 L 1 m
2
.
4 ' * When the capacitor discharges
31 through a resistor, the current
> S t ST:
4 starts maximum and ends zero
i keeps flowing in the anti-clockwise sense, and then the upper plate
at the end of the discharging
of the capacitor becomes positively charged. The coil is restoring its
process.
magnetic energy to the capacitor, so Iii decreases until it becomes
zero when q becomes Qm * When the capacitor discharges
Magnetic energy is transformed into electric energy. through a coil, the current
starts zero and ends maximum
At t=T ' We Q� whileWL= O.
at the end of the discharging
=
2C
Electromagnetic energy of the L-C circuit process.
The electromagnetic energy (Total electric energy) of the circuit is:

I q2
We .m =We + WL = 2C + 2Lt·
1
2 I
The above explained process repeats itself identically since there is no
The analogy between
mechanical oscillations and
electromagnetic oscillations is
resistance in the circuit; thus, the electromagnetic energy of the
introduced in page 25 5.
circuit is conserved:
q2 1
We .m =Wc + WL = - + - L 1·2= --
Q�ax
= -21 L 1 m
2
= constant
2C 2 2C ·
Conclusion
In an L-C series circuit whose electromagnetic energy is We.m > 0:
• free undamped electromagnetic oscillations take place.
• energy is continuously transformed without any loss between magnetic energy stored in the coil and
electric energy stored in the capacitor.
• the electromagnetic energy of the circuit is constant (conserved).

B. Differrential equations in g, i, uc and 01.

In figure (3) ,the coil is purely inductive and the capacitor has initially a K
charge Qm :f:. 0. The switch is closed.
The differential equation in q can be determined by two methods:
Fint method: Applying the law of addition of voltages :jl
Let uoA = Uc = z and uAF=uL. L c
Apply the law of addition of voltages:
di di
uAF + Ufo + UoA=0 � L - + 0 + Uc=0 � L - + -q =0
dt dt c
d d2
i = q � L ( 2q) + 9. = 0 . A
dt dt C
Fig. 3
� - Second order differential equation in q.
Solution: The differential equation has the form of
q" + w 0 2 q= 0 then the solution is
The solution shows that q is a sinusoidal function of time.

239
 I
w 0 is the proper angular frequencY, of the L-C circuit. [w 0 = �
The proper period is TO = �: � [ T o = 2 n v'Lc
Second method: DerlvJna. the expression of the electromagnetic energy
System: (Coil; Capacitor). Differential equation In l
At an instant t, the expression of the electromagnetic energy
2 1 1·2 UAF + Uro+ UoA = 0 => L !!.!
dt + 0 + ic =0
of the circuit is: W .m = We + W = - q + -L
e L
2C 2 Derive both sides with respect to time
We .m is constant since no resistance in the circuit . 21
Derive both sides with respect to time: d 2 + !.!i
Ldt Cdt
=O=> Li"+ !. i=O
C

0 = q q' + .!. L (2 i i') � li + L i i' = 0

d W e.m = 2
dt 2C 2 C
Differential equation tn U,t
�
c
+ L i i' = 0 � i ( .3...c + L i' ) = 0, but i = 0 is rejected uAF + uro + uoA = 0 => L - + 0 + Uc = 0
di

� -3... +L q" =O�

c
2
L ( C dd :; ) + Uc = 0 => =­
Similarly, you can determine the differential equations in i, uc Differential equation In u11
and uL using the expression of the electromagnetic energy. UAF +Um+ UoA = 0 => Ut + 0 + ic = 0
Derive both sides with respect to time
Conclusion
In an L-C series circuit under free undamped electromagnetic
d UL !. d q
dt
+ Cdt
= Q => !!h_ + !_ = Q
dt C
oscillations, the current i, the charge q, and the voltages across Derive again w. r. t time u� + � i' = O
the capacitor and the coil are all alternating sinusoidal having
But i• = .!!.!..
L =>
the same period TO = 2 1t v'Lc

C. Graphical study of Ye, g and i

l
Figure (4) is a diagram of an L-C series circuit. The voltage across the
. . A
capacitor 1s uAB = Uc = q c.
At t0 = 0, the capacitor has the charge Qmax , while the purely +q
inductive coil has no magnetic energy.
Let the expression of the charge in this circuit to be: L C
, then
"' uc = 3.�
c B
"' . = dq
1 -�
dt
Fig. 4
The obtained results are shown clearly by the curves of figure ( 5).
I
i
+--

-
t

Fig. 5

240
By analyzing the curves, you will deduce that:
• 0 -< t < To .
4 ·
* Iii increases=> The coil is storing magnetic energy.
* lucl decreases (and lql decreases)=> The capacitor is discharging through the coil.
* i < 0 => i flows in the negative direction.

•
To
< t < To .
4 - 2 .
* Iii decreases=> The coil is restoring (supplying) energy to the capacitor.
* lucl increases (and lql increases)=> The capacitor is charging (Storing energy).

D. Graphical study of Wero, We and WL

Consider again the circuit of figure (4). q = Qmax cos (W 0 t) and i = - w 0 Qmax sin (w 0 t) .
The e 1ectnc
. energy stored m. the capacitor
. at any mstant
. 1s zc
2
zc
. : Wc = q => Wc = Qiiiax cos 2 ( w 0 t) .
1 1
But cos 2 a = -2 + -2 cos 2a => The expression of Wc shows that the
angular frequency of the electric ener is double that of the voltage.
Wenergy = 2 Wvoltage =>

i
The magnetic energy stored in the coil at any instant is: WL = L i 2 =>
Also, we can deduce the expression of Wdrom the electromagnetic energy We.m of the system (Capacitor
; Coil) : WL = We.m - We where We.m = Q;� = i LI�.
Figure (6) shows the variations of We.m , WL and We as a function of time.

Energy

t
To
Tenergy =z

Fig. 6

Application 1 ..------..A+
In the adjacent L-C circuit:
the capacitance of the capacitor is C = 1 µF; jq
the inductance of the purely inductive coil is L = 10 mH.
At t 0 = 0, the charge of the capacitor is q = Qm = 10-s and the current is
i = 0. Let Uc = uAB.
1. Determine the differential equation that governs the variation of the
charge q by two different methods. B
2. The solution of the obtained differential equation is: Fig. 7
Deduce the expressions of the constants w 0 , cp and A > 0 .
3. Determine as a function of time the expression of:

241
 a) the current i in the circuit.
b) the voltage uAB by two different methods.
Solution:
z
1. First method: uBA + uAD + unF + uFB = 0 � - + 0 + L :: + 0 = 0, but i = - :: � i' = - q"
� - iC - L q" = 0 � q" + ...i.. = 0.
LC
1 2 1
Second method: The electromagnetic energy of the circuit is: We .m =We+ WL = 2 � + L i 2
2
d We m 1 dq . di
No resistance
· m
· the cucmt
· · then We .m IS· conserved: � = c q dt + L 1 dt = O
i (- � - L q") = 0 but i = 0 is rejected � q" + L� = 0.
2. q = A cos (W0 t + <p) � q' = - W 0 A sin (W0 t + <p) and q" = - ffi� A cos (W0 t + <p) = - (!)� q
1 1
substitute in the differential equation � - ffi� q + L c q = 0 � q ( L c - ffi� ) = 0

� -LC- - ffio2 = 0 � wo = /1 . '.}u

1
q = 0 is reiected
�
Using the initial conditions: at t0 = 0 , q = Qm and i = 0 � Qm = A cos <p ••. eq (1).
i = - q' = w 0 A sin (w 0 t + <p) � 0 = w 0 A sin <p � sin <p = 0 � <p = 0 or <p = 1t rad
But from eq (1), Qm and A are positive and then cos <p > 0 � q, = 0 � A= Qm .

J
3. a) ffi 0 = � = O.Ol � 10_ 6 = 10000 rad/s.

z
i = - q' = w 0 Qm sin (w 0 t) = 10000 x 10-5 sin 10000 t � i = 0.1 sin 10000 t ( S. I).
b) First method: uAB = = t cos (w
Q
0 t) =
10-s
_
10 6
cos (10000 t) � llAB = 10 cos (10000 t) (S.I).
di
Second method: uAB = unF = L dt = (0.01) ( 0.1) ( 10000) cos (lOOOOt) � uAB = 10 cos (10000 t) (S.1).

Application 2 �
The adjacent circuit includes: A D
- an ideal generator of E = 10 V; �
- a resistor of resistance R = 50 Q;
- a purely inductive coil of inductance L;
- a neutral capacitor of capacitance C; L Cj_g
- two switches K1 and K2 .
1. At t0 = 0, K 1 is closed while K2 remains open. B
When the steady state is attained:
a) specify the value of the voltage uAB across the coil. Fig. 8
b) calculate the current flowing in the coil.
2. We close K2 and we open K 1 abruptly and simultaneously, at an instant chosen as a new origin of
time.
a) Derive the differential equation that governs the variation of uc = unM.
b) Verify that uc = U sin ( w 0 t) is a solution of the differential equation where U is constant and
1
Wo = ,JCT', .
c) Figure (9) represents the variations of
the: electric energy Wc , magnetic
0,15
energy WL , and electromagnetic
energy We rn , as a function of time. 0,,1
i. Match each curve to its corresponding 0,05
energy. Justify.
ii. Determine the value of L. 0,05,r 0,1,r 0,15,r 0,2rr
Fig. 9

242
 iii. Determine the period T0 ofthe oscillations ofUc. Deduce C.
iv. Deduce U.
Solution
di di
1. a) uAB = L dt , at the steady state = 0�
llAB = 0.
dt
. E E 10
b) In the steady state: 1= Im = -- = - = - 50
� Im = 0. 2 A.
Rtotal R
di dq due
2. a) unM + uMB + uBA + uAD = 0 � Uc+ 0 + L dt + 0 = 0 , but i = dt
= C
dt

� Uc+ L C
due
= 0�
d2uc + � = 0.
dt dt LC
du d 2u
b) uc= Usin(w 0 t) � dte = w 0 Ucos(w 0 t) and� = -m 02 Usin(m 0 t) = -m� Uc
1 1
� -m� Uc+ �� = 0 � Uc (-L + L ) = 0, so uc = Usin(m 0 t) is a solution.
e e
c) i. We.m = constant � Curve(C) represents the variation of We.m;
At to= 0, i = Imax � WL is maximum � Curve (b) represents the variation of WL .
At t0 = 0, the capacitor is neutral� Wq0J = 0 � Curve (a) represents the variation We;
ii. At to= 0 WL = 0.2 mJ � i LI� = 0.2 X 10- 3 � L=
2
X
0
�� :
2
io-
3
� L • 0,01 H.
iii. The period ofthe oscillations ofthe energy is T = 0.628 ms
� The period ofoscillations ofucis T0 = 2 T � T0 • 1,256 ms.
T0 = 2 n: -JIT � r02 = 4 n: 2 L c � c = ci
. 256 x 10-3 ) 2 � c • 4 x 10- 6 F .
4 x 3.14 2 x0.01

iv. We(max) = 0.2 mJ � iCU 2

= 0.2 X 10- 3 � U=
2 x 0. 2 x 10-3
4 x10-6
� u- 10 v .

2. Free Damped Electromagnetic Oscillations in an R-L-C Series Circuit

Consider a capacitor ofcapacitance C which has a charge Qm .The capacitor is connected in series with a
purely inductive coil ofinductance L and a resistor ofresistance R.
A. Differential equation
First method: Appling the law of addttlon of voltages
Let uoA = uc = 3.e and uAB = uL
Apply the law ofaddition ofvoltages:
uAB+ uBn+ unA = 0 � L � +R i+ 3. = 0 ...eq(*)
e dt
. dq d2q dq q
1= - � L- +R- +-e = O
dt dt 2 dt
� " + � q' + .!!... = This is the second order differential equation which
Fig. 10
governs the variation ofq.
Second method; Deriving the expresston of the electromagnetic energy
> Variation of the electromagnetic energy with time Readfna: Analoay
System: (Coil; Capacitor) In mechanics: if friction 1 is the
only acting non- conservative force,
2
q
We.m = We + WL = -
2 e
+-21 L 1·2 Derive both sides w. r. t time
� M.E • W7 and the power of 1 is
d we .m - 2 q q. 1 . ' -- q i
, qe ) -i- •
P7 • d ME ..f.v•·hv:-t z

I�
----
dt 2e
-+- L(2 .11
2
) - e + L ..
11, -
-1. (L .1+-
In electricity: Voltage and current
From equation(*): ( L i' + � ) = -R i � = -R i2 in electricity are analogous to force
and velocity respectively in
d Wern =-
� R I.2 < O mechanics.
� d �rm .... i . Uit ""' • iz R

243
This result shows that the electromagnetic energy of the circuit is not conserved; it decreases
progressively by Joule's effect in the resistor.
)- Differential equation
We.m = We+ WL= - + -L12 => � -- + -L(2i i') -R i2
q2 1 · dW 2 q q' 1
2C dt 2C
= =
2 2

=> q � ) + L i i' -R i2 => i( � + L i'+ R i ) = 0, but i = 0 is rejected => � + Li'+ R i 0

i
= =

The differential equation shows that the charge q decreases to zero .

Conclusion
In an R-L-C series circuit whose electromagnetic energy is We.m > 0:
• Free damped electromagnetic oscillations might take place.
• Energy is continuously transformed between magnetic energy stored in the coil and electric energy
stored in the capacitor, along with energy loss.
• The electromagnetic energy of the circuit is not conserved; it decreases progressively by Joule's effect.

B. Time equation of the free damped electromagnetic oscillations(+)

The differential equation that governs the variation of q is q"+ L q' + LC q = 0.
R 1

Cases of damping
* Slight damping and large damping
Whenii
R
< Ji:-c , the solution of the above differential equation is:
Charge

A and <p are constants determined from

Qm(o)
Qm r
the initial conditions of q and i.
The solution shows that the expression
of the amplitude Qm of the charge q
decreases ex onentially with time:

Rm = Qm(o) e-(TL)t ·
The curves of figure(11) represent the
variations of q and Qm as a function of Fig.11
time.
As R increases, the damping of the oscillations increases.
w is the pseudo-angular frequency of the circuit.

w= J1:c- ( ii ) 2 = w0 2 - ( R ) 2
2 L
(w 0 is the proper angular frequency of the L-C series circuit).
2 11
The pseudo-period of oscillations is IT = I The pseudo-period increases with the value of R.
00

- As R decreases , m approaches w 0 •
- For R = 0 => w = w 0 • This is the case of free undamped electromagnetic oscillations.

If \
2
« Ji:-c , the oscillations are

If tL ::5 Ji:-c , the oscillations are

244
* Critical damping
When \ =
2
Jr:c , No electromagnetic oscillations take place any more. This is the case of
Critical damping: Damping allows the charge of the capacitor or the current to decrease to zero, without
oscillating, and in the quickest possible time.
* Over damping
When tL > Jr:c electromagnetic oscillations do not take place. This is the case of
Over damping is the damping in which the charge or the current takes a relatively long time to decay to
zero without oscillating.
Figure (12) shows the three above cases of damping (Initial condition used: at t0 = 0, q = Qm).

Over
damping

Fig.12
C. Graphical study of Wern, We and WL
The expression of the char e of the ca acitor in the circuit of figure (10), in case of slight or large
damping, is
Remark
In an R-L-C series
The electric energy stored in the capacitor at any instant is: circuit under
electromagnetic
q2
We = -=> oscillations, the resisto.l'
zc of the circuit consumes
Similarly, the magnetic energy stored in the coil at any instant is: energy all the time
either from the coil or
WL = 21 L 1-2 => from the capacitor
The electromagnetic energy of the system (Coil; Capacitor) is

Figure (13) shows that:

• The electromagnetic energy is not conserved but decreases progressively to zero.
• When Wc is maximum, W L is zero.
• When WL is maximum, Wc is not zero .

245
 + • -Tenerl!'V
•- •Di.., ·�

Time

Fig.13

Application 3
The adjacent circuit includes: K A
- a resistor ofresistance R = 76 O;
- a purely inductive coil ofinductance L = 0.8 H;
- a capacitor ofcapacitance C = 5 x 10-6 F;
- a switch K. R
The switch K is closed at t0 = 0 when the voltage across the
capacitor is Uc = uMD = E = 5 V.
1. Derive the differential equation that governs the
variation ofUc
2. Figure (15) represents the variations ofthe: magnetic D +
energy WL ; electric energy Wc and electromagnetic Fig.14
energy We.m , as a function oftime.

f r

t (ms)
0 3,14 6,28 9,42 12,56 15.7 18,84 21,98 25,12 28,26 31,4 34,54 37,68

Fig.15
a. Indicate the type of the electromagnetic oscillations.
b. Specify the form ofenergy represented by each curve.
c. Calculate the value of C.
d. Specify the pseudo-period T ofthe oscillations ofthe charge q.
e. The damping is very slight, so the proper period T0 ofthe oscillations of q is approximately equal
to T. Deduce L.

246
3. a. Specify the signs of the charge q of the armature M of the capacitor, at t0 = 0 and at t 1 = 6.28 ms.
b. Prove that, at t = 6.28 ms, uc = - 3.7 V.
4. The expression of Uc is: [Uc uMD A e-(ft )t cos (w t + cp) cp , wand A < 0 are constants .
= =
a. Deduce the expression of i.
b. Deduce A and <p.
Solution:
1. uAB + uBM + uMD + UnA = 0 � 0 + L � + Uc + R i = 0.
i= dq =C d uc
2uc dt dt
dt
d d uc ,,
LC - + Uc + RC - = 0� c + - uc + LC R • Uc 0. =
- di= d2 uc
dt C dt2
d tZ dt
2. a. Free damped electromagnetic oscillations.
b. Curve(3) represents the variation of the electromagnetic energy (total energy) since it is the sum
of We and WL.
Curve(2) represents the variation ofWc since the capacitor is initially under a voltage and then
We (o) i-0.
Curve(1) represents the variation ofWL since at t0 = 0, the coil does has no magnetic energy.
c. We 0 = !2 C E � 6.3 x 10-s = !2 C(5 ) � C 5 x 10-6 F.
2 2
=
d. Te n e rgy = 6.28 ms � T = 2 Te n e rgy = 2( 6.28 )� T 12.56 ms. =
e. T 0 = 2 1t v'LC � T; = 4 n2 (L C) � ( 12.56 x 10-3) = 4 n (L )(5 x 10-6) => L = 0.8 H.
2 2

3. a. At t 0 = 0, Uc = llMD = z = E = 5 V � qo > 0.
At t 1 = 6.28 ms = f; (half an oscillation is completed) the sign of q is negative.
b. We = 3.433 x 10-5 = i Cu� i(5 x 10-6 )u� � Uc
= = + 3.7 V.
At t 1 = 6.28 ms, q < 0 � uc < 0 � Uc = - 3.7 V.
4.
a) i = c ddtUc = CA [- �
2L
e c� )t cos (wt+ <p) - (D sin(wt+ <p) e cnt]

�i = - C Ae (;�)t [ � cos(wt + <p) + w sin(wt + <p)] .

2
b) Ue 0 5 V substitute in the expression of uc 5 = A cos <p , A< 0 � cos cp < 0.
=

Also, the initial current is zero(since the coil has no magnetic energy at to= 0). Substitute in the
expression of i: 0 = - C A [ 2� cos(cp)+wsin(cp)].
But-CAi-0� [2: cos(cp)+wsin(cp)] = 0 w 21!
=­T
- = -
� tan <p 2 LRm 2 (0.8 /ts 00 ) - 0.095 < 0� tan <p is negative, but cos <p is 00 = 12.5621t
x 10-3
= =

also negative� <p is in the second quadrant� cp = 174.57° = 3.047 rad. w = 500 rad/s
But 5 = A cos <p � A = cos (
17457) � A
5
= - 5.0225 V.

247
3. Free Damped Electromagnetic Oscillations in an R-L-C Series Circuit Under
Constant Voltage
Figure (16) shows an R-L-C series circuit
under a constant voltage E. A
D B F
Y 1 displays uDF = u0, while Y2 displays
UBF - - q
- Uc - C ·
The coil is purely inductive, and the
R L q
c
capacitor is neutral at t0 = 0.
E
Figure (17) is observed on the screen ofthe
oscilloscope.
+

Fig.16
A. Description of the oscillations of uc

Figure (17) leads to the following conclusion:

In an R-L-C series circuit under a constant voltage

E: l
• Free damped electromagnetic oscillations take I
place and uc oscillates about E.
• When the steady state is attained the voltage across
the capacitor becomes uc = E, and the energy
stored in the capacitor is Wc = 1 CE 2
.

Fig.17
Note: IfR = 0 then the steady state is not attained and
Uc oscillates between O and 2E with the proper period To < T.
Dlft'erentlal equation In q
B. The differential equation in uc anding E•Ri +L!! +Uc
dt
Apply the law ofaddition of voltages: uDF = uoA + uAB + uBF
•E•R!!+L�+i
c
. di
+ due d 2 uc
dt2
=> E = R 1 + L - uc => E = R C - 2 + uc
+ LC --
•
dt
dt dt dt
This is the second order differential
equation which governs the variation ofUc.
For tL < le The solution is:
A and cp are a constants determined from the initial Reading
conditions ofUc and i. Analogy
w is the pseudo- angular frequency ofthe oscillations
The oscillations in an R·L·C series circuit under

I�
ofuc .
constant voltage is analogous in mechanics to the
and T � ' '
w_=_j_L_1c_-_c_ 2_\_)_2_�1
oscillations of a vertical elastic pendulum under the
w action of the weight of the suspended body.
where w 0 = le
is the proper angular frequency of
Due to E, the charge of the R·L·C circuit oscillates
about E and not about 0.
the L-C series circuit. Similarly, in mechanics and due to the weight of
the suspended body, the abscissa x oscillateli about
a new equilibrium position.

248
Application 4 �
Consider the circuit of figure (16). u(\l)
r r

l i±
40
Given: R = 64 n , L = 0.8 H.
t
I

Figure (18) shows the variation of E and 35 lld

t
Uc as a function of time. 30 t
Figure (19) shows the variations of the
25 I
current i in the circuit as a function of

r
time. Use the figures to answer the 20
I

lJ
following questions: 15
1. Indicate the value of E.
2. The damping is slight. The pseudo­
angular frequency of the circuit is
10
5 � l 1 I
t
t
_i__
....
approximately equal to the proper 0
angular frequency. Deduce the O· 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78
capacitance of the capacitor. Fig. 18
3. The voltage across the capacitor is:
i

<p and A > 0 are constants .

a. Deduce the expression of the current i
flowing in the circuit.
b. Use the figures to determine A and <p.
Solution: 0
1. E =20V.
2Tt 2Tt
2. T = 12 ms => w = - = --
I t
T 0.012

=
=> w = 523.3 rad /s.
_ 1_ 1
w w o = ../LC => (J.)2o LC Fig. 19
1
=> c= o.8 x 523.32 => C ""4·56 µ.F ·
3 • a. i = dtq =C dtUc =>
d d

b. Uc 0 = 0, Substitute in the expression of Uc,=> 0 = A cos cp + E => A cos cp = - 20

Also, the initial current is zero. Substitute in the expression of i:
0 = - AC [ 2: cos(<p) + w sin(<p)], but-AC j O => [2: cos(<p) + w sin(<p)] = 0
-R = -64
=> tan <p = 2 L w = - 0.0764 < 0 => tan cp < 0 .
2 (0.8) C 523.3)
Also cos cp < 0 => cp is in the second quadrant => q, • 175,63 Q ill 3.064 rad.
2
A cos <p = - 20 => A = � => A ill 20.06 V.
cos Z17 .63)

Application 5
Remark
Consider the R-LC - series circuit of application (4). At t ;;;; 3 ms the voltage
Consider the time intervals: [O; 3 ms] , [3ms; 4 ms] and [7 ms; 8 ms]. across the capacitor is
Specify during each time interval whether the battery, the coil, the capacitor uc;;;;E.
and the resistor are consuming or supplying energy. During the time interval
(3 ms • 4 ms], both the
Solution eoll and the generator are
In all intervals the resistor consumes electric energy (converts it into heat supplying energy to the
energy). capacitor, then during this
interval Uc > E .
* [O; 3 ms]: Iii increases then the coll ls storing magnetic energy.

249
 luc I increases then the capacitor is storing electric energy, thus the battery is supplying electric
energy;
* [3 ms; 4 ms]: Ii I decreases, then the coil is supplying energy. I Uc I increases, then the capacitor
is storing electric energy. i > 0 then i leaves the positive pole of the battery so the battery
is supplying electric energy (Acts as a generator).
* [7 ms; 8 ms]: Iii increases, then the coil is storing magnetic energy. luc I decreases, then the
capacitor is supplying energy . i < 0 , so the current enters the positive pole of the battery, then
the battery acts as a receiver. Thus, the battery is storing electric energy during this time interval.

4. Free Damped Electromagnetic Oscillations in an R-L-C Series Circuit Under

Square Voltage
The circuit of figure (20) is an R-L-C under a
square voltage.
D F

Uof � Uo � {:
R c
Y 1 displays um = uG , while Y2 displays
UBF = Uc
Figure (21) is observed on the screen of the
oscilloscope. Fig. 20
The figure shows that:
• For O :S t :S T : (u G = E)
2
The R-L-C circuit is under a constant voltage
(Similar to that of figure 17), then free damped
electromagnetic oscillations take place and uc
oscillates about E. t
• For T :St :S T: (u G = 0) Free damped
Of--t--t----,r-+--::rt-+,-+-;,i+-ilri,...ait-?
2 T
electromagnetic oscillations take place and uc
oscillates about 0.
Fig. 21
Remark: u UG=E
As the value of R increases, the
damping increases. If R is large
enough, then no oscillations and
Uc increases and decreases
progressively during the
charging and discharging
process respectively. (Figure Time
22). 0 �--�
UG = O T
Fig. 22
5. Forced�lectroma_gnetic OsciUations of an R-L-C
SerJe_s CJrcuit Under Alternating Sinusoidal Y,oltag,e A B
This section was discussed in chapter (11), so we will explain it +
briefly with some applications.
In the circuit of figure (23), a capacitor of capacitance C, a purely
inductive coil of inductance L and a resistor of resistance R are
connected in series across a generator that maintains across its
Fig. 23
250
terminals an alternating sinusoidal voltage Uc = uAB of angular frequency w.

kc
The generator of angular frequency w plays the role of the exciter, and the L-C series circuit whose
proper angular frequency is w0 = plays the role of the resonator.

• For ro = w0 :
• The amplitude Im of the current is maximum. Im = Im(max) (Current resonance) .
• i and uG are in-phase � The effects of the capacitance C and the inductance L cancel each other.
(Current resonance; uc = uR � uAH + uHD = 0 � Uccmax l= ULcmax l.
• Forw < w0 :
• The amplitude Im of the current is less than that in case of current resonance: Im < Im(max) .
• The current i leads uG � The effect of the capacitance C is pre-dominant (Capacitive circuit;
Uc (max) > UL (max) ·

• Forw > w0 :
• The amplitude Im of the current is less than that in case of current resonance: Im < Im(max)·
• uG leads the current i � The effect of the inductance L is pre-dominant (Inductive circuit;
UL (max) > Uc (max) .

Current resonance curves Im

- - - - - - - - - - - - - R3
Figure (24) shows the variation of the }3

amplitude Im of the current as a

function of the angular frequency w,
imposed by the generator in an R-L-C
series circuit for three different chosen
values of the resistance R.
12- - - - - - - -
Conclusion:
* For w = w0 the amplitude Im of the
current i is maximum;
* As R increases Im decreases.
Wo
Fig. 24

Tuning the radio

One of the useful applications of the R-L-C series circuit is tuning the radio.
Each radio station broadcasts at a precise carrier frequency f.
When the electromagnetic wave (radio wave) of the radio station of frequency f is received by a radio, it
is converted by the antenna into electric sinusoidal signal of same frequency f. This electric signal plays
the role of a generator (exciter) which feeds the R-L-C series circuit of the radio (The L-C circuit plays
1
the role of a resonator of proper frequency fO = ).
2 n JLc
LC
To detect a certain radio station, we vary f0 by adjusting the capacitance C using a knob in the radio.
When fO becomes equal to the frequency f of the desired station, the circuit enters into current resonance
and a current of maximum amplitude flows in the circuit. Thus the broadcast is detected.

251
Application 6 �

The adjacent circuit includes: q

- a low frequency generator adjusted to an B
alternating sinusoidal voltage u0 = uDF of
maximum value U m ;
- a capacitor of capacitance C;
R L c
- a purely inductive coil of inductance L;
- a resistor of resistance R.
The current flowing in the circuit in the
D F
steady state is:
Fig. 25
difference between i and u0
The expressions of the charge q of the capacitor, and its amplitude are respectively:
and Q = Um
m (w) J2 + [ <b<wa - w2 J2
Where w is the angular frequency imposed by the L.F.G and Wo is the proper angular frequency of the
L-C series circuit.
A. w = w 0 :
The angular frequency of the L.F.G is adjusted to a value equal to the proper angular frequency of the
circuit.
1. Deduce the expression of Qm in terms of U m , w 0 and R.
2. Prove that U m = I m R .
3. Prove that � L I� = � ��.
4. Prove that the electromagnetic energy of the system (Coil- capacitor) is constant.
5. Determine the expression of the average power consumed between D and F in terms of Im and U �.
B, W > W0:
The angular frequency of the L.F.G is adjusted to a value greater than the proper angular frequency of the
circuit.
1 2
f- 1
1. Prove that 2 Q < 2 L I� .
2. Prove that the electromagnetic energy of the system (Coil- capacitor) is not constant.
3. Prove that the average value of the power consumed by the resonator for w > w 0 , is less than its
value for w = w 0
Solution
A,
l Um Um
• Qm Wo v'R'+o => Qm • (.i)o R .
=

2. Using the expression of i: I m = Qm w 0 = � w =>Um = Im R.

w0 R 0
3. �
2
L 1 m2 = �
2
L Wo2 Qm2 ' b ut L w o2 = �C => �2
L 1 m2 = 2Q�
C .
1
2 cp) + 2 Butw O2 = -
We.m = ..9..:.. + �L i2 => We. m = Q�sin (w
Lw5 LC
4. COS2(Wa t+ <p ) {
t+

Qm
0

2C 2 2 C 2
=> �c = w5 L
Q2 Q 2
2 2
=> We.m = 2 � [ sin (w 0 t + <p) + cos (w 0 t + <p) ] => We.m • 2� • const .
5. w = w 0 => Current resonance takes place => i and u0 are in phase => <p = 0 => cos <p = l
u - Im Um
=> Pav - Ieff G(eff) COS <p - ,fI. ,fI. - Im2Um

252
B.
1• 2 = w2 Q 2 � .!. L 12 = .!. L w2 Q 2
1m
2
m 2 m 2 m·

wo2 -1 1 1 Qm = -1 L w2 Q 2 .
LC � C- = L wo � -2 -
= 2
C 2 o m
But w > w0 � .!.2 L w2 Qm2 > .!.2 L w2o Q m2 � .!.2L 1 m
2 > .!. Qm
2

i� + iLi
2C .
2
2. We .m =
2
= ;� sin 2 (cot + cp) + � w2 Q� cos 2 (cot+ cp)
We .m = ;'fn [ z sin 2 (wt + cp) + L w2 cos 2 (cot+ cp) ], but sin 2 (cot + cp) = 1 - cos 2 (cot + cp)
Q2 1 (
� We · m = ___.!!!. os Q2 1 1
2 C
[ - 1 - c 2
(cot + cp)) + L w 2
c os 2
(wt+ cp)] = ___.!!!.
2
{[ cos 2 (wt + cp) (L w2 - C- )] +-}
C
We .m is a function of time� We .m =t- constant

Pav = l e ff UGCe ff) cos cp. No current resonance� cp * 0� I cos cpl < 1
� pav .Ceas e B) < pav .Ceas e A)

Application 7 ( +)
Consider a copper rod MN of mass m and length t. MN can slide without friction on two horizontal,
parallel and conducting rails ab, and hd whose horizontal plane is within a vertical uniform magnetic field
B of magnitude B as shown in figure (26). The terminals a and h are connected by a purely inductive coil
of inductance L and a capacitor initially fully charged and of capacitance C.
During its motion, MN remains perpendicular to the rails, and its center of mass (G) moves along the Ox
axis. The rod MN and the rails have no resistance. At t0 = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is
Uc = uOh = E and (G) starts from rest. Figure (26) shows the circuit where the directions of the current and
the electromagnetic force created at t0 = o+ are indicated. At an instant t, x = OG and v = dx are the
dt
abscissa and the algebraic measure of the velocity of (G) respectively.

Fig. 26

A. The differential equation that governs the variation of the current i

1. Name the three phenomena that take place in the circuit when MN starts its motion.
2. Determine the expression of the magnetic flux crossing the area ahNM in terms ofB ,e and x, then
deduce the expression of the induced electromotive force e in MN.
3. Apply Newton's z nct law to prove that the expression of the current in the circuit is:
. = m dv
1 f8dt .
4. Apply the law of addition of voltages to prove that the differential equation in i is:
d2 i m + C B 2 .e2 •
O.
dt 2 + m LC l =
5. The sum of the kinetic energy and the electromagnetic energy of the system (Rod, coil, capacitor) is
constant. Determine again the differential equation that governs the variation of i.

253
B. Expressions of i ; v and Uc
The solution of the above differential equation is:
i = A cos(wt+<p ) where <p, w and A are constants (A and w are positive).
1. Deduce the expression of w in terms of m, B, L, f and C.
2. Prove that <p = - rad. ¥
3. Deduce the expressions of v and uc in terms of m, -e, L, B, A, w and t.
4. Apply the law of addition of voltages to determine the expression of A.
Solution:
A. 1.Discharging of the capacitor, electromagnetic induction in the rod and self induction in the coil.
- - d�
2. <p = B S cos ( B ; n) = B S cos(0) = B t x . e = -dt = • B t v.
3. System: MN , External forces: Weight mg, Normal reactions NM and NN at the points Mand N
respectively, Electromagnetic force Fem
Apply Newton's z : LFext ma =>mg+N + Fem = ma
nd =
� � -+ - dv
mg +N = O => O+ Fem = m- dt
=> i = �
dv
Fe.m = i f B sin 90° = i f B => i f B = m .!!.! .
dt 18 dt
di di
4. Uo a + Ua M + UMN + UNh + Uho = 0 =>L dt + 0 - e - Uc = 0 =>L tlt + B l v - Uc = 0 ... eq(*)
di . . d2i dv du .
=>L dt + B {,v v -Uc = O. Denve both s1des w. r. t time . =>L d t 2 + B {,v dt - dte = 0( but 1 = -C
due d2i 8 2 p2 .!.. = d2i 8 2 p2 � = d2 1 + e z 12 C + m •
( 0.
dt
) => L d t2
+ m
i + C
0 => d t2
+ i
( Lm
+ LC
) 0 =>
dt 2 mLC ) I
5. W = KE + We.m = �2 m v 2 + �2 C uc 2 + �2 L i 2 = constant
dw dv due di di
=>dt = m v dt + C Uc dt + L 1. O =>1. f B v - 1. Uc + L 1. O
dt = dt =
i = 0 is rejected => f B v - Uc + L 1! = 0. Derive both sides w. r. t time
B d v _ due + L di = O => f B f 8 i) + .!_ + d21 + ( B2 t2 C + m) 1111
L dd t 2i = O => dt2
2

=> f dt dt dt ( m C m LC I O·
di d 2
i
B. 1. i =A cos(wt+<p) =>dt =-wA sin(wt+<p ) and d t 2 = -w2 Acos(wt+<p) = -w 2 i
.
Sub stltute
. . .
1 1erentla1 equation: -w2 1 + (
m the d"f:i:-: . 8 2 p2 c + m . =
mL c )1 0 => =,.,
""' 9 2 /2 C + m
mL c
2. At t0 0: WL (o) = 0 =>i0 0 => 0 A COS <p => <p
= = = =¥ ± rad.
di di E
From eq(*): L - = 0 at t = 0 v = 0 and Uc = E => - = -
dt +B f v -Uc ' 0
dt L

=-
'

di = w i
dt
- A sin (wt + <p)=>at t0 = 0, d = -w A sin <p = � > 0, butA > 0 => sin <p < 0 => cp !! rad.
dt L 2
·1 v = - dv f8 . A f 8 . TT
3 • {, B m -
=>dv = m 1 dt => v = -- -
sm(wt - 2 ) + constant.
dt mw
Af 8 Af8 AIB
At t0 = 0, v = 0 => 0 = - -- + constant =>constant = - => v • - � + l] .
mw mw mw [sin((l)t • -.;J
2
. due
ci
1 = -C ctt => d uc = - dt => uc = - c w sm
A .
(wt - TT) + constant.
2
A A
At t0 = 0, Uc = E =>E = - + constant =>constant = E - -
p + 1) + E .
Cw Cw
=>uc = · /w [sin(wt •
di
4. Uo a + Ua M + UMN + U Nh + Uho = 0 =>L - + 0 - e -Uc = 0
dt
-wA sin(-¥ ) ,
ili ili
=> L + 0 +B f v - Uc = 0 At t0 = 0 : v = 0 and Uc = E
dt dt
=> LwA+O -E = 0 =>A=�.
Lw

254
 •!• Analogy between electricity and mechanics
Electromagnetic oscillations and mechanical oscillations are similar; each term in electricity is
analogous to a term in mechanics. In the following table, we choose to make analogy between the
mechanical oscillations of the horizontal elastic pendulum (translation) and the torsion pendulum
(rotation) with the electromagnetic oscillations of the L-C series circuit.
Mechanics
Electriciti
Translation Rotation
Charge q Abscissa x Angular abscissa 0

current 1. = -dq
Algebraic measure of
+ dt dx Angular velocity 0'
veloc1ty
. v = rlt

Inductance L Massm Moment of inertia I

-1 (C:capacitance) Stiffness K Torsion constant C

c
,,:;
Resistance R Coefficient of damping h Coefficient of�iwJ.h

. 1 Kinetic energy Kinetic energy

Magnetlc energy WL = L"12 1 2
2 KE=-mv KE = � I (0') 2
?

Elastic potential energy: Torsion potential energy

Electric energy Wc = ;� 1
EPE=-Kx2
2 i
PEtorsion = C 9 2

Tension force Moment of torsion

Voltage across capacitor Uc = ±� ____, ...
T=-Kx1 M=-C0

Voltage across purely inductive coil Resultant of forces Sum of moments relative to �
di ... dv de'
+L dt
uL = - - F=m- IM�F = I- dt
dt
Power of friction Power of resistive moment
Power consumed by a resistor : P = R i2
P=-hv2 P = - h ce') 2
Free undamped
Free undamped electromagnetic oscillations Free undamped mechanical
1 mechanical oscillations
q"+-q = O K oscillations 0" + £ 0 = 0
LC x" +-x = 0
Free damped mechanical Free damped mechanical
Free damped electromagnetic oscillations
R 1 oscillations oscillations
q"+ -q' + -q =0 h K
L LC x" + -x' +-x = 0 0" + �I 0' + � 0 = O
m m I

255
 Problems
In all questions neglect the resistance of the connecting wires of the circuits
1. Curves of energy versus charge ./
The adjacent figure shows three curves which
represent the variations of the: magnetic energy WL ,
electric energy Wc and electromagnetic energy
Wern , of an L-C series circuit as a function of
charge q.
a) Match each curve to its corresponding energy.
Justify your answers.
b) The resistance of this L-C circuit is zero. Why?

r
c) Determine the capacitance C of the capacitor.
d) The amplitude of the current flowing in the
circuit is 12.6 mA. Deduce the value of the
inductance L of the coil. 4
e) Determine the value of the current i flowing in the circuit when the electric energy stored in the
capacitor is equal to the magnetic energy stored in the coil.
2. Variation of the current i as a function of the charge q ./

l.:c
Consider an L-C series circuit. The expression of the charge of the capacitor is: , where
Qm is the amplitude of q and w 0 = is the proper angular frequency of the L-C circuit.
a) i. Use i = :� to write the expression of the current i flowing in the circuit.
ii. Deduce that i 2 = [ Qiil - 2] w� .
b) The electromagnetic energy of the circuit is conserved. Prove again the above obtained expression.
c) Use the obtained relation to prove that i(mA)
when:
i. q = 0 , i = Im .
ii. q = Qm, i = 0. 20
d) The adjacent figure shows the variation of i
as a function of q . q(µC1
i. Refer to the figure to indicate the values of 0 4
Qm and the amplitude Imof the current.
ii. Deduce the proper angular frequency w0 • -20
iii. Deduce the inductance L of the coil if the
capacitance of the capacitor is C = 1 µF.

!
3. Oscillations of energy
The adjacent figure represents the variation of Wc(mJ)
the energy stored in the capacitor of an R-L-C 2,7 _..__

t
series circuit under free damped

j
electromagnetic oscillations.
a) This circuit is under a constant feeding 1,8
voltage E. Justify.
b) The feeding voltage is E = 20 V. Deduce 0,9
the capacitance C of the capacitor.
t (ms)
c) The damping is slight, so the pseudo-
period is approximately equal to the proper O 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 1 08 120 132 144
period of the oscillations of the voltage uc
across the terminals of the capacitor. Deduce the inductance L of the coil.

256
4. Conservation of the electromagnetic energy of the L·C series circuit
The expression of the charge q of the capacitor of an L-C series circuit is:
Qm , w 0 and <p are constants. w 0 is the proper angular frequency of the L-C circuit.
a) Deduce the expression of the electric energy We stored in the capacitor.
b) Use i = �: to determine the expression of the magnetic energy WL stored in the coil.
c) Deduce that the electromagnetic energy We .m of the circuit is constant.

5. Determination of C ; L and Irn

A capacitor of capacitance C, initially charged under a voltage of 8 V A
is connected between the terminals of a coil of inductance L as shown in q
the adjacent figure. At t0 = 0, the current in the circuit is zero.
Figure (2) represents the variations of We.m and W 1 as a function of
time, where We rn is the electromagnetic energy of the circuit, and W 1
£&& ..
could be the electric energy stored in the capacitor or the magnetic
energy stored in the coil.
B
t+
a) Use figure (2) to : Fig. 1
i. prove that curve (b) represents the variation of the
magnetic energy as a function of time.
ii. prove that the coil is purely inductive.
iii. determine the period of the oscillations of the voltage 1,2
Uc across the capacitor.
b) Draw the curve that represents the variation of the 0,8
electric energy as a function of time. 0,4
c) Determine the values of C and L. t(ms)
d) Calculate the maximum current flowing in the circuit. 0,51T TT 1,51T
Fig. 2
6. L·C circuit without a feeding voltage ./
In the adjacent L-C series circuit:
the capacitance of the capacitor is C = 1.2 µF;
the inductance of the purely inductive coil is L = 12 mH.
At t0 = 0, the charge of the capacitor is q = Qm = 6 x 10- 6 C and the
current flowing in the circuit is zero.
a) i. Calculate the electric energy stored in the capacitor at t0 = 0.
ii. Calculate the magnetic energy stored in the coil at t0 = 0.
iii. Deduce the electromagnetic energy of the L-C series circuit.
b) Determine the value of the current i flowing in the circuit when the B
value of the charge is q = 2 X 10- 6 C. Fig. 7
c) i. Calculate the proper period T O of the L-C circuit.
ii. Draw roughly the curve that represents the variation of q as a function of time during T 0 •
3
iii. Indicate the charge q at the instants: • t 1 = '; ; • t2 = :0 ; t3 = ;0 ; • t4 = T O •
3 ]:
d) In the time interval [ :0 ; ;0
i. specify whether the capacitor or the coil acts as a generator.
ii. deduce the direction of the current in the circuit.
e) i. Determine the differential equation that governs the variation of the charge q by two different
methods.
ii. The solution of the obtained differential equation is: <p and A are
constants and A> 0.
* Determine the expression of the proper angular frequency w 0 and deduce its value.
* Determine the values of the constants <p and A.
iii. Deduce the expression of the voltage uAB = uc across the capacitor as a function of time.

257
7. L..c series cir-cult u.ncler l!I constant voltage ./
A neutral capacitor of capacitance C, a purely inductive coil of inductance L = 0.1 H, and a switch K
are connected in series across an ideal generator of voltage E = 8 V, as shown in the figure.
The voltage across the capacitor is uAB = Uc, and the voltage across
the coil is u 80 = uL . The switch is closed at t0 = 0.
a) Indicate whether the circuit is under free electromagnetic
oscillations or forced electromagnetic oscillations.
b) Determine the differential equation in uc.
c) The solution of the differential equation has the form:
where F, cp and w 0 are constants and c
F > 0.
i. Deduce the expression of cos q> in terms ofE and F.
ii. Determine the expression of the current i flowing in the circuit.
Deduce the value of q>.
iii. Deduce the value ofF.
d) Draw roughly the graphs that represent the variations of i and uc as a function of time.

--........-:.----
The circuit of figure (1) includes:
K1 K2 R
- an ideal generator ofE = 16 V;
- two resistors of resistances
� ..... :· :::·�·· ::·· ::
R1 = 8 0 and R2 = 1 O;
- a coil ofinductance L = 0.1 H and
of internal resistance r= 2 O;
q ___
- a capacitor of capacitance E C-....,._-
C=lOmF;
- three switches K 1 , K2 and K3 .
A. Charging of the capacitor
We close K 1 and K2 while K3 is
B F M
open. When the capacitor is fully
charged: Fig. 1
a) indicate the value of the current
flowing in the circuit;
b) calculate the algebraic value of the charge q of the capacitor. Deduce the energy stored in the

tt
capacitor.
B. Growth of the current in the coil t(A)
K 1 remains closed. We open K2 then we close
3,{2
K3 . Calculate in the steady state: �.13 t

...
a) the current flowing in the coil;
b) the magnetic energy WL stored in the coil; �
c) the voltage uoF= uL across the coil.
c. Electric oscillations
Q T r
I

Now, the capacitor possesses electric energy

I
1;6

I
Wc , and the coil possesses magnetic energy
WL. We open K 1 and we close K2 't�
simultaneously and abruptly at an instant taken
as a new origin of time t0 = 0. Figure (2) shows b.�
the variation of the current i in the circuit as a 0,-4
function of time.
Use figure (2) to answer all the following -�)
questions except question (a). 0 5'5 330 !} � ,4-4.()
-0,-4
1 1
a) Calculate the value of the electromagnetic
energy stored in the L-C circuit at t0 = 0.
..e;s Fig. 2
1

258
 b) In the time interval [ 0 ; 27.5 ms]:
i. Specify the direction of the current. Deduce whether the capacitor is charging or discharging;
ii. Specify whether the capacitor is charging or discharging, by another method.
c) Use figure (2) to calculate the pseudo-period T of the oscillations. Compare T to the proper period
T O of the L-C circuit.
d) Indicate the form of the energy stored in the L-C circuit at t = t 1 .
e) i. Determine the energy lost by joules effect during the time interval [O; 440 ms].
ii. Deduce the average power consumed by the resistors during this time.

. IL t_ rmln tlon of L., C nd R ./

First Experiment
The circuit of figure (1) includes:
- an ideal battery of E = 12 V;
- a resistor of resistance R1 ;
- a purely inductive coil of inductance L;
- a capacitor of capacitance C;
- two switches K 1 and K2.
A. K 1 is closed while K2 remains open. Indicate the values
of the voltage uDF = uc across the capacitor, and the Fig.1
current i in the circuit ADFB when the steady
state is attained.
B. We open K 1 , then we close K2 at t0 = 0.
a) Derive the differential equation that governs the
variation of q
b) Verify that = cos w t is a solution of the
.....'"'=�----,,

differential equation, where Q is constant and

1
W o = v'[c.
c) Figure (2) represents the variation of the charge q
as a function of time. Use the figure to:
i. indicate the value of Q. Deduce C. Fig. 2
ii. determine the value of w 0 . Deduce L.
d) i. Determine the expression of the current i in the
circuit as a function of time.
ii. Draw roughly the curve that represents the
variation ofi as a function of time (Indicate on the
graph the amplitude and the period).
Second Experiment
In this experiment, we connect a resistor of resistance
R in the circuit of figure (1).
K 1 is closed while K 2 remains open. When the steady state Fig. 3
is attained, we open K 1 and then we close K2 at
t0 = 0. Figure (4) shows the variation of q as a 2.( q(µC)
function of time.
a) Prove that the differential equation which
governs the variation of q is:

t(ms)
5, 2
equation is:
A and ware constants. Use Figure (4) to: -12 -t-
i. Determine the value of A. Fig. 4

259
 ii. Determine the value of the pseudo- angular frequency w .
' � �1., -�..�
iii. Knowing that
;,},:;,;, ��
'· . , deduce the value ofR.
:.f ��J't ' - � • - .. ' -. )c!

1 O. Variation of uc in free damped electromagnetic oscillations v

The circuit of figure (1) includes: a capacitor of capacitance C, an ideal generator of e.m.fE, a resistor
of resistance R 1 = 5 kn, a resistor of resistance R, a purely inductive coil of inductance L = 0.1 H, two
switches, and connecting wires. E K1
A. Charging of the capacitor
In order to charge the capacitor, we close the switch k 1 while the
o
+l•--·li-----,
switch k remains open.
a) The switch k 1 must be closed for a minimum time �tfor the
capacitor to become practically fully charged. Write the qC
expression of �tin terms of R 1 and C. A------11 t-----.. F
b) Write the expression of the maximum charge Qm stored in
the capacitor in terms of E and C.
k
B. Electric oscillations
We open the switch k 1 , then we close the switch k at t0 = 0.
The circuit now is the seat of electric oscillations. E
Figure (2), represents the variation of the voltage Uc = uAF Fig .1
across the capacitor as a function of time. Use 1t2 = 10.
The expression of the voltage across the capacitor is:

(S .I) where
a) Indicate the type of the electric oscillations.
b) Use figure (2) to:
i. specify an interval of time during (V)
10
which the coil is supplying energy to
the circuit. 8
ii. determine the value of the pseudo­ 6
angular frequency ro of the oscillations. 4
c) Let Un and Un+l be the voltages across
the capacitor at the instants nT and 2
(n+l)T respectively, where n is a positive 0
whole number.
2 3 4
-2 t
i. Prove that - . -4 +
ii. Use figure (2) to prove that the value -6
ofR is= 20 n. -8
iii. Deduce that C = 1 µF. -10
d) Let Wn and Wn+l be the electromagnetic Fig. 2
energies of the circuit at the instants nT and
(n+l)T respectively. Use the answer of part (c-i) to prove that

e) i. Use i = - :: to prove that when Uc is maximum then i = 0.

ii. Deduce the value of the electromagnetic energy (total electric energy) stored in the circuit at
the instant t0 = 0.
iii. The value of the energy dissipated in the resistor during the time interval [ 0 ; 0.5 ms ]
is WR= 4 x 10- 6 J. Determine the magnetic stored energy in the coil at the instant t= 0.5ms.
Deduce the value of the current at the instant t= 0.5 ms.
iv. Calculate the value of the heat energy dissipated in the circuit during the time interval (O; 9 s ).

260
11. R·L·C series circuit under square voltage
A resistor of resistance R = 280 0, a
purely inductive coil of inductance
L = 1 H, and a neutral capacitor of
capacitance C = 4 µF are connected in
B
series across a function generator
adjusted to a square signal of period T G
(Figure 1).
R c
a) Calculate the proper angular
frequency u> 0 of the L-C circuit. 4 +
b) Derive the differential equation that D
governs the variation ofuc =u8F
F
when Uc = uoF = E. Fig.1
c) The solution of the obtained
d'ff, f 1 fo s
'
r
' . • ,
•
..
':re,-�.�::"',' ;;,�
a.� (S.I) where q> and w are constants and q> < 0.
',.·

Figure (2) shows the variations ofuc and uG , as a function of time, over the first period of the
generator. Use figure (2) to:
i. Determine the angular frequency roe of
the voltage Uc .
ii. Determine the value of w. Compare
then w and u> 0 . Deduce whether the
oscillations are slight or large damped.
iii. Indicate the voltages across the
generator over one period..
iv. Deduce the value of cp.
0 13,1 26,2
d) The resistor is replaced by another one
having a resistance R'.
Figure (3) shows the variations of Uc and
uc over the first period of the generator. u(V)
i. Refer to the figure to prove that no
transformation between magnetic and electric
energy takes place during the first half period
ofuc.
ii. R' could have one of the following values: t(ms
(100 .n ; 280 .Cl ; 900 .Cl). Specify the correct
0 13,1 2�.2
value ofR'.
Fig. 3
12.
A coil of inductance L = 0.8 H and of internal resistance r, a
resistor of resistance R = 70 .Cl, and a switch K are connected K A
in series between the terminals of a capacitor. The capacitor
has a capacitance C = 5 µF and it is initially charged under a
voltage E = 5 V (Figure 1). (L, r)
The switch K is closed at the instant t0 = 0. R
The voltage across the capacitor is Uc =uM o .

.
The voltage across the coil is u8M = uL.
Figure (2) shows the variation of the charge q of the plate M
of the capacitor as a function of time.

D ..
Fig. 1
261
 2.4
1.8
1.2
0.6
o1======i\=====lt=====W'=====t====�====+=====¥====+====�===t=====�===+t(I==
ni)
=>*-
:rr.oa
-0.6
-1.2
-1.8
Fig. 2
A- Free electromagnetic oscillations
a) Indicate the type of the oscillations that takes place in the circuit, and use figure (2) to determine
pseudo-angular frequency w of the oscillations of q.
b) Derive the second order differential equation in q .
c) The solution of the differential equation is : -=.J,-....._.....;;.,;'----"-'<&.\:......�r-,, where: F and q> are
constants and F > 0.
i. Deduce a relation among F, Q 0 and cp where Q 0 is the charge stored in the capacitor at t0 = 0.
ii. Show that the expression of the current is:

i=-F-e-(TL)t [�cos(rot+ cp)+rosin{rot+ cp)

iii. Prove that

iv.
d) Use figure (2) to determine the loss in the electromagnetic energy of the circuit between t0 = 0 sand
t 1 = 6.28 ms.
B- Driven electric oscillations
To drive the oscillations, we replace the switch by a generator (G) which maintains across its terminals
an alternating sinusoidal voltage. (G) supplies electric energy to compensate the loss of the
electromagnetic energy.
a) Calculate the average power needed to drive the oscillations between t0 = 0 sand t1 = 6.28 ms.
b) Ifu8A= i(R+r).
i. Apply the law of addition of voltages to determine the differential equation in q.
ii. Deduce that the charge is alternating sinusoidal.
1 i m:,wreid ttloh�nae pd ObWPI C11onance
The adjacent circuit includes:
- a function generator with alternating
sinusoidal voltage U c of maximum value q
Um =20 V;
B
- a capacitor of capacitance C;
- a purely inductive coil of inductance L;
- a resistor of resistance R .
R L c
•+
D F
Fig.1

262
 �,,._;"'ti��t''< .��: •!�,RP ,-;::/',���

and where w is the angular frequency imposed by the

;" �. i_� . > ,.., .;u,;: � }'->,.

generator, and w 0 is the proper angular frequency of the L-C series circuit.
Figures (2-a) and (2-b) show the variations oflm and Qm, as a function of.w.

a) Determine the expression of the amplitude Imof i in terms of w, Um , R, L and C.

b) Use figure (2-a) to:
i. specify the ro er frequency of the L-C series circuit.
ii. prove that in the case of current resonance. Deduce the resistance R of the resistor.
c) Consider figure (2-b):
i. The curve shows evidence of a phenomenon called " Charge resonance". Why?
ii. Draw out from figure (2-b) that "Charge resonance" does not take I 1 h w0 •
: .
�. .
"- , '
.'
'·
iii. Knowing that charge resonance takes place for w = W r such that
) '
, deduce L. • c ' ,s• �

d) Deduce the value of C.

The adjacent circuit includes: LFG

a low frequency generator with alternating sinusoidal
voltage of maximum value Um;
a capacitor of capacitance C;
a purely inductive coil of inductance L; L R
a resistor of resistance R = 50 0.
In this problem, we intend to study the exchange of energy
between the generator, the coil, the capacitor, and the resistor Fig.1
of the R-L-C series circuit in two cases ( w = w 0 and ro # 0 ). 00

co is the angular frequency of the voltage imposed by the low frequency generator, and 00 0 is the proper
angular frequency of the L-C circuit.
Also, we want to specify the case in which the generator would supply more energy to the circuit.
The voltage across the capacitor is uAB = uc , the voltage across the coil is u80 = uL , the voltage across
the generator is uAM = uG , and the current flowing in the circuit at any instant is i.
A. Case: w #= <A>o
The frequency of the generator is adjusted to a value different from the roper frequency of the L-C
circuit. The voltage across the resistor is :

263
Figure (2) shows the variations of uG , uc and uR as a function of time.

7.64
6.25

3.125

-3.125

-6.25

Fig. 2
a) i. Determine graphically the value of w and then write the expression of uR as a function of time.
ii. Deduce the expression of u L as a function oft and L.
iii. Determine the expression of Uc as a function oft and C. Use figure (2) to determine C.
iv. Use figure (2) to determine the expression of uc as a function of time.
b) Apply the law of addition of voltages to deduce the value of L.
c) Consider the time interval: [O ; 0.3925 ms] :
i. The coil is storing magnetic energy. Justify.
ii. Specify whether the capacitor is charging or discharging.
iii. The generator supplies energy to the circuit. Why? (Hint: If i and u 0 have same sign then the
L.F. G acts as a generator.
d) Consider the time interval: [t 1 ; 0.785 ms] . Specify for each one of the components of the circuit
(Generator, resistor, capacitor and coil) whether it consumes or supplies energy.
e) Calculate the average power consumed by the circuit during a period of the voltage.
B. C11e; '1> = Mo
The frequency of the L.F.G is adjusted to a value equal to the proper frequency of the L-C circuit.
Figure (3) shows the variations of uG , Uc and uR as a function of time. The figure shows that uc and uR
are confounded.
a) Calculate, without using figure (3), the proper period of the alternating sinusoidal voltage.
b) Draw out from the graph two pieces of evidence which confirm that current resonance takes place.
c) The generator always supplies energy to the circuit. Why?
d) Calculate the average power consumed in the circuit during a period of the voltage.
C. Conclusion
Specify the case ((&) = (&) 0 or (&) 11* W 0 ) in which the generator supplies more average power to the
circuit.
u(V)
7.64

3.82
t(Du)
0

-3.82

-7.64

Fig. 3

264
15. Analagv
A. Forced mechanical osclllatlons
In figure (1 ), a motor rotating with a
constant angular velocity w is
connected to the left end of a
massless spring whose stiffness is k
in order to obtain a horizontal elastic
pendulum under forced oscillations. Fig.1
The motor transmits to the pendulum
a force parallel to x'ox and has the expression: . Fm and <pare constants. At an
instant t the abscissa of the center of mass (G) of the block is x = OG and the algebraic value of its
velocity is v = dx . The mass of the block ism and (G) concides with Oat equilibrium.
dt
The horizontal plane through G is taken as a reference level for the gravitational potential energy.
a) Indicate the exciter and the resonator.
b) Given: * d:t = P f + P F where P f and P F are the powers of the friction force and the force of
the exciter.
* P f = - h v2 (h is a positive constant) and P F = F. v.
Show that the differential e uation that ovems the variation of xis:

c) The solution of the obtained differential equation in the steady state is -­

Substitute in the differential equation and use wt = 0 and wt = � rad to prove that:
and

B.Forced eietromagnetic 01cmat1on

The circuit of figure (2) includes:
- a low frequency generator adjusted to an
alternating sinusoidal voltage u G of A
maximum value U m;
- a capacitor of capacitance C;
- a purely inductive coil of inductance L;
R
- a resistor of resistance R.
The expressions of the c�ft
plate of the capacitor is: ........
�rator is: D F
........._where <pis the
phase difference between q and U c Fig. 2
a) Indicate the exciter and the resonator.
b) i. Write the expression of the electromagn - ... ·1; capacitor).
ii. Use d:;m = i u G - R i 2 to prove that .
. .
c) Use the results of part (A) to:
i. indicate the physical quantities in mechanics which are analogous to the following physical
quantities in electricity: q, i = q' , L, R, C and Fm
ii. write the solution of the obtained differential equation in the steady state.
iii. write the expressions of tan q> and Q m .
d) i. Write the expression of the current i in the circuit.
ii. Calculate as a function of q> the phase difference q> 1 between i and uG .
iii. Deduce the expression of w as a function of w 0 in the case of current resonance.

265
1 .
Consider acopper rod MN of mass m and length t MN can slide without friction on two horizontal,
parallel and conducting rails ab and hd whose horizontal plane is within a vertical uniform magnetic
field B of magnitude B, as shown in the figure below. The terminals a and hare connected by a coil of
inductance Land internal
resistance r, and a
charged capacitor of
capacitance C. During its
motion, MN remains
perpendicular to the rails a
and its center of mass (G)
moves along an Ox axis.
The rod MN and the rails
have no resistance.
At t0 = 0: the voltage
across the capacitor is U c = U sh = E; the current is zero, and the rod starts from rest. The figure shows
the initial position of the rod and the directions of the current and the created electromagnetic force at
+
t = o . x = OG and v are the abscissa and the algebraic measure of the velocity of (G) respectively, at
an instant t.
.A, The differential equation that governs the variation of i
a) Name the three phenomena that take place in the when MN starts its motion.
b) Determine the expression of the induced electromotive force e in MN in terms of B, .e and v.
c) A I?l.Y. Newton's z nd law to prove that the expression of the current in the circuit is:
md=-
d) i is:

where q>, co and A are constants. (A and co are positive).

IL.,;;��--=-.:t.....ru:.u..i.MD..i-!lfl-.J
a) Use i > 0 at t = o to prove that q>= 0.
+

b) Prove that t--- =

A at t0 = 0.
c) Apply the law of addition voltages to deduce the expression of A in terms ofE, Land co.
d) Draw roughly the cu&e·that represents the variation of i as a function of time.

266
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

Define transformer and describe its composition.

Explain the functioning of the transformer.
Define the transformation ratio of a transformer.
._ Differentiate between ideal and real transformers.
� Identify the labeling of a transformer.
� Justify the usage of a transformer in transmission of electric energy.

267
Introduction
A transformer is a device used to transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another. Transformers are
used in most electronic devices. They are used to convert the 220 V AC voltage ofthe mains into low
voltages for door bells, radios, computers, Wi-fi equipment, etc. A cell phone charger (adap ter) has both a
transformer to convert the 220 V AC power from the wall outlet to a smaller voltage and a rectifier to
convert the AC voltage into DC voltage. Transformers are used also in welding and induction furnace.
In TV set and microwave oven, transformers are used to produce a high voltage.
But the most important use ofthe transformer is in electricity transmission as you will study in this
chapter.
1. Definition and Description of a Transformer
Definition
The transformer is a static apparatus used to modify the alternating sinusoidal voltage without changing
its frequency while transferring this voltage from a circuit to another (Figure 1).
Main parts
The three main parts ofa transformer are:
the primary coil ofnumber ofloops N 1;
the secondary coil ofnumber ofloops N2 ;
the iron laminated core.
Figure (2) shows that the primary and the secondary coils are electrically separated.
The transformer can be represented in the circuit by any one ofthe two diagrams offigure (3 ).

Primary ll'lfflfjiililll

][
.;.col;;.; ;..I --tliltffl-N 1
Input

=xm::=
volta1e

Laminated
Iron core Fig. 3
Fig.1 Fig. 2
l tunetlo_nltlf!
When an alternating sinusoidal voltage offrequency f is applied across the primary coil, alternating
sinusoidal current flows in it and creates a variable magnetic field. The magnetic field lines are canalized
by the soft iron core and cross the secondary coil. The secondary coil is crossed then by a variable
magnetic flux, so it is the seat of an induced electromotive force whose frequency is f.

Conclusion: The functioning of a transformer is based on the henomenon of electromaggetic induction.

Current and voltase In a Lines of magnetic flux crossing

transformer from primary to secondary
The effective value ofthe input
voltage across the primary coil
is U 1 and the effective value of
the current flowing in it is 1 1•
The effective value ofthe
output voltage across the Seeond1ry
secondary coil is U2 . turn!i Ni
Ifa load is connected across Load
the secondary coil then it is
under a voltage U2 and a
current of effective value 12
flows in it (Figure 4). Fig. 4

268
 Remark If a DC voltage is applied across the primary coil, the transformer will not function since the
current flowing in the primary coil is constant, and then the created magnetic field is constant at each
point of the secondary coil. The secondary coil is crossed by a resultant constant magnetic flux, thus there
is no induced electromotive force in it.
The laminated soft iron core (Figure 5)
The purpose of introducing a soft iron core in the
transformer is to confine, as much as possible, the magnetic
flux in the core so that the leakage flux is minimum.
Like the primary and the secondary coils, the soft iron core
is crossed by a variable magnetic flux, so electric currents
(Eddy currents) are induced in the core. These currents
could cause the core to become very hot due to the
Fig .5
dissipation of energy by Joules effect.
To reduce the energy losses, the core
In addition to reduce the leakage flux, The magnetic field of a
Reading
is made of thin sheets of iron called
solenoid is greatly increased (often by hundreds or thousands of
laminations separated by thin layers of times), when an iron core is placed inside the coil.The core
varnish (insulating material). becomes magnetized, and then the resulting magnetic field is the
In transformers, soft iron is used and sum of81 which is due to the current and BM which is due to the
not hard iron. That is because unlike , µo NI µNI
iron core' where B·I = -- and BM = -
hard iron, soft iron loses its µNI .
But BM >> B; . Then Btotal = B1 + BM :::: BM = -1- where µ 1s the
/ / '

magnetization when the transformer is

-+ -+ -+ -+

disconnected from the power supply. magnetic permeability of the material inside the coil
3. Transformation Ratio
The transformation ratio of a, transformer is the ratio of the number of loops of the secondary coil to that

I
of the primary coil: m = �; I
4. Power and Efficiency of a Transformer
The avera e ower consumed by the primary coil during one period of the alternating sinusoidal voltage
is: P1 = 11 U1 cos cp1
The average power delivered by the secondary coil is : j P2 = 12 U2 cos <p2 !
cos cp1 and cos cp2 are the power factors of the primary and the secondary circuits respectively.
The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the secondary power to the primary power:
T] has no unit. Practically, the efficiency of transformers varies between 0.95 and 0.99.
G I = Pz
P1

5. Ideal Transformer
A transformer is ideal if:
- the primary and the secondary coils are purely inductive (No internal resistance);
- the energy losses in the iron core are negligible;
- the magnetic flux is confined in the core and then the leakage flux is zero.
- - _ _ _ _ - _ _ _�
For ideal transformers: P = P (Efficiency is 100 %) and cos cp1 = cos cp2 ,
,
=> 1 1 u, cos cp, = 1 2 U2 cos <p 2 => 1 1 U1 = 1 2 U2 => � 2 = ..!..!_ I If U2 > U1 => 12 < 1 1 .
Open-secondary mode
LJ!1 12 .

If no load is connected across the secondary coil, the secondary circuit is open and so 1 2 = 0 and
I� = � =m
Closed-secondary mode
I Law of voltages

If a load is connected across the seconda coil the secondary circuit is closed and a current of effective
value 12 flows in the secondary circuit: Law of currents => � =
� = � = m [ � = m I
269
 Step-up andstep-dn:wn transformers
If the voltage U2 across the secondary is greater than the voltage U I across the
primary, the transformer is said to be step-up.
IfN2 > N 1 => m > 1 => U2 > U 1 (Figure6-a).
If the voltage U2 across the secondary is less than the voltage U 1 across the
primary, the transformer is said to be step-down.
lfN2 <N 1 => m<l => U2 < U, (Figure6-b).
Application 1
An ideal transformer(T) has a primary coil with l 00 turns. It transforms the mains voltage of effective
value 230 V to 11500 V.
1. Specify whether(T) is step-up or step-down.
2. Calculate the transformation ratio. Deduce the Load
number of turns(loops) in the secondary coil.
3. Calculate the effective value of the current in the
primary coil if the effective value of the current
in the secondary coil is 0.1 A. Fig. 7
4. Determine the power factor of the secondary
circuit if the average power consumed by the primary circuit is 920 W.
Solution:
1. This transformer is step-up since it steps up the voltage(U2 = 11500 V > U 1 = 230 V).
1 o
2. m = �: = ;:� => m = 50, and m = :: => N2 =(50)(100)=> N1 = 5000 turns.
3. m = ..!l_ => 1 1 =(50)(0.1) = SA.
12
920
4. P 1 = I, U1 cos <p 1 => cos <p 1 = (S)(230) 0.8. The transformer is ideal=> cos <pz = cos 4Pt = 0.8.

Application 2 �
Figure(8) shows a diagram of a transformer. The primary and the secondary effective values of the
current, the input and the output voltages and powers, and the number of turns are indicated on the figure.
1. Calculate the transformation ratio.
2. Prove by two different methods that this transformer
is ideal.
Solution
N2 = 10 =
1. m = � 0..2.
so

2. This transformer is ideal since P1 = P2 = 2000 W.

Also, .!L = 2-
10
= 0.2 = m => the transformer is ideal.
12
6� Real Transformer
If there are energy losses in the windings of the coil or in the iron core, the transformer is aid to be real.
Then < P1 The lost power is: �lost = P1 - PJ

» Equipment Secondary coil Primary coil

• A real step-up transformer of transformation
ratio m = 2;
• A generator with alternating sinusoidal voltage of
adjustable effective value U 1 and of frequency 50 Hz;
II A voltmeter V, to measure the effective value U2 of
the voltage across the secondary coil.
• Connecting wires.
Fig. 9

270
 )> Pmdm est rummtton
Set up the circuit of figure (9). This is a circuit of a transformer in open-secondary mode. Adjust the
effective value U 1 (Primary voltage) to different values, and record the corresponding effective values U2
of the voltage across the secondary.
The table below shows the recordings of the voltages U, and U2 and their ratios.
-
U, 4 8 10 14 15
Ui 8 16.15 20 27.86 29.85
1101
111U1
1- 2 2.018 2 1.99 1.99

The experiment shows that the ratio u 2 has approximately a constant value very close to the
U1
transformation ratio m.
)>Qmbmp
In the open-secondary mode, the law of voltages is applicable:

)> hntumtl s�ndary toil primary coil

II A step-up transformer of
transformation ratio m = 2;
II A generator with alternating
sinusoidal voltage of effective
value U 1 = 6 V;
• A resistor S of adjustable
resistance;
• A voltmeter and two ammeters;
• Connecting wires.
Fig.10
� £J:ttulm lmlwml!nl
In the circuit of figure (10), the generator is connected across the primary coil and a resistor S (load) of
adjustable resistance R is connected across the secondary coil. A voltmeter is connected across S to
measure the effective value U2 of the output voltage, and two ammeters A 1 and A2 are connected to
measure the effective values of currents 1 1 and 12 in the primary and the secondary coils respectively.
The table below shows the recordings ofU 1; U2; 1 1 and 12 for different chosen values ofR.
The third row shows the ratios ofU 1 and U2, while the sixth row shows the ratios ofl 1 and 12 •
UJJ.(\') ' () ., ti ()

"1:t(V) u n,&l ll..." U.5l H,09

U2
� l...�t>s I,� l...ttl l,S..8
u,
l2cm.e., l) � 40 6l in
lt(mA) � SO.I 'Sl.l I� �l
llJ.
l.� i.�i u»n l.l"
b
The experiment shows that the ratios u 2 and !! do not have constant values and do not equal to m.
U1 12
• twtdM
In general, in the closed-secondary mode the laws of voltages and currents are
not applicable.
ttt'Mlm m dl-e n�w h very ,mall di� �w ICaill h'e �wemi as W-1.

271
Reading
In open-secondary mode, the transformer consumes around 2 % of the maximum power consumed in case of
closed-secondary mode, so it is advised to disconnect the transformer from the mains if it is not in use.

Reading Remarks
), The power factor cos <p2 of the secondary circuit depends only on the nature of - U 1 is the input voltage,
the load. so it is not changed for
If the load is a resistor, then cos <p2 = 1, while if the load is a purely inductive coil any modification in the
or a capacitor, then cos <p2 = 0. secondary circuit.
> The power factor cos <p1 depends on cos <p2 and on the transformer (Real or ideal):
• If the transformer is ideal, then in all cases cos <p1 • cos <p2•
If the transformer is ideal and the load is a resistor, then cos cp1 = cos cp2 = 1.
=
- In open-secondary
mode: 1 1 0. This is
valid for ideal and real
• If the transformer is real, then cos cp1 *' cos cp2 • transformers.

Application 3
A real transformer of efficiency 95 % has a secondary coil with 50 turns. In open- secondary mode, it
transforms the mains voltage of effective value 220 V to 11 V.
1. Calculate the transformation ratio of this transformer. Deduce the number of turns (loops) in the
primary coil.
2. A load is connected across the secondary coil. The average power consumed by this load is 30 W.
The power factor in the primary circuit is cos cp 1 = 0.8 while in the secondary is cos q>2 = 0.85.
a) Determine the primary current.
b) IfU2 = 10 V, Determine the current in the secondary coil.
Solution
1' Open secondary mode: m = � = E:... = 0• OS ' and m=� => N 1 = � = 1000 turns '

= . ' =• .
U1 220 N1 0.05
30 3158
2 . a) ri = Pz => p i = 0.9 31 58 w but p i = I i u i cos (J)1 => I i = (220)(0.8) 0 18 A
=
P1 5
30
b) P2 = lz U2 cos cpz => lz = (lO (o. 85) 3.529 A.
)
7. Labelimz a Transformer
Nominal functioning: Conditions under which a transformer functions normally.
Nominal values indicated on the label of a transformer are: 480 V / 120V
• UiN
where: 0.6kVA
U7N
U 1 N Nominal input voltage is the maximum voltage that can be applied across
the primary coil in order to function normally.
U2N : Secondary nominal voltage is the maximum voltage across in the
secondary coil.
• PaN 1 : Nominal apparent power is the maximum apparent power that can be Fig.11
received by the primary coil in order to function normally.
8. Transmission of Electric Energy
The alternator of a power station shown in figure (12) produces an electric power Ptotal to be transmitted
over a long distance through the transmission lines to reach the consumer.
Ptota l = P = l eff U e ff cos (f) where:
• I eff = I is the effective value of the current Transmission line
in the circuit; ��------------------------
• U eff = U is the effective value of the voltage
across the alternator;
• cos cp is the power factor of the alternator Consumer
where cp is the phase difference between the
current sent by the alternator and the
voltage between its terminals.
_____________________________J
Fig.12
272
Power lost in transmission lines Reading
The power consumed by the consumer (load) is less than the total Resistance of a Wire Resistor
power of the alternator since part of the total :eower is lost due to The transmission line is a resistor
Joule's effect in the transmission lines. Ptota = P = Plost + P1oa d ofresistance: R = P: where:
The expression of the power lost in th; lines is: I P1ost = I�ff RI p: The resistivity of the
substance of which the
By substituting for le ff : P1ost = u 2P � transmission line is made;
cos Cf)
/: The length of the transmission
The obtained expression shows that for a given value of P the lost line;
power can be reduced by: s: Cross sectional area of the line.
• Increasing cos cp
This method does not lead to an appreciable decrease since the maximum value of cos <p is 1.
• Decreasing R
The resistance of the transmission line is: R = P f , then:
s
* t cannot be reduced since it is imposed by the station-consumer distance;
"' p cannot be changed; most of the transmission lines are made of copper whose resistivity is
1.6 x 10-8 n. m;
"' S increase is limited by the weight of the line. Also, wires of large cross-sectional area
are more expensive.
• Increasing U
This method leads to the most appreciable energy loss reduction since the voltage can be
increased to very high values, using step-up transformers.
Conclusion: The transformer is used in transmission of electricity to reduce energy losses in the
transmission lines.
Using step-up transformers in transmission of electric energy
At Lebanese power stations, the effective value of the voltage across the alternator is about 15 KV.
Step-up transformers increase the voltage to 150 to 220 KV. This high voltage is transported for long
distances through the transmission lines (High voltage lines) to some regional stations (Bsaleem, Jamhour
... ), where voltage is lowered using step-down transformers to 66 KV. This voltage is then lowered again
to 11 to 20 KV to feed industrial firms, and to 220 V for domestic use in houses (Figure 13).
Tranamlsalon Lines
Carry Electrlclty
Long Distances Distribution Ltnes
carry Electricity
To Hou es

Transformer Neighborhood
Steps Up Vollag Tranafo mer Transformers On Poles Step
For Transml1slon Steps Down Voltage Down Eleclrlclty Before It
Enters H'ouses
Fig.13
Application 4 l!:li
A small power station generates 2 MW of electricity
(lMW = 10 6 W). Electricity is transmitted to a sub­ Transmission line
station through cables (transmission lines) of total
resistance R = 2 .n.
Use cos cp = 0.95 where cp is the phase difference
between the current and the voltage across the alternator. Fig.14

273
 1. Determine the power lost in the cables if the effective voltage across the alternator of the power
station is: a. U = 40 KV; b. U = 4 KV.
2. For each of the above voltages:
a) Calculate the useful power Psub consumed by the sub-station.
b) Deduce the ratio of the consumed power to the total power given by the station.
c) Deduce the advantage of transmitting electric energy at a high voltage.
Solution
1. a) P = letr Uetr cos cp=>I = (4: iii �i:s) = 52.63 A=>P1ost = 1 2 R =(52.63)2 (2) � P1ost S!! 5540 W.
2
)
b) I (4 0��� :�is) 526.316 A=> P1ost = 1 2 R = (526.32)2 (2)=> P1ost S!! 554 025 W.
= =
(
2. a) ForU = 40KV: P = P1ost + Psub => Psub =2 X 10 6 -5540 = 1994 460 W.
ForU = 4KV: P = Piost + Psub => Psub = 2 X 10 6 -554025 = 1445 975 W.
1 4
b) ForU =40KV: Psub = ;:
Ptotal
::i
= 0.9972 = 99.7 % .
14
ForU = 4KV: = : :;: = O.723 = 72.3 % .
Psub s
Ptotal 2

c) In the transmission of electric energy under higher voltage, the percentage of the useful received
power to the total power delivered by the station is higher.
Application 5
An electric power station produces electricity of power P. The electric energy is transmitted to a city
(component) through transmission lines of total resistance R =4 n.
The component needs an electric power Pc = 10 7Wunder a voltage of effective value UAB = 220 V.
The power factor is equal to 1 for any two points of the circuit.
A. Iransmlsslon of electricity without a transformer (Figure 15).
1. Calculate the effective value I of the current in the lines.

I
2. Calculate the power lost in
the transmission lines.
3. Deduce the total electric Station : I �����-- : � Component'
power that should be --- .--- - -- -
delivered by the power
station. Deduce the
Fig.15
percentage of the lost power
to the total power delivered by the station.
B . Transmission with a transformer (Figure 16)
In this case we use two ideal transformers T and T'. The transformation ratios ofT and T' are:
m = 4 and m' =0.0125 respectively. The power consumed by the component in this part is
Pc = 10 7 WandUAB =220 V.

c
flM-::::� T
Station Comuonent
D � F ,
T
Fig.16
1.
2.
3.
=
Calculate the effective value of the primary voltageUEF of transformer T'.
Deduce that the current in the transmission lines is I 568 A.
Calculate the power lost in the transmission lines.
4. Determine the percentage of the ratio of the lost power to the total power delivered by the station.
Deduce the advantage of using transformers in the transmission of the electric energy.
5. a) Calculate the effective value of the primary current 1 1 of transformer T. Deduce the effective

274
 value of its primary voltage Uco
b) Calculate UMN.
c) Verify that UMN = UR + UEF whereUR is called voltage drop in the transmission lines.
The verified rule is only valid if cos ({) = 1 for all points ofthe circuit
Solution

=
=> leer = 45454.55 A.
107
A. 1. Pc = l eff UABceff ) cos cp => l eff = -
220
2. P1ost = I;ff R =(45454.55)2 (4) => P1ost 8.264 X 10 9 W.
3. P total = P1ost + Pc = 8.264 X 10 + 10 => Ptotal = 8. 274 X 10 W.
9 7 9

1P 8.264 x 10 9
Percentage = ____!!g_ =
8.274 x 10 9
= 0.99879 = 99.879 % .
Ptotal
B. 1. m' = UAs => UEF = � => UEF = 17600V.
UEF 0.0125
107
2. Ideal transformer =>P1 = P2' then Pc= I eff UEF (eff) cos cp => I eff = Il ine = 17600 Xl =>lune= 568 A.
11 = Ir; e

=
Or: le = 45454.55 A (proved in part A-1), but m = i;- :
=> Il ine = 0.0125 X 45454.55 568 A.
3. P1ost = l�ne R =(568) (4) = 1.29 X 10 W.
2 6

4. Pstation = P total = P1ost + P consumed

=> P total = 1.290 X 106 + 10 7 => Ptotal = 1.129 X 107 W.
- 1.29 x 10 6
=> Percentage - 1.129 x 107 - 0 . 114 -
- 11 • 4 0/
10 •

Transformers reduce energy losses in the transmission of electricity.

6. a) m = !.!. => 1 1 = 4 (568) = 2272 A .
12
P total = 1.129 X 10 = 11 Uco (eff ) cos cp => 1.129 X 10 = (2272)(Uco)(1) => Uco = 4969.4 V .
7 7

b) m = uMN => uMN = (4)( 4969.4) = 19877.6 V.

Uco

c) UR = Ul ine =IR = (4)(568) = 2272 V .

UR + UEF = 2272 + 17600 = 19872 V = UMN. So the formula is verified .

Reading
Derivation of the law of voltages of an ideal transformer
Consider the transformer of figure (17): A-+ +-
. . + N d1P1
uAB = u1 = 1 1 r1 - e1 = 11 r1 1
dt
dq>i is the flux rate in each turn of the primary coil.
dt
. . + dq>z
Uco = Uz = lz r2 - e2 = Iz r2 Nz dt
dq,z is the flux rate in each turn of the secondary coil.
dt
If the transformer is ideal, then: r1 = r2 = 0 and d:t = d!2.
� U1 = N1 dq>1 � dq,1 = u1 ••• eq(l) and Uz = Nz dq>z � dq,z = uz ••• eq(2)
B D
dt dt N1 dt dt Nz Fig. 17
d<p1 - d<pz � 01 - 02 or 02 - Nz law of voltages.
dt dt N1 Nz U 1 N1

275
 Problems
1. Determination of the enersv consumed bv a load ,/
The adjacent figure is a diagram of an ideal transformer. The primary coil of the transformer is
connected across a function generator that maintains
across its terminals, an alternating sinusoidal voltage Primary
of affective value UAB = 12 V and of frequency 20 Hz. voltage
A load is connected across the secondary coil of the
transformer between points C and D.
Given: cos <p 1 = 0.8 and the effective value of the
secondary current is 12 = 2 A.
a) Explain the existence of the current in the
secondary circuit.
b) Specify the frequency of the secondary voltage.
c) i. Use the figure to determine the transformation
ratio m. Deduce whether this transformer is step-up
or step-down.
ii. Deduce whether 12 is less or greater than the
effective value 1 1 of the primary current. Support
your answer by calculating 1 1 .
d) i. Determine the average power consumed by the load.
ii. Deduce the energy consumed by the load during 30 minutes.

2. SaconJlaa voltage In closed and ogen-secondary modes

The adjacent figure is a diagram of a real transformer.
The primary coil of the transformer is connected
across a function generator which maintains across its Load
terminals an alternating sinusoidal voltage of effective
value U1 = 9 V.
A load is connected across the secondary coil of the
transformer between points C and D.
Given: Efficiency of the transformer is T) = 95 % ; cos <p2 = 1; the effective value of the secondary current
is 12 = 2 A; the effective value of the primary current is 1 1 = 3 A; the average power consumed by the load
is 25 W and the transformation ratio is m = 1.4.
a) Calculate the effective value of the secondary voltage Uco.
b) Determine the phase difference between the primary voltage uAB and the primary current i 1 .
c) The load is disconnected.
i. Name the mode of the transformer.
ii. Deduce then the new value of the effective value of the voltage Uco across the secondary coil.
3. ,Dat .. _rmlnatlon of th_e power delivered by a generator
Two ideal transformers T I and T2 , a
function generator, and two resistors of I A
resistances R 1 and R2 are connected as
shown in the adjacent figure.
Given: cos <p = 1 for all coils ; the
transformation ratios of T 1 and T2 are
m 1 = 0.5 and m2 = 4 respectively;
R1 = 2 n ; R2 = 16 n ; l3 = 1 A . B c F _N
Hint: cos <.p = 1 for any coil, then the
law of addition of voltages in effective values is applicable in this question.
a) Determine the effective values of the voltages: UuN, UEF, Uoc and UAB .
b) Deduce the average power delivered by the generator.

276
4. Ideal and real transformers ./
Consider a transformer T of transformation ratio m. The primary coil is connected across a generator
(G) with an alternating sinusoidal voltage of effective value U 1 = 220 V. A lamp is connected across the
secondary. The lamp bears the following inscriptions (11000 V; 200 W) where 11000 V and 200 Ware
the rated voltage and the rated power of the lamp respectively .
A. The transformer is ideal
T is an ideal transformer. The lamp
glows normally. Use cos (f)1 = cos (f)2 = 1.
a) Prove that the transformer is step-
up. Support your answer by Lamp
calculating m.
b) Calculate the current 12 flowing in
the lamp.
c) Calculate the primary current 1 1 by
two different methods.
B. The transformer is real
The ideal transformer T is disconnected from the circuit, and a real transformer T' of transformation ratio
m' and of efficiency 11 = 97 % is connected. Use cos c:p 1 = 0.98 and cos q> 2 = 1.
a) i. Determine the effective values 12 and 1 1 of the secondary and primary currents respectively.
ii. Compare the values of the ratios U2 and !i.
U1 12
b) The lamp is removed (Open secondary mode) so the voltage across the secondary coil becomes
U2' = 11220 V. Deduce the transformation ratio m' of the real transformer.
c) The generator is replaced by a DC generator of voltage 220 V. Specify whether the lamp glows or
not.
5. Transmission of electric energy . ./
A power station delivers 10 MW of total electric power under alternating sinusoidal voltage of effective
value UAB = 6400 V.
The produced electric power is transmitted to an installation through two lines each of 4 km length and of
resistance 0.5 n per km . The power factor for each coil is taken as 1.
A. Transmission with a transformer
An ideal transformer T is used to A T C Transmission line
transmit this power, so the power
lost in the transmission lines is 10%
of the total produced power.
a) i. Calculate the total resistance Installation

------·-----------
r of the transmission lines.
ii. Calculate the power lost due
to Joule's effect in the B D
transmission lines.
iii. Deduce the effective value of the current in the transmission lines.
b) Prove that the effective value of the voltage across the secondary coil is Uco = 20000 V. Is this
transformer step-up or step-down?
c) Calculate the number of loops in the secondary if the primary is formed of 1000 loops.
d) Calculate by two different methods the average power consumed by the installation.
B. Transmission without a transformer
The above power station delivers now a total electric power of 10 MW to the installation, but
without using a transformer
a) Determine the new loss of power in the transmission lines due to Joule's effect.
b) Deduce the percentage of the power lost in the transmission lines to the total power delivered by
the power station.
c) Deduce the advantage of using transformers in electricity transmission.

277
6. R·L·C series circuit
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C = 10 µF, a resistor of resistance R = 20 0 and a coil (M) of
inductance L and of internal resistance r connected in series across the secondary of an ideal transformer.
Take ../2 = 1.4.
A. Expression of the current in the secondary coil
The primary coil of the transformer is connected
to the mains of effective value 220 V. R
The voltage between the terminals of the
secondary coil of the transformer whose number (L,r)
of loops is 50, is: � 1torc t S.I.
The primary circuit carries an alternating q
sinusoidal current:
= .& S.I +- H
+
a) Determine the number of turns of the c
primary coil.
b) Determine the expression of the current iz in the secondary coil knowing that i 2 is in phase with i 1 .
B. Determination of L and r
a) Calculate the average power delivered to the secondary coil.
b) Deduce that the internal resistance of the coil (M) is r == 0.
c) Apply the law of addition of voltages to determine the value ofL.

278
 < ·-
�
r,j

<
"""
< Q

�
Particle gun
(a) Two-slit Screen
barrier

Interference
Wave

Wave source
(b)

Two-slit
Single-slit
barrier Intensi of wave

The history ofdevelopment ofoptics began with the development of lenses by the ancient Egyptians and
Mesopotamians, followed by theories on light and vision developed by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers. Here
are some important dates in the development ofoptics:
1621. The law ofrefraction was formulated by Snell in the United Kingdom (Descartes in 1637 in France).
1665. Hooke advanced the idea that light is a high-frequency self-propagating vibration.
1665. Newton proposed the corpuscular nature oflight.
1801. Young explained the phenomenon ofinterference by means ofthe wave theory oflight.
1808. Malus discovered the polarization oflight on reflection from a glass surface.
1849. Fizeau produced a highly accurate measurement ofthe speed oflight.
1876. Maxwell derived his famous equations showing that they embrace all the empirical knowledge ofthe behavior
oflight and that light is a special example of electromagnetic waves.
1881. Michelson proved experimentally that light propagates at the same speed with respect to all references.
1888. Hertz verified Maxwell's theory experimentally and showed that the generation ofelectromagnetic waves
arises from the oscillatory movement ofelectric charges.
1905. Einstein created the theory ofrelativity according to which no material body nor any element ofinformation
can propagate faster than light in vacuum.
1905. Einstein rehabilitated the corpuscular nature oflight and introduced the concept ofphotons
1920. De Broglie reconciled the two theories and introduced the concept ofthe dual nature oflight, particle and
wave

279
 14 Wave Aspect of Light -
Diffraction

Diffraction grating

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
•!• Define diffraction.
•!• Describe the diffraction phenomenon through a thin slit and through a circular
aperture.
•!• Determine the positions of the dark and bright fringes obtained by a thin slit.
•!• Draw the curve of the intensity of the diffracted wave in diffraction through a thin
slit.
•!• Interpret the diffraction phenomenon using Huygens' Principle.
•!• Draw out some properties of electromagnetic waves from the electromagnetic
spectrum.

280
Prerequisites
• Types of waves: According to their nature, waves are classified into:
- Mechanical wave: it needs a material medium to propagate. Sound, water waves and waves
propagating along a rope are examples of mechanical waves.
- Electromagnetic wave: it does not need a material medium to propagate; it can propagate in
vacuum. Light, radio wave, and ultraviolet are examples of electromagnetic waves.
• Wave characteristics :

I I
- A wave is characterized by its: wavelength t..; frequency v; speed v; amplitude a and period T.
where A = � v depends only on the medium of propagation, v depends only on the source of the
wave, while "A depends on the source and on the medium.
- All electromagnetic waves propagate in vacuum or in air with a speed c = 3 x l 0 8 mis => Aair = �
The range of the wavelengths of light, in vacuum is: "A: (400 nm� 800 nm).
I I
The range of the wavelengths of audible sound in air at 20°, is: "A: (1.7 cm� 17 m).
• If the angle e is very small (0 S 10°), then sine= 0 rad and tane = 0 rad (angle measured in radian).

1. Definition and Description of the Diffraction Phenomenon

Experiment 1: Diffraction through a slit

), Equipment
-. A laser box;
-. A screen (wall);
.:.... A cardboard with a hole of diameter d > 2 cm;
._ Set of frames in which thin slits of different widths (width a < 1 mm), are cut.
), Procedure and observation
• Place the vertical cardboard in front of the laser box. Place the screen parallel to the cardboard
at a distance D = 1 m. The horizontal laser beam passes through the hole of the cardboard and
falls on the screen (Figure 1).
Cardboard Screen

Laser
••
Bo.x·

10cm
lm
Fig.1
A spot of diameter equal to that of the incident laser beam is observed on the screen (light
obeys the principle of rectilinear propagation).
• Replace the cardboard by a vertical thin slit of width a< 1 mm, you will observe that light does not
travel in straight lines; instead, it deviates from its path without being reflected or refracted (Figure
2).

281
Note that D » a . So in
drawing a and D do not
obey the same scale.

..
� ...... .
..
.

10cm

lm
Fig. 2

You observe on the screen:

* Alternate bright and dark spots or fringes on both sides of a central bright fringe.
* The central fringe is brighter and has a width double that of the other bright fringes.
* The fringes are aligned in a direction perpendicular to that of the slit.
This phenomenon is called: Diffraction of light.
• Repeat the experiment, by replacing the slit by other slits having different widths.

The spots become wider and brighter as the width a of the slit decreases (Figure 3).

Fig. 3

282
Experiment 2: Diffraction by a circular hole, a rectangular slit, a sharp edge and a sharp obstacle

� Equipment
,.. Laser box;
._ Screen (wall);
,.._ Set of frames in which thin holes of different diameters (diameter d < 1 mm), are cut;
-. Rectangular slit, a hair and a razor blade.
� Procedure and observation
• Repeat the same steps of experiment (1) by replacing the thin slit
by a small circular hole (apertures) (Figure 4).

Circular
hole

Laser

10cm

lm
Fig. 4

You observe on the screen:

Concentric alternate bright and dark circular fringes

(rings) surrounding a central bright circular fringe.

• Repeat the experiment, by replacing the hole by other ones of different

diameters. We observe that:
the rings become wider and brighter as the diameter of
the hole decreases.

• Repeat the experiment by directing the laser light on a

rectangular slit, you observe:
two perpendicular diffraction patterns (Figure 6).

• Direct the laser beam on the edge of a razor (sharp edge). You
observe the diffraction pattern of figure (7).

Fig. 7

283
 • Direct the laser beam on a sharp obstacle like a hair or a
thread.
The diffraction pattern of a hair is similar to that of the thin
slit (Figure 8).

> Conclusion
Diffraction of light: Deviation of light from its path, without being reflected or refracted when it
falls on a small aperture (less than 1 mm), a sharp edge, or a sharp obstacle.
We cannot isolate a ray of light.
When light passes through a wide aperture of large dimensions, it obeys the principle of rectilinear
propagation of light.

2. Positions of the Fringes Obtained by Diffraction through a Thin Slit

Let D be the distance between the screen and the slit. If:
- D is very long then diffraction is studied according to Fraunhofer's diffraction;
- D is small then diffraction is studied according to Fresnel's diffraction.
We will study Fraunhofer's diffraction.
Figure (9) shows a top view of the diffraction experimental set up done with a vertical thin slit.
The fringes are aligned along the x-axis of origin 0.
x
Screen

Center of 3 rd bright fringe

Center of 3 dark fringe
rd

Center of z nd bright fringe

Thin slit Center of 2•d dark frin2e

_j//
Center of 1
st
bright fringe
Center of 1 '' dark fringe

Center of central bright fringe

Center of 1
st
dark fringe
Center of 1 bright fringe
st

Center of z nd dark fringe

Center of 2 nd bright fringe
Center of 3 rd dark fringe
Center of 3 rd bright fringe

Fig. 9
a. Angles of diffraction of the centers of dark fringes
The angle of diffraction 8 of the center of a dark fringe (zero intensity) is the angle between the initial

I ¥I
direction of the incident beam and the diffracted ray directed towards the center of this dark fringe.
The angle of diffraction is given by: sin 8 0 = where:

"' is the wavelength of the emitted monochromatic radiation in m;

a is the width of the slit in m;
n is the order of the dark fringes: n = ± 1, ±2, ±3 ...
For small angles sin 8 = 8crad) then
I en
= ¥I
284
 For example: Reading
- center of the first dark fringe on the positive side of the For diffraction by a hair or a thin
central bright fringe (C.B.F) corresponds to n = 1 � 81 = �a thread of diameter d, the positions
of the dark fringes are given by:
- center of the first dark fringe on the negative side of the
central bright fringe corresponds to n = -1 � 81 = -a ;
'A Sill =
· 8 n 8 n(rad) = d n).
·
For diffraction through a circular
- center of the second dark fringe on the positive side of the aperture of diameter d:
Z'A
c.B.F corresponds to n = 2 � 82 = - . . 81 =
Sill
1.22).
- 8 l(rad)) = - -

=
a d
sin 2.23 1c
82 82crad)) = - - ;
Note: The angle of diffraction of the center of the central d

bright fringe is 8c.B.F = 0. Sill - 8 3(rad) -

. 83 = 3.24\
- - d- .

b. Angular width of the central fringe

The angular width a of the central fringe is the angle through
which the central fringe is seen from the center of the slit
Figure (10). a = 2 10 1 1 then for small angles a I
Za').,, I B

c. Width of the central bright fringe

In figure (10), consider the right triangle OBA.
tan ( �2 ) = L0lz .
If a is small ' �2 = L0lz � L = a D
2 'AO
the width L of the central bright fringe is =
aD= a

For a certain distance D between the slit and the screen, we Fig. 10
conclude that:
as the wavelength of the incident radiation increases or/and the dimensions of the aperture decreases
(or the obstacle becomes sharper), the width L increases so the diffraction pattern becomes broader
and brighter.
d. Positions of the dark fringes
Let ox be an axis oriented positively upwards, 0 is the center of the central bright fringe.
The position of the center of a dark fringe relative to O is
given by X n = D tan 8n . For small angles, Xn = D On .
x
n 'A n 'AO
But e n = --;;-- � Xn = --. a
For example:
The position of the center of the first dark fringe on the
.. 'AO
positive si"de corresponds to n = 1 � x 1 = - a
;
The position of the center of the first dark on the
. 'A
negative si"de corresponds to n = -1 � x 1 = - - aO ; Fig.11
The position of the center of the second dark fringe on
no Note:
the positive
· · si"de corresponds to n = 2 � x2 = -- a Figures (10) and (11) must be
no
Remark: L =
--
a
� xn =
n -L2 drawn whenever Lor x are to
be determined, and the formulas
that give the expression of L
and x should be derived.
e. Position of the center of a bright fringe
The C.B.F is twice as broad as other bright fringes, and then the width of a bright fringe is � .
Figure (9) shows that the center of a bright fringe is midway between the centers of two

285
 consecutive dark fringes. Therefore, the distance between the center of a dark fringe and the
center of the next bright fringe is �-
The position of the center of a bright fringe of order n is given by:
Xn(bright) = ± (n � + �) = ± [ ( D c\
n+
0 )] where n is a non zero positive integer.
* Xn (bright) > 0 if the bright fringe is on the positive side of the C.B.F;
* Xn (bright) < 0 if the bright fringe is on the negative side of the C.B.F.
Difhction of waves
In general, any wave (light, infrared, radio wave, sound wave ...) may undergo
diffraction when it passes through an opening (aperture) or when it falls on an
obstacle or on an edge.
A wave of long wavelength, such as a radio wave and a microwave, can diffract
when it falls on a slit of width much larger than 1 mm.
Under diffraction, the shape of the wavefront of the wave is changed, while Incident Diffracted
the frequency, the wavelength and the speed remain unchanged ( Figure 12). wave wave
Fig. 12

Application 1
A He-Ne laser beam of wavelength 63 3 nm falls normally on a vertical thin slit of width 0.5 mm. The
vertical screen is 2.2 m away from the slit.
The angles of diffraction of the fringes in the following questions are small.
1. Calculate the angle of diffraction of the center of the 3rd dark fringe on the positive side relative to
the central fringe. Deduce its position relative to the center of the central fringe.
2. Calculate the angular width of the central bright fringe. Deduce its width.
3. Determine the positions of the centers of the third bright fringes.
4. Determine the distance separating the centers of the 3 rd and the 6 th dark fringes on the same side of
the central fringe.
5. For D = 2.2 m. The slit is replaced by another one of width a' so that the distance separating the
centers of the z nd dark fringe and the 4 th dark fringe on opposite sides of the central bright fringe is
10 mm. Determine a'.
6. Determine where the screen should be placed so that the z nd dark fringe is at 8 mm from the center
of the central bright fringe ( Use a = 0.5 mm).
7. The laser light is replaced by a red light of wavelength 8 0 0 nm. Specify the radiation whose central
bright fringe is broader (wider).
Solution
3 x 633 x 10-9
1. sin 8 n = � , 8 is small => 8 3 = 3aA 0.5 x 10-3
3BF
a 3DF
=> 93 = 3.798 x 10-3 rad.
Using the geometry of figure (13): x3 = tan 8 3 . D 8 3 . D= 2BF

=> x3 = 3.798 x 10-3 x 2.2 => x3 == 8.36 x 10-3 m = 8.36 mm.

lBF
2A 2 x 633 x 10-9
2. a= 2 81 = --;;-- => a= => u = 2.532 x 10-3 rad.
0_5 x 10_3

From figure (13) : tan 2 =

a Lj
rf
=> L = a. D
=> L = 2.532 x 10-3 x 2.2 = 5.5704 x 10-3 m => L == 5.57 mm.
3. The center of the third bright fringe is mid way between the centers of
Fig.13
the third and the fourth dark fringes then:
X3 (bright) = [lx3 (dark)I + �] 5
= ± [8.36 + ·: ]
7
=
± 9.75 mm.
611.
4. x 6 - X 3 = D (8 6 - 83 ) = D ( - - - 311. ) = D ( -
3A )
a a a
3 x 633 x 10-9
=> x 6 - x 3 = 2.2 ( o.s x _3 ) = 8.36 x 10- m => x6 - x3 = 8.36 mm.
3
10

286
 L
Or: x6 - x3 =3 2=1.5(5.57) = 8.36 mm.
2A
4J.. 6J..
5. d=lx41+1x2l=D(84+ 82)=D(7 + 7)=D( 7)
I - 6 AD' - 6 x 633 x 10- x 2.2
� 8.36 x 10-4 m - 0.836 mm.
9
� a - -ct- - 10 x 10-3 �a' -
Or: d=2 L +L=3 L�d=3( n,n) =10 x 10- 3 �a'� 0.84 mm.
a
2 A D x� a 8 x 10- 3 x 0.5 x 10-3 �
6 · X2' - e'2 x D' - -a-�D' - � - 2 x 633 x 10-9 �D' - 3 ' 16 m.
2
7. L=a. D = ;.. D �For longer wavelength, central bright fringe is broader.
a
�Central fringe of the radiation of wavelength 800 nm is broader.
Application 2 �
Microwaves of wavelength 3 cm falls normally on a slit of width 5 cm. Even though
1. Determine the angles of diffraction of the centers of the first dark fringes. a = S cm, diffraction
2. Determine the angles of diffraction of the centers of the first bright fringes. takes place since
Solution: Amtcrowave » Avtslble
. nA . e - A - 3 - T 70
=
1. Slll 8 0 =- Slll l = + - = + - = + 0.6 � 9 1 � T 3
a � a 5
Note that we can't use the approximation sine 8cract) since the angle is not small.
2. The center of a bright fringe is midway between the centers of two consecutive dark fringes :
. - 81 - 37
81(bnght) = + (81(dark) + 2) � 81(bright) = + ( 37+2) � 9 l(brlght) � T T
55 o.
.S
Application 3
The range of wavelengths of audible sound waves in air is(1.7 cm-+ 17 m). In vacuum, the range of light
is (400 nm-+ 800 nm); the range of radio waves is(1 cm-+ 10 4 m) and the range ofy-rays is
(10-15 nm----* 0.3 nm).
1. A person is shouting from behind a wall. You can hear the sound of the person but, you can't see
him. Justify.
2. Give one reason why we can use microwaves and radio waves, but not y rays, in
telecommunication.
Solution
1. The wavelengths of sound waves are much longer than those of light waves, so angles of
diffraction of sound waves are much greater than those of light waves. Then sound waves can
reach places cannot be reached by light after being diffracted at a certain edge. Thus we can hear
the sound of the person without seeing him.
2. In communication it is required to cover the largest possible area(country or continent). Having
much longer wavelengths, radio waves can bend under diffraction much more than y- rays.
3. Curve of the Intensity of the Diffracted Light in the Diffraction Pattern
Figure(14) shows the variation of the intensity I of the
diffracted light as a function of the angle of diffraction e. Intensity distribution of diffracted light
The figure shows that: Intensity ( J )
* the intensity I is maximum at the center O of the
central bright fringe. I decrease as one moves from O
in both directions of the 8 axis until it vanishes
completely at the centers of the first dark fringes.
I increases again until it reaches a new maximum at
the centers of the first bright fringes and so on.
* the intensities at the centers of the bright fringes are 8
much smaller than that at the center of the central n
bright fringe, and these intensities decrease as one a
moves away on both sides of the central fringe.
* the width of the central fringe is twice as broad as Detector screen
others. Fig.14
287
Application 4 �
Figure (15) shows the variation of
the intensity of the diffracted light,
of a diffraction pattern obtained by
a thin slit as a function of the
position x on the screen.
Given: D = 2 m ; ').. = 0.4 µm.
The linear width of the central
bright fringe is L. The angles of
diffraction of the fringes in the
following questions are small.
1. Pick out the positions (abscissas)
of the center of the z nct dark and
that the z nd bright fringe,
relative to the x-axis. x m
2. Pick out the width of the central -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
bright fringe. Fig. 15
2 0
3. Use L = "' to calculate the width a of the slit.
4. Use the graph to determine the angles of diffraction of the center of the 1st bright fringe.
Solution
1. X2(dark) • ; 4 mm. X2(brlaht) •; 5 mm .
2. L = 2 + 2 => L • 4 mm.
- v.. n - 2 x o.4 x io- 6 x 2 -
3. L --=>a- -4 x 10-4 =>a• 0 ,4 mm. A =---+-�---____,.,...rr
a 4x10-3 r-

=
4. X1(bright) = ± 3 mm, but X1= tan 01. D = 01. D (Figure 16)
x 10-3 D
=> 01= ±
3
� 81(brtaht) • 1,5 X 10 rad.
-3
2 Fig.16
4. Interpretation of the Diffraction Phenomenon using Huygens' Principle
Huygens' principle was introduced by the great Dutch physicist
Christian Huygens (1629-1695) in 1876 in order to explain the
wave aspect of light.
Secondnry source
.......'•,,,, __ +11velot
__,__:

Huygens' prtnctpJe
A point source (S) emits spherical wavefronts.
All points on a wavefront act as secondary sources that emit
spherical waves called wavelets (Figure 17-a).
These wavelets propagate with the same speed. At a later time
the tangents to these wavelets form another wavefront having
(S) as its center.

Interpretation of the dtffractlop phenomenon using

Huygens' Prtnctple
• Each point of the slit or the aperture acts as a
secondary source of wavelets.
* Diffraction fringes are formed due to the
superposition of the wavelets (Figure 17-b).

Conclusion: Diffraction phenomenon

confirms the wave aspect of light.
Fig(17-b)

288
5. Electromagnetic Waves
ll
Electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic
radiations are made up of an electric field E and
a magnetic field B vibrating with the same
frequency in two perpendicular planes (Figure
18). The electric and the magnetic fields are
transverse sinusoidal.
The direction ofthe electromagnetic wave is
perpendicular to the plane formed by E and B
* Electromagnetic waves8 propagate in vacuum
at the speed c = 3 x 10 mis. The speed
decreases as the wave crosses to another Fig. 18
material medium.
* Electromagnetic waves undergo reflection,
refraction, diffraction, and interference.

Figure (19) shows the electromagnetic spectrum which includes: Gamma-rays (y-rays), X-rays,
Ultraviolet (UV), Light, Infra-red (IR), microwaves, Radio waves, and Long waves.

10 1
•
10- 10-2 10- \0-4 \0-5 10-6 \0-7 10- 10-
adi�
I I I
c
I I I
..
TV c Microwav.e ,.
Infrared

12
108 109 1010 1011 10 1013 1014 1018 10 10 1021 1022
19 20

Visible radiati Frequencies in Hz

600

Fig. 19
The figure shows that the frequency of the wave increases as we move from radio waves towards
y-rays, while the wavelength increases as we move from y-rays towards radio waves.

Visible electromagnetic waves (Light)

=
All the electromagnetic waves are invisible except for light (visible electromagnetic wave).
• The speed oflight is c = 299 792 458 mis 3 x 10 8 mis, in vacuum.
• The wavelengths ofvisible light in vacuum range between 400 nm and 800 nm (In some references
the range is: (380 nm---+ 750 nm).
• The wavelength oflight travelling in air is "A = .: . When light enters a transparent medium ofindex of
v
refraction n, its s eed becomes v = 5. and its wavelength becomes An = �v = .....:__
nv
n
7'.air n 2:: 1 Wavelength is longest in air (or vacuum).
� An = n �
Isotropic medium is a medium where light propagates with the same speed in all directions.
Homogeneous medium is a medium ofone phase (no refraction takes place).

289
Monochromatic light is a light of specific (one) frequency. To each frequency there corresponds a
specific color, and this color does not change as light crosses to another medium, since the wavelength
changes while the fer quency remains the same.
Laser is a source of monochromatic light.
Polychromatic light is the light which is composed of more than one monochromatic light.

Application 5
Figure (20) shows a source S of white light. The light falls x
normally on a slit of width a;;:;: 0.3 mm. The slit is· at a
distance D = 1 m from a vertical screen. B
A point B belongs to the obtained diffar ction pattern and has a
position x8 = 6 mm relative to the origin O of the x-axis.
(SO) is horizontal.
The angular width and the size of the central bright fringe are aand L
respectively.
The range of wavelength of light in vacuum is:
1: (400 nm - 800 nm). Aviolet = 400 nm.
The angles of diffraction of the fringes in the following questions are small. Fig. 20
1. Use L = D. tan ato specify the wavelength of the broadest central bright fringe formed on the
screen.
2. The color at the point O is white. Justify.
3. Determine the wavelengths of the missing radiations (dark fringes) at the point B.
Solution
2 AO�
1. a is small, then L = a. D = a a and Dare the same for all patterns. So the radiation of the
longest wavelength has the broadest C.B.F . This pattern is that of wavelength 800 nm.
2. Each monochromatic light undergoes diffraction when it crosses the slit, and the center of the C.B.F
of each of these lights is at 0. Constructive superposition of all lights takes place at 0, and then the
color at O is white.
•
3. sm en _ = erad _ n ;\.
- -;;- and Xn _- D . tan en =
_ n ;\. D
_ D . a .,,,. Xn - -a-� 6 x 10 -3 - _ .3n)(;\. (1)-3
0 10
=> n l. = 1.8 x 10-6 {n is a whole number).
1.8 x 1 0 -6 1 .8 x 1 0-6
For A.= 400 run: n = x _ = 4.5 ; For A= 800 run: n = = 2.25
40 0 1 0 9 800 x 1 0 _9
. � 2.25 < n < 4.5, but n EN* � n: 3 ; 4 Then only two radiations have dark fringes at B.
1.8 10 - 6
For n = 3: "A= \ = 6x10- 7m � 1= 600 nm. So the third dark fringe of the pattern whose
wavelength is A = 600nm, is missed.
18 10 6
x - - 4.5x10- 7 m � l.=450 nm. So the fourth dark fringe of the pattern
For n = 4: "A= . ·4
whose wavelength is A = 450nm, is missed.

290
 Reading

A. Satellite television
Geostationary satellites send television signals Geostationary satellite
to large areas (countries and continents). This
cannot be achieved without diffraction.
First, the satellite receives a microwave beam
(TV signals) from the broadcast center on
Earth. Second, the satellite re·transmits the TV
signals. When the TV signals pass through the
dish of the satellite, they undergo diffraction at
its edges.
The angle of diffraction of the signal depends
on the wavelength of the microwaves and on
the thicknesB of the edges of the dish.
The angle of diffraction is chosen carefully to
cover the selected area. Wider angle covers
larger areas with weak TV signals, while
smaller angle results in a strong signal but it
does not cover all the selected area.

B. Resolution
Fig. 21

..
If you look at distant objects you cannot see them separated (resolved).
Similarly if you look at two stars using a telescope, you may or may Lower rewludoo l1113P Higher riwlutloo image
not resolve (separate) their images. It depends on the resolution of the
telescope (Figure 22 ).
Higher resolution means more image detail.
When you look at an object, the light coming from its different parts
enters the pupil of your eye, and an image of the object iB formed on
the retina. When the waves from the object enter the pupil of Fig. 22
diameter (d), diffraction might take plaee. For diffraction through a
circular aperture, the angle of diffraction of the center of the firm dark fringe is sin 9 � 1.22 j .
Rayleigh's criterion uses the above expression to give the smallelJt angular separation (�) of tw" points that can be
resolved (can be distinguished),
C<>nsider two points A and B separated by a distance AB and situated at a distance " from the eye of an observer.
(Figure 23). The angular .

f
Jf sin � 2::: sin 0 aa= L22 then the points can be distinguished (Been separately).
.
Beparation or the angle of vision of these P"ints ii given by 1ln � '"' !! .

Prom the obtained expression 1in � "" � , as x becomes very large then� becomes very small so tbe two points
cannot be seen separated.
Example:
In figure (23), a person is looking at the headlights A and B of a car 4 km away from him. A and B are 1.4 m apart

;;;
The person observes the lights at an angular separation � where
sin� - tan�"" �:o 0.00035 rad.
Suppose that the lights coming from A and B have an average
A

wavelength of 500 nm. When these liglJts enter the pupil of the per!lOn,
whose diameter is d,.. 3 mm, diffraction takes plaee,
The angle of diffraction of the center of the first dark fringe is
.
..-.,
- 0,0002 rou,
l:.:122 ! = 12 2" 500
sm a -
' \1 •
d- ,
XlO l:!li:
� 3 x 10=3
·�,I
<· - . - . - . - . 4- km
· - . - . - . - . �B
But 0.00035 rad > 0,0002 rad , then the per!IOn should He two separate Fig. 23
headlights,

291
 Problems
In all the following questions, the angles of diffraction of the fringes are small, and the experiments are
done in air unless stated otherwise.
1. Determination of the width of a slit
A laser source emits a monochromatic light ofwavelength A = 600 nm. A board with a vertical thin slit of
width a is placed in front ofthe source. The light is incident normally on the slit. A screen is placed
parallel to the board at a distance D = 2 m from it.
a) Indicate the name ofthe phenomenon that takes place as light crosses the slit
b) A detector ofthe intensity oflight starts from the center ofthe central fringe O and moves
horizontally on the screen. Which one ofthe following statements is correct?
The intensity ofthe light decreases as the detector moves away from the point 0.
The intensity ofthe light increases as the detector moves away from the point 0.
The intensity ofthe light remains constant as the detector moves away from O.
The amplitude ofthe intensity ofthe light varies alternately between maxima and minima
during the motion ofthe detector away from the point 0. Each maximum is smaller than the
prev10us one.
c) The measure ofthe linear width ofthe central bright fringe is 2.37 cm. Determine the angular
width ofthe central fringe.
d) Calculate the width a ofthe slit.
2. Basic concepts of diffraction of light ./
A monochromatic beam oflight ofwavelength 750 nm is incident normally on a vertical thin slit ofwidth
0.5 mm. A vertical screen is placed 100 cm away from the slit.
a) i. Draw a diagram showing the shape ofthe beam of light emerging from the slit.
ii. Describe what you would observe on the screen.
iii. Use Huygens's principle to interpret the observed phenomenon.
b) Draw a rough diagram that shows the variation ofthe intensity I ofthe diffracted light on the
screen, as a function ofsine (8 is the angle ofdiffraction ofa point in the diffraction pattern).
c) Calculate the angular width ofthe central fringe. Deduce the linear width ofthe central fringe.
d) Determine the positions ofthe centers ofthe third dark and the third bright fringes in the positive
side ofthe central bright fringe.
e) i. Describe what happens to the diffraction pattern ifthe slit is replaced by another one ofslightly
smaller width. Justify.
ii. Deduce whether we can isolate a ray oflight by replacing the slit by a hole ofvery small
opening? Why?
f) Describe what you would observe on the screen ifthe slit is replaced by another one ofwidth 2 cm.
Illustrate your answer by drawing a figure.
3. Diffraction of a laser llght ./
A laser beam ofwave length 633 nm in air illuminates a thin slit under normal incidence. The slit has
a width a = 0.2 mm and it is placed at a distance D = 1.5 m away from a screen (E). The plane ofthe
slit is parallel to that ofscreen (E). Given: c = 3 x 10 8 m/s.
a) i. The laser beam is monochromatic. Why? Calculate its frequency.
ii. Indicate the name ofthe phenomenon that takes place when light crosses the slit.
iii. The above phenomenon confirms a certain aspect oflight. Name this aspect.
b) Determine the width ofeach bright fringe surrounding the central fringe.
c) Determine, relative to the center O ofthe central fringe, the positions ofthe nearest points that
have zero intensity.
d) Specify how should A ; D and a be varied in order to obtain a wider diffraction pattern.
e) The laser beam is replaced by another one emitting light ofsame intensity and ofwavelength
"A' = 400 nm. In order to obtain the same diffraction pattern as the one obtained with').. = 633 nm:
i. determine the new value ofa, ifD is not changed.
ii. determine the new value ofD, if a is not changed.

292
 f) The slit is replaced by a square-shaped aperture of side 0.2 mm. Describe what is observed on the
screen (E) if the slit is illuminated by the laser source.
4. Diffraction of five electromagnetic radiations
The table below shows the wavelengths in air and the frequencies of five electromagnetic radiations.
Each of the five radiations falls normally on a hair of diameter d = 0.4 mm. The hair is placed at a
distance D = 50 cm from the source of the electromagnetic radiations.
The diffraction pattern given by a hair of diameter d is similar to that given by a thin slit of width a.
a) One of the radiations in the table is Table of frequencies and wavelengths
invisible. Which one? Does it Radiation Freouency (10 14 Hz) Wavelength (nm)
become visible when it crosses to Yellow 5.187 578
another medium? Why? Green 5.490 546
b) Calculate the speed of light in air. Blue 6.879 436
c) Determine the angular width of the Violet 7.409 405
broadest central bright fringe.
Ultraviolet 8.203 365
d) For the radiation of the narrowest
diffraction pattern, determine relative to the center O of the central fringe, the position of the
center of the 3 rd fringe of zero intensity.
e) Determine the distance between the centers of the z nd and the 6 th dark fringes on the same side
of the central bright fringe of the blue diffraction pattern.
5. Effect of the wavelength on the diffraction phenomenon
A monochromatic light of wavelength A = 800 nm falls normally on a vertical thin slit of width
a = 0.2 mm. A diffraction pattern is observed on a vertical screen, 1 m away from the plane of the slit.
A. a) Calculate the ratio i'
b) Determine the angular and the linear widths of the central fringe.
c) Deduce the distance separating the centers of the two dark fringes situated on both ends of the
central fringe.
B. The slit is replaced by a pin hole of diameter d = 4 cm.
a) Represent the setup schematically and describe what can be observed when the same light of
A = 800 nm falls normally on the screen.
b) The monochromatic light beam is replaced by an electromagnetic wave of frequency
v = 187.5 x 10 10 Hz. Given: speed of light in vacuum is c = 3 x 10 8 m/s.
i. Calculate the new wavelength A' in vacuum. Calculate the ratio f.
ii. Do we option a diffraction pattern on the screen for this electromagnetic wave? Why?
6. Width of the diffraction pattern
In the adjacent figure, a source S emits a monochromatic light of wavelength A= 600 nm. The light falls
normally on a slit of width a = 0.4 mm. The slit is at a distance D = 2 m from a screen (E). A point B in
the obtained diffraction pattern has a position x8 = 7.5 mm, relative
to the center O of the central bright fringe. x
a) Determine the angle of diffraction and the position of the
B
center of the 4 th dark fringe on the negative side of 0.
b) i. Give the expression of the position x of the center of a
bright fringe in terms of A, D, a and a whole number n.
ii. Determine the nature and the order of the fringe whose
center is the point B.
c) The screen (E) is approached from the plane of the slit so that <· - . - . - . - . D- . - . - . - . - . ;I"
CE)
the point B becomes the center of 4 dark fringe on the
th

positive side of 0.
i. Specify whether the pattern of fringes become wider (broader) or narrower.
ii. Determine the distance displaced by the screen.
d) We want to observe on the screen the broadest possible pattern. Suggest 3 methods to achieve this.

293
 7. Determination of the diameter of a hair
In this question we perform a diffraction experiment in order to determine the diameter ofa hair.
The diffraction pattern given by a hair is similar to that given by a thin slit.
A laser beam oflight ofwavelength "'= 550 nm falls
normally on a vertical hair ofdiameter d. Figure (a) shows
a side view ofthe experimental setup. Figure (b) shows the -- •s.er-1-- +- - - �
diffraction pattern as observed on the vertical screen placed La ---�O
H air '"
at a distance D from the hair.
a) Refer to figure (b) to answer the following questions: Screen�
i. Indicate the direction ofthe diffraction fringes. Fig.a
ii. Compare the width ofthe central bright fringe with those ofthe other bright fringes.
iii. Specify the light intensity at the points C and F.
iv. Compare the light intensity at the points A and B.

1
v. The distance between A and Bis 44 mm.
Deduce the measure ofthe linear width L
of the central bright fringe.
b) The angular width ofthe central fringe is
a = 5.5 x 10-3 rad. For small angles
= 1t
.n where 8n is the angle ofdiffraction
Fig. b
ofthe center of the nth dark fringe.
i. Deduce the value ofD.
ii. Calculate the diameter d ofthe hair.
8. Number of fringes and diffraction in two mediums ./
A monochromatic radiation of wavelength "' falls normally on a slit which has a width a = 0.75 mm.
A screen of observation is placed parallel to the slit at a distance D = 1 m away from it.
a) i. Write the general expression ofthe angle ofdiffraction 0 of the center ofa dark fringe.
ii. Determine the number ofthe obtained dark fringes in the diffraction pattern of this radiation
whose wavelength is "' = 0.2 mm. Use -1 S sin 0 � 1.
b) A radiation ofwavelength Aair = 0.65 µm falls now on the slit.
i. A point B belongs to the diffraction pattern and has a position xB = OB= 2.6 mm. 0 is the
center ofthe central bright fringe. Determine the nature and the order ofthe fringe whose center
is the point B.
ii. The whole set-up is immersed in water ofindex ofrefraction nw = 4/3.
1. Determine the expression ofthe new wavelength Aw in water in terms ofn and Aair in air.
2. Deduce whether the width ofthe central fringe increases, decreases, or remains the same.
3. Determine whether B is the center ofa: bright fringe; dark fringe or neither bright nor dark.
9. Diffraction of white light ./
A point source (S) emits a white light ofwavelengths 400 nm S "' S 800 nm. (S) illuminates under
normal incidence a thin vertical slit ofwidth a which is cut in an opaque screen (P).
We observe a diffraction pattern on a screen (E) placed parallel and at a distance D from (P).
a) Specify the color at the center O ofthe central fringe.
b) The width of the central bright fringe ofthe red light of"'= 800 nm is L red = 6.4 mm.
i. Calculate the width ofthe z nd bright fringe of the red color.
ii. Determine the width ofthe central bright fringe ofa violet light of"'= 400 nm..
iii. Determine D and a ifthe angular width ofthe C.B.F ofthe red light is «red = 1.6 x 10-3 rad.
c) N is a point on the screen which has an abscissa x ( x = ON). N is the center ofa dark fringe of
order n ofthe red color (11, = 800 nm) . Also, N is the center ofa dark fringe oforder (n +1) of a
color ofwavelength 11,' = 640 nm
Determine n and x.
d) Determine the wavelengths of the missing radiations (dark fringes) and their orders at a point M, in
the diffraction pattern on the screen, whose abscissa is xM = OM = 10 mm.

294
 Detector

barrier

Intensity of wave

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
•:• Define interference of light.
•:• Interpret the interference phenomenon using Young's double slit experiment.
•:• Determine the positions of bright and dark fringes in the interference pattern.
•:• Indicate the conditions to obtain stable interference pattern.
•:• Determine the expression and the value of the inter-fringe distance.
•:• Write the general expression of the optical path difference.
•:• Determine the optical path difference, the inter-fringe distance, and the position of the
central bright fringe under certain modifications of the experimental setup.

295
1. Young's Double-Slit Experiment
In 1801, the English scientist Thomas Young demonstrated experimentally
that it is possible to obtain darkness at certain points when light superposes
under appropriate conditions.
Young explained the interference of light in his famous experiment which is
called Young's double-slit experiment.

Young (1773 -1829)

Experiment 1: Yolllllds double-silt experilu.ent

> Equipment:
• A laser box;
• An opaque screen (P) with two thin and parallel slits whose centers are separated by a distance of
the order of 1 mm;
._ A screen (E) parallel to (P) and at a distance D from it.
> Procedure and observation
The laser illuminates the two slits under normal incidence (Figure 1 ).
We observe on the screen an interference pattern, where:
* Alternate bright and dark fringes are observed;
* The fringes are rectilinear bands;
.* The centers of the fringes are equidistant from each other;
* The fringes are parallel to each other and to the slits.

10cm

D=lm
Fig.1

296
 Figures (2-a) and (2-b) show interference patterns
obtained due to the interference ofred laser light in
Young's double-slit experiment.

Fig (2-b)
> Interpretation
* Diffraction takes place at the
Screen
two slits 8 1 and 82.
* The two lights issued from 8 1
and 82 superpose, and
interference is observed in the
common zone. !1----c Interference
Figure (3) shows a top view ofthe
experimental setup and a front view of
!I----.; pattern
82
the interference pattern. The common
zone (shown in pink color) is the
intersection area of the diffracted
lights coming from S, and S2 .
Fig.3
Interference zone

Conclusion: Interference phenomenon confirms the wave aspect of light.

Light Intensity I
Figure (4) shows the variation ofthe intensity oflight ofthe
interference pattern as a function ofthe position x.
By comparing this curve to that offigure (14) in the
previous chapter, we observe that, unlike the diffraction
pattern, the intensity at the centers ofthe bright fringes of
the interference pattern does not decrease sharply as we
move away from the central fringe in the positive and the
negative directions. x
Fig. 4

Remark
Interference takes place also if the two thin slits are replaced by two
pin holes. Figure (5) shows the interference pattern obtained by two
pinholes illuminated by a light of green color.

2. Conditions of Interference of Light

Stable interference phenomenon occurs if the lights emitted by
the two sources 8 1 and 82 are synchronous and coherent.
Synchronous : Two monochromatic light waves are Fig. 5
synchronous if they have the same frequency.
Coherent: Two light waves are coherent if they have a constant If two monochromatic
phase difference between them. lights are coherent, then
White light is not synchronous since it is a polychromatic light. Also, it is they are necessarily
synchronous,
incoherent (Figure 6-a).
A monochromatic light emitted by an extended source (not point source) but the inverse is incorrect.

297
is synchronous but incoherent (Figure 6-b).
Light emitted by a laser source is synchronous and coherent (Figure 6-c).

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 6

Th e lights emitt e d from th e secondary point sources S, and S2 are synchronous and coherent if they are:
* originated from the same laser source (S) (Figur e 7-a); or
* originated from the same point source (S) (Figure 7-b).

lricoherent
light

Laser
light (S)--
Candle

Fig (7-a) Fig (7-b)

3. Positions of Bright and Dark Fringes

Figure (8) shows a diagram of the top view of Young's double slit experiment which is don e in air.
Pis a point on the scre e n which belongs to the interference pattern. S 1 P and S2Pare the two diffract e d
rays issued from the two slits S 1 and S2 respectively.. S 1 and S2 are two secondary point sources which
emit light of wavelength A originated from the same laser source (S).

Js I
(S) illuminates the two slits under normal incidence.
The optical path difference of Pis: = S2P- s,P
P ositions of bright fringes
If the optical path difference of P is an integer multiple of the wavelength of the monochromatic
light, the two light waves at P are in phase. So at Pwe have constructive superposition and it is the
.
center of a bright ""fri
""'n
""'g . -----------,
""e:.:..

Bright fringe 16 = S P - S P = k A
2 1 kE z] where K is the order of the bright fringe.

298
 x A point O is considered
to be the center of the
P central bright fringe if
any light waves issued
simultaneously from the
original source arrive at
Laser a O at the same instant.
light s --+-+--1----:::,.....:;.----------.o
Note that D »a. So in
drawing a and D do not
·······················································································•
obey the same scale.

Fig. 8

Observe figure (9), for:

k = 0, o = 0 �Pis the center of the central bright fringe (CBF);
k = + 1, cS = + A �Pis the center of the 1'1 bright fringe on the positive or on the negative side of the
central bright fringe (IBF);
For k = + 2 � cS = + 2 A �Pis the center of the 2nd bright K=4; SDF
fringe on the positive or on the negative side (2BF) ; ... K=4;4BF
Positions of dark fringes: K=3;4DF
If the optical path difference of P is an odd multiple of half K=3; 3BF
K=2;3DF.
the wavelength of the monochromatic light, the two light
K=2;2BF
waves at P are in opposite phase. So at Pwe have K=1;2DF

I I
destructive superposition and P is the center of a dark fringe. K=1;1BF
Dark fringe cS = S2P- S 1P = (2k + 1) i kEZ
K=O;1DF
K=O;CBF
K=-1;1DF
where K is the order of the dark fringe. K=-1;1BF
Observe figure (9), for: K=-2;2DF·
K=-2;2BF
k = 0, 8 = � �Pis the center of the 1 st dark fringe on the K=-3;3DF
positive side (lDF); K=-3;3BF
K=-4;4DF
k = -1, 8 = -2'A. �Pis the center of the 1 st dark fringe on the K=-4;4BF
negative side (lDF); K=-5; SDF
For k = 1, 8 = \'A. �Pis the center of the z nd dark fringe on Fig. 9
the positive side (2DF);
For k = -2, 8 = - � 'A. �Pis the center of the z nd dark fringe on the negative side (2DF); ...

Remark: If the optical path difference of the point P does not satisfy any of-the above two conditions, 1f;,
is neither the center of a bright fringe nor the center of a dark fringe. .�
_

299
 4. Expression of the Optical Path Difference
Figure (10) shows a top view of young's double slit experiment which is performed in air by two thin slits
separated by a distance a. The two slits act as two point sources of light that originate from a point source
S of a monochromatic light.
O is the origin of the � axis. x
O and S belong to the perpendicular
bisector of the segment [S 1 S 2 ] .
Pis a point which belongs to the
interference pattern formed on the
screen, and has an abscissa x relative
to 0. �x
In general, the optical path difference
of the point P, in air, is:
@= S S2 p - S SI p] s
=> 8 = ( S S2 + S2 P ) - (S S 1 + S 1 P)
=> 8 = ( S Si- S S 1 ) + (S2 P - S 1 P) D
If S is equidistant from S 1 and S 2 then
SS 1 = SS2 => 6 = S2P- S 1 P = d2 -d i . (E)
From the geometry of figure (9), Fig.10
we can deduce that: S 2 P- S 1 P = x => l) =
a ax
0 �
� 0
Reading +
We consider figure (11) to prove that: S2P - S 1P = 0x
3

Proof:

:1
Let S 1 P = r 1 ; S2P = r2 ; C is the midpoint ofS 1S2; CP S1
is the line joining C and P and 0 is the angle between
CP and CO. 0
Drop a perpendicular S 1H from S 1 to r2 .
6 = r2 - r 1 . Since x and a are very small compared to
D, then S 1H is also considered to be perpendicular to CP D
S2

=> S 1 P �HP => 6 = r2 - r 1 = S2H.

In the triangle S 1 S2H: sin 0 � 0crad) = ; , while in the Fig.11
triangle CPO: tan 0 � 0crad) = �D => �a = �D => o = �D
5. Expressions of the Positions of the Centers of Bright and Dark Fringes
Consider figure (10). The optical path difference in air of a point Phaving an abscissa x = OP is
8=�
o·
• If Pis the center of a bright fringe then 8 = k A ( k E Z)
=>
ax
D
= k ').., => The position of the center of the bright fringe at Pis: I x = 7
For k= 0 , x = 0 which is the position of the center of the central bright fringe (CBF);
For k = + 1 , x = ± � which is the position of the center of the 1 st bright fringe on the positive
a
or on the negative side (lBF);
2 "0
For k= + 2 , x = ± a which is the position of the center of the z nct bright fringe on the positive
or on the negative side (2BF) ; ...

I I
• If Pis the center of a dark fringe then 8 = (2k + 1) � ( k E Z)
=> a x = (2k + 1) � => The position of the center of the dark fringe at P is: x = (Zk ; �)" D
D
For k= 0, x = 2:E.
2a
which is the position of the center of the 1 st dark fringe on the positive side;

300
 For k= -1, x = - � which is the position of the center of the 1st dark fringe on the negative side;
2a
3 0
For k = 1, x = 2a which is the position of the center of the z nd dark fringe on the positive side;
'A.
3 D
For k= - 2, x = - 2'A.a which is the position of the center of the z nd dark fringe on the negative
side; ...
6. Inter-fringe Distance
The inter-frin e distance is the distance separating the centers of two consecutive fringes of same nature.
i = X( k+l) - XK
Inter-fringe distance for bright fringes
(K + 1) AD
Consider two consecutive bright fringes of orders k and k+ 1. Then x(K+l) = andxk
K ;l.D
a
=> i = ( k + 1) AD_ k AD= k AD+ � _ k AD= � => Ii = � I
a

a a a a a a . a.
Inter-fringe distance for dark fringes
Consider two consecutive dark fringes of orders k and k+ 1.
=>xk = (2 k + 1) AD [2( k + 1) + 1] ;,. D (2 k + 3 ) AD
2a
and x(k+l) = 2a 2a
_ (2 k + 3);,. D (2 k + 1 ) AD _ D
._
1 - x(k+l) - xk - - - �'A. (2k+ 3) - (2k+ 1)] => Ciol
[
2a 2a �
Application 1
Young's double-slit experiment is done in air with a light of wavelength "A = 5 20 nm. The distance
between the two slits is 0.4 mm, and the slits are at a distance of lm from the screen (E) (Figure 10).
S is equidistant from S 1 and S2 .
1. Prove that the point O is the center of the central bright fringe.
2. Specify the nature and the order of the fringe observed at a point P of the interference pattern where
the optical path difference is \ .
A

3. Mis a point situated at a distance of 5.2 mm on the negative side of the origin 0. Determine the
nature and the order of the fringe whose Mis its center.
4. Determine the position of the 5 th dark fringe on the positive side of 0.
5. Calculate the inter-fringe distance. Deduce the distance between the z nd dark and the 9 th dark fringe
on the positive side of 0.
6. The light is replaced by another one of wavelength 633 nm.
a. Describe the change that happens to the interference fringes. Justify your answer.
b. Calculate the new inter-fringe distance i'.
Solution
a
1. The optical path difference at O is 80 = ox , but x0 = 0 => B • 0 ( Or 60 = SS2 0 - SS10 = 0).
So O is the center of the central bright fringe.
5
2. 6 = (2k + 1) � = / => k = 2 E Z => The path difference satisfies the condition of dark fringes,
thus P is the center of the 3rd dark fringe on the positive side of 0.
O
3. If M is the center of a bright fringe: x = K Aa where k e Z
3 3
=> K =.:..:. = (-5.2 x 1 0- )(0.4 x 1 0- ) => k = _ 4
")._ D 520 x 1 0-9 x 1
=> Mis at the center of the 4th bright fringe on the neptive side of 0.
(2k 1 0
4. The position of the center of a dark fringe is given by: xK = : ; "' . The 5 th dark fringe has the
[(2 x 4) + 1)(520 x 1 0-9)(1)
order k = 4 => x4 = = 5.85 x 10-3 m => 14 = .,It.•811.
., mm.
2 co.4 x 10_3)
2 1 9 (1
5. i =
"'D
a
= (5 ( 0 4xx 10- )3 ) = 1.3 x 10-3 m => l • 1.J mm.
0. 0- )
i is the distance between the centers of two consecutive dark fringes, then the distance separating the
centers of the z nd and the 9 th dark fringes on the same side is d = x9 - x2 = 7 i = 7 x 1.3 = 9.1 mm.

301
 6. a. i' = � , but "A.'> "A. ::::} i' > i ::::} The fringes become broader (wider).
.,
a
b = (633 x 10-9)(1)
• I co.4 x 10-3)
= 1 .58 x 10-3 m = 1.58 mm.

Application 2 �
Young's double-slit experiment is done in air. When using a light of wavelength A= 633 run, the inter­
fringe distance is 1.266 mm. The distance between the two slits is a, and the slits are at a distanceD from
the interference pattern. S is equidistant from S 1 and S 2 (Figure 10).
The experiment is repeated with a light of wave length A'. We measure the distance between the z nd
bright fringe on the positive side ofO and the 5 th bright fringe on the negative side of 0. This distance is
d = 6.3 mm. Determine "A.'.
Solution
0 x lo- 9 )C
For A = 633 nm: i = "' ::::} 1.266 x 10-3 = (633
a a a
D) ::::} E. = 2000 .
For "A.' : The distance separating the centers of the z and the 5 bright fringes on opposite sides ofO is:
nd th

d = lx5 J + lx 2 J = 7 1• I ::::} 1• I = d = 6.3 ::::} 1, I = O. 9 mm.

7 7
But i' = � ::::} 0.9 x 10- = 'A,; (2000) ::::} ).' = 450 X 10-9m = 450 nm.
a
3

Application 3 �
The adjacent figure shows a top view of Young's Center of 71h dark fringe
double-slit experiment which is done in air with a
monochromatic light ofwavelength A = 500 nm.
Given: The distance between the centers ofthe
7th dark fringes on both sides of the central fringe
Central bright fringe
is d = 26 mm. The angle e indicated on figure (12)
has a measure of 6.5 x 10- 3 rad.
1. Determine the inter-fringe distance i.
2. Refer to the figure to determine the distance
D between the plane of the slits and the
screen. Double silt Screen
3. Deduce the distance between the slits. Fig.12
Solution
1. The distance between two consecutive dark fringes is i. Then 14 dark fringes extend over 13 i
26
::::} d = 13 i ::::} i = ::::} i = 2 mm
d /2
13
.
= d . 26 0 3
2. tan e= D' but e IS very small::::} tan e e(rad) = 20 � 6.5 x 10 = 2xx1D- ::::} D • 2 m.
-3

3. i= AD =:; 2 x 10-3 = (soo x io- )C 2) ::::} a = 5 x 10-4 m= 0.5 mm.

9

· a a

7. Geometrical Path and Optical Path

Consider a light wave travelling with a speed v along a path AB in a transparent homogeneous isotropic
medium of index ofrefraction n (Figure 13).
A B
Geometrical path: The geometrical path ofAB is the actual distance
d which is covered by light between A and B.
d
Optical path: To understand the concept of the optical path, let's
answer the two following questions: Fig. 13
Question 1: Write in terms of d and v the expression of the time T needed by light to travel the path AB.
. distance d
Answer 1: time = ::::} -r = - .
speed v
Question 2: Determine during the time T and in terms of n and d the distance .f traveled by another light
. . . .
movmg m air or m vacuum.

302
 Answer 2: The speed oflight in air is c, then during a time T, it travels a distance f = c x T
=> f = c x d but n = :.v => f = n x d. n x d is called the optical path ofAB.
v '

. o clus1on
q'he optical path, which corresponds to a distance (AB= d) in a transparent isotropic and homogeneous
edium of index n, is the distanceJhat lig4t would cover in vacuum during the time it takes to travel fro
· to R. doptical = n x d

General expression of the optical path difference

Figure (14), represents a top view of
Young's double-slit experiment which x
takes place in a medium ofrefractive
index n. P is a point ofthe interference
pattern.
Medium of index n
After explaining the concept ofthe
optical path, we can now introduce the ix
I

general expression ofthe optical path

difference at a oint P:
cSn = n (SS2P- SS 1 P)
n is the index of refraction ofthe
medium. If the experiment is performed
in air or in vacuum ofindex n = 1, the
expression becomes o = SS2P- SS P.
1
Fig.14

8. Modifications of Young's Experimental Setup

A. Interference of light in a transparent medium of index n > 1
In figure (14), Young's double-slit experiment is done in a medium ofindex n.
O and S belong to the perpendicular bisector ofS 1 S2.
The expression ofthe optical path difference ofa point P ofabscissa x = OP, which belongs to the
interference zone on the screen, is: On = n (SS2P- SS 1 P), but SS2P - SS 1 P = axD . Since SS = SS2
=>Ion = n � I 1

• IfP is the center ofa bright fringe: On = k A=>

A
x = k A => Ix = k
n
• IfP is the center of a dark fringe: On = (2k + 1) => --
n'J..:
ax = (2k + 1) A
1
1;
I
2 2
(2 +
k n
0

=> x = ---- adjacent formulas ::

2 a
1) AD

• Inter-fringe distance: in = x(k+ 1) - xk •represents strictly 'r

.the-wavelength in a·
,,and not in the
.
na na na
(k + 1) AD kAD kAD AD kAD
. ht fr'mges:
F or bng In = - -- +

•. �nsidered
na na

=> 11 = = ' �' n > 1 => the fringes get closer.

�_ _-_:i =
....i�I _ _-=:� ::::
...... -u:, .... .......... 1 y·.�i"l"lfir,"�.s:· · ··"17""'
ConClllsion .
When Young's double slit-experiment is done in a medium of index n > 1: ·
. ,. -......... ��!' ."",;;..o:,.M.;_fN,."'l"t', -:.........� .., !r :>� ·� ·-· ...{'('...·,

L�. .-�,,�•·· ....�-

f
:' * the center ofthe central fringe remains in its original p'osition (position when n = 1).
" .!'- the fringes become closer to each other and then the int�r-fringe distance decreases.
«=-.�, ""'• �.•.,,. ·-·""·"""'' •·Ho •.q., ""'· ·
.. j.'
£ ·

303
 i.
Application 4
Young's double-slit experiment is done in a medium of index n = The distance between the two slits
is 0.4 mm and the slits are at a distance of 1 m from the screen (E) (Figure 14).
The wavelength of the used light in air is "A= 520 nm.
1. Calculate the inter-fringe distance in.
2. Specify whether the point O is the center of the central bright fringe or not.
3. Prove that a point M of abscissa x =OM= - 5.2 mm is neither the center of a bright fringe, nor the
center of a dark fringe.
Solution
520 x 10-9 x 1x 3 4
1. In -;-;;- = 4 x 0_4 x 10_3 = 9.75 x 10- m � ln = 0.975 mm.
. = A D

n
2. The optical path difference at O is o0 = ; x , but x0 = 0 � o0 = 0
=> 0 is the center of the central bright fringe.
_ k1cD _
- naxM - _4 x 0.4 x 10-3 x (-5.2 x 10-3) • v;;
3' k � k = • SJJl!t.Z
--
n
XM - - �
a A D 3 x520x 10-9 x 1
So M is not the center of a bright fringe.
2n a xM 2x4 x 0.4 x 10-3 x(-5.2 x 10-3)
XM =(2k+ 1)� �(2k+ l) =
32
2 na AD 3 x520x 10-9 x 1 3
� k = • 5.83 E Z . So M is not the center of a dark fringe.

B. Displacement of the point source S parallel to the interference pattern

Figure (15) shows a top view of an
interference experiment performed in x
air by two vertical thin slits separated
by a distance a. The two slits act as
two point sources of light which
originate from a point source S

f
initially equidistant from S 1 S2 .
(01) is the perpendicular bisector
of the segment [S 1 S2 ] at I and it is
perpendicular to the vertical slits.
The point source S is displaced by a
displacement of algebraic value z in a
direction perpendicular to (IO) and to
the vertical slits (parallel to the
interference pattern).
Fig. 15
• If Z > O; S is displaced to the side
of S 1 (Figure 15).
• If Z < O; S is displaced to the side of S2 .
In air, the expression of the optical path difference of a point Pon the screen having an abscissa
x = OP is: 6p = SS2P - SS 1 P =( SS2 + S2 P) - ( SS 1 + S 1 P) = ( SS2 - SS 1 ) + (S2P- S 1 P)

�I I
aZ
From the geometry of figure (15), we can deduce that SS2 - SS 1 = d
6p = � + � d is the distance between S and the plane of the thin slits

� The center of the central bright fringe is no more at 0.

The optical path difference at O is: 8 0 = adz + a�0 , but x0 = 0 � 8 0 = adz *0
� The point O is no more the center of the central bright fringe.
� The new position of the center of the central bright fringe.
Suppose that the new position of the center of the central bright fringe is at a point O' whose
abscissa is x0 = 00'.

304
Optical path difference at O':
D' = 0 � � + a Xo' = 0
d D
DZ
�Xo
I
=-d
• If Z > 0 � x0' < 0 ; the
central bright fringe is displaced
(shifted) to the negative side of
0 (Figure 16).
• If Z < 0 � x0' > 0 ; the
central bright fringe is displaced
to the positive side of 0. Fig.16
� The expressions of the positions of the centers of bright and dark fringes and the
inter-fringe distance
• Position of the center of a bright fringe of order k:
oK = :z + :
x
= kA , kE Z � I xk =�-�
• Position of the center of a dark frin e of order k:
aZ A + l)A D --
zD
Ok = -d
ax
+ -
D
= (2k + 1) -2 '
kE Z � xk = (2k
2a d

• The inter-fringe distance:

i = x (k+l) -

� � The inter-fringe distance is not changed under this modification.

�
Conclusion
If the point source Sis displaced by a displacement Z , in a direction normal to the slits and
perpendicular to the perpendicular bisector of S1 S2 (Sis displaced parallel to the interference pattern),
then:
• the pattern of interference fringes is displaced in a direction opposite to that of the displacement of
S, such that S, I and O' are collinear where O' is the new position of the center of the C.B.F (proved
in application 5).
• the inter-fringe distance remains the same.
• the expression of the optical path difference of a point in the interference pattern whose abscissa is
aZ
x becomes: o = d + 0 .
ax

Application 5
Figure (17) shows a top view of Young's
double-slit experiment. x
The two slits act as two point sources of

s.l
light that originate from a point source S
of monochromatic light initially +
j
equidistant from S1 and Sz.
I
The experiment is done in air of index of a
refraction (n =1). �-r�a.....���������������-.o
The point source S is displaced by a zfs 'I
displacement of algebraic value z = S 0 S I � M
to the side of S2 in a direction parallel to
�---->•� i--������D � ������--- ­
d
the interference pattern. Given:
a = 0.2 mm; D = 4 m ; d =20 cm ; Fig.17
Z = - 1 cm and the wavelength of the used light in·air is .757.143 nm.

305
 1. Knowing that SS2 - SS, = adz, determine the expression of the optical path difference of a point M
on the screen having an abscissa x = 0 M .
2. The position of a point M is x = -1.2cm. Determine whether M is the center of a: bright fringe, dark
fringe, or neither dark nor bright.
3 a. Determine the expression of the position O' of the center of the central bright fringe.
.
b. Deduce the direction and the displacement of the central bright fringe.
c. Prove that the points S, I and O' are collinear.
4. Determine whether O is the center of a bright fringe, a dark fringe or neither dark nor bright.
Solution
1. 6M = (SS2M- SS,M) = [( SS2 + S2M) - ( SS, + S,M)] = [ ( SS2 - SS, ) + (S2M- S1M)]
But (SM
ax
2 -S1M) = 0��= 4 +
a'Z
»·
a:x

o.2x10-3x(- O.Ol) o.2x10-3x(-1.2x10-2)

2. �= + ��= -1.06xio-sm

�:�: �
0.2 4
IfM is the center of a bright fringe, then &.t = k A, k E Z �k = �:.�:/x -14 E Z
7
� Mis the center of the l4 brigltt
aZ
111
-'Z D
fringe••die negaove side of O.
3. a. o0 = d + -0- = 0 �i.:o' = 4 ·
• a x 0•

-0 0 x 4
= -( . l) = �a#,....
b x' �x0' = 02m .
• 0 0.2 ""'�
x'
0 > 0 � c.B.F is displaced in the positive side (to the side of Si).
c. S, I and O' are collinear if the x
angles a = (SJS) andP = ofo'

�I
are equal (Figure 18).
In the triangle S0 S I: tana = i I
I
'•
xo,
In the triangle O' I 0: I
I

p
0 . But o I d
, Z D
tan lx =
= x0'

ZD = z =
�tanP =
Dd d tana
�a.a Z= JJ. ax D
4. o = - d
+ - D '
but x0 = 0
0.2x10-3 x(- 0.01)
�0 o = Fig. 18
0.2
�o0 -1 = x 1 o - s m . If O is the center of a bright fringe, then o 0
= k ').., k E Z
1 x 10-s
� k = 757-_143 10_9 = - 13.21 fl. Z � 0 is notthe center of a bright fringe.
x
- 1 10-s x2 =
oo (2k + 1) �(2k + 1) = 757 x
J...
= -26.42(not an odd number)
2 _143 x 10_ 9
� 0 is neither the center of a bright fringe nor the center of a dark fringe.

C. Introduction of a sheet of thickness e and index n before or after one of the sources
Figure ( 19) shows a top view of an interference experiment by two thin slits separated by a distance a.
The two slits act as two point sources of light that originate from a point source Sof monochromatic light.
Sis equidistant from S1 and S2 .
The experiment is done in air. Sand O belong to the perpendicular bisector of S1 S2•
Pis a point which belongs to the interference pattern and has a position x relative to the point 0.
A thin sheet of parallel plates and of thickness e and index of refraction n is placed behind S1•
(• The increase in the optical path 8 1P doe to the introduction of the sheet.
Before introducing the sheet of thickness e, the optical path of this thickness is nair x e = e.
When we introduce the sheet, the optical path of its thickness becomes: n x e = n e.

306
So the increase (variation) in the optical path S 1 P is n e - e = e(n - 1)

•!• The new expression of the optical x

path difference of P.
b p = SS2P- SS 1P
= ( SS2 + S2P) - ( SS 1 + S 1P), but
SS2 = SS 1 � b p = (S2P- S 1P) .
But S 1 Poptical = S 1P+ e(n -1)
� After inserting the sheet:
S p = S2P-[S 1 P + e(n-1)]
= (S2P- S 1P) - e(n - 1)
� S p = � - e (n - 1)

Fig.19
•!• The center of the central bright fringe is no more at 0.
S 0 = a x - e(n - 1) , but at 0, x = 0 � 6 0 = - e (n - 1) -::/= 0 Remark
If the sheet is inserted
D
� 0 is no more the center of the central right fringe 0.
before or after S 1:
•!• The direction of the displacement of the center of the new c5p =� - e( n- 1)
central bright fringe
D
If the sheet is inserted
Suppose that the new position of the center of the central bright fringe is at a
before or after 82:
point O' whose abscissa is x0 = 00'.
c5p =� +e(n-1)
= � (n - 1) � x0
D
So' = � D
- e(n - 1) = 0 � o > 0 � C.B.F is
displaced to the side of S 1. Remark
Ifc5 p =� +e(n-1)
•!• The expressions of the centers of bright and dark fringes and D
� Xo = - -(n - 1)
eD
the inter-fringe distance a
� Xo < 0 � C.B.F is
Center of a bright fringe of order k: displaced to the side
ax
S = - - e (n - 1) = k 11. � x = - + - (n - 1)
kJ..D eD ofS2.
D a a

Center of a dark fringe of order k:

(2k + 1 ) AD + � _l
-e (n - 1) = (2k + 1) 2 �
ax }.. X
S = = (n )
0 ---2.a a

The inter-fringe distance:

� Ii = J..: I
i = x(k+l) - xk � i = [ (k \ ) A + \ (n - 1)] - [k : + \ (n - 1) ]
1 D D D D

The inter-fringe distance is not changed under this modification.

Conclusion
A thin sheet of parallel plates is introduced behind or in front of one of the secondary sources, then:
* if the sheet is inserted behind or in front of S 1, the interfe�ence pattern is displaced to the side of S 1.
if the sheet is inserted behind or in front of S2, the interference pattern is displaced to the side of S 2 .
* the inter-fringe distance remains the same.

307
Application 6 x
Figure (20) shows a top view of an
interference experiment by two thin slits
separated by a distance a. The two slits
act as two point sources of light that
originate from a point source S of
monochromatic light of wavelength 'A..
S and O belong to the perpendicular
bisector of [S 1S2] .The experiment is done s
in air (nair = 1).
Pis a point on the screen which belongs
to the interference pattern and has a e
position x relative to 0.
A thin sheet of parallel plates, of
thickness e = 0.012 mm and index of Fig. 20
refraction n = 1.5, is placed in front of S2.
Given: a = 0.4 mm; D = 2 m; 'A. = 600 nm and the speed of light in vacuum is c = 3x 10 8 mis.
The point O is the center of the central bright fringe before inserting the thin sheet.
1. a. Determine the expression of the time 't taken by light to cross the sheet in terms of n, e and c.
Calculate the value of -r.
b. Calculate the distance travelled by light in vacuum during the same time 't.
c. Deduce the increase in the optical path due to the introduction of the sheet.
2. Determine the expression of the optical path difference of the point p after inserting the sheet.
3. Determine the direction of the displacement of the central bright fringe. Deduce the new position of
the center of the central bright fringe.
4. Determine the new optical path difference at 0.
5. Determine the position of the 3 th dark fringe to the side of S2.
6. A point Pwas at the center of the 6 th bright fringe to the side of S 1, before inserting the sheet.
After inserting the sheet, determine whether it is the center of a bright, dark or neither bright nor dark
fringe.
Solution
z lo- 3 't 6x10-t•
1 ' a.v = =-T But n=.:. => .:. = =- =>T•!.! =>-r = 1.sxo.ol x => • s.
V n T t 3 X 108
b. This distance is the optical path through the sheet: d � c . 't = n.e 1.5 x 0.012 => d • 0.018 mm.
=

c. Increase of optical path ne-e 0.018-0.012=> Increase • 0.006mm.

= =

-�
2. «S p= SS2P-SS,P = ( SS2 +S2P) - ( SS, +S1P) = (SS2-SS,)+(S2P - S,P)
=> «S p= (SS2-SS,)+ �.
D
But SSz(optical) = SS2 +(n e -e)=> (SSz - SS1)optical = [SS2 +(ne-e)] -SS, = n e - e
=> vp •o
� +e(n -1).
.
3. Center of CBF 1s at O': 8 0' = --"t-
ax ' eD
+e(n -1) = 0 => x0 ' =- --;;-- ( n - 1) < 0
=> The central bright fringe is displaced to the negative side (Side of Sa).
, eD 0.012 x10- 3 x 2 •
x 0= --;-( n -1) = - .4 _3 (1.5 -l) = -0.03 m=>Xom-3cm.
0 x10
4. 8 0 = � + e (n -1) , but x0 = 0=> 8 0 = e (n -1)=>6o• 0.006mm.
D
5. The order of the third dark fringe to the side of S2 is k = - 3 :
ax A
«S p = 0+e(n -1) = (2 k+1)2 kEZ
4 1 3x 600 10-9
=> D. x �- C 3) + 0.006 x 10-3 = [2 (-3)+1] ( : )=>Xl Si!· 0.0375 m • • 37.5 mm.
a a
6. Before inserting the sheet: «S r = �P = k A with k = 6=> «S r = �P = 6 (600 X 10-9)
befo e befo e
a
=> <) before = �P = 3.6 X 10-6 m.

308
 After inserting the sheet: b p = a �P + e (n- 1) = 3.6 x 10-6 + 0.006 x 10-3 � b p = 9.6 x 10-6 m.
For a bright fringe: b p = k 'A. � 9.6 x 10-6 = k (600 x 10-9) � k = 16 E Z �Pis the center of the
16th bright fringe to the side of S1.

Application 7
Figure (21) shows the interference pattern
obtained in Young's double-slit experiment,
with white light emitted by an incandescent
lamp.
1. Does a red light emitted by S 1 interfere
with a yellow light emitted by S 2 ? Why?
Fig. 21
2. If the incandescent lamp illuminates the two slits directly.
We cannot obtain a stable interference pattern. Justify. Propose a method to obtain a stable
interference pattern on the screen.
3. The color of the center of the central bright fringe is white. Justify.
Solution
1. No, since yellow and red lights have different frequencies, so they are not synchronous.
2. The light emitted by the incandescent lamp is incoherent since it is neither originated from a
point source nor from a laser source.
To obtain a stable interference pattern on the screen, a thin slit is placed between the lamp and the
plane of the slits, and then a coherent light is issued from the slit.
3. Each monochromatic radiation undergoes interference. The center of the central bright fringe of
each monochromatic radiation is at the same point 0. All the monochromatic radiations of the
white light superpose at O to give a white central bright fringe.

Application 8 $1i x
Young's double-slit experiment takes place in air with
white light of wavelengths ranging from 400 nm to 800
nm.
In figure (22), the distance between the two slits is 0.8 mm
and the slits are at a distance of Im from the interference
pattern on the screen.
P is a point of position x =OP= 2 mm.
S is equidistant from S 1 and S 2
1. Write the expression of the abscissa of the center of a (E)
dark fringe on the screen. Fig. 22
2. Determine the wavelengths of the missing radiations at P.
3. Determine the wavelengths of the monochromatic radiations that have centers of bright fringes at P.
Solution
1. The position of the center of a dark fringe is x = (2 K + 1) !:.E. 2a
K E z.
_
. x- _ 2a x -
_ 2--------
x 0.8 x 1 0-3 x 2 x 1 0-3
2 . For a dark fnnge.
· (2 K + l ) -� ;._ D (2 k + l ) - -AD ;l.xl
2a
3 2 10-6
� (2 k + 1) = · \ ('A. in m).
3.2 x 1 0-6 3.2 x 10-6 =
For 'A.= 400 nm� (2k + 1) = 400 x _ 9 = 8; For A = 800 nm� (2k + 1) =
10 800 x 1 0_ 9 4
� 4 < (2k + 1 ) < 8 =} (2k + 1) = 5 ; 7 .
3 2 1 0-6 = 6 0 x 1 -9 m
For (2k + 1) = 5 � 'A. = · : 4 0 ;
3.2 x 1 0- 6
For (2k + 1) = 7 =}'A.=
7
= 457.14 X 10 -9 m.
K;.. D
3. The position of the center of a bright fringe is: x = K E z.
a

309
 0.8 x 10-3 x 2 x 10-3 1.6 x 10-6 .
�
a x
k = - = �
k = ( 'I
11,lllffi ) .
).. D t..X 1 A
1.6 x 10- 6 1.6 x 10-6
Fod, =400 nm �k= =4 ·
' For A=800 nm�k= =2
400 x 10-9 800 x 10-9
�2:Sk:S4 �k=2,3,4
1.6 x 10-6 6
For k=2 �A= 2 = 800 X 10-9 m·' Fork=3 � A=1.6 x3 10- :::,, 533.33 x 10-9 m ,·
6
Fork=4 � A =1.6 x 10- = 400 X 10-9 m
4

Reading
Thin-Film Interference
When light falls on a thin
layer of transparent material
such as oil on the top of
water or the thin film of
soapy water in a bubble,
thin-film interference takes
place (Figure 23 ).
Some waves reflect off the
top of the layer, while some
cross the layer and reflect off
the bottom.
After that, the reflected
waves (red arrows in figure Fig. 23 Fig. 24
(24) ) interfere. The path
difference between the reflected waves depends on the thickness (d) of the film, which determines whether the
interference is constructive or destructive.
How are all these various colors of figure (23) formed?
The path difference may be a whole multiple of the wavelength of a certain color. This will result in constructive
interference and this color has a maximum intensity. The thickness of the film is not the same at all points, and so
light of different colors will undergo constructive interference.
The iridescent colors on the wings of a fly are also due to thin-film interference.

310
 Problems
In all the following problems, the experiment of interference is done in air unless stated otherwise.
1. Determination of the wavelength of a monochromatic light v
The adjacent figure represents young's double-slit experiment.
A laser source (S) illuminates the two slits in air by a
monochromatic light of wavelength A, under normal incidence.
a) The light which falls on the two slits, is synchronous and
coherent. Why?
b) Use the figure to:
i. describe the phenomenon observed on the screen.
ii. determine the inter-fringe distance i.
c) Deduce the wavelength A.
2. Graph of light intensity of an interference pattem
The adjacent graph represents the variation
of the light intensity of an interference
pattern in Young's double-slit experiment,
as a function of x. •
a) Use the graph to:
i. indicate the position of the center of
the central bright fringe;
ii. indicate the position of the center of
the second dark fringe in the positive
side of the central bright fringe;
iii. calculate the inter-fringe distance; -2.5 0 1.5 2:5
iv. calculate the distance separating the centers of the z bright fringe on the positive side and the p t
nd

dark fringe on the negative side of the C.B.F.

b) Calculate the width a of the slits if the wavelength of the used light is 500 nm and D = 1.6 m.
3. Diffraction and interference patterns
Figure ( a) and figure (b) show two patterns. One of the patterns represents the fringes of interference
obtained by Young's double-slit experiment, while the other represents the fringes of diffraction by a
single slit. . : :
a) Use the figures to: Fig. a
i. distinguish between the two
patterns; Fig. b
ii. Indicate the width L of the
central bright fringe of the
:................................�'
diffraction pattern; · 1.2 cm
m. Calculate the inter-fringe distance i of the interference fringes.
b) The same laser source is used in the two experiments. The laser light falls normally on the plane of
each slit and each pattern is observed on a screen which is situated at the same distance D from the
plane of the slit(s). Use L = no to determine the width a1 of the single slit of the diffraction
a1
experiment if the distance between the slits of the interference experiment is a = 1 mm.
4. Determination of the order of a fringe v reen

If
The adjacent figure is a top view of Young's
double-slit experiment which is done in air. 0 is the center
of the central bright fringe. s1

r-·-·-·-·-· D-·-·-·-·-·-·
Given: D = 2 m ; a = 0.5 mm ; A= 500 nm and the
measure of the angle 9 is 4 X 10- 3 rad. Determine the
a 1 ...-==-----.....,-----""-I
s
order and nature of the fringe whose center is the point M.

311
 becomes the center of the fourth bright fringe in the medium of index n. Determine the index
of refraction n.
9. Determination of the position of the center of the central bright 'fringe ./'
A point source S emits a monochromatic light of wavelength A = 600 nm.
S illuminates two thin slits S I and S2 which are equidistant from S and separated by a distance
a = 1 mm. A screen is placed parallel to the plane of the slits at a distance D = 2 m away from it.
O is a point on the screen that is
x
equidistant from S 1 and S2.
A glass plate of thickness e = 0.01 mm
and index of refraction n is placed in
front of S 2• The expression of the optical
path difference at a point N of abscissa
x = ON on the screen iso.
a) i. Determine in terms of e, c and n
the expression of the time T needed
by the light to cross the above plate.
ii. Deduce in terms of n and e the
expression of the distance d opt ________ D________
covered by another light travelling
in air during the time T.
iii. Deduce the ex ression of the increase in the optical path of SS I after inserting the above sheet.
b) i. Prove thato = � - e(n -1).
ii. Deduce that the point O is not the center of the central bright fringe.
iii. Determine the expressions of the positions of the centers of the bright and dark fringes as a
function of a , D, e, A, n and a whole number K.
iv. Deduce the expression of the inter-fringe distance i and then calculate its value.
c) i. The point O is the center of the s th bright fringe of order k = - 8. Determine n.
ii. Let O' be the position of the center of the central bright fringe which has an abscissa
x0 ' = 00' = d. Deduce the expression of d, in terms of i . Calculate the value d.
iii. Determine the value of d again, using the expression ofo'.
1 O. Determination of the width e of a rectangular plate
Consider Young's double-slit experiment. The two thin
x
parallel slits S 1 and S2 are separated by a distance
a = 0.5 mm. A screen of observation(E) is placed (E)
parallel to the plane of the slits at a distance 2 m.
A laser light of wavelength ').., = 600 nm illuminates the M
two slits under normal incidence.
The optical path difference at a point M on the
observation screen is c5 M = S 2 M - S 1 M = 3 x 10- 6 m.
A. The position of M
0
a) Specify the nature and the order of the fringe
Whose center is M.
b) Calculate the inter-fringe distance i. Deduce the
position x = OM, of the point M relative to the
center of the central bright fringe 0.
B. Introduction of a rectangular plate of index n
A rectangular plate of index n = 1.5 and of width e is placed behind the slit S 2 .
a) Prove that in the interference pattern on the screen E the new expression of the optical path
difference of a point of abscissa x is:
b) If M becomes the center of the third dark fringe of order k = 7, determine the width e of the slit.

314
11. Interference of white light
In young's double-slit experiment: x (E)
• the distance between the slits S 1 and S 2 is a = 1 mm;
• the distance between the vertical plane of the slits and
that of the screen is D = 4 m;
• The point source (S) which is equidistant from the slits,
emits a white light that includes all the visible radiations
0.4 µm::S "A::S 0.8 µm. 0
The point O belongs to the perpendicular bisector of [S 1 S2 ].
a) The slits are vertical. Deduce whether the fringes
observed on the screen are vertical or horizontal.
b) The width of the central bright fringe of a certain
radiation is 3.2 mm. Specify the width of the z nd bright .................... » ...............
fringe of the same radiation.
c) Specify the color observed at the point 0.
d) A point M which belongs to the interference pattern on the screen has an abscissa
x M = 12.8 mm. Determine the nature and the order of the fringe whose center is M, for the
radiation of wavelength:
i. 800 nm ; ii. 711 nm.
e) Determine the wavelengths and the orders of the missing radiations (dark fringes) at a point N,
which belongs to the interference pattern on the screen and has an abscissa x N = 8 mm.
t) A point Pon the screen has a position X p > 0. Pis the center of the second dark fringe of the
radiation of wavelength A 1 = 750 nm. Also, on the same side relative to 0, Pis the center of the
second bright fringe of the radiation of wavelength Az. Determine Az.
12. Position of the center of the central bright fringe v'
The adjacent figure shows a top view of Young's double-
slit experiment. (OI) is the perpendicular bisector to S 1 S2 . x
A. Two identical laser sources are placed in front of S 1 and
S2 respectively. Do we obtain a stable interference
(E)

,,:'
patterns? Why?
B. A point source S of monochromatic light is placed in · •· 0
front of the slits on the line (IO).
........................ .
a) A stable interference pattern is observed on the screen.
Justify.
b) Prove that the point O is the center of the central D
bright fringe for any position of S along the line (OI). � .................................. .........
c) Specify whether the radiations issued from S 1 and S2
and reach O at any instant are in-phase or in anti-phase.
C. The point source S which is placed at a distance d from
the plane of the slits is displaced by a displacement z to (E)
the side of S 1 in a direction perpendicular to (IO) and 1
normal to the vertical slits.
a) Prove qualitatively that: ................... 0
i. the point O is no more the center of the central
......!...,s,
z; 1:
bright fringe;
ii. the center of the central bright fringe is displaced to
the side of S2. D
b) i. Knowing that SS2 - SS, = a z, prove that the optical
d �-······················· ·..................
path difference of a point M of abscissa OM = x_in-==--
the interference zone on the screen is given by: • !! +

315
 ii. Determine the expressions of the positions of the centers of the bright and the dark fringes as
a function of A, a , d, Z, D and a whole number k.
m. Deduce the expression of the inter-fringe distance i.
c) i. Given: A = 0.6 µm, a = 1 mm, d = 20 cm. Knowing that the point Obecomes the center of the
second dark fringe. Determine z.
ii. Deduce the abscissa 00 = ' x� of the center O' of the new central fringe ifD = 2 m.

13. Central bright fringe

The adjacent figure shows a top view of Young's double-slit experiment. The point source Sis initially
equidistant from the two slits. (S) is then displaced by a displacement of algebraic value z to the side of S1
in a direction perpendicular to (IO) and normal to the vertical slits.
The point O on the screen belongs to the perpendicular bisector of [S1S2].
A thin sheet of parallel plates, of thickness e = 0.00972 mm and index of refraction n = 1.48 is placed
behind S2•
Given: a = 0.2 mm, D = 4 m, d = 12 cm,
Z = 0.2 cm , the wavelength of the x
incident light is 750 nm and the speed of p
light in vacuum is c = 3 x 10 8 mis.
a) i. Determine the increase in the
optical path S2P due to the
introduction of the sheet.
ii. Knowing that SS 2 - SS 1 = adz ,
determine the expression of the
z
optical path difference of a point
P in the interference pattern, as a
function of x= 0 P. D
b) The abscissa of a point P is e
x = 5 cm. Determine whether P is the
center of: a bright fringe, a dark fringe, or neither a dark nor a bright fringe.
c) Determine whether Ois the center of: a bright fringe, a dark fringe, or neither a dark fringe nor a
bright fringe.
d) Determine the position O' of the center of the central bright fringe.
e) Determine the value and the direction of the displacement Znew of Sin order for Oto become the
center of the central bright fringe.

316
Leaming Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
•!• Define and verify the photoelectric effect.
•!• Indicate the condition of photoelectric effect.
u
•!• Define the work fnction of a metal.
•!• Explain the inadequacy of the wave theory in interpretation of photoelectric effect.
•!• State Plank-Einstein's hyp othesis.
•!• Interpret photoelectric effect using Plank-Einstein's hyp othesis.
•!• Explain the term '' Wave-particle duality''.

317
Introduction
Hassan Kamel Al-Sabbah, born in Nabatieh - Lebanon, was an electrical
and electronics research engineer, mathematician and inventor. He is known
for his inventions in solar power and solar cells. He thought about building
sun-powered cells whose main components are sand to make solar cells and
strong sun to power it. Hassan Kamel Al-Sabbah's inventions have
contributed to applied technology in the entire world. These inventions of
highly detailed systems, instruments, and equipment include: solar power,
the solar electric car, power generating station, ...
The basis of the above mentioned inventions is the photoelectric effect
phenomenon which is the subject of this chapter.
Hassan kamel El Sabbah
1. Definition and Verification of Photoelectric Effect 1895 -1935
Photoelectric effect: Emission of electrons (photoelectrons) from the surface of a body (generally
metal) when exposed to a suitable electromagnetic radiation.
Verification of the photoelectric effect
In 1888 Hallwachs set up the fundamental experiment that verified the photoelectric effect
experimentally.

Experiment 1: Verification of photoelectric effect

.r. Equipment:
.. An electroscope of one movable leaf;
"" A UV lamp;
"" A perfectly cleaned zinc plate .
.r. Procedure and observation:
• The zinc plate is fixed to the knob of the electroscope.
The system is charged negatively, so the leaf rises to the left
under the effect of the repulsive force.
- When the ultraviolet radiation emitted by the UV lamp
reaches the zinc plate, the leaf falls immediately (Figure 1). Leaf falls immediately
- When ultraviolet radiation is intercepted by means of a Fig.1
glass sheet, opaque to this radiation, the leaf will not fall.
• The electroscope is charged negatively again. The UV lamp
is replaced by a red laser box. When the red light falls on the
zinc plate, the leaf does not fall whatever the sign of the
charge of the zinc plate is (Figure 2).
.r. Interpretation
• When the negatively charged zinc plate is exposed to
ultraviolet radiation, electrons are liberated from its
surface, so the electroscope discharges and the leaf falls
down.
• When the charged zinc plate is illuminated by a red light, the
electrons are not liberated from its surface.
.r. Conclusion Fig. 2
When a body (generally metal) is exposed to a suitable electromagnetic
radiation, electrons are liberated from its surface.
This phenomenon is called photoelectric effect.

318
2. Condition of Photoelectric Effect
• Threshold frequency
To extract electrons from the surface of a pure metal, the frequency v of the incident electromagnetic
radiation must be greater than or equal to the threshold frequency v 0 of this metal; Iv � v I
0
The threshold frequency is a characteristic for this metal.
Ifv < Vo , then no emission of electrons from the surface of the metal takes place whatever the power
and the exposure time of the incident radiation.

Threshold frequency of a pure metal is the minimum frequency of the incident radiation which is
capable of extracting electrons from the surface of this metal.

• Threshold wavelength
The threshold wavelength of a metal is given by: � where c = 3 x 108 mis.
c c �
To extract electrons from the pure metal: v � Vo ::::} i � Ao ::::} �

Threshold wavelength of a pure metal is the maximum wavelength of the incident radiation which is
capable of extracting electrons from the surface of this metal.

Conclusion:
In photoelectric effect:
• Extraction of electrons from the surface of a pure metal depends only on the nature of the metal and
on the frequency (or the wavelength) of the incident electromagnetic radiation.
• Ifv < v0 (or A >Ao), the incident electromagnetic radiation is not capable of liberating any
electron whatever the power and the exposure time of the incident radiation.

The table below gives the threshold wavelengths of some pure materials.
Metal Cesium Lithium Sodium Calcium Zinc Beryllium Silver
0.59 0.54 0.54 0.45 0.37 0.32 0.27
• The quasi-instantaneous emission
The photoelectric emission is quasi-instantaneous whatever the intensity (or power) of the incident
radiation. The liberation of the electrons starts 10-9 seconds after the incidence.

3. The Extraction Energy-Work Function

Each electron inside the atom interacts with
the nucleus (attraction ), with the other
electrons in the atom (repulsion), and with the Extracted electron
other atoms in the metal. So the electron cannot
e-
leave the atom spontaneously.
To extract the electron from the surface of a Incident radiaOO.J
metal, we must give it an energy W greater
than or equal to a well determined value WO
(Figure 3).
WO is called the extraction energy or the
work function of a metal. WO of a metal
depends on the above interactions, so it is a
characteristic for this metal.

Fig. 3

319
Work function WO of a metal is the minimum energy Remark:
needed to extract an electron from the surface of this metal. Joule is a huge unit relative to the
energy of a radiation. so we can
express the energy in the electron-volt:
The table below gives the work functions of some pure l eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J.
materials:

Material Gold Copper Uranium Nickel Cobalt Iron Lend Magnesium Mercury Platinum
W,.(eV) 5.1 4.7 3.6 5.1 5.0 4.5 4.14 3.7 4.5 6.51

4. The Inadequacy of the Wave Theory in Interpretation of Photoelectric Effect

A wave of average power P supplies during a time interval flt an energy W of value W = P x flt.
According to the classical wave theory, when an incident radiation of any frequency is incident on the
surface of a metal, energy is given progressively and continuously to its surface. When the energy
received by an electron on the surface of the metal becomes greater than the work function WO of that
metal, the electron is liberated from its surface.
But that does not happen!
Then the wave theory fails to explain the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
5. Planck - Einstein Hypothesis (Theory of Quanta)
In 1900, Planck proposed the following postulate:
Pla92k,s Postulate
• Matter gains quantized electromagnetic energy;
• Matter gives or loses quantized electromagnetic energy.

Quantized: means specific values or discrete values.

Examples: When a body is exposed to sun light, it gains quantized

radiant energy, and when it cools down, it loses quantized radiant Max Planck (1885-1955)
energy.
Rea.clln&
Conclusion: Matter and electromagnetic radiation exchange Quantind and Non Quantized
quanti:ud enOflY. Consider a balance with equal
Thi quantlled energy ls a whole multiple o a fundamental arms and s.tandatd masses�
f

quantity called ••quantum••, o� q; o..s tea and 1 q.

* The energy of a radiation of frequency vis:
• N is a positive whole number..
I� =Nhv J By putting tho standatd masses.
in one pan • thi balance can
meMwe only!
• h is a constant called Plank's constant: h = 6.626 x 10-34 J.s ; 0,l k& o.s kg; l kg; ft? q;
• vis the frequency of the radiation in Hz ; l.lkg; l.Skgand L7q,
* h vis the quantum energy of a radiation of frequency v. This balanee tannQt meas.we
amass.of 0.8q ! t t
Ptanck,Eiq1tem J.lmthsis (thot,m tJm.D) k measures {*ific values. of
In 1905, using Planck's postulate, Einstein explained the photoelectric mass , Then tho mass that can
bo measured by 1his. balanec is.
effect by formulating a hypothesis. qwmtiled,
Jl;instein's postul1te: A radiation of frequency v is made up of A digt'tal bal� can meas.we
small bundles of energy called "Photons" . any vwe. Thon� mass
A photon is a non-charged particle of zero mass. It moves in meuured by a digital balance
is non quantl'ud,
vacuum at the speed of light c.
The energy of a photon of frequency vis given by j E ph = h v = h iI
320
 I I
where A is the wavelength of the radiation in vacuum.
Then the total energy of a radiation is: E ta tal = N . E ph oton where N is the number of photons of the
radiation.
The energy of an electromagnetic radiation is quantized.
6. Interpretation of the Photoelectric Effect Using the Photon Theory

I I
In photoelectric effect, one incident photon may interact only with one electron (One to one).
The work function of a metal is: W0 = h v 0
A photon of frequency v hits the surface of a metal of work function W0•
Consider the following three cases:
• If v < v 0 => h v < h v 0 => E ph < W0 , the photon is reflected
and the electron is not extracted from the metal.
• Ifv = v 0 => h v = h v 0 => Eph = W0 , the photon is absorbed
and the electron is extracted from the surface of the metal at a
zero speed.
• Ifv > v 0 => h v > h v 0 => E ph > W0 ; the photon is
absorbed and the electron is extracted from the surface of the
metal with a kinetic energy. Albert Einstein
1879-1955
Conclusion: The phenomenon of photoelectric effect supports
(confirms) the corpuscular (particle) aspect of light.

Einstein's formula Reading

Consider an electron extracted from the surface of a metal with The energy required to extract the
a kinetic energy (KE). The energy of the incident photon is the least tightly bound electron is called
sum of the work function (W0) of this metal and the kinetic the extraction energy W0 of the metal.

I I
energy of the liberated electron. Electrons which are largely bound,
require more energy to be extracted.
Eph = h v = Wo + KEmax Einstein's formula Hence in photoelectric emission, the
least tightly bound electrons are
Quantum efficiency emitted with maximum kinetic energy.
We have just explained that if the energy of the incident photon is greater than or equal to the work
function of the metal, then this photon is absorbed and the electron is extracted.
But actually, most of the incident photons whose energy is greater than the work function of the metal
cannot cause photoelectric emission. These photons are
called ineffective photons. Incident photons
Effective photons: The photons which produce
Electrons extracted
photoelectric emission in the metal (Figure 4). from the surface

I
Quantum efficiency: The ratio of the number of the

I
effective photons to the total number of incident
photons on the metal. r = N�rr
Note that: I
"' the number of the effective photons is equal to the
number of the liberated electrons;
"' the number of the liberated electrons increases as Sodium metal
the number of the incident photons increases.
Fig. 4

321
 •!• Factors affecting the number of the liberated electrons
The average power of an incident radiation of frequency v is: P = Etotal = N h v where N is the
t t
number of the incident photons on the surface of the metal => N = ::
Conclusion:
In photoelectric effect, the number of the incident photons and consequently the number of the liberated
electrons increases if:
o the power of the incident radiation increases;
o the exposure time of the metal to the incident radiation increases;
o the radiation ofpower P is replaced by another one of same power but of lower frequency
(Provided that v � v0).
7. Dual Nature of Light
Diffraction and interference confirm the wave aspect of
light, while photoelectric effect confirms corpuscular
(particle) aspect oflight.
Other phenomena like atomic spectra (studied later) and
black body radiation confirm the corpuscular aspect of
light. Then is light a wave or a particle?
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed the hypothesis that
we can associate a wave to every material particle.
Then light has a dual nature.
The hypothesis of de Broglie was confirmed in 1927 by
Davisson and Germer, who obtained diffraction figures
using an electron beam.
Figure (5) shows a pattern obtained due to electron diffraction . Fig. 5

Application 1
A cesium plate of threshold wavelength A0 = 0. 59 µmis illuminated by a monochromatic radiation whose
wavelength in air is A = 0.7 µm.
Given: c = 3 x 10 8 mis; h = 6.6 x 10- 34 J.s and the mass of the electron is m = 9.1 x 10- 31 kg.
1. No emission of photoelectrons from cesium takes place. Why?
2. Calculate the energy ofeach incident photon and the extraction energy of cesium. Is this result
compatible with the answer of part 1?
3. The cesium plate is illuminated by another electromagnetic radiation ofwavelength')...'. Electrons are
liberated with a maximum speed ofV = 5 x 106 mis. Use Einstein's formula ofphotoelectric effect
to determine the value of )..' .
Solution
1. 0.7 µm > 0.66 µm => ).> �-
34
h :.A =
8
x 10- x 3 x 10 => �"'\.. ro� � t!B=l� J.
6 .6
2• E ph = hV = :N, '-'

0.7 x 10-6 � n • "'-9.J ""

., "
..:... =
WO = h Vo = h Ao
6.6 34
x10- x 3 x 10
8
=> W. e 'ill 'ills tft.=l� ....
0.59 X 10-6 � '3wt � V \J
WO > Eph then no emission of photoelectron. 'Db m•tt ts tompatlbh wlfll tilt •111"'"' @I part t.
3. Einstein's formula: h v = W0 + KEmax => :.c = 3 x 10- 19 + m v2 i
=> .6 x10-3:� 3 x 10 = 3 X 10-19 + (9.1 X 10-31)(5 X 106 )2 =>
6 0
i ).t• tl..M )( 10='•·

322
Application 2 �
The surface of a metal of work function W0 is exposed to a radiation offrequency v. Electrons of
maximum kinetic energy KE 1 are liberated from the surface of the metal.
Determine in terms of KE 1 and W0 the maximum kinetic energy KE2 ofan electron emitted from the
metal surface when exposed to a radiation of frequency 2v.
Solution
hv = W0 + KE 1 ... Eq(l) and h (2v) = W0 + KE2 ... Eq(2)
Substitute for hv from equation (1): 2(W0 + KE 1 ) = W0 + KE2 => KE2 = 2 KE1 + W0

Application 3
Given: Plank's constant: h = 6.62 x 10- 34 J.s ; c = 3 x 10 8 mis ; leV = 1.6 x 10- 19 J;
e = 1.6 x 10- 1 9 C; electric charge: Q = N.e where N is the number ofelectrons; m., = 9.1 x 10- 3 1 kg.
A photocell is a device which converts radiant energy into electric energy. (See reading at the end ofthe
chapter).
Figure (6) is a simple diagram ofthe circuit ofa photo cell which includes: a dry cell a galvanometer a
cathode (a pure metal), and an anode.
We consider two photo cells ofcesium and magnesium cathodes, whose work functions are 2.1 eV and
3.7 eV respectively.
1. We illuminate each ofthe above cells by a
radiation ofwavelength A = 0.55 µm in vacuum.
i. Electrons are not liberated from the surface
of magnesium. Justify.
n. The total energy of two photons of the Monochromatic
radiation
incident radiation is greater than the work
function ofmagnesium even though no
electrons are emitted from the surface of
magnesium. Justify.
2. a. Determine the maximum wavelength l.0 of
a radiation capable ofliberating electrons Fig. 6
from the surface ofcesium. Is this radiation visible? Why?
b. Determine the maximum speed of a liberated electron from the surface of cesium when
illuminated by the radiation of A= 0.55 µm .
c. The radiation of A= 0.55 µm is incident on the cesium cathode.
The anode is connected to the positive pole of the dry cell, so it is positively charged.
The liberated electrons are attracted by the anode and transferred to the positive pole ofthe dry
cell, thus forming a current (supposed constant) ofvalue I = 40 µA .
i. Determine the number ofthe electrons liberated from the surface of cesium during one second.
Use Q = I. t
ii. The quantum efficiency ofthe cell is 3 %. Deduce the power ofthe radiation received by the
cesium cathode.
iii.Among: the power P; the exposure time t and the wavelength A of the received radiation, specify
how should we modify in order to:
1. increase the kinetic energy ofthe liberated electrons;
2. increase the number ofthe liberated electrons.
Solution
� 6.62 x 10-34 x 3 x 10s = -19 J = 3.61 x 10
-19
1. a' Ephoton = "- = 55
0. x 10- 6 3 ' 61 x 10 1.6 x 10-19
eV => L._......_n m_., -,..::: eV.
-P- .r.JtV
Eph < Wo(mag) => Electrons are not liberated from the surface ofmagnesium.
b. In photoelectric effect, each effective photon interacts only with one electron (one to one). The
electron cannot absorb the energy oftwo photons.

323
 hc � - h c - 6.62 x 1 0-34 x 3 x 1 0 8 - 9
2. a • W0 - -
WO 2. 1 x 1.6 X 1 0- 19
- 0 ' 5 x 10-6 m� 1-o - 0 •59 r um '
Ao
-
O �11., - - -

This radiation is visible since 0.4 µm::; "A0 ::; 0.8 µm.
b. Eph = W0 + KEmax � KEmax = 2.26- 2.1= 0.16 eV= 0.16 X 1.6 X 10- 19 = 2.56 X 10-2 0 J
. 1 2 x 2 .56x 1 0-20
but KE= 2 m Vm2 � Vm = � Vm S!! 237199.78 m/s.
9_ 1x 1 0_3 1
4 0 x 1 0- x 1
c. i. Q= N x e=Ix t� N= 1 .6x 1 0_ 19 � N = 2.S x 10 14 electrons.
6

_ 2.5 x 1 0 14 _
ii. r - -N - � N t o tal -
N
0 photons,
_ 15 •
total 0 03 � Ntotal - 8.33 X 1
19
_ Etotal _ Ntotal .Eph - _ 8.33 x 1 0 x 3.61 x 1 0-
15
P ---- � p S!! 3 x 10_3 W.
t t 1
iii. 1. hv = W0 + KEmax . W0 is constant, then by replacing the incdent i radiation by
another one of higher frequency, electrons are liberated with greater kinetic energy.
xt
2. N t o tal = PE ph . Then increasing the power of the incident radiation results in
increasing N t o tal , so the number ofthe liberated electrons increases.
(A second method is increase the exposure time keeping the same power).

Application 4
A surface ofa metal of work function WO emits electrons of maximum kinetic energy KE, when
illuminated by a radiation of frequencyv.
The figure.shows. the .variation ·of the square ofthe speed V ofthe liberated electron as a function ofthe
v
. frequency ofthe incident radiation.
·· Gi:ven: 1 eV= 1.6 x 10-19J and h= 6.6 X 10-34 J.s.
1. Determine the expression ofV 2 in terms ofh, m, W0 and v.
Deduce the form ofthe graph that represents the variation of
V 2 as a function ofv.
2. Determine the equation ofthe line in the figure.
3. Detennine the mass of the electron.
4. Deduce, in eV, the work function of this metal.
I (14.5; 1)
Solution I
. . • 1
1. h V = W0 + KEmax = W0 + 2 m V 2 I
I
. � y 2 � ( :) v :. Wo . The equation has the form of
2 2
. 7,6.'
. . . ' JD v (x10 14 Hz)
·v� =. av + b where a and b are constants � Th� graph is a ·
· ·strai�ht line. · .
. . . ' . 2. S· 1 pe. -' a - 11 ('l ) - : 1x 10 2 - () - 1.45 x 1. -3 ' 2 .
2 1
o :- a7 ( 4-.S _ 7.6)x ro.14 - . �. m {� ·
" �
l .,
" ,, ... . - .. . � Fig. 7
V a"' (1.45 .x 10-3) \I' .+ b ' .
·)

2
• � • •• , < �

· ·. . . . : .. For "V - '7.6 X lb 14 -Hz,' V ; .- _: . 0

•• • • : ':. ••• •••• 0 • • : • ' •• 0 •

:....

• .. • • .. .. • • • C' 0 )

.... ::_ ... :': ·, .'·� ..o=:(.i.45:x,ib: 3 )(7.6x 1,0 14 ) +' b�.b =-l�102·x 10' 12 �2 /s 2 :
, ,,
::-:.. (:: ·.·.-.�.��:m-.-(�.45.�i.0-: )�·-1.U;2·x1� (S.1)' .. .
3 1 2
.
1
.... 3. . -�l�p� �-a=:C�)° ·�L�:s .x.10-�,;, c� 6x '.io-� ) �in· ":' .9�t.x10-31kg.
. . . . . m · ..
2

. . - ' m . .•• • · : .
.. . _ . . : . ..• . � . .. _ :�
• �3i . .
4. b= - 2:o == -1.102 X 101 2 �Wo �- 1.1 02 x . lO ;9,·1 xlO . ·�·Wo = · 5.014 X 10- 19 J

5.0 14 x 1 0- 19
� Wo = 1.6x 1 0_19 � W0 = 3�13375 eV.

324
 Reading
The transformation of electromagnetic energy into electric energy under photoelectric effect takes place by three
ways: photoconductive, photovoltaic and photoemissive effects.

Photoconductive cells
A light-dependent resistor (LOR) has a fairy high resistance which decreases when the resistor is exposed to
radiation (light makes the electrons inside the resistor more mobile). This leads to the increase of the current flowing
in the LDR circuit.
Photoconductive cells are used in automated washroom taps, intruder alarms, doorways that open automatically,
smoke alarms, carbon monoxide detectors, and so on.
In all these applications, an infra-red radiation is incident permanently on the LDR. For example, when you move in
front of the detector, you intercept the radiation, so the resistance of the LDR increases and the current in the circuit
decreases. As a result, an electronic circuit detects the current change and opens the door.

Photovoltaic cells (solar cells)

The photovoltaic cell (PV) converts directly radiant energy into electric energy.
Photovoltaic cells are made up of at least 2 semi-conductor layers. One layer
is positively charged, while the other is negatively charged. When a PV cell
is exposed to enough sunlight, electrons are freed from the negative layer and
captured by the positive layer creating a potential difference.
A solar panel or solar module is made from a series of photovoltaic cells
(Figure 8). Solar panels were first used in space in 1958 when the orbiting
satellite Vanguard 1 was fitted with photovoltaic solar panels. Also
calculators and digital watches function by built-in solar panels.
The voltage generated from a single photovoltaic cell is typically a fraction
of a volt. In modern solar batteries, many thousands of individual cells are Fig. 8
connected together.
Solar panels have a big disadvantage; they cannot keep the lights on when the sun isn't shining. However, solar
batteries store solar power to use in the hours of darkness.

Photoemissive cells
Figure (9) is a diagram of the photoemissive cell (or phototube) which is
composed of a glass vacuum tube, inside which there is a cathode and an Radiation
anode. When suitable electromagnetic radiation falls on the cathode,
electrons are liberated from its surface and captured by the anode. The
freed electrons then move in the wires and so radiant energy is
transformed into electric energy.
Phototubes were previously more widely used but are now replaced in +
many applications by photo resistors and photodiodes.
The photomultiplier tube is still used in scientific applications, such as
detecting radiation of different kinds. Also, it is used in night vision
goggles where it intensifies the dim light of a night-time scene, so it can Fig. 9
be seen more clearly.

325
 Problems
Whenever needed use: h = 6.6 x 10-34 J.s, 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J, c = 3 x 10 8 mis,
me = 9.1 X 10-31 kg and le = 1.6 x 10-19 C.

All the experiments take place in homogenous and non absorbing mediums.
1. Electroscope v'
In the adjacent figure, the cleaned zinc plate is fixed to the knob of
the electroscope. The system is charged positively, so the leaf is
deviated upwards to the left.
Ultraviolet radiation, whose photon energy exceeds the work function
of zinc, is incident on the zinc plate. But the deviation of the leaf does
not change. Specify a possible a reason.
2. Photon energy v'
A photon of frequency v travels in vacuum. The photon crosses to a transparent medium of index n.
Prove that:
a) the energy of the photon is not changed when it crosses to the new medium.
b) the wavelength of the photon in vacuum multiplied by its energy, is constant.
3. Explaining the Photoelectric Effect v'
A small lamp of low power emits a beam of photons towards the surface of a metal whose work
function is W0 = 3.4 eV.
a) Each photon has energy of 3 eV.
• Student (A) says "Electrons are liberated from the surface since the total energy of two
photons is 6 eV which is greater than the work function W0 of the metal".
• Student (B) says "Electrons are not liberated from the surface since the lamp has a low
power".
Do you agree with any one of the two students? Justify your answer.
b) The radiation is replaced by another one of power P and of frequency v . Electrons are liberated
from the surface of the metal. Explain all the possible methods in order to:
i. increase the number of the liberated electrons;
ii. decrease the speed of the liberated electrons.
4. Einstein's formula v'
The figure below shows three radiations A, B and C incident on the surface of potassium whose work
function is W0 = 2.25 eV.

Rlldilltion A
700nm Vmax = 2.96 X 10 mis
5
Radiation B /
/Radiation C

/iJ � /IJ
' '
,, ,'
# ,

# ,

Pot1Hlum
11) Ibn1b9Jd wanJH1tb or PPSHeJum
i. Define the threshold wavelength A0 of a metal.
ii. Calculate A0 of potassium .

326
 b) Dr pdiatto9 A
The wavelength of radiation A in vacuum is AA = 700 nm
Prove that the radiation A is not capable of liberating electrons from the surface of potassium.
�) Fat radiatlop ll
The maximum speed of the liberated electron when potassium is illuminated by radiation B is
Vm = 2.96 x 10 5 m/s. Use Einstein's formula to determine the wavelength of the radiation B.
d) For Qdlattu c
The energy of each photon of radiation C is Eph = 3.1 eV. Determine the maximum speed of a
liberated electron when potassium is illuminated by this radiation.

5. The inadequacy of the wave theory of light ./

A source of monochromatic radiation of frequency v = 4 x 10 14 Hz, illuminates the surface of gold whose
work function is W0 = 5.1 eV.
a) Prove that this radiation cannot extract electrons from the surface of gold.
b) Assume that the light is a classical wave and then its energy is distributed between the electrons
of the metal. Suppose that the received power by an electron in the gold atom is 3.2 x 10-20 W.
i. Calculate the time needed by this electron to receive an amount of energy 5.1 eV = W0 •
ii. This result contradicts with part (a). Explain.
iii. Does the phenomenon of photoelectric effect support the wave aspect of light? If not, what
aspect does this phenomenon support?

6. Determination of the number of liberated electrons ./

Consider a portion of a spherical sheet of iron whose: area is 4 cm2 ; radius is Sheet
80 cm and threshold frequency is 1.09 x 10 15 Hz. A point source (S) is
placed at the center of the iron sheet. (S) emits a monochromatic radiation of (S)�-���".'J
wavelength 200 nm in all directions in air. The power of the emission of the
monochromatic radiation is 12 W.
a) Prove that this radiation is capable of liberating electrons from the
surface of this metal.
b) Determine the power P r of the radiation received by the sheet of iron.
c) Deduce the number of the photons received by the sheet of iron during two minutes.
d) The quantum efficiency of this sheet is 0.03. Deduce the number of the liberated electrons during
the two minutes.
7. Kinetic energy versus frequency ./
In a photoelectric effect experiment, the surface of
sodium whose threshold frequency is v 0 is illuminated KE(eV)
successively by a series of electromagnetic radiations.
The adjacent figure shows the variation of the maximum
kinetic energy KE of a liberated electron as a function
of the frequency v of the incident radiation.
a) Refer to the figure to identify the value v
5.527 x 10 14 Hz. 5.527
b) i. Apply Einstein formula of photoelectric effect to
determine the expression of KE in terms of: v; v 0
and Planck's constant h.
ii. Deduce the value of h, Knowing that for a frequency v = 10 15 Hz , KE= 1.845 eV.
c) i. What does h represent for the line?
ii. The experiment is repeated with magnesium whose work function is 3.68 eV. Draw roughly
on the same figure the curve that represents the variation KE, as a function of v

327
8. Determinati on of Ao, hand W0
In a photoelectric effect experiment, the surface of KE x 10-19 J
cesium whose threshold wavelength is 1c0 is illuminated 6
successively by a series of electromagnetic radiations.
The adjacent graph represents the variation of the 5
maximum kinetic energy KE of a liberated electron as
i.
4
a function of 'A is the wavelength of the incident
3
radiation.
a) Write down the expression of KE in terms on.; A0 2
Planck's constant h and speed oflight in vacuum c. 1.7
b) Refer to the figure to determine A0 1
! x 10 6 m- 1
c) The slope of the graph represents a certain constant. l
Specify the expression of th.is constant. Deduce 0 1 2 3 4
Planck's constant h
d) Deduce the work function W0 ofcesium in eV.
9. Determination of the current in the circuit of a photocell ./
Consider three pure metals cesium, magnesium and iron whose threshold frequencies are
5.1 x 10 14 Hz , 8.96 x 10 14 Hz, and 1.09 x 10 15 Hz respectively.
Each metal is illuminated by a visible monochromatic radiation of photon energy Eph = 2.5 eV.
a) Light is composed ofsmall bundles of energy (or particles) called photons. Indicate two
properties ofa photon.
b) Define the threshold frequency of a metal.
c) Calculate the maximum wavelength of the incident radiation capable ofliberating electrons from
the surface of magnesium.
d) Calculate the frequency of the incident photons. Electrons are liberated only from the surface of
cesium. Why?
e) The cesium is illuminated by the radiation of energy Eph = 2.5 eV. The surface of the cesium
cathode in the photocell (photoemissive cell) of the figure below receives 25 x 10 15 photons/s.
The quantum efficiency of the surface of cesium is 2 %.
Monochromatic
radiation Photocell

i. Determine the maximum speed of a liberated electron from the surface of cesium.
ii. Determine the power received by cesium.
iii. The extracted electrons are captured by the anode and move in the wires. Thus a current I is
established in the circuit.
UDfff1U. e is the value of the elementary charge and Neff is the number ofliberated
electrons per second. Determine I.
f) This phenomenon shows an evidence of a certain aspect of light. Name this aspect.

328
10. Threshold wavelength and the number of the liberated electrons
The surface of scandium of work function W0 = 3.5 eV, is illuminated by a source of
monochromatic radiation whose wavelength in vacuum is A. Electrons are extracted from the surface
of scandium with a maximum speed v = 506659 m/s.
a) i. Determine in J the energy of each incident photon of this radiation. Deduce its wavelength"'·
ii. Define the threshold wavelength A0 of a metal. Deduce whether the threshold wavelength 1..0 of
this metal is smaller or greater than A.
iii. Support your answer by calculating A0 •
iv. Specify the number of the electrons extracted from the metal when illuminated by a radiation
of wavelength 4 x 10-7 m.
v. This phenomenon shows an evidence of a certain aspect of light. Name this aspect.
b) The power of the radiation received by scandium is P = 10 W. The quantum efficiency of the
surface of scandium is r = 0.02.
i. Determine the number Ntotal of photons received by scandium during 12 seconds.
ii. Deduce the number Nlib of electrons liberated from scandium during 12 seconds.
c) i. Prove that . P is the power of the radiation emitted by the source, and t is
the exposure time of the metal to the radiation.
ii. For a chosen power of the radiation emitted by the source, specify how does Nlib vary with')._
and t.
11. Number and energy of the photoelectrons
The aim of this exercise is to study the effects of the wavelength and the power of an incident
radiation on the liberation of electrons from the surface of a metal.
A lithium metal of work function W0 = 3.68 X 10- 19 J is illuminated separately by three radiations
emitted by three point sources S 1, S2 and S3•
S 1 is a source of red radiation of wavelength A1 = 0.8 µmin vacuum and of power P1 = 100 W.
S 2 is a source of blue radiation of wavelength Az = 0.5 µmin vacuum and of power P2 = 20 W.
S 3 is a source of violet radiation of wavelength A3 = 0.4 µmin vacuum and of power P3 = 10 W.
a) Effect of the wavelength
i. Calculate the threshold wavelength A0 of the lithium metal. Deduce that the source S 1 is not
capable of producing photoelectric effect.
ii. The lithium metal is illuminated separately by the blue and the violet radiations.
Determine the maximum kinetic energy of a liberated electron in each case.
iii. Compare the obtained kinetic energies.
iv. Deduce how the wavelength affects the kinetic energy of the liberated electron.
v. Use the data in the given to verify that the kinetic energy of the liberated electron does not
increase with the increase of the power of the incident radiation.
b) Effect of the power
The lithium metal is illuminated by the blue radiation. The power P r received by lithium is
2 x 10-3 % of the total power emitted from the source S2 . The quantum efficiency of lithium
is r = 0.02.
i. Calculate P,. Deduce the number Ninc i dent of photons received by lithium during one second.
ii. Deduce the number N 1 of the electrons liberated from lithium during one second.

=
iii. The lithium metal is illuminated by 2 sources of the blue radiation of total power 40 W.
The number of liberated electrons in one second is N2 4 x 10 13 electrons.
• Compare N 1 to N2 .
• Deduce how the power of the radiation affects the number of the liberated electron.

329
Historically, a great development in mechanics took place after the work ofNewton in the 17 th century, while the
development ofthe structure ofmatter didn't become valuable until the beginning ofthe 20 th century. Here are some
important dates about the development ofthe structure ofmatter:
1803 John Dalton proposed an atomic theory with spherical solid atoms based upon properties of mass.
1869 Dmitri Mendeleev arranged elements into 7 groups with similar properties.
1879 Sir William Crooke discovered that cathode rays travel in straight lines from the cathode and impart a
negative charge to objects they strike.
1894 G.J Stoney proposed that electricity was made ofdiscrete negative particles and he called them ''electrons''.
1896 Henri Becquerel discovered some chemicals spontaneously decompose and give off very penetrating rays.
1897 J.J Thomson determined experimentally the charge to mass ratio (elm) ofan electron.
1898 Ernest Rutherford studied radiations emitted from uranium and thorium and named them alpha and beta.
1898 Marie Sklodowska Curie studied uranium and thorium and called their spontaneous decay process
"radioactivity".
1900 Soddy observed spontaneous disintegration ofradioactive elements into variants he called "isotopes", and he
discovered "half-life".
1900 Max Planck used the idea ofquanta to explain hot glowing matter.
1902 Thomson proposed the first model ofthe atom.
1903 Nagaoka postulated a "Satumian" model ofthe atom with flat rings ofelectrons revolving around a
positively charged particle.
1905 Albert Einstein published the famous equation E = mc2 .
1909 R.A Millikan did the oil drop experiment and determined the charge and the mass ofthe electron.
1911 Ernest Rutherford established the planetary model ofthe atom.
1913 Neils Bohr developed an explanation of atomic structure. His atomic model had atoms built up ofsuccessive
orbital shells ofelectrons.
1923 De Broglei discovered that electrons had a dual nature - similar to both particles and waves. Particle/wave
duality.
1930 Schrodinger viewed electrons as continuous clouds and introduced "wave mechanics" as a mathematical
model ofthe atom.
1932 Jjames Chdwick discovered the neutron.

330
 Modem
Democritus 480 80 Thomson Rutherford Bohr Quantum
and D•lton 1803 AD 181? 1912 1913 ,c,�ud MOdel
po1t1930

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

•!• Explain the historical development of the atom model.

•!• Interpret Bohr's model of the atom.
•!• Draw the diagram of the energy levels of the hydrogen atom.
•!• Identify some spectral series of the hydrogen atom.
•!• Apply Rydberg formula.
•!• Determine the expressions of the energy levels of the hydrogen atom.
•!• Define and calculate the ionization energy of an atom.
•!• Differentiate between absorption and emission spectrums.
•!• Interpret the excitation of the atom by an electron.
•!• Explain the principle of laser.
•!• Indicate the application of atomic spectra in astronomy.

331
Introduction
> White light: A polychromatic light which is composed of a mixture of all the visible monochromatic
radiations.
> Dispersion of light: The decomposition of a polychromatic light into its different colors.
> Spectroscope: Optical apparatus that uses a dispersion system
(Prism or grating) to decompose light in order to observe the
different monochromatic radiations forming it (Figure 1-a).
> Dispersion of light can be done using a:
* prism: when light falls on a prism, it undergoes refraction, so
light is dispersed or separated (Figure 1-b).
* grating: when light falls on a grating it undergoes diffraction, so
light is dispersed (Figure 1-c).

-�-·· Red
Oranee
Sun Yellow
Green
/ Blue
/
Indigo
Violet
y

Fig 1-b Fig 1-c

> Emission spectrum of a light is the set of monochromatic

Continuous emission spectrum

visible radiations that constitute this light.

Types of emission spectra (Spectrums) of light:
Continuous emission spectrum: Band of colors without dark
Discrete emission spectrum
lines (Figure 2-a).
(b)
Discrete emission spectrum: Set of bright discrete lines on a
dark background (Figure 2-b).
Fig. 2
1. Historical Development of the Atom Model
In 1879, Thomson discovered the electron and measured its charge to its
mass·' �m
In 1909, Millikan did the oil-drop experiment and determined the electric
charge qe and the mass m of the electron.
As a result of many experiments, scientists concluded that:
* The mass of the positive charge forms most of the mass of an atom.
* The size of the atom is of the order of 10-10m = 1 A.
A : Angstrom is a unit of length. Joseph John Thomson
At that time, the distribution of the positive and the negative charge within (1856-1940)
the atom was not known. In what follows, we will
explain the proposed model of the atom as
suggested by Thomson, Rutherford and Bohr.
A. Ibomsop 's model of the atom {1902}
The atom is constituted of a sphere of positive
charge, and the electrons are embedded in it
like raisins in a spherical bun (Figure 3).
Fig 3-a Fig 3-b

332
 B. Rutherford's model of the atom (1911)
In 1911, Rutherford set evidence of the existence of the nucleus of the atom in his
famous experiment "Gold foil experiment". This experiment is also called
"Geiger-Marsden experiment"because it was done by Geiger and Marsden under
the direction of Rutherford.
Gold foil experiment
In this experiment, a-particles (Helium nuclei 1He; positively charged) are
projected on thin gold foil. A fluorescent screen detects the scattered a-particles Ernest Rutherford
(Figure 4). (1871-1937)
Expected result according to Non-deflected
Thomson's model
According to Thomson's model, all a­
particles must pass through the atom
without deflection, since the mass of the
atom ( and consequently the positive
charge) is distributed all over its volume
(Figure 5-a).
The matter is like throwing marbles in
water; all the marbles will pass without
reflecting back.
But this does not happen!!
Radioactive source fluorescent screen
Observation (Figure 5-b)
* Most of the a-particles passed straight
through the foil.
* A small percentage of a-particles were Fig. 4
deflected at large angles.
* A very few pa�icles recoiled back (deflection around_180 °).

Interpretation and conclusion

Rutherford interpreted the experimental
results as follows:
* Most of the a-particles passed straight
through the foil. Then most of the size
of the atom is vacuum.
*· Some particles were defleced at large
angles 1 and very ·few particles recoiled Expected result according Rutherford model
back, then the atom has a to Thomson model
concentrated center of positive Fig 5-a Fig 5-b
charge which forms most of the
mass of the atom. Rutherford called this center: the
nucleus qf the atom.
The a-particles which hit the nucleus directly recoiled
back, "'.hile those that passed very close to the
nucleus were deflected at large angles.
Based on the results of the gold foil experiment,
· Rutherford put his model of the atom:
The planetary model.
The atom is constituted of a positive nucleus
concentrated in a very small space, and the electrons
revolve around the nucleus in a motion similar to the
revolution of a planet around the sun (Figure 6). Fig. 6

333
The inadequacy of Rutherford's model of the atom
• Rutherford's model is failure to explain the discrete line spectrum of the atom.
* According to Rutherford's model, the electron revolves around the nucleus, so it has a centripetal
acceleration. But accelerating charges radiate energy. So the electron will lose its energy
continuously in the form of electromagnetic waves. Finally it will be captured by the nucleus.
But this is not the case! !

C. Bohr's model of the atom {1913)

The Bohr's model was based on his observations of the discrete emission
spectrum of the light emitted from the hydrogen atom, and also on Planck's
hypothesis about the quantization of electromagnetic energy.
Bohr's model
• In the atom and around the nucleus, there exist certain orbits in which
electrons exist.
• Each atom of a specific element has its own set of energy levels (E 1 , E 2,
E 3 .....E00 ) due to the distribution of its electrons in their orbits (Figure 7).
Each level is associated with a quantum number n = 1, 2, 3 ... Neil Bohr (1885-1962)
Fundamental state or the ground state E1
The first energy level has the smallest energy. It is called the ground state or the fundamental state.
Its quantum number is n = 1.
The excited states Ionized (cefereare) state E«> = O
The second energy level E2 is called the first excited
state;
-----------E4
The third energy level E3 is called the second excited
state; ... 2 °d excited state
------------------------ E3
The ionized state
E 00 is called the ionized state or the reference state .
• The energy of the atom can be equal to one of these
energy levels. It is impossible for the atom to have 1 11 excited state
-----------E 2
energy between these energy levels. Ground state (Fundamental state) Ei
The energy of the atom is quantized.
Fig. 7
• Emission and absorption of a photon
- When the atom passes from a higher energy level E h to a
lower energy level E t (de-excitation), it emits a photon of

I T = Eh - Et I (Eh > Et) (Figure 8-a).

energy:
Emitted photon
Eph = hv =
�hv
• A photon can cause the transition of an atom from an energy
level E t to a higher energy level E h (excitation) only if its E1--.---
energy is exactly the same as the difference of the energies
(E h - E1 ) of the atom. Fig 8-a

(Figure 8-b) '�

hv
• When an atom is excited, the atom does not remain in its
excited state more than 10-0 s, it returns back to the ground Absorbed
state directly or by steps emitting thus photon(s).

Fig 8-b

334
Application 1
Figure (9) represents the energies of the ground
state and the first four excited states of a hydrogen
---------Es= -0.54 eV
atom.
19
---------- E4
----------E3 =-1.51 eV
=- 0.85 eV
Given h = 6.62 x 10- 34 J.s; 1 eV = 1.6 x 10- J;
c = 3 X 10 8 mis; 400 nm $ II.visible $ 800 nm.
---------- E2 = - 3.4 eV
1. Indicate the energy of the 3 rd excited state of
the hydrogen atom.
2. a. Determine the wavelength of the emitted
photon when the atom makes a downward
transition (electronic transition) from the
energy level:
i. E 3 to E 1 ;
ii. E5 to E2;
iii. E4 to E 3 .
b. Which one of the above three photons is:
visible? infrared? ultraviolet?
3. The hydrogen atom is in the ground
(fundamental) state. Fig. 9
a. The atom is hit by a photon of energy of 11
eV. Specify whether this photon is absorbed or not.
b. Deduce then state of the atom.
c. Determine the energy needed by a photon capable to excite the atom to the z nd excited state.
Use part (2-a-i) to indicate the value of the wavelength of this photon.
Solution
1. The energy of the 3 rd excited state is £,. • • 0.85 eV.
2. a. i. Eph = Eh - Et = E3 - E1 = -1.51 - (-13.6) = 12.09 eV =12.09 x 1.6 x 10- 19 J
= 1.9344 x 10- 18 J. But Eph = � 1 => A 3 __.1 = =
6"62 x 10- 34 x 3 ; 108
1.9344 x 10- 1
1.027 x 10- 7 m
=> �. • 102.'7 nm.
ii. Eph = Eh - Et = Es -E2 = - 0.54 -(-3.4) = 2.86 eV = 2.86 x 1.6 x 10- 19 J =>
-1 6.62 X 10- 34 X 3 X 108 =
Eph = 4.576 x 10 9 J :=:} As__.z = 4.34 x 10 -7 m :=:} �-2 • 434 nm.
4 .576 x 10_ 19
iii. Eph = Eh - Er = E4-E3 = - 0.85 -(-1.51) = 0.66 eV = 0.66 x 1.6 x 10- 19
6"62 x 10- 34 x 3 x 108 6
=> Eph = 1 · 056 x 10- 19 J :=:} "'= 1.os6 x 10- 19 = 1 • 88 x 10- m = 1880
· mn.
b. The photon emitted due to the transition from:
� t. � is '71slble m
&. E3 is Infrared m
and E3 Et is ultraviolet.
3. a. If the photon is absorbed then Eph = Eh - Et, but Et = E 1 = - 13.6 eV
:=:} Eh = Eph + E 1 = 11 + (- 13.6)
= - 2.6 eV but E2 < Eh < E then this photon cannot be
3
� by the atom.
b. The atom l'ffllaltts In the lffilllld stat-e.
c. To excite the atom to the z nd excited state, Eph = Eh - Et = E3 -E1 = -1.51- (-13.6)
:=:} Eph • 1�09eV. From part (2-a) the wavelength of this photon is).• 10�7 am.

335
 2. Spectral Series and Energy of the Hydrogen Atom

Rydberg formula
The emission spectrum of a hydrogen atom in
a gas-discharge lamp shows a series of four
spectral lines (four colors) whose wavelengths
in air are: ( 656.3 nm named Ha); ( 486.1 nm
named H�); (434.1 nm named Hy) and (410.2
nm named H.s) (Figure 10). E Ec Ec
The above series is called Balmer series after M N
the Swiss teacher Johann Balmer. In 1885 co
'I'"
coco
(before Bohr's model), Balmer introduced an It') 'I'"
�
�
empirical formula that calculated the four
U)

wavelengths. Emission spectrum of a hydrogen atom

I I
Fig.10
i = R ( � - ;z ) n > 2 and is whole number
R: Rydberg's constant: R = 1.097 x 10 7 m-1
and Ais the wavelength of the radiation in air.
For:
n = 3 �A= Aa = 656.2 nm;
n = 4 �A= A� = 486.1 nm;
n = 5 �A= Ay =434.1 nm;
n = 6 �A= t...0 =410.2 nm. Johannes Rydberg

,....I I
(1854-1919)
In 1888, the physicist Johannes Rydberg generalized Balmer equation for all the
--.
radiations emitted b the hydrogen atom. Rydberg formula is given by i_=_R_(---�-2 ----� )
�. . -;;-
m and n are two positive mtegers and n > m .

•!• The Balmer series is

characterized by the downward
electronic transitions from n � 3
to n = 2 where n refers to
the radial quantum number
(or principal quantum number) of 6-+2 5-+2 4-+2
the electron.
Only four wavelengths in Balmer n =6
n =5
series are visible: n =4
(Ha : n = 3 - n = 2);

·�
(H� : n = 4 - n = 2);
n =3
(Hy : n = 5 - n = 2); Ill 'I
n =2
(H0 : n = 6 - n = 2)
1f

(Figure 11 ). Fig. 11
The other emitted radiations of Balmer series ( 7- 2) ; (8 -2) ; (9 - 2) ... are ultraviolet.
In what follows, we introduce for you some other spectral series of the hydrogen atom. All of these
series obey Rydberg formula.
a) Lyman series
The series is named after its discoverer, Theodore Lyman, who discovered the spectral lines from
1906- 1914.
Lyman series is the set of spectral lines which correspond to the downward transition from an energy
level of quantum number n � 2 to the energy level of n = 1; - = R ( - - 2 ) . n = 2, 3, 4, ...
1 1 1
n

336
All the wavelengths in the Lyman series lie in
the ultraviolet range.
b) Pasch en series 8
The series is named after the German 6
physicist Friedrich Paschen who first
discovered the lines in 1908. 5 Pfund series
Paschen series is the set ofspectral lines which
Brackett series
correspond to the downward transition from an 4
energy level ofquantum number n 2:: 4 to the
energy level of n = 3 · - = R ( ...!:... - ...!:... Patchen series
'l 32 2 ). 3
n =4, 5, 6, ...
All the wavelengths in the Paschen series lie in
the infrared range. Balmer eerfee
2
c) Brackett series
The series is named after the American
physicist Frederick Sumner Brackett who first
LymanMrl ..
discovered the spectral lines in 1922. 1
The series is set ofspectral lines which
correspond to the downward transition from an ----------------------'
energy level of uantum number n 2:: 5 to the energy level Fig.12
1 1 1
ofn = 4; i = R ( 2 - �) n = 5, 6, 7, ...
4
All the wavelengths in the Brackett series lie in the infrared range.
d) Pfund series
The series was experimentally discovered in 1924 by August Herman Pfund.
The series is the set ofspectral lines that correspond to the downward transition from an energy level of
quantum number n 2:: 6 to the energy level ofn = 5; i = R ( sz - 2 )
1 1 1
n = 6, 7, 8, ...
0

All the wavelengths in the Pfund series lie in the infrared range. The Reference State
When an electron is
liberated from the atom,
3. Expressions of the Energy Levels of the Hydrogen Atom there is no more interaction
According to Bohr's model, when the atom undergoes a transition from a between this electron and
higher energy level n to a lower level m, the energy ofthe emitted photon is the nucleus. The energy of
he the atom becomes zero, so
Eph = T =En -Em (En =Eh and Em =Et)
we take this state as a
According to Rydberg formula, the wavelength ofthe emitted photon is reference level (zero level).
. 1 1 1 1 1 hcR hcR It corresponds to E., .
given by: 'i =R ( ;z - ;:;z ) => Eph =h c R ( ;z - ;:;z ) = -;z - --;;-z The energies of the other
hcR hcR levels are negative because
=>EP h =--+-
n2 m2 =En -Em
any electron needs energy
.. . hcR hcR
to reach the state of E,.,;;; 0.
The trans1t10n 1s c.1rom n to m then En = - - - and Em = - -
m2
n 2
The energy levels ofthe hydrogen atom are negative and are given by:
Reading
E = -hcR He+, L.2+
1 , B e3+, ... are
n 2
- 2.179 x 10- 18 J hydrogen-like atoms
En _ - 6.626 x 10- 34 x 2.998 x 10 8 x 1.097 x 10 7

I
=> - n2 => E n 02
because they have only one

I
electron. Rydberg formula
for these atoms is iven by:
= ---;z-
-19 - 3. 1 6
1 eV = 1.602 X 10 J => En eV

Z is the number of protons

n is a whole number 2:: 1 => the energy ofthe atom is quantized.
in the nucleus.
For: The energy of each level is
n = 1 => E 1 = - 13.6 eV (Ground state); = - z 2 x 13.6
E n (eV)
n = 2 => E2 = -3.4 eV (First excited state); n2

337
 n = 3 � E3 = -1.51 eV (Second excited state); B.titdtiu,
Ionimdon .Entr-gy Hd
E:xttattlon Eneray
n � oo � E00 = 0 (Ionized state). The ionization energy Wi011
is due to the ifi�taction
4. Ionization Energy betwoon an electron (f'at
el�lrofi) and its atom, Bm
Ionization energy W1 is llie minimum energy needed to liberate the
the exttaclion. enettY W'O is
electron from the atom when it is in a certain energy level. due to the interaction
For an atom initially in the level n: jw1on = Eoo - En I Wion > 0
between the electron in the
surface of the metal and its
:atom, :as well l\s the
For hydrogen atom in the ground state: Wion = E00 E1 = 0- (- 13.6)
neighboring a.toms..
-

� Wion = 13.6 eV. ln general th� v:alue of W0 i:s

Klnttlc � ntthe llbHattileltctton dose w �210n.,
Due to quantization of the energy of the atom, a photon can cause an
lf a gas is und�t low pressure
upward electronic transition from E, to Eh only if its energy is exactly then its atoms are vecy far
equal to the difference between E, and Eh . But, if the energy of the from each oth.�r StJ each
photon is greater than or equal to the ionization energy, the atom will electron ihtffllcts ooly with
absorb the photon. The electron will use part of the photon energy to its atom then. 'O wlob ' w ""'
become liberated, and it will leave the atom with the other part in the
form of kinetic energy. This is because the energy of the liberated electron is not quantized.
-- - _p_ o
If KE Ep hoton 2". ( Wion = E00 E, ), kinetic energy of the liberated electron is: .K
-
, E =E h- t_o_n -- - Wi- l-on---,
This formula is similar to Einstein's Formula of photoelectric effect.
Application 2
Consider the hydrogen atom of energy: En(eV) - � n is a non-zero positive integer.
-13.6

Given: Rydberg's constant: R = 1.097 X 10 m-1, Planck's constant h = 6.6 x 10-34 J.s
7

c = 3 x 10 8 mis, and 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J.

1. Calculate in eV the energies of the first 4 energy levels.
2. Can the hydrogen atom have an energy of-2 eV? Why? Deduce that the energy of the hydrogen
atom is quantized.
3. The hydrogen atom de-excites from the first excited state to the ground state.
a. Determine the frequency of the emitted radiation using:
i) Bohr's assumption;
ii) Rydberg formula.
b. To which series does this transition belong?
4. The hydrogen atom is in the ground state.
a. Determine the longest wavelength of a photon capable of exciting the atom.
b. The atom absorbs a photon of energy 13.222 eV. The atom is excited to the energy level of
quantum number n. Determine n.
c. The atom is hit by a photon of energy of 14 eV. Show that the electron is liberated from the atom
and calculate its kinetic energy.
Solution
1• En = --;;z-
-13.6
� E 1 =- -
13.6 =
- • l-.,.6e
" - 13.6 = -l.<tt
V ; E2 = � , V;
12
- 13.6 - 13 6
"'.. and E 4 = � = ... o.asev.
-
E 3 =� • ·-�· ,�
= .

2. - 3.4 eV < - 2 eV < - 1.51 eV � The atom does not have an energy level of value - 2 eV.
Hydrogen atom has specific values of energy (discontinuous values), so its energy is quantized.
Ez--E1 [-3.4 - (-13.6)) x 1.6 x 10-19
3• a. I") Ep h - h V -- Eh - E'o _ - E2 - E1 � V _ -
-h 6.6 x 1 o-34
� -v =1.4"7 )( 10 15 Hz.
ii) Rydberg formula � = R ( � -i-) . The transition is from the first excited state to the
11, m - n

338
 7 1
ground state=> n = 2 and m = 1 => i = 1.097 x 10 ( l2 - z2) => "' = 1.215x 10- 7 m
1 1

_ c _
- - 3 x 0 _ 7 - 2.47 x 10 15 Hz.
1 8 _

v ;;: 1 .21 5x 10
b. The transition is to the ground state, and then it belongs to Lyman series.
he
4. a. Eph = Eh - Ee = Eh - E 1 , but Eph = and A are inversely proportional and then the
T => Eph
maximum wavelength Amax corresponds to the minimum photon energy Eph (min) . So this photon
excites the atom to E 2 => Eph = E 2 -E 1 = -3.4 -(-13.6) = 10.2 eV = 10.2 x 1.6 x 10-19 J
1 -3 3 108 => l
=> � = 1.632 x 10-18 J => A max = 6.6 x. 02 4x1 x ' 3 x 10-1 m.
max = 121
Amax 1 6 3 x 0- 1 8
b. Ephoton = Eh - Ee => Eh = Ephoton + Ee => Eh = 13.222 + (- 13.6) = - 0.378 eV.
6
- 0.378 = - l!. => n = 6 ( 5 th excited state).
n
c. The ionization energy of the atom is Wi on = E 00 E 1 = 0 - ( -13.6 ) = 13.6 eV.
-

Eph > W10n � The electron is liberated from the atom.

Eph = Wi on + KE => KE = 14-13.6 => KE = 0.4 eV.

Application 3 �
Figure (13) shows the four transitions of Balmer series which emit
visible photons, and one of the transitions of Lyman series.
Given: n=S
R = 1.097 x 10 7 m-1; h = 6.626 x 10-34 J.s; 1 eV = 1.6 x10- 1 9 J.
n=4
E1 = - 13.6 eV; E2 = - 3.4 eV; E3 = - 1.511 eV;
E4 = - 0.85 eV; E5 =- 0.544 eV and E = - 0.378 eV.
6

= i. ,.., ,� ,
1. i. Does the indicated transition of Lyman series, correspond to n=3
$,,,
the shortest or to the longest wavelength of this series?
Justify.
ii. Determine the short wavelength limit and the long
wavelength limit of the Lyman series. n=2
2. i. Calculate the longest wavelength of the emitted photons in
Balmer series.
ii. Verify that one of the emitted photons of Balmer Lyman a
series has a wavelength of 487.2 nm.
Solution
c
1. i. Eph = \ = E h -E1 . The emitted photon of smallest
energy corresponds to the downward transition from E 2 to E 1
=> E2 - E1 = Emin = � => 71.2_,1 is the longest ---------" = 1
11.2 .... 1
wavelength. Fig. 13
ii.� . 2 1 3 1
x 0-34) ( x 0 ) = [- 3.4-( - 13.6)](1.6 x 10- 1 9)
s
= E2 - E1 => (6 6 6
11.2 .... 1 11.2 .... 1
=> 12_,1 = 121.8 x 10-9 m = 121.8 nm (Long wavelength limit).
� = Eoo - E => (6.6 26 x 10- 3 4) (3x 10 8) = [O - ( -13.6)] (1.6 x 10- 19)
Aoo -+1 1
Aoo-,1
9
=> loo .... 1 = 91.351 x 10- m = 91.351 nm (Short wavelength limit).
1 - 3 (3x 1 0 8) = [-
2. i. _!:_:_z = E3 -E 2 => (6.626 x 0 _,4) 1.511-( - 3.4)](1.6 x 10-19)
11. 3 _, A3 z
=> 13 ....2 = 657.69 x 10-9 m = 657.69 nm.
.. h c hc = (6.6 2 6 x 10- 4) C 3x 1 0 ) => E
3 8
.
n A h _,z = E h - E 2 => E h = E
2 + A h _,z ( - 3 .4) + (48 7 . 2x 1 0-9)(1.6x 1 0-19) h =- O .85 eV
But E 4 = - 0.85 eV. Then the photon of wavelength 487.2 is one of the emitted photons in
Balmer series.

339
5. Emission and Absorption Spectra
Emission and absorption spectra characterize the element. Each element has its own emission and
absorption spectra.
A. Emission spectrum of light Light from a
Depending on the source, we define two
Kinds of emission spectrum:
• Continuous emission spectrum
Consider figure (14): (E)
The light emitted from the glowing solid
(tungsten filament), in a dark room, falls on a prism. This light Fig.14
emerges from the prism separated (dispersed), and falls on a Sun light and the light emitted by an
screen (E). incandescent lamp contain all the
The spectrum is a band of visible radiations without
visible radiations.
dark lines. This spectrum is called continuous emission
spectrum.
When heated, gases under high pressure, solids, and liquids have continuous spectrum of light.
• Discrete emission spectrum
Discontinuous spectrum
Consider figure (15): Glowing gas

g-
�ys��rn)
In a dark room, the light emitted
from a glowing gas under low
pressure, falls on a prism. This light
emerges from the prism separated Prism
(E)
(dispersed), and falls on a screen (E).
The spectrum is a set of discrete Fig.15
bright lines against a dark background. This spectrum is
called discrete emission spectrum.
A gas under low pressure emits polychromatic light composed of selected colors characteristic of the
gas.
Figure (16) shows the discrete emission spectrum of three gases: hydrogen, mercury and neon.

Hg I
I
\

I '

I
l
Ne

Fig.16
Interpretation of the discrete emission spectrum using Bohr's model
Each bright line in the emission spectrum corresponds to a wavelength of a certain photon
emitted by the atom when de-excited from a higher energy level to a lower energy level. The
energy of each atom is quantized so
the spectrum is discrete.
B .. Absorption spectrum
In a dark room, we direct intense
white light which contains all the
visible radiations on a gas (sodium Fig.17
vapor or hydrogen for example). The

340
 gas absorbs certain photons from the incident white light. The light falls then on a prism. This light
emerges from the prism separated (dispersed) and falls on a screen.
The spectrum is a set of discrete dark lines on a bright band of colors.
This spectrum is called the absorption spectrum. It is discrete (Figure 17).
Interpretation of the absorption spectrum using Bohr's model
Each dark (missing) line in the absorption spectrum corresponds to a wavelength of a certain
photon absorbed by the gas atom when it is excited from a lower energy level to a higher energy
level. The energy of each atom is quantized so the absorption spectrum is discrete.
C. Conclusion
Figure (18) shows the Hydrogen Absorption spectrum
emission and the absorption
spectra of the hydrogen atom.
We observe that the bright
lines in the emission spectrum
are the missing lines in the
absorption spectrum.
Hydrogen emission spectrum
Conclusion:
The frequencies of the
missing (dark) lines in the
absorption spectrum are equal
to those of the spectral bright
lines in the emission spectrum
of the same element. 400 nm 700nm
Fig. 18
Doublet-lines
Among the energy levels of a certain atom, we might have two energy levels that are very close to a
value En . The energy level En is called double.
As a result, in the emission or in the absorption spectrum of such an atom, we find two very close lines
having very close wavelengths. These two lines are called doublet.
The sodium emission spectrum is dominated by the 589.592nm
bright doublet known as the Sodium D-lines at 588.995
and 589.592 nanometers (Figure 19).
The intensities of these lines are much stronger than
other visible lines in the sodium spectrum. So we can
consider that the light from a sodium lamp comes from
the D-lines. Fig. 19

6. Excitation of the Atom by an Electron

As explained before, a photon cannot cause the transition of an atom from an energy level Ee to a higher
energy level Eh , unless the photon energy is exactly the same as the difference (Eh - Ee) of the energies
of the atom. Ephoton = Eh - E.e .
Also, the atom can be excited when bombarded by an electron. An electron causes the transition of an
atom from an energy level Ee to a higher energy level E if its kinetic energy KE before is at least equal
to the difference (Eh - Ee ) of the energies of the atom. KEbefore :i:!:: Eh - E.e .
During the collision between the atom and the electron, the atom absorbs from the electron an amount of
energy enough to ensure a transition. The rest of the energy is carried by the electron as kinetic energy.

I I
The kinetic energy carried by the electron after exciting the atom is:
KE after = KE before - (Eh - Ee ) KEhit is the kinetic energy of the electron before hitting the atom.

341
Gas-discharge lamps ( +)
A gas discharge lamp is a light source that generates light due to electric discharge (flow of electric
charge) between two electrodes through an ionized gas.
When power is applied to the lamp, an electrical
field is generated between the electrodes in the
tube. This field accelerates free electrons in the I
I
gas. The electrons collide with the gas atoms I

which become either ionized or excited.

When the excited atoms de-excite, they emit
photons. These photons could be IR, visible or UV.
Electrode Glass tube Electrode
Fluorescent lamps have fluorescent coating on the
inside of the lamp to convert the UVradiation into Fig. 20
light.
Gas-discharge lamps emit different colors depending on the element contained inside. The gas inside the
tube is a noble gas such as argon, neon, krypton and xenon, or it could be mixture of these gasses. Many
lamps are also filled with additional gases like sodium and mercury.
Compared to incandescent lamps, gas-discharge lamps have higher efficiency but are more complicated
to manufacture.
(The types of gas-discharge lamps are discussed in the reading of this chapter)

Application 4
Figure (21) shows some energy levels of the sodium atom in a
.�E(eV)
gas-discharge lamp. Given: 1 eV= 1.6 x 10-19 J.
1. An electron of kinetic energy KE e hits the sodium atom 1-------Eoo = 0
when it is in the fundamental state. Determine what would 1-------Es = -1.38 eV
happen to the sodium atom if:
a. KE e = 6 eV; 1------- E4 = - 1.52 eV
b. KE e = 2.4 x 10-19 J.
2. An electron of kinetic energy KEe = 1.6 eVhits the sodium 1------E3 = - 1.94 eV
atom when it is in the first excited state. Determine the
possible kinetic energies carried by the leaving electron.
Solution t------- E2 = - 3.03 eV
1. a. The ionization energy of this sodium atom is:
Wi on = E co - E 1 = 0 - (- 5.14) => Wi on = 5.14 eV.
KE e = 6 eV >Wi on = 5.14 eV => The sodium atom
might undergo an electronic transition to any of its
higher energy levels (E2 or E3 , ••• ), and also it might
------E1 = - 5.14 eV
become ionized.
b. KE e - _ 2.4 x 10 -19 J _ -
2.4 x 10- 19 _ Fig. 21
- 1.5 eV
1. 6 x 10_ 19
KE e= Eh - Ee => Eh = KE e + Ee = 1.5 + (- 5.14) = - 3.64 eV.
But - 3.64 eV < E2 . So this electron cannot excite the sodium atom
=> The atom remains in the ground state.
2. KEe = Eh - Ee => Eh = KE e + Ee = 1.6 + (- 3.03 ) = - 1.43 eV.
E4 < Eh < Es => The sodium atom might be excited to E 3 or to E4 .
KEafter = KEb efore - (Eh - Ee ) = 1.6 - ( Eh - Ez)
If the atom is excited to Eh = E 3: KEafter 1.6 - [ -1.94 - (-3.03)] => KEarter • 0.!1 eV.
If the atom is excited to Eh E4 : KEafter = 1.6 - [ -1.52 - (-3.03)] => KE1rc,r • 0,09 eV.
=

342
 7. Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
The laser is invented in 1958. It is a source of coherent monochromatic electromagnetic radiation.
Spontaneous emission: As you know, when an atom is excited to a higher energy level, it de-excites to
the ground state by emitting photon(s). If this process takes place at a rate that does not depend on the
presence of external fields, it is called spontaneous emission.
The emitted light by spontaneous emission is incoherent.
Princig,le of functioning ofleser

'
Initial st,te
••.•
7
Population inversion: Under normal Final state Initial state Final state
circumstances, the number of atoms in the
excited states is less than the number in the
••

/�•
I
ground state. I
I
I
First of all, the number of atoms in the I
•
I

excited states must become greater than the

y Q .. y
number in the ground state. This is called
population inversion and is done by various
spontaneous em1ss10n Stimultd .Cl·
a e em1ss10n
Fig. 22
methods (for example electric field) which
pump the electrons to a certain excited state.
Stimulated emission: Most of the atoms are in an excited state En. The step begins when one of the
excited atoms emits the first photon of energy E at random. This photon quickly hits an excited atom
without being absorbed, so the life time of this atom in the excited state becomes longer than 10-B s.
The atom de-excites to the ground state emitting the second photon of energy E which is in phase with
the first photon. These two photons quickly hit another two excited atoms without being absorbed.
As a result, we have four in phase photons having the same energy E.
This rapidly results in a large number of identical photons each of energy E and of constant phase
differences. Then the emitted laser light is highly coherent.
We have many types of lasers, among which are: the gas lasers like the helium-neon laser (632.8 nm)
which is used in spectroscopy and optical demonstrations, the carbon dioxide laser (10.6 µm ) which is
used in material processing (cutting, surgery , welding, etc.), the solid state laser like the ruby laser
(694.3 nm) which is used in holography and tattoo removal.

8. Astronomical Applications of Atomic Spectra

The absorption lines in the spectrum of light coming from a star or galaxy are unique fingerprints of the
elements present.
Scientists first observed absorption spectrum in sun light. As light from the hot photosphere passes out
from the sun, it crosses through the cooler layers of the sun. The atoms of the cooler layers absorb
selected photons and become excited. Later, these atoms de-excite and emit photons in all possible
directions. So, few photons reach the earth. Finally, the obtained spectrum include dark lines which are
characteristics of the atoms of the cooler layers of the sun. This way scientists identify the composition of
gases that are impossible to reach.
Another application of the atomic spectra is to determine how fast the star or galaxy is moving away from
us. This is achieved by the shifts of the dark lines in the absorption spectrum due to Doppler effect.

343
 Reading

As mentioned in the course, a gas discharge lamp is a light source that generates light due to electric discharge (flow
of electric charge) between two electrodes through an ionized gas.
There are many different types of lamps that operate under this principle.
High pressure discharge lamps
In these lamps, the pressure of the gas inside the tube ranges from slightly less to greater than the atmospheric
pressure. Some examples of high pressure discharge lamps are: the metal halide lamps used for indoor lighting of
high buildings, shops and sport terrains, and the high pressure sodium lamps used for street lighting.

Low pressure discharge lamps

These lamps have gas inside the tube, with lower pressure
than the atmospheric pressure. For example: the classic
fluorescent lamps the neon lamps which are used as
advertising in neon signs (Figure 23) and low pressure
sodium lamps which are used for street lighting.

Gas discharge tubes of helium, neon and argon gases

Fluorescent lamps Fig. 23
Outdoor and indoor lamps are fluorescent lamps. But why
are these lamps called fluorescent lamps?
The glass tube is filled with a noble gas at low pressure and a small quantity of mercury.
Fluorescent lamps work by ionizing mercury vapor in a glass tube. This causes electrons
in the gas to emit photons at UV frequencies. The inside of the glass tube is coated with a
white substance called a phosphor. The phosphor absorbs the UV radiation and its atoms
are excited. The atoms then de-excite in steps-from an excited energy level to the lower
one until they are back in the ground state. The emitted photons then are visible; they
have smaller energy than UV photons. Depending on the exact material of the coating, the
whole range of white light can be obtained.

I I
Fluorescent lamp
Fig. 24

344
 Problems
Whenever needed use: h = 6.6 x 10- 34 J.s ; 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J; c = 3 x 10 8 m/s;
mass of the electron m. = 9.1 x 10- 31 kg and R = 1.097 x 10 7 m- 1

1. Excitation and de-excitation of the hydrogen atom ./

The quantized energy levels of the hydrogen atom are given by the formula:
En is expressed in eV and n is a non-zero positive integer.
a) Calculate in eV the energy of the:
i. fundamental state (ground state) of the hydrogen atom;
ii. 1 st excited state of the atom;
iii. ionized state of the atom.
b) Use the scale:1 cm--+ 1 eV to draw the energy levels of the hydrogen atom corresponding to
n = 1, 2, 3, 4 and oo. Deduce whether they are equally spaced or not.
c) Calculate the minimum energy required to extract an electron totally from the hydrogen atom when
it is in the fundamental state.
d) The hydrogen atom is found in the energy level of quantum number n = 3. Indicate all the possible
downward transitions of the atom when de-excited.
e) Determine the frequency of the emitted photon when the atom undergoes a downward transition
from n = 3 to n = 2 using:
i. Bohr's assumption;
ii. Rydberg's formula.
f) The shortest wavelength emitted due to the de-excitation of the hydrogen atom corresponds to a
downward transition from Ex to Ey .
i. Specify the values of x and y.
ii. Determine this shortest wavelength.
iii. To which spectral series does this radiation belong?
g) The energy of the hydrogen atom is E 1. Specify the state of the atom if it hit by a photon whose
energy 1s:
i. 10.2 eV;
ii.11 eV.

2. Electronic transitions of an atom

Energy (eV)
The adjacent figure shows some energy levels of an Ionization
0 ------------------
atom.
a) Prove that this atom is not hydrogen.
-49 n=S
-7.65 n =4
b) The atom is in the third excited state. Specify the n =3
-13.6
number of the probable downward transitions which
are made by the atom in order to de-excite to the
ground state. -30.6 n=2
c) The atom is in the first excited state. It is hit by a
photon of energy 9 eV. Prove that this photon is not
absorbed.
d) The atom is in the ground state. It is hit by a photon
of energy 140 eV. Determine the kinetic energy of
the liberated electron, in J.
e) The atom is in the 2 nd excited state. Determine the
fequency of the photon that must be absorbed by the -122.4 n •1
atom in ordr to become in the 4 th excited state.

345
3. Energy levels of the hydrogen atom
The adjacent figure shows some electronic transitions
.,,,, n = 7
(1), (2), (3) and (4) of the hydrogen atom.
n S
= .... n=6
The energx of the hydrogen atom is given by n = 4 '.l)
En = -l3;6n
(En in eV and n is a non-zero positive integer). n =3 \ I
a) Indicate the transitions that result in emitting a photon. (2) (4)
b) i. To which spectral series does transition (4) belong? n =2

ii. Determine the wavelength of the photon emitted by this (3)

transition.
n=l \I/
iii. Is this photon visible? Why?
c) To which spectral series does transition (1) belong?
Determine the frequency of the emitted photon, and indicate whether it is visible or not.
d) The hydrogen atom is in the ground state. Calculate the minimum energy of a photon capable of:
i. exciting the atom;
ii. ionizing the atom.
Level Energy (�V)
4. Energy levels of the mercury atom
The adjacent figure shows some energy levels of the
••
Mercury atom
mercury atom.
a) Refer to the figure to conclude that the energy of ••
the mercury atom is quantized. Ionization
b) The mercury atom is in the third excited state. n=oo -0
••
It is hit by a photon of energy 3 eV. Prove that
this photon is not absorbed.
n=9
n=8
. - -1,56
-1.�7
c) The mercury atom is in the z nd excited state. n=7 � -2.48
Determine the frequency of the photon that must n=6 -2.68
be absorbed by the atom in order to excite to the n=S • 3,71
4 th excited state.
n;;;;4 •• • 4,95
d) The mercury atom is in the ground state. n == 3 "5,52
i. The atom receives a photon of energy 13 eV.
Calculate the kinetic energy of the liberated
n 2
•• • 5.74

...
electron.
ii. The atom is hit by an electron of kinetic energy
5.5 eV. Determine what would happen to the
mercury atom. Ground state
n= l -10.38

S. Emission and absorption spectra of an atom ./

The adjacent diagram shows the first four energy levels of an atom of a certain gas.
The range of wavelengths of visible radiations in vacuum is 0.4 µm < ').., < 0.8 µm.
A- De-excitation of the atom
a) Could the energy of this atom be - 4.5 eV or -3.5 eV?
, E( eV)
Deduce the meaning of quantized energy,
b) The atom makes a transition from E 3 to E 1 . E4 = - 2.72r----------
The wavelength of the emitted photon is
"J.., 1 = 1.855 x 10- 7 m. Prove that E 1 == - 10.42 eV. E3 = - 3.751----------
c) Calculate, in eV and in J, the energy of the photon
emitted by the atom when it passes from E 4 tn E 2 . E2 = - 4.991----------
d) In which of the above two downward transitions the
emitted photon is visible? Justify.
E1 = ? --=---:----:--­
Fundamental state

346
 B- Excitation of the atom
a) The energy of the atom is Ex.The atom is hit by a photon of energy 2.27 eV, so it makes an
upward to the energy level E 4 . Calculate Ex.
b) The atom is in the first excited state. Determine the maximum wavelength of a photon capable of
ionizing the atom.
C- Conclusion
a) Explain why the absorption and the emission spectrum of this atom are line spectra (consist of
lines).
b) The spectrum of light supports a certain aspect of light. Specify this aspect.
6. Energy levels of the sodium vapor lamp ./
The adjacent figure represents some of the energy levels
of an atom of the sodium vapor.
The sodium vapor lamp emits 4 visible radiations having
the following wavelengths in vacuum:
568.8 nm, 589 nm, 589.6 nm and 615.4 nm. E6 = -0.85 t------------
Use: h = 6.626 x 10-34 J. s .
Take three digits after the decimal point. Es= -1.38t-----------
a) Indicate the name of the two spectral lines which
correspond to the radiations whose wavelengths are
A.1 = 589 nm and A.2 = 589.6 nm. E4 = -1.52t-----------
b) i. Determine, in eV, the energy Eph of the
radiation of wavelength A.1 E3 = -1.94t-----------
ii. Compare Eph to E 2 - E 1 .
iii. The photon of wavelength l2 is due to the
E2 = -3.03 1-----------
downward transition of the atom from En to E 1 .
Dete1mine En.
iv. Deduce that the energy level E 2 is double. E 1 = -5.14'-----------
c) The sodium atom is in the ground state.
It is hit by an electron of kinetic energy KE 1 . After impact, the electron energy decreases to
KE 2 = 1 eV and the atom becomes in the z nd excited state. Determine KE 1 . Deduce the speed
with which the electron leaves the atom.
7. Interaction between matter and electromagnetic energy
The�n of the energies of the hydrogen atom is given by the relation:
- ( in eV) where n is a non-zero natural number.
A) The energy levels
a) The energy of the hydrogen atom is quantized. What is meant by "quantized"?
b) Indicate the state of the atom when:
i. n = 1;
ii. n-+ oo.
B) Excitation of the hydrogen atom
The hydrogen atom is in the ndamental state.
a) Determine the minimum energy of a photon able to excite the atom.
b) Determine the state of the hydrogen atom if it is hit by:
i. a photon of energy 11.5 eV.
ii. an electron of kinetic energy 11.5 eV. Deduce the kinetic energy of the electron after hitting
the atom.
c) The atom is in the first excited state. It absorbs a photon of fre quency v and becomes ionized.
The e�ectron is liberated with a speed 956780.3 mis. Determine v.
C) De-excitation of the hydrogen atom
a) Determine the wavelengths that represent the limits of Brackett series.
b) The hydrogen atom is now in the energy level n = 3. One of the two possible downward
transitions is visible. Which one?
347
8. Determination of Rydberg's constant R ./
During a downward transition from a level n to a level m(n > m), the hydrogen atom emits a
photon of wavelength A. Given: Rydberg formula
a) Use Rydberg formula to deduce the S.I unit of the Rydberg's constant R.
b) Use Bohr postulate, the expression of the energies of the hydrogen atom and Rydberg formula
to determine the value of Rydberg's constant R.
9. Collision of two hydrogen atoms ./
Two hydrogen atoms moving at equal speeds of V = 48989.79 m/s, enter into a head-on collision.
Right after collision, each atom becomes at rest and in the k th excited state. Each hydrogen atom
falls then to the ground state by emitting a photon of wavelength L
Given: mass of a hydrogen atom: m= 1.7 x 10- 2 7 kg and - E n in eV and n EN*.
a) Apply the principle of conservation of the linear momentum to prove that the velocities of the
hydrogen atoms before collision have opposite directions.
b) Prove that the collision is inelastic.
c) Knowing that the total kinetic energy before collision is equal to the energy of the emitted
photons. Determine A.
d) Determine the quantum number n of the k th excited state. Deduce k.

1 O. Balmer's formula
In 1885, Balmer introduced a simple formula which expressed the visible wavelengths of the
hydrogen spectrum in terms of a non-zero ositive integer n .
It was originally presented as follows: whereB is Balmer's constant.
In 1888, Rydberg generalized the Balmer equation for all downward transitions of the hydrogen
atom. Rydberg formula: where n and mare non- zero positive integers, n > m
and R is Rydberg's constant (R = 1.097 x 10 7 m-1).
a) Balmer series corresponds to the downward transitions to a specific energy level. Indicate this
energy level.
b) Which of the transitions of Balmer series are visible?
4
c) Prove that B = R. Calculate the value ofB.
d) Use Balmer's formula to determine the longest and the shortest wavelengths of the emitted
photons in Balmer series.
11. Determination of Planck's constant
The adjacent figure represents some energy levels of the hydrogen atom.
2 . 1 76 x 10-1s
En = - n2 (En m . a non-zero who1e number).
. J and n 1s

A) Energy levels Energy (J)

Calculate ( E 3 - E 2 ) and (E 2 - E 1 ), in J. Deduce whether the
energy levels of the hydrogen atom are equally spaced or not.
B) Excitation of the hydrogen atom
The hydrogen atom is in the ground state.
I=======
1------- n = oo
n=4
n=3
6 t------n = 2
a) Prove that En = -l!. n where En is expressed in eV.
b) Specify the state of the hydrogen atom when it is hit by:
i. an electron a of kinetic energy 3 eV;
ii. an electron (3 of kinetic energy 12.5 eV. '-------n = l
c) Deduce, after impact, the possible values of the kinetic energy of the
electron which interacts with the atom.

348
C) De-excitation of the hydrogen atom- Determination of Planck's constant (h)
a) During a downward transitl to level (m) « n > m », the hydrogen atom emits
a photon of wavelength A. where R =1.097 x 10 7 m-1.
Use Bohr's postulate and the expression of the energies of the hydrogen atom to prove that the
value of Planck's constant is h == 6.6 x 10-34 J.S.
b) The hydrogen atom is in the energy level of quantum number n = 4.
i. Indicate all the possible downward transitions that the hydrogen atom may undergo.
ii. Which of these transitions corresponds to Balmer, Lyman or Paschen series?
c) The hydrogen atom is now in the energy level of quantum number (n). The atom undergoes a
downward transition to the ground state. In this downward transition, the frequency of the emitted
photon is equal to 2.9253 x 10 15 Hz. Use Rydberg formula to determine n.

12. Continuous spectrum of ionized hydrogen atoms when capturing

electrons
If an electron of KEe hits an ionized hydrogen atom, the atom captures the electron and then
de-excites by emitting photon(s).
Suppose that the energy of the system (electron; atom; photon) is conserved.
a) Prove that :
2.176 10-18
c = KEe + \ (S.I).
n
b) Consider a beam of electrons. Suppose that the kinetic energy of the individual electron is within
this range: 1.553 eV S KE S 2.256 eV.
The above beam of electrons hit a number of ionized atoms, so the atoms undergo
downward transitions. Consider the downward transition of the hydrogen atom to the
energy level of quantum number n = 4.
i. Calculate the shortest wavelength and the longest wavelength of the emitted photons.
ii. Deduce that when capturing electrons of continuous values of energy, the emission spectrnm
of ionized hydrogen atoms is continuous for each downward transition.

349
 Helium Nucleus

Proton: e Nucleons
Neutron:

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

•!• Identify the composition of the nucleus.

•!• Define the isotopes of an element.
•!• Calculate the volume and the density of the nucleus.
•!• Express the mass of the nucleus using different units of mass.
•!• Define the binding energy.
•!• Determine the binding energy per nucleon.
•!• Specify the factors that affect the stability of the nucleus.
•!• Define the energy levels of the atomic nucleus.

350
 1. Composition of the Atomic Nucleus
In 1911, Rutherford put the planetary model of the atom, which states that the
atom is constituted of a positive nucleus concentrated in a very small space,
and the electrons revolve around it. Scientists followed up with research to
understand the extremely complex structure of the atomic nucleus.
In 1932, the English physicist Chadwick discovered the neutron. The proton­
neutron model of the nucleus was proposed by Dmitry lvaneko in 1932.
* The nucleus is essentially constituted of two types of particles, the protons
and the neutrons which are called nucleons.
* The proton is a positively charged particle whose charge is Sir Jarnes Chadwick
19 27
e = 1.6 x 10- C and whose mass is mp = 1.6726 x 10- kg. (1891-1974)
The number of protons in the nucleus is called charge number Z.
27
* The neutron is an electrically neutral particle whose mass is mn = 1.6749 X 10- kg.
The number of neutrons in the nucleus is represented by N.
* The mass number A is the total number of nucleons: A_
--.
.-I =_Z_+_N 1
* A nucleus X of mass number A and charge numberZ is represented by iX .
A Nuclide is a kind of nucleus characterized by a specific charge numberZ and a specific mass
number A.

2. Isotopes Natural
Element
Isotopes of an element are nuclei having abundance (o/o)
the same charge number but different mass
98.892
numbers.
Among the isotopes of a chemical element, Carbon 1.108
there is always an isotope which is more
abundant in nature than the other isotopes. Trace
The identity of a chemical element depends
only on its charge numberZ. 99.985
As of the year 2011, 118 elements
correspond to 1800 isotopes are discovered. Hydrogen 0.015
98 of the above elements correspond to 339
Less than 10-16
isotopes that exist naturally on Earth.
20 elements, most of them having (98 ::=::; z ::=::; 99.763
118), are artificially created in nuclear
reactors or particles accelerator. Oxygen 0.037
3. Dimensions of the Atomic Nucleus 0.02
In 1911, Rutherford was the first to determine
the approximate dimensions of the atomic nucleus. Proton
The nucleons are considered to have a spherical shape (Figure 1). Neutron
Consider a nucleus of radius r and of volume V. The nucleus has
A nucleons each of radius r0 and volume V0 .
� = A VO I But and

=>�TI r 3 = A ( �TI r�) => r 3 =A r� =>I r = ro A� I

The hydrogen nucleus is formed of one proton (nucleon) and then
r0 is the radius of the hydrogen nucleus.
where lfm = 10-15 m.
The above obtained relation shows that A = ( ..:...) 3 . Then the
ro Fig. 1
mass number A is proportional to r 3 .
351
For example, if the mass number A increases by a factor of 8, then r 3 increases by a factor of 8. So r
increases by a factor of 2.
Volume of the nucleus relative to that of the atom
The radius of a nucleus is much smaller than that of its atom.
For example, the radius of the hydrogen atom is greater than that of its nucleus b
4 3
3 TI atom 3
4.4 X 104 => Vatom ; = (�) = (4.4 X 104)3 =>
V nucleus r
3 TI r nucleus nucleus

=> Yatom » Ynucleus .·

This proves that most of the volume of the atom is vacuum.
Application 1
1. a. Calculate the radius of the nucleus 23g82 U. Given rO = 1.2 fm .
b. The radius of the uranium atom is 2 x 104 times greater than that of its nucleus. Deduce the
volume of this atom.
c. Among the following nuclei, specify the isotopes of the same element.
2i�u ; 31X; 2�!Y; l�z ; 2��M.
2. The radius of the nucleus of the oxygen isotope io is 3.0855 fm.
a. Calculate the mass number of this isotope.
b. Deduce the number of neutrons inside the nucleus of this isotope.
Solution
1. a. r = ro M = ro VA = 1.2 x 10-15 x \1238 => r - 7.44 x 10-15 m.
1

b. fatom = 2 X 104 (7.44 X 10-15) = 1.488 X 10-10 m

=> Vatom - 34 1t r3 - - 4 X 3.14 (1.488 X 10-10)3 => v.atom • 1 •379 X 10-29 m3 .
3
c. The isotopes of the same element are 2
charge number but different mass numbers.
\\u,
2 :tv
and 2 UM since these nuclei have the same

2. a. A= (.E...)
r0
3
= (3.08
1.2 x 10- 1
3
55 x 10 �1s ) => A lillE 17.

b. N = A - z = 17 - 8 => N • 9 neutrons.

4. Mass and Density of the Atomic Nucleus

* The mass of the nucleus forms 99.75 % of the mass of the atom.
* Approximate mass

=
The mass of the electrons in the electronic cloud is negligible relative to the mass of the nucleus

!
=> mnucleus matom ·
=> mnucleus = A m0 !where ffio = 1.67 x 10-27 kg is the approximate mass of the nucleon.
* Density of the nucleus
the density p of a body is obtained by dividing its mass m by its volume V: p = � .
Am Am
The approximate density of the atomic nucleus is: Pnucleus = � 0
= 4 0

Tir TIAr 03
3 3
1.67 x 10-27 1 3
=> Pnucleus = � (l.Z = 2.3 x 10 1 kg/m .
TI xio-15)3
The density of the atomic nucleus does not depend on its mass number A and it is enormous! (For
example, density of iron is 7860 kg/m3 « 2.3 x 10 17 kg/m3 ).
Units of mass
In this section, we introduce some units of mass used in nuclear physics:
• Kilogram (kg): the kg is the S.I unit of mass.
• Atomic mass unit (u)
g
The atomic mass unit is equal to one twelfth of the mass of the carbon atom 1 C.
The molar mass of 1gC is 12 g = 0.012 kg and Avogadro's number is NA= 6.02217 x 10 23 , then

352
 2
6.02217 X 1023 atoms ---+ 0.012 kg => matom = ( . ; ; °:\ 26
) = 1.992637 x 10- kg.
60 2 7 023
{ 1 atom ---+ matom }

1
=> 1 u = 1 2 (1.992637 x 10- 2 6) => 1 u = 1.66053 x 10- 2 7 kg .

• MeV/c2
This is a compound unit where MeV is the symbol ofmega-electron volt (lMeV = 1.6022x 10- 1 3 J),
and c is the speed oflight in vacuum c = 2.99792 x 108 mis. Mass- Energy Equivalence
The relation between MeV/c2 and u In 1905, Einstein introduced
By applying the mass-energy equivalence rule, the mass equivalent the mass- energy equivalence
to 1 MeV ofenergy is: formula, which states that mass
Me
1 V 1.6022 x 10- 13 = ofa body is the measure of its
m = �2 = Z = 8 )2 1.78269 X 10-3 0 kg energy content
c c (2.99792 x 10
MeV _ 30 kg ... Eq (1) E = m c1
• Eis the energy
=> 1-c- 2 -1.78269 x 10 - equivalent to a mass m and c is
But 1 u = 1.66053 x 10- 2 7 kg ... Eq (2). Divide eq ( 2) by eq (1) the speed oflight in vacuum.
lu 27
1.66053 x 10- kg
1.78269 x 10-30 kg
= =
931.5 => 1 u 931.5 MeV/c 2
E is called the rest energy since
it is independent of the speed
ofthebody.

Application 2
The mass ofa neutron is mn = 1.67491 x 10- 27 kg and that ofa proton is mp = 1.67262 x 10- 27 kg .

=
Calculate the masses ofthe above particles in u and in MeV/c2•
1.67491 x 10-27 u
mu = 1.67491 x 10-27 kg =
=
1.00866 u.
1.66053 x 10-27
mn = 1.008665 x 931.5 MeV/c2 939.6 MeV/c2 •
27 1.67262 x io- 27
m P = 1.67262 x 10- kg = 1.66053 x 10-27 u = 1.00728 u.
mp = 1.00728 x 931.5 MeV/c2 = 938.3 MeV/c1.

Application 3 �
Given: The approximate mass ofone nucleon is Il1o = 1.7 x 10-27 kg; 1 u = 1.66053 x 10-27 kg;
and the radius ofthe hydrogen nucleus is 1.2 fin. Consider the iron isotope ��Fe.
1. Determine the volume ofthe nucleus ofthis isotope.
2. Deduce the density ofthe nucleus ofthis isotope.
3. The mass ofthis nucleus is 55.920676 u. Express this mass in MeV/c2•
Solution
1. v 3
v
= �TI r = �TI ( A rJ) = �TI ( 56) (1.2 x 10-15) 3 => =4.0513 x 10-43 m •
3

� Amo 5 6 x 1.7 x 1 0-27

2 = = = => = 2.35 x 1011 kg/m3.
• p V V 4. 0513 x 1 0 -43 p
3. m = 55.920676 x 931.5 = 52090.10969 MeV/ c1 .

5. Binding Energy
To understand the concept ofthe binding energy, consider again the iron isotope ��Fe ofmass
mnucleus = 55.920676 u. This isotope is composed of 26 protons and 30 neutrons. The mass ofthe
neutron is mn = 1.00866 u while that ofthe proton is mp = 1.00728 u. Then the mass ofthe separate
nucleons forming this nuclide is: Z mp + N mn = 26 (1.00728) + 30 (1.00866) = 56.44908 u.
=> mnucleus < z mp + N mn . Then mafter formation < mbefore formation . This result is true for all
nuclei containing more than one nucleon. But what happens to the missing m�ss?

I I
Mass defect of a nucleus is the difference between the masses of the nucleons taken separately and
the mass of the atomic nucleus. Lim = [Z mp + N mn ] - mx mx: mass ofthe nucleus.

353
 Interpretation:
When the nucleus forms, the nucleons unite to become one entity. They lose part of their mass(�m)

•
which is converted into energy according toEinstein' s formula, mass -energy equivalence(E =�m c2 ).
(Figure 2).
To break this nucleus into its Energy
s eparate nucleons, we mu st Jlf
provide it with energy equals

•
to that given by the nucleus
• Separate nucleons
when it forms(Figure3).
The value of this provided ffiafter < mbefore
energy is called the binding
energy that assures the
s tability of the nucleus. Fig ( 2-a) Fig (2-b)
.=-===-==-'1=,s given
Ea = �m. c2

Binding energy
The minimum energy
+ !Binding energy!_.... e Separate nucleons
e
needed to break the
nucleus into its separate Nucleus
nucleons.
Fig. 3
Reading
During the formation of a nucleus. the mass decreases so the system loses energy. This leads to the stability of the
nucleus.
This is analogous to the case of a solid &lling in a well When the solid reaches the bottom, it stops under impact.
Then the gravi1ational pot.ential energy at the top ofthe well is converted finally into heat energy. Now, the solid
will remain stable in its position. To liberate the solid ftom the well and take it back to its initial position, we must
provide it with energy equals to that given under impact.
Application 4 Lithium-7
Figure(4) is a diagram of the formation of the
Lithium-7 nucleus. The masses indicated on the

•
figure are expressed in atomic mass unit( u).
Determine the binding energy of this isotope in
MeV and in J.
1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2 and1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J.
Solution 1,00866 u pet neutron N11udeus =7.014357 u
�m = [Z mp + N mn] - mx Fig. 4

�m = 0.042123 x 931.5 =
� Ll m = [(3)(1.00728) +(4)(1.00866)] -7.014357 = 0.042123 u.
39.2376 MeV/c2
But Ea = �m. c = [39.2376 MeV/c2 ]. c2 � E8
2
39.2376 MeV.=
1
�Ea 39.2376 x(1.6 x 10- 3) � E8 � 6.278 X 10-12 J.
=

Application 5
Figure(5) is a diagram of the formation of the deuterium nucleus( one of the hy drogen isotopes ).
1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2 ; 1 u = 1.660531 x 10-24 g. .007276 u
1. Refer to the figure to determine the precise . Deuterium
----.
mass of the deuterium nucleus.
2. The molar mass oft H is2 g/mol. Use +
Avogadro' s number NA= 6.02217 x 10 to 23

determine, in u, the approximate mass of the

deuterium nucleust H. Fig. 5

354
Solution
1
1. E = �m . c2 => �m = cE2 = .S c� = u => �m =1.93236715 10- 3 u.
eV
� X
9 �\ Note: UsingAvogadro's
But �m = [Z mp + N mn] - mx => number to determine the
�m = 1.93236715 x 10- 3 = [(1)(1.007276) + (1)(1.008665)] - mx mass of a nucleus is an
=> mx = 2.014008633 u. approximate method.
2. 2 g -> 6.02217 x 10 23 nuclei In this method, the mass
m = ? -> 1 nucleus ofa nucleus 1X is
2x1
=> m 2l H = 6.02217 x 10 23 = 3.321062 x 10-24 g.
Examples: m i H = 2 u
3.321062 x 10- 24 and m 2i�u = 238 u.
=> m 2 8 = => miff= 2 u.
l 1.660531 x10- 24

6. Stability of the Nucleus

•!• Binding energy per nucleon
In order to study the stability (cohesion) of nuclides, we are interested in the binding energy per nucleon
� , which is obtained by dividing the binding energy of a nucleus by its mass number A.
The binding energy per nucleon is the minimum average energy needed to extract one nucleon
from the nucleus.
The higher the binding energy per nucleon, the stronger the stability of the nucleus.
The isotope �§Ni has the highest binding energy per nucleon ( E; = 8.7945 MeV) of any known nuclide.
The table below shows the mass of the nucleus, the binding energy, and the binding energy per nucleon
for some nuclides.

Element Mass in u Eain MeV �inMeV

29 2.0136 2.17971 1.089855

1

�He 3.014932 7,720272 2.573424

fHe 4.0015 28.29897 7.074743

t�o 15.990526 127.609911 7.975619

t�o 16.994743 131.748566 7.749916

fgca 39.951619 342.029102 8.550728

�tFe 55.920676 492.208326 8.789434

62N· 61.912985 545.202293 8.793585

28 I

23su 238.000313 1801.341221

92 7.5686606

355
Aston's curve
The graph of figure (6) is called Aston's curve. It represents the variation of the binding energy per
nucleon with the mass number. The positions of some nuclei are indicated on Aston's curve.

lB°Hf

A
0 20 100 190 200
Fig. 6
This curve can be divided into three regions:
* For 1 :5 A< 20 , � < 8MeV;
* For 20 < A< 190, � > 8MeV ;
* For A� 190, � < 8MeV.
Conclusion : The nuclei with mass numbers between 20 and 190 have stronger stability since their
binding energy per nucleon is above 8 MeV.
•!• Strong nuclear forces
Using Coulomb's law, we can show that the average repulsive electrostatic
force between two protons in the nucleus is about 50 N !! So why doesn't the
nucleus explode?
In 1935, Yukawa discovered the strong nuclear force, also called
"strong interaction", which is an attractive force exerted between the
nucleons inside the nucleus. These forces assure the stability of the nucleus.
* This force exists between any two nucleons (proton-proton ; proton­
rieutron ; neutron-neutron).
* This force acts at a short range; it becomes negligible relative to Hideki Yukawa
coulomb's force when the distance between the nucleons (1907-1981)
exceeds 3 fm.
The electrostatic force acts at a long range-the proton in a
nucleus interacts with all the other protons.
* The average strong nuclear force is a about 100 times
greater than the electrostatic force.
The electrostatic forces and the strong nuclear forces
counterbalance each other and hence keep the nucleus of the Electrostatic force
atom stable (Figure 7). (repulsion)
The number of the neutrons inside a nucleus is one of the Fig. 7
factors that increase its stability.

356
Application6
Determine in MeV the binding energy per nucleon ofthe boron isotope 1§8.
Given: mass of 1§8 is 11.006562 u, mass ofthe proton is mp = 1.00728 u, mass of the neutron is
mn = 1.00866 u, 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c 2 and 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J.
Solution
'1m = [Z mp + N mn] - m 1§8 = [5 (1.00728 ) + 6 (1.00866)] - 11.006562 = 0.081798 u.
M eV M eV
�Llm = 0.081798 x 931.5 - 4
c 2 = 76.19 837 -c2 •
E8 = '1m c 2 = 76.194837 Mce2v . c 2 = 76.194837 MeV � � = ·
761
�t37 =6.9268 MeV.

Application7
The binding energies ofradium -226 and iron-56 are 1731.2811 MeV and 492.2083 MeV respectively.
1. Specify which one is more stable.
2. Use Aston's curve to verify the above result.
3. Indicate the minimum average energy needed to extract one nucleon from the iron-56 nucleus. Answer
the same question for the radium-226 nucleus.
Solution
· Es
1. For rad"mm. A -
3
17 1.2811 -
= 7 .6605 MeV. For .rron.· A
Es - 492"208 3
- 8.7894 MeV.
226 56
E; ofiron > � of radium, so iron is more stable than radium.
2. The mass number ofiron is 56 which lies between 20 and 190. The mass number ofradium is 235
which is above 190. As a result, iron is more stable than radium.
3. For iron, we need 8.7894 MeV. For radium, we need 7.6605 MeV.

7. Energy Levels of the Atomic Nucleus

In the previous chapter, you have studied, the concept
of quantization of energy and the energy levels 2.506MeV
ofthe atom.
The energy ofthe nucleus is also quantized. So a
2.158 MeV
nucleus has a set ofenergy levels which characterize
this nucleus. The values ofthe energy levels depend on
the distribution ofthe nucleons inside the nucleus. ( a)
(b)
Figure (8) is a diagram ofthe first four energy levels of
the nucleus ofnickel �gNi. , 1.332 MeV
The figure shows that:
* the minimum energy level (ground state) has a
value zero.
* the values ofthe other energy levels (excited states)
are positive. (c)
* the energy ofthe levels is expressed in MeV, and
the nucleus absorbs or emits only y rays.
When the nucleus de-excites from an energy level '
0

I I
E h to a lower energy level Et , it emits aphoton of 60 '
28 NI
energy Eph = Eh - Et
Fig. 8

357
Application 8
Figure (9) shows three downward transitions of the nickel nucleus tgNi.
Given: The wavelength range ofy-rays is 10- 15 m - 3 x 10- 10 m; h = 6.6 x 10-34 J.s;
IM eV = 1.6 x 10-13 J and c = 3 x 108 m/s.
1. Calculate the energy of the emitted photon in each of the three transitions.
2. Calculate the wavelength of each emitted photon. Deduce that the above emitted photons are
y-rays.
Solution
1. Transition (a): Eph(4__,2) = Eh - Et = E4 - E2 = 2.506 -1.332 => Eph(4-+2) = 1.174 MeV.
Transition (b): Eph(3__,2) = Eh - Et = E 3 - E1 = 2.158 - 0 => Eph(3-+2) = 2.158 MeV.
Transition (c): Eph(2-->l) = Eh - Et = E2 - E1 = 1.332 - 0 => Eph(2-+1) = 1.332 MeV.
he he
2. Eph = � => A = Eph •

. . ( a) 6.6 x 10-34 x3 x 10 8 1 054 x 10-12 m.

F or transition : A4__,2 = => A4. -+2 = .
'l
1.174 x 1.6 x 10_13
..
For transitton (b): "'I
A 3__,1 =
6.6 x 10-34 x 3 x 10 8
2_158 x 1_6 x 10_13
'.l
=> A3--,1 = s•734 x 10-13 m
.. 6.6 x 10-34 x 3 x 10 8
For transition (c): => A2-+1 = 9•291 X 10-13 m.
"'I '.l
A2__,1 = 1.332 x 1.6 x 10_ 13

The three obtained wavelengths belong to the range of y-rays, then the three emitted photons
are y-rays.

358
 problems
Whenever needed use: h = 6. 6 x 10-34 J. s ; 1 eV = 1. 6 x 10-19 J; c = 3 x 108 mis,
; 1U = 1. 66 X 10-27 Kg = 931.5 MeV/c ; ffineutron= 1.00866 U; ffiproton = 1.00728 U ;
2

NA= 6. 022 X 1023 and r0 = 1.2 fm = 1.2 x 10-15 m.

1. Aston'�curve
Aston's curve
represents the variation
of the binding energy
per nucleon as a
function the mass
number. Some isotopes
are indicated on the
curve (Adjacent figure).
Among the isotopes
indicated on the curve
•
pick up:
a) the isotope that has
the strongest
stability.
b) two isotopes having
binding energy per 0 20 100 190 200 A
nucleon less than 8 MeV.

2. �nerg� levels of the atomic nucleus ./

The adjacent figure is a diagram of the first three energy
Al·27
-------1.02 MeV
levels of one of the aluminum isotopes fiAI. (1)
a) Refer to the figure to deduce that the energy of the 0.83 MeV
nucleus is quantized.
b) Calculate the energies E ph 1 and E ph 2 of the emitted
(3)
photons due to the downward transitions (1) and (2) (2)
respectively.
c) Verify that the energy of the photon emitted in
transition (3) is: E ph 3 = E ph 1 + E ph 2 . Ground
��.......���.,._���
state
•
3. Tht: nitrogen nucleus_ ./
The adjacent figure shows a diagram of the n�trogen atom.
tA = 10- 10 m.
a) Calculate the mass number of this nitrogen nucleus. Write the
symbol of this nuclide.
b) Deduce the radius of this nucleus.
c) Use the figure to calculate the ratio of the radius of this
nitrogen atom to that of its nucleus.

=
d) i. Calculate in kg the approximate mass of the nitrogen
nucleus. Use mnucleon 1u.
ii. Deduce the density of the nitrogen nucleus.
Outer shell

359
 iii. If the density of the nitrogen nucleus was equal to that of mercury (Pmercury = 13600 kg/m3 ),
its volume would be V'. Determine V' (the mass of the nucleus remains the same).

4. The most stable isotope of cobalt

The adjacent table gives the mass of four nuclides. z A Mass (u)
a) The four given nuclides are isotopes of one element (cobalt).
Why? 27 56 55.925018
..
b) Define the binding energy of a nucleus. 27 57 56.921479
c) Determine the binding energy per nucleon of each isotope.
d) Deduce the most stable isotope. 27 59 58.918383
27 60 59.919005
·�,
5. Nuclear data of some nuclei
The table below shows some nuclear data about three nuclei.

Binding
Mass of Mass Binding
energy per
Nucleus Mass in u separate defect energy (Eu)
nucleon
nucleons in u Amin u inMeV
inMeV
jHe 4.03188 28.2945
5�Fe 55.920676 8.789434
23su 238.000312 239.93412
92

a) Use the first column to specify among the three given isotopes the most stable one.
b) Complete all the empty boxes in the table. (Show your calculation).

6. Carbon-1.4 ,/
The mass defect which corresponds to the formation of the nucleus 1 lC is �m = 0.1130096 u.
a) Deduce the mass of the carbon-14 nucleus.
b) The molar mass of 1 lC is M = 14 g/mol. Use Avogadro's number to determine the approximate mass
tc
of 10 15 nuclei of 1
c) i. Define the binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus.
ii. Calculate in J then inMeV the binding energy per nucleon of the nucleus carbon-14.
iii. Verify that the above result is in agreement with Aston's curve.

7. Comparison of stability of two nuclei ,/

A- The uranium nucleus 2��U has a mass of 234.9935 u.
a) Indicate the constituents of this nucleus.
b) Calculate the radius of this nucleus.
c) Calculate the mass defect which corresponds to the formation of this nucleus.
d) Deduce in MeV the binding energy per nucleon..
B- The binding energy per nucleon of 1�C is 7.67957 MeV.
a) Deduce the mass of 1�C, in u and in kg.
b) Indicate the minimum average energy needed to extract one nucleon from the carbon nucleus.
c) Which nucleus (uranium or carbon) is more stable? Why?

360
 rot.aotinium
31

Thorium
231

Aotinlum
227

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
· •!• Define radioactivity.
•!• Apply the laws of conservation of mass number, charge number and total energy.
•!• Indicate the characteristics of y, a and� radiations.
•!• State the general characteristics of radioactive decay.
•!• Apply the law of radioactive decay.
•!• Define and determine the half life of a radioactive nuclide.
•!• Define and determine the activity of disintegrations.

361
Introduction
Stable and unstable nuclei
Stable nucleus: A nucleus is said to be stable if it remains always as one entity; it is not subjected to any
spontaneous decay(transformation to another nucleus).
The distribution of the stable nuclei is shown in
Figure(1), which is a plotting of the neutron • t;" '

number(N) against the charge number(Z) of 130

these nuclei. 120 Band of stability
Description 110
I• •
.,...---
This distribution can be divided into two 100

i" =
reg10ns: 90
• stable nuclei of Z < 10 have 1; 80
• stable nuclei of 10 < Z < 83 have
z=
70
more neutrons than protons(
N
1.5), 60
so the line curves upwards. The repulsive so Z;:>83
forces in these nuclei are relatively strong, 40
so more neutrons are needed to keep the 30
nucleus as one entity. 20
10
� .�,
'. .
.

No stable nuclei exist, to the right of the

O-...--::--::"':,---,,.,._-'-:"-='"=--�='"="-='I""::-::-'"-��-.
vertical green line. This shows that all nuclei 1 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 z
having Z > 83 are unstable.
Fig.1
In this chapter we will study the spontaneous decay or the radioactivity of the unstable nuclei.
1. Discovery and Definition of Radioactivity
In 1896, quite by accident, Antoine Henry Becquerel made a remarkable
discovery. Becquerel put wrapped photographic plates in a darkened drawer,
along with some crystals containing uranium. He was surprised to find that
the crystals had left a clear strong image on the photographic plate. How
could this be?
There was no source of energy to produce image! Becquerel attributed this
phenomenon to spontaneous emission of radiation from the uranium.
Two years later, Pierre Currie and Marie Currie discovered polonium and
radium which also emit radiations.
This phenomenon was known as radioactivity.
Radioactivity: Spontaneous nuclear transformation of an unstable nucleus
into another more stable one with the emission of radioactive radiation. Antoine Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908)
•!• Radioactive radiations: The most common types of radioactive
+
radiations occur in radioactive substances are: Alpha(a), beta minus(�-), beta plus(P ), and gamma­
rays(y) that might accompany the other mentioned radioactive radiations.
•!• Spontaneous nuclear reaction: A reaction which takes place without any external intervention.
Radioactivity takes place when the strong interactions are unable to keep the nucleus as one entity.

a- particle
Parent nucleus fHe
2�6Th
• Proton
event •Neutro
Dau hter nucleus
Fig. 2

362
 2ij�U is called the parent nucleus, and 2ij6Th is called the daughter nucleus.

Types of radioactivity:
a) Natural radioactivity: The parent nucleus exists in nature;
b) Artificial radioactivity: The parent nucleus is artificially prepared.
2. Liberated Energy
•!• Mass defect: In nuclear reactions, the mass is not conserved. In radioactivity, the mass of the
parent nucleus is larger than the mass of the products (m befo re > m afte r ).
,--
,...I
Then there is a loss of mass which is called mass defect Llm: � m-=_m_ be_ i-o re_ __ -m-aft_ e_r_,!
•!• Released (liberated) energy: According to Einstein mass - energy equivalence, the mass defect
Llm of the nuclear reaction is converted into energy called liberated or released energy

I Eli be rate d = Llm. c2 I

3. Laws of Conservation
In radioactivity, we have three laws of conservation:
};>- The law of conservation of mass number
The mass number of the parent nucleus is e ual to the sum of the mass numbers of the daughter
nucleus and the emitted particles. Ab efo re = Aafte r
};>- The law of conservation of charge number
The charge number of the parent nucleus is e ual to the sum of the charge numbers of the daughter
nucleus and the emitted particles. Z before = Zafter
The laws of conservation of mass and charge numbers are called Soddy's laws.
};>- The law of conservation of total energy

i m v ) and its rest

Total energy of a particle
The total energy of a particle is defined as the sum of its kinetic energy (KE = 2

energy (E = m c2).
I
Etota l = KE + Ere s t ::::} Etotal = KE + m C
2

Application 1
Calculate, in J, the total energy of a neutron of mass 1.00866 u, having a kinetic energy of 4.2 MeV.
Given: c = 3 x 10 8 mis; 1 u =1.66 x 10-2 7 kg and leV = 1.6 x 10-19 J.
Solution
13 27 10
Etotal =KE+ m c = (4.2) (1.6 X 10- )+ (1.00866) (1.66 X 10- ) (3 X 10 ) :::1. 514 X 10- J.
2 8 2

The total energy of a y photon is Ey = h v since it has no mass.

Law of conservation of total energy
The total energy of the parent nucleus before decay is equal to the total energy of the products of
the decay.
I Etotal (befo re ) = Etota l (afta

4. Types of RadioactiveJ)eca�·.
A, y -ray emission
In radioactivity, y-rays might accompany all the other radioactive radiations. If the daughter nucleus is
born excited, it falls to the ground state directly by emitting one photon or successively by emitting more
than one photon.
y-rays are emitted due to the de-excitation of the daughter nucleus to lower energy levels.

363
Example: 1 1N* - 1 1N + y . The star above the symbol ofthe nitrogen nucleus means that it is excited.
This nucleus is de-excited to the ground state by emitting y-ray (s).
Nature of y-rays: Electromagnetic radiations (photons).
Properties ofy-rays
They-rays:
* have no mass;
* have no charge, so they are not deviated under the action ofelectric and magnetic fields;
* travel at the speed oflight in vacuum, so they have great penetrating power;
* are very energetic radiations.
B. Alpha-decay (a)
Figure (3) is a diagram ofone ofthe a-decay 2t�Pu Alpha decay 2360
92
reactions where a plutonium nucleus is
spontaneously transformed into a uranium
nucleus, with the emission ofa helium nucleus
fHe (a particle).
The equation ofthe nuclear disintegration is
y-ray
represented by: 2 ;�Pu � 2 i�u + fHe
The emission ofy-ray(s)
i�
If the daughter nucleus 2 U is born in an
excited state, it de-excites to the ground state by
Fig. 3
cording to this reaction:
-

The overall equation ofthis decay is represented then by:

This type ofdecay is a characteristics ofa heavy parent nucleus ( A > 200).
• The general equation of a- decay is : 1X � 1=1Y + 1He + y.
• Characteristics of the emitted a-particle:
The a-particle:
* is a heavy particle, and it has a strong ionizing effect;
* is positively charged, so it is deviated under the action of electric and magnetic fields;
* has a maximum speed of 17500 km/s which is very low compared to that oflight in vacuum. So it
has a very weak penetrating power.
• The liberated energy
Apply the law ofconservation of total energy Et o tal (before) = Et o tal (after)·
=> KEbefore + m (before) C = KEafter + m(after) C + E y
2 2

But KEbefore = 0 => m(before) C - m(after) C = KEafter + .Ey

2 2

2 2
=> [ m before - maft er] C = KEafter + Ey => �m .c = KEafter + Ey
The term (�m c2) represents the liberated energy corresponding to a
mass defect �m.
Readtna
Each a--decay bas a specific
The daughter nucleus is a heavy nucleus whose kinetic energy is liberated energy,

I
neglected => KEafter = KEa

I
Euool'llted ;;;= const = KEatter + Ey
2 The photon energy of a y-ray is
=> Eliberated = �m.c = KEa + Ey quantized • KEafq!r is quantized.
The forms of the liberated energy are: The kinetic energy of the
Kmette energy of tbt a parttele; daughter nucleus is negligible,
then in each a-deacy, the kinetic
Eleetromapetle energy of y..ray(1).
energy of the emitted a-particle is
If the daughter nucleus is born in the ground State, then the liberated quantized.
energy is in the form of kinetic energy only.

364
C. Beta-minus decay (8-)
As an example of this decay, consider a carbon-14 nucleus which is spontaneously transformed
(disintegrated) into a nitrogen-14 nucleus with the emission of an electron -�e. The emitted electron is
called a p- particle
The equation of the nuclear disintegration is represented by: C -+ N + 0
If the daughter nucleus 1� N is born in an excited state, it de-excites to the ground state by emitting y­
ray(s) according to the following nuclear reaction: 1 �N* � 14 N + �
So the overall equation of this nuclear decay is represented by: C -+ N + _0e +
�c;=:!..'"V']-______,

This type of decay usually occurs with parent nuclei rich in neutrons.

• Characteristics of the emitted p- particle:

The emitted electron:
* is negatively charged, and so it is deflect under the action of electric and magnetic fields;
* has a maximum speed of 294 000 km/s = 0.98 c and so it is 100 times more penetrating than a­
particles.
• The emission of anti-neutrino and the liberated energy
Experiments on the beta-minus decay have shown that the total energy is not conserved; the liberated
energy exceeds the sum of the kinetic energy of the products and the energy of y-rays:
Eliberated = L1 m. C > ( KE�- + Ey ).
2

To satisfy the conservation of total energy, Pauli postulated, in 1930, the

existence of an uncharged particle which is very hard to detect and is emitted
along with the electron.
In 1934 Fermi called this particle" Anti-neutrino" 8v (Figure 4).
Then IE!iberated = L1 m.c = KE�- + Ey + Ev
2

Beta-minus decay
Carbon-14 Nitrogen -14 Wolfgang Pauli
(1900-1958)

+ +
Antineutrino Electron

e
6 protons
8 neutrons y-ray
Fig. 4
Characteristics of the anti-neutrino
The antineutrino:
* has no charge number and no mass number; 8v;
* has an extremely small mass;
* does not interact with matter; Enrico Fermi
* moves at a speed equal to that of light, so it has an enormous penetrating (1901-1954)
power.
The overall equation of the nuclear decay of figure (4) is represented by:

• The general expression of the beta-minus decay is: I �X � z+1Y + Je + 8v + y

365
 • The nucleon disintegration
The emitted electron is not an orbital electron. It is formed inside the nucleus according to this nucleon
disintegration: 5n � yH + Je + 8v where yH is the symbol of the proton.
D. Beta-plus decay (8+) - (Artificial radioactivity)
Figure (5) is a diagram of one of
the beta-plus decay reactions Beta-plus decay
where a carbon nucleus is
spontaneously transformed into a Carbon-10 Boron -10
boron nucleus with the emission
Neutrino Positron
of a positron and a y-ray.
The emitted positron (anti­ +
electron) is called a p + particle. v
• Parent nucleus y-ray
6 protons
This type of decay usually
4 neutrons
occurs with artificial parent
nuclei which are rich in protons. Fig. 5
Artificial radioactivity
The artificial radioactivity was discovered by Irene Curie
and Frederic Joliot in 1934. By shooting an aluminum
sheet with a-particles, they were able to make radioactive
phosphorus, a new isotope of the stable phosphorus that
was never observed in nature.
gAI + !He � i�p + in
Note that, this reaction is not spontaneous, it is provoked.
The obtained phosphorus decays, spontaneously, to a
silicon nucleus with the emission of a positron �e and a
neutrino 8v Frederic Joliot (1900-1958) Irene Curie (1897-1956)

i�P � iisi + �e + 8v + y
The positron is predicted by Paul Dirac in 1928 and discovered by Anderson in
1932.
The emitted positron is formed inside the nucleus according to this nucleon
disintegration: yH � 5n + �e + 8v

I I
• The general expression of beta-plus decay is:

�X � z-1Y + �e + 8v + y

• Characteristics of the p + particle:

Paul Dirac (1902-1984)
The emitted p + particle (positron):
* has a positive charge whose value is equal to that of the electron. It is
deflected under the action of magnetic and electric fields;
* has a mass equal to that of the electron; .,,
' ,.,...,1."'
••
* has a maximum speed of 294 000 km/s = 0.98 c, and then it is very
• •••• ••

penetrating.

�)
• Characteristics of the neutrino:
The experimental results have shown that the total energy in a beta-plus
decay is not conserved (Etiberated = �m.c > KE�+ + Ey ). Fermi
2

formulated the hypothesis that the missin ener is held b a article called Carl David Anderson
"Neutrino" . Then = &n.c = KE - + E + E . (1905-1991)

366
 Like the antineutrino, the neutrino is uncharged, has an extremely small mass (no interaction with
matter), and moves at a speed equal to that of light (enormous penetrating power).
Figure (6) represents the penetration power of the different radiations.

The penetrating powers of radioactive radiations

a emission
p emission
y emission

Sheet of paper Several About 1 meter

millimeters of lead
of aluminum
Fig. 6
The table below is a summary of the discussed types of radioactive decay:
Maximum
Type of Emitted Penetrating Ionizing
Parent nucleus Charge speed
radiation particle power ability
(km/s)
Helium
Weak
Heavy (A> 200) nucleus Positive 17 500 Very strong
penetration
�He
Usually rich in Electron High
13- 0 Negative 294 000 Strong
neutrons -1e penetration
Artificial
Positron High
13+ Usually rich in 0 Positive 294 000 Strong
+1e penetration
protons
Nature: Electromagnetic
Very high
y radiation emitted due to the
Uncharged 300000 penetration Weak
de-excitation of the daughter
nucleus.

Application 2 �
Figure (7) is a diagram of the disintegration of one of the
plutonium isotopes into a uranium nucleus.
1. Pick out from the diagram the type of this decay.
2. Justify the emission of they-ray.
3. Determine the mass and the charge number of the
formed uranium nucleus.
4. Write the complete equation of this decay.
Solution
a-Particle
1. a-decay. Fig. 7
2.y-ray is emitted due to the de-excitation of the daughter nucleus (the uranium nucleus).
3. 2iiPu � �u + 1He + y
Law of conservation of mass number: 240 = A + 4 + 0 => A = 236.
Law of conservation of charge number: 94 = z + 2 + 0 => z = 92 .
4. 2iiPu � 2 i�u + 1He + y
367
Application 3 6 protons
Figure (8) is a diagram of the decay of the carbon
8 neutrons
tc.
isotope 1 M is a particle emitted by this decay. Car n-14
Given: Mass of carbon-14 is 13.99995 u;
M
mass of nitrogen-14 is 13.99923 u;
me- = 5.486 X 10-4 u;
1 u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg and 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J.
(Neglect the mass of the anti-neutrino). Fig. 8
1. Pick out the type of this decay.
2. Deduce the name of the emitted particle M.
3. Write the equation of decay of 1 1C specifying the charge number of the daughter nucleus.
4. Determine the energy liberated by this decay in MeV and in J.
5. Deduce in J the energy liberated due to the decay of 20 g of carbon-14.
Solution
1. Beta- minus decay.
2. The antineutrino accompanies the beta -minus decay and then M is an antineutrino.
3. 1ic ---+ 1tN + Je + 8v- + y
Law of conservation of the charge number: 6 = z - 1 + 0 + 0 => z = 7.
4. L\m = m before - ID after = 13.99995 - ( 13.99923 + 5.486 x10-4) = 1.714 x 10-4 u
=> L\m = 1.714 x 10-4 u x 931.5= 0.159659 MeV/c2.
E = L\m. c2 = 0.159659 M: . c2 => E = 0.159659 MeV = 0.159659 x 1.6 x 10-13 J
v

=> E =: 2.55 x 10-14 J.

5. The mass of one nucleus of 1!C is m = 13.99995 x 1.66 x 10-27 kg= 2.32 x 10-26 kg.
=> 2.32 x 10-26 kg - 2.55 x 10-14 J}
=> E = 0·02 x 2·55 x 10- => E -
14
0.02 kg -. E 6 cc 2• 198 x 1010 J.
2.32 x 10-2

Application 4

" ..
Figure (9) is a diagram of the decay of the cobalt
isotope ��Co into a nickel isotope �8Ni. , .... ..0.31 MeV
The figure shows that the daughter nucleus is ', ' ' ........ .... .... 2nd excited
most probably born in the second excited state '
1.4832MeV,
(99.88 %), while it is rarely born in the first '
"
:Ey1 = 1.1732 MeV
excited state (0.12 %). ''
+ 1 st excited state
0.31 MeV and 1.4823 MeV are the sum of the I
energies of the emitted electron and antineutrino I
when �8 Ni is born in the 2 nd and in the 1st I Evz = 1.3325
excited states respectively. I
Given: I
, Ground
Mass of nickel-60 is 59.91543 u; 60N·
2
m e- = 5.486 X 10-4 u and 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c . 28 l
Neglect the mass of the anti-neutrino. Fig. 9
1. Determine the overall equation of decay of ��Co.
2. i. Indicate the forms of the liberated energy.
ii. Use the figure to calculate the liberated energy Et due to this decay.
iii. Deduce the mass of the nucleus of cobalt-60
3. Determine the kinetic energy of the formed electron if the daughter nucleus is born in the second
excited state and the energy carried by the anti-neutrino is 0.02 MeV.
4. Determine the mass of the nucleus of nickel-60 when it is in the first excited state.

368
 Solution
1. ��co - �gNi + 1x +y.
Soddy's laws 60 = 60 +A+ 0 =}A = 0 and 27 =28 + Z + 0 =} z = -1 =} Emitted particle is an
electron �e. The overall equation is ��Co - �gNi + -�e + 8v +
-
r
2. i. Kinetic energy of the electron; energy of the antineutrino and elec tromagnetic energy of r-
ray(s).
ii. Et = 1.4832 + 1.3325 = 2.8157 Mev or Et = 0.31 + 1.1732 + 1.3325 =} E1 = 2.8157 MeV .
2.8157 MeV = 2.8157
m.
... E-e =..1m. c2 =}..1 m = c2 931.5
_ 3.022759 X l0-3 u.
u =}..1m ::,e
But..1m = m ��Co- (m �gNi + m Je)
=} 3.022759 X 10- 3 = m ��Co - ( 59.91543 + 5.486 X 10-4) =} filcobalt = 59.9190 U.
3. 2nd excited state =} KEe- +Ev = 0.31 MeV =} KEe- = 0.31- 0.02 =} KEe- = 0.29 MeV.
4. When the nickel nucleus de-excites to the ground state, it emits a y photon of energy
M v = 1.3 325
By = 1.3325 MeV. The mass equivalent to this energy is: ..1m = E; = 1.3325 c: u
=} ..1m = 1.430488 x 10-3 u .
= m 60N"* 60N· 60N"* 60N·
c

3
931.5

um 28 1 - m 28 1 =} m 28 1 = m 28 1 + ..1m = 59.91543 + 1.430488 x 10-

A

N * = 59.916860 u.
=} m �g i

5. Detection of the Radiation

The particles emitted in radioactivity can beidetected by
certain counters. These counters count the �Uf!lb�
>fl : �l••�l!llll•
'
emitted particles from the radioactive so e dunrig a
time interval chosen by the operator.
The most commonly used counter is the Geiger-MulliJ!!!�
counter (Figure 10). lii

6. Law of Radioactive Decay Fig.10

Consider a sarriple of a radioactive isotope whose number
of nuclei is N0 , at t0 =0.
Let N be the number of the remaining non-disintegrated nuclei at an instant t.
Then, at an instant t + dt, the number of the remaining (non-decayed) nuclei is N + dN where dN < 0.
During the time interval dt, the number of the decayed nuclei is: N ctecayed = N - (dN + N)
=} Nctecayed ;= - dN > 0 .
The experiments have shown that the number of the decayed nuclei during a time interval dt is directly
proportional to the number of the remaining nuclei as well as the duration dt. Then - dN =11,N dt
where11,is the constant of proportionality (radioactive constant).
A is a characteristic for the radioactive substance and its S I unit is s- 1. Reading
dN .
=} - =11,dt. Integrate both sides of the obtained equation: Physical Meaning of l
N �N N
t - A dt ::::} .en N = - A t
t The decay constant A
fNo N = fo J
N0
J0
means the average
probability of the decay
=} .fn__!:::._=-11,t =} !:__ = e-At of an individual nucleus
No No within a unit of time.
=}IN = N 0 e-At j Law of radioactive decay (Decay law). If A= 0.4 s· 1 , then in one
1 second, each nucleus has
The law of radioactive decay relates the remaining number of the non­ a 0.4 chance of decay. In
decayed nuclei to the initial number of nuclei of the radioactive isotope. a sample of 100 nuclei,
40 will have decayed
N0 is the number of the nuclei of the sample, at t0 =0. The initial instant is a after one second.

369
 chosen instant. for example it could be the instant of fmding a fossil, the
instant of preparing the sample, or the instant of death of a living thing ...
N is the number of the remaining (non-disintegrated) nuclei at an instant t.
The law of radioactive decay shows that the number of the remaining
(non-decayed) nuclei decreases exponentially with time. (Figure 11).
t
Fig. 11
Application 5
The initial number of nuclei of a certain radioactive nuclide is 10 12 .
1. Apply the decay law to prove that the SJ unit of the radioactive constant is s-1.
2. If 'A. = 8 x 10-7 s- 1, calculate the remaining number of nuclei after 25 days.
3. Deduce the number of disintegrated nuclei during the 25 days.
Solution:
1. N = N0 e-At:::} e-At = : :::} The right side is unitless so the power of e must be unitless
:::} [ 'A. t] = 1 :::} ['A.] = ..!.. = .! = s-1
s
(t]
2. N = No e-A t = (101 2 ) e- (8 xio-7)( 2 5 x 2 4 x 3600):::} N � 1. 7764 X 1011 nuclei.
3. Ndecayed = N0 - N = 10 12 - 0.17764 x 10 :::} Ndecayed = 8. 2236 X 10 11 nuclei.
12

Note: N = N0 e-A t . Multiply both sides by the mass mx of each nucleus, you get:
mx N = mx N0 e-At, but mx N = m and mx N0 = m0 •

I
m
:::} Jm = m 0 e-A t where:

m0 is the initial mass of the sample at t0 = 0,

m is the mass of the remaining (non-decayed) substance at an instant t.
m and m0 are expressed in the same mass unit. t
The remaining mass decreases exponentially with time (Figure 12).
Fig. 12
7. Half-life or (Radioactive Period T)
The half-life T of a radioactive substance is the time needed for half of the radioactive substance to
decay.
T is constant; it is a characteristic of the radioactive substance.
At t = 1T ' N = � 2
= N2 °
1

At t=2T, N = No
4
= No
22

At t=3T, N= N°=N3°
a 2

At� = nT ' IN = No20 j

Where n is the number of periods: LJ
��

Similarly, at t = 1 T: m = �0 then: m= ?n-J J

Note that n is not necessarily a whole numbei:. time
The relation between T and l T 2T 3T 4T
N = N O e-A t , but at t= 1T , N = � . Fig. 13
2
Substitute in the decay law: •

370
 N2o = N ° e <), T � .!. = e- 7'.T �2 = e 7'.T .Apply"fn"to both sidestn2 = \T
2
� T =
I
=
¥ Tl
Proof of the expression N = 2� using the decay law and the relation between T and ,...
N

Substitute for t= nT in the law of radioactive decay (n > 0): N = N 0 e- 7'. t �N = N 0 e-A n T
� N = N 0 e-n(-en2) �N = N 0 eencz-n) �N = N 0 (2-0) � N = No.
The table below gives the half-life of some radioactive substances.
2n

Element Type of radiation Half-life

Radon 2§iRn a 0.27 µ s
Astatine 2§�At a 32ms
Nitrogen 1�N p- 7.2s
Francium 2§; Fr a 4.9min
Lead 2g�Pb p- 3.25 hours
Iodine 1�11 p- 8.02 days
SulfurUs p- 87.5 days
Polonium 2iiPo a 138.38days
SodiumfiNa p+ 2.6 years
Cobalt ��Co p- 5.27years
Cesium 1��Cs p- 30years
Carbon 1iC p- 5730 years
Thorium 2�gTh a 7340 years
Uranium 2��U a 7.04 x 108 years
Potassium 1�K p+ 1.3 x 109 years
Uranium 2��U a 4.5 x 109 years

Application 6
Consider the given of application (5). N0 = 10 12 nuclei, 11, = 8 x 10-7 s-1.
1- Calculate the half- life of the sample in days.
2- Deduce the remaining number of nuclei (non-decayed) after25 days.
Solution
2 0·693
1- T = -en7'. = 8 x 10-7 = 866250 s � T • 10.026 davs. �·

2- N = zn" , n = T =
N0 t 25
10_026 = 2.5 �N =
10 12
2 2_ 5 = 1. 7678 x 10 nuelef.
11

8. Activity of a Dadioactive SamQle

A sample of lgram of 2§�U needs 4.5 x 109 years to disintegrate and become 0.5 gram, while a sample of
1 gram of astatine 2§�At needs 32 ms to disintegrate and become 0.5 gram. So the disintegration of 2§�At
is much faster than that of 2§�U.
Activity of a sample: The rate of disintegrations. It is the number of disintegrations per unit time.

371
Average activity
The average activity between two instants is the number ofdisintegrations that takes place between these
two instants divided by the time interval separating them.

Aav =
Number of decays .6N
=- (Ndecayed = No -N = - �N)
time elapsed .6t

Units of activity
The S.I unit ofactivity is the becquerel where lBq = 1 decay/s.
Another unit is the Curie where lCi = 3. 7 x 10 10 Bq.
A

I Tt I
Instantaneous activity
As �t -+ 0 , Aav -+ Ains => Ains =A=
But N = N 0 e- At => A = -:: = - [N0 (- 11.) e- At ] =>A= A NO e- At +---+-------< -
t
=>IA=11.NI
The above obtained rule shows that the activity of a radioactive sample Fig. 14
at an instant t is proportional to the number ofnon-decayed nuclei at the
this instant. Remark
At t0 = 0: => A= A0 e- A t
J J When At « T, the activity
A can be considered
The obtained rule shows that the activity (rate of decays) decreases constant during At
exponentially with time (Figure 14). => Aav -+ Ains -
=>Ao-A=......!!.-A =......!!. =>Aios =Aav =- 4t
4N
T A T A T A
2 4
-A = .....!!.
8

Application 7
Figure (15) is the decay curve of
Fermium fggFm.
The curve shows the variation ofthe
mass offermium-255 as a function .-:::-:-i-:------
-�-�;-�t-� - - � J- � +
of time.
�:;
�:: m (kg)

Given: molar mass offermium-255

is M=255 g; Avogadro's number is
NA = 6.022 x 10 mo1- . 1
1. Pick out the mass ofthe sample OA
23

of fermium at to= 0.
0,5
-t- +- - �
-�--+ �

- :---r---+-..........,1----+--1--- -
46.438 h
-l

2. Determine graphically the half­ o.3 0,2

------ - -r rj
--+---II-----+---...

life of fermium-255. Deduce t 1

(P)
the value ofthe decay constant
0, 1
ot �1+�+�+o�4r r t(oom)
A of fermium. o 0 2o J o�s o�s�o, --, 1�0 , �o
a �,
� 90:::::1�0=
. =1 � 1 J oJ1:2:�
o
3. Use the law ofradioactive Fig.15
0i

decay ( m = m0 e-A t) and the coordinates ofthe point Pon the

figure to determine again the decay constant A offermium-255.
4. i. Determine the initial number N 0 of the nuclei existed in the sample.
ii. Deduce the initial activity of the sample.
5. i. Determine the instant t at which the number ofdecayed nuclei becomes 1. 77 x 10 24 nuclei.
ii. Deduce the average activity during the time interval [O; t].
Solution
1. D1o = 1 kg = 1000 g.
2. Graphically, at t = 20 h, the remaining mass becomes m=0.5 kg= �0 => t=T = 20 h.
1 2 1 2
A= ; = ; => l. e: 0.03466 h-1.
3. 0.2 = 1 x e-A C46·438) => 5 = eA C46·438) => -en 5 = A (46.438) =>le: 0.03466 b-1.
0

372
 . m 0 x NA 1000 X 6.022 X 10 23
4. I. No = = => - l.36 X lOZ4 DUCIel.
N0 � •
M 255
ii. Ao = A N0 = 0.03466 x 3600 x 2.36 x 1024 => Ao :! 2.94 x 10 19 Bq.
5. i. Ndecay = N0 -N => N = 2.36 X 1024 -1.77 X 1024 => N = 5.9 X 10 23 nuclei
N=
N
__!!.
2°
=> 2n = 3
5.9 x 1023
= 4 => n = 2 = -T => t = 2 X 20 => t = 40 b
2. 6 x 10 24 t

Nctecay 1.77 x10 24 9

1· 1·. A av =
tit = 40 x 3600 => Aav :! 1 •23 X 101 Bq

Application 8
A
i.!:li
patient has a trouble in the thyroid. To detect this trouble, the doctor injects the thyroid by
1.5 x 10 11 nuclei of the iodine radio nuclide 1��1. This radio nuclide has a period (half-life) of8 days
and it is a p-emitter. The disintegration of the nuclide 1 ��1 gives rise to a daughter nucleus �Xe supposed
at rest.
1. Write the equation of the disintegration of 1 ��1 nucleus and determine A and z.
2. Calculate the number of the remaining nuclei at the end of 16 days. Deduce the number of the
decayed nuclei during this time.
3. a. The energy liberated due to the decay of one nucleus of iodine is E = 1.55376 x 10-1 3 J.
Calculate the energy liberated by the decay of iodine during the 16 days.
b. The thyroid absorbs 92.8 % of the liberated energy.
i. Calculate the energy absorbed by the thyroid during the 16 days.
ii. The anti-neutrino does not interact with matter, so it is not absorbed by the thyroid. Deduce in
MeV, the energy carried by the anti-neutrino formed in a decay of each iodine nucleus.
Solution
1. 1BI 1Xe + -�e + 8v.
By applyingSoddy's laws: 131 = A+O+O=>A=131; 53 = Z-1+0 =>Z=54.
r16 N
2. n = t = 8 = 2, but N = zn""0 =
1.5 x 10 11
22
=> N = 3. 75 x 10 10 nuclei.
N decay = N 0 - N = 1.5 X 1011 - 3.75 X 1010 => Ndecay = 1.125 X 1011 nuclei.
3. a. E to tal = N decay x E = 1.125 X 1011 x 1.55376 X 10-13 => Etotal :! 0.01748 J.
b. i. Eabsorbed = 0.928 x 0.01748 => Eabsorbed = 0.01622 J.
ii. Ev = (1 - 0.928) x E = 0.072 x 1.55376 x 10- 13 = 1.1187 x 10-14 J
=> Ev = 0.0699 MeV.

Application 9 i.!:li
tc
Consider the decay of the carbon isotope 1 into nitrogen-14. The liberated energy due to this decay is
E = 2.56 x 10-
14
tc
J. Consider a sample of 1 whose mass at t0 = 0 is ffio = 9.6 g .
Given: The half -life of carbon-14 is T = 5730 years; m 1lC is 13.99995 u and lu = 1.66 x 10-27 kg.
1. Calculate the decay constant of carbon-14.
2. a. Determine the time needed for 9 g of carbon to disintegrate.
b. Determine in J the energy liberated due to the decay of 9 g of carbon-14.
3. a. Determine the activity of carbon at t0 = 0.
b. Calculate the instant t 1 at which the activity becomes one ninth of its initial value.
c. Prove that the power of disintegrations at an instant t is: P = A.E where A is the activity at this
instant.
d. Deduce the power given by the disintegration of carbon-14 at the instant t 1•
Solution
2 2
1. A= t� = ;; => i. • 1.2097 X 10-4 y-1.
30
m 96
2. a. m decay = m 0 - m => m = 9.6 - 9 = 0.6 g, but m = 2: => z n = 0.6 ' = 16 => n = 4 = t
T
=> t = 4 x 5730 => t • 22920 years.

373
 b. One nucleus ofcarbon-14 has a mass m= 13.99995 x 1.66 x 10-2 7 kg= 2.324 x 10-26 kg.
2.324 x 10-26 kg - 2.56 x 10-14 J}
9 x 10-3 kg - E= ? => E SI 9. 914 X 109 J.
mo - 9"6
3. a. N0- =>N°- 4. 1308 x 10 23 nuclei. But Ao=A No =>
- m :c
1 2 . 324 x 10-26

Ao = 1 .2 097 x 10- x 4. 1308 x 1023 =>A0 SI 1 5845 x 10 12 Bq.

4

365 X 24 X 3600
I

9
b. A= Ao= Ao =>2n =9=>.fn 2n = fn 9=>n .fn 2=fn9 =>n = fn =3.1699
9 2" fn 2
=>t1 =3.1699 x 5730 =>t1 • 18163.527 y.
_ d Etotal _ d ( Ndecayed · E) _ d Ndecayed _ N-d
Co P ---- -E -E x--=> p-E I A.
dt dt dt dt
1 584 x1 0 12
d. At the instnt t 1, A= :0 = \ = 1.7606 x 1011 Bq. Also, each disintegration libarates
E=2.56 x 10-14 =>Pt 1 = 1.7606 x 1011 x 2.56 x 10-14 => Pt 1 SI 4.507 >< 10-3 W.

9. G,,,e_n�ral Chaxacteristics of Radioadive Decay

Here are some characteristics of radioactive decay:
) Spontaneous
The phenomenon ofradioactivity is spontaneous; it does not need an external intervention.
) Non-controllable
This phenomenon is non-controllable because it is independent ofpressure, temperature ...
) Random
If we have a radioactive sample ofN nuclei, then during a N
period T, we predict that halfofthe nuclei will Decay. However, N.
it is impossible to predict the ones that will decay, so the choice
is random.
The curve of figure (16) shows the variation ofthe present (non­
decayed) number of nuclei of a radioactive substance, as a
function oftime. But experimentally, most ofthe measured t
values ofthe present nuclei do not obey this curve, they vary
around the mean values ofN that form the curve, so the decay Fig.16
process is random!
10. Radioactivity in Medicine
Radioactivity has many applications in medicine:
o Nuclear medicine uses radiation to provide diagnostic information about the functioning ofa
person's specific organs or to treat them.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) is one of the most developed diagnosing techniques.
Radiotherapy can be used to destroy cancerous cells by irradiating them with y-rays.
o Sterilization ofmedical equipment is also an important use ofradioisotopes.

11. Decay Family

Decay family: Set of nuclei formed due to radioactive decay, in which the decay of one element creates
a new element that decays into another element and so on until a stable nucleus is formed.
A radioactive family is given the name ofthe first element constituting it.
For example, in the family ofuranium-238, this isotope ofuranium decays into thorium-234, which in
turn decays into palladium 234 and so on until stable lead-206 is produced at the end ofthe family.
The three naturally-occurring decay families are uranium-238, thorium-232, and actinium-227 which
end up with their own specific lead isotopes Pb-206, Pb-208, and Pb-207 respectively.
The only artificial radioactive family is that ofneptunium-237. (The neptunium-237 is artificial)
Figure (17) shows the family ofthorium 2 ��Th .

374
 Thorium

Actinium

Radium

Radon

Polonium

Bismuth

Lead

Thallium

Fig. 17
Application 10
Figure (18) is a
diagram of the decay 138
family of uranium-238.
The horizontal axis 234
represents the charge
number while the
vertical axis represents
the mass number. 22.�
1. Write the equations
of the first two A 222
decays of this
family. 218
2. Write the overall
decay reaction of
uranium-238 into
lead-206. Deduce
the numbers of a.
206
and �- decays,
during the 83 88 90 92
z
81 &2 84 85 86 '87 89
transmutation of
2��U into lead-206 . Fig. 18
3. Verify graphically the above result.

375
 Solution
1. 2i�u -+ 2§(iTh + !He ...(1) and z34 90
Th -+ 234p o o-
91 a + -1e + ov ... (2)

2. 2§�U - zg�Pb +x !He +y Je + y 8v. Apply Soddy's laws :

238 = 206+4(x)+y(O)�x = 8. 92=82+2(8) + y(-1) �y = 6� 8aand 6p-.
3. From the figure we have 8( a-decay) and 6( 13-- decay) .

Reading
A. Other types of radioactivity
In addition to the common types of radioactivity( a ; 13 ; y), other types are introduced:
• EC (Electron capture): In this type, a parent nucleus captures one ofits own orbital electrons and
emits a neutrino. For example, cobalt-57 is transformed by electron capture into iron-57:
i�Co + -�e-+ iiFe + 8v+y
• f (Proton emission): For example, cobalt-49 transforms into iron-48 by emitting a proton:
!�co -+ !2Fe + }H.
• !!..(Neutron emission): For example, beryllium-13 transforms into beryllium-12, after emitting a
neutron: 1iae-+ 1�Be + An
• SF(Spontaneous fission): During spontaneous fission, a heavy nucleus is divided into two lighter
nuclei and is usually accompanied by neutron emission. For example californium-252 might be
transformed into iodine-137 and rhodium-I 12: 2��Cf-+ 1l�Rh + 1��1 + 3An. Californium is a super
heavy nucleus and so it is an excellent neutron emitter.
• 1[f[ (Double negatron emission): In this type, two neutrons are transformed into two protons and
emit two electrons and two antineutrinos. For example : 1��Te-+ 1�:xe + 2 -�e + 2 gv
B. The nuclear cardiac pacemaker
The cardiac pacemaker is a device which is placed in the Pacemaker
chest to help control abnormal heart beats by sending
electrical impulses. Nuclear batteries were introduced in
pacing industry around 1973 and stopped in the mid-l 980s.
The used isotope was plutonium-238 which has a half-life of
about 88 years. When plutonium decays, the emitted radiation
bombards the walls of its container producing heat. A
thermopile(set of thermocouples) then converts the heat
directly into electric current.
C. Radioactive {radiometric) dating
Radioactive dating is a technique used to determine the age of Fig. 19
rocks and fossils. This technique is based on a comparison
between the observed abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope and its decay products.
Scientists use a device called a mass spectrometer to measure the number of parent and daughter atoms.
The ratio of parents to daughters can tell the researcher how old the specimen is.
The half-life ofuranium-238 is about 4.47 billion years and that ofuranium-235 is 704 million years.
Then, they are useful in dating the age of the Earth. Isotopes with a short half-life won't work to date
very ancient events.
Geologists regularly use five parent isotopes to date rocks: uranium-238, uranium-235, potassium-
40, rubidium-87, and samarium-147. Scientists find out the age of a dinosaur fossil by dating the rocks
in which it lays, those below it, and those above it.
Carbon-14 is radioactive, even though, the ratio of carbon-14 to that of carbon-12 is constant in all
living things. That is because the living organisms take in carbon-14 from the atmosphere. When the
organism dies, carbon-14 starts decaying without being replaced. By measuring the activity of a sample
of the fossil, the date of its death can be determined. Carbon dating is used to date bones, cloth, paper
and wood.

376
 Problems
Whenever needed use:
h = 6. 6 X 10- 34 J. s , 1 eV = 1. 6 X 10- 19 J, c = 3 X 108 mis, illeJectron = 5. 486 X 10-4 u;
1 u = 1. 66 X 10- 27 Kg = 931.5 MeV/c2 ; IDaJpha = 4.0015 u and NA = 6. 022 X 10 23 .

1. Nuclear reactions ./
The adjacent figure shows four nuclear reactions. (1) ;�Rb -+ 0
-1e + AzSr + ....
a) One of these reactions is non-spontaneous (provoked) 2
Pick out this reaction. (2) �U -+ ��Th + 1He
b) Complete reaction (1). Indicate its type.
c) Complete reaction (4). Deduce the nucleon
30
(3) 1He + gAl -+ 15 p + 1x
disintegration which produces the particle X in this
decay.
(4) !c
1
-.. 4x
+ 11sB + ....

2. Decay of carbon 11
The adjacent figure is a diagram of
the decay of the carbon isotope 1 !C
into boron 1 !B.
a) Indicate the type of this decay.
b) Identify the particle M and
indicate two of its properties.
c) Write the equation of decay of
1 !C, specifying the charge
number of the daughter nucleus.
d) The initial activity of a sample of C-11
carbon -11 is 0.8 Ci. At t = 142.1
minutes, the activity becomes 6. 25 x 10- 3 Ci. Calculate the half- life of carbon-11.

3. Decay chain ./
The adjacent figure shows a part of the decay family of a A
nucleus X. The vertical axis represents the mass number 218 x
A, while the horizontal axis represents the charge number
z. 216
a) Refer to the figure to: 214
i. write the equations of the first and the final decays.
ii. pick out the number of alpha-decays and that of 212
beta-decays which lead to the decay of the nucleus X 210
into the nucleus Y.
b) Prove the answer of part (a-ii) by calculation.
z
c) Deduce the overall reaction of the decay chain. 0 81 82 83 84

4. The age of the ice man ./

In 1991, a German tourist discovered the well preserved remains of a man, now called the ice man,
trapped in a glacier in the Italian Alps.
To determine the time of death, a scientist took a specimen of the fossil of the ice man and found that
the activity of carbon-14 is 250 disintegrations per minute. The activity of carbon-14 of a living
specimen of same nature and of same mass is 474 disintegrations per minute.
The half- life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. Calculate the elapsed time after death of the ice man.

377
5. Initial activity of a uranium-238 ./
Consider a sample of a uranium-238 whose molar mass is 238 g/mol. At an instant t0 = 0 the mass of
the sample is m0 and at an instant t the remaining mass becomes m = 8 g and emits 3. 558 x 10 8
decays per hour.
a) Calculate the number of nuclei present in the sample at the instant t.
b) Calculate the radioactive constant A, in y- 1. Deduce the period T of the radioactive substance, in y.
c) If t = 11.25 x 10 9 years. Determine the mass m0 and the initial activity A0 (in Bq) of the sample.
6. Decay of magnesium-27
The adjacent fi gure is a diagram of the decay of the magnesium isotope fiMg into aluminum fiAI.
Given: mass of magnesium-27 is 26.977 758 u ; radioactive period of magnesium 27 is 9.458 min and
mass of aluminum-27 is 26.974 406 u.
a) Write the equation of decay of fiMg specifying the emitted particle.
b) Deduce the type of this decay. Mg-27
c) Determine the energy liberated by this
decay, in MeV.
AI-27
d) Neglect the energy of the anti-neutrino and
the kinetic energies of the parent and the
daughter nuclei. Determine the kinetic of
the emitted particle if the aluminum
nucleus is born in: (2)
(3)
i. the second excited state;
ii. the first excited state. __ ___,.___G=round state
...i..._
_

7. Decay of thorium-234 ./
The adjacent figure is a diagram of
the decay of one of the thorium

/
isotopes. Parent
a) Refer to the figure to: Nucleus
i. indicate the type of this decay.
ii. write the equation of decay of ----·· tineutrino
Daug;bter
Nucleus
thorium specifying the charge �
number and the mass number Th (Gmllllld 5laie)
of the parent nucleus.
b) Justify the emission of the y­
234
91
p
a
*
ray. Deduce the equation of the
de-excitation of the daughter Key
Danglht:N
Pa
nucleus. Proton lN elem
c) Without calculation, which is Ne'Uk'O'n
more stable the parent Electron j
(thorium) or the daughter y- radiation
� y-Photon
(protactinium) nucleus? Why?
d) Consider a sample of initial mass of 80 g of thorium-234. The perioL uf thorium-234 is 24.1 days
and the mass of its nucleus is 233.994 219 u.
i. Calculate the decay constant A (in s- 1) and deduce the initial activity of the sample.
ii. Calculate the activity of the sample at t = 64 days and deduce the number of decayed nuclei
during the first 64 days.
iii. Deduce in Bq the average activity of the sample during tbe first 64 days.
iv. Determine the average power liberated by disintegrations during the first 64 days if the energy
liberated by one decay is 270 KeV.

378
8. Exponential decay of neon ./
The curve of the adjacent figure represents
the variation of the remaining number of 1
nuclei of the neon isotope l6Ne .The 0,9
tangent to the curve at t 0 = 0 is drawn. 0,8
a) The slope of the drawn tangent is equal
to (- x) where x is a physical quantity 0,7
of the sample of neon-19. Specify the 0,6
name of this quantity. 0,5
b) Deduce the decay constant and the 0,4
period of neon-19. 0,3
c) Deduce the time corresponding to the
0,2
point M on the curve.
d) Neon-19 is a,B + emitter. 0,1 t
Determine the number of positrons 25 50 75 100 125
emitted by the given sample of neon
between t 0 and t = 12.5 s .
9. Parent- daughter graph ./
The adjacent graph includes two curves.
Curve (a) represents the variation of the remaining number N 1 N :X 10 12
of nuclei of the 1��Cs isotope as a function of the number n
of elapsed periods. Curve (b) represents the variation of the 0,75
number N dt of the daughter nuclei 1��Ba as a function of n.
The half-life of 1��Cs is T = 30 y. 0,:5
1
The initial number of nuclei of ��Cs is N 0 = 10 nuclei.
12

a) The two graphs intersect at a point P. Without using the t

graph, determine the coordinates of the point P. n=-
b) Refer to the figure to determine n when the activity of the 4 8 10
sample becomes 183.1625 Bq,
c) Indicate the sum of the parent and the daughter nuclei at any instant. Draw on the same figure the
curve that represents the sum of these nuclei as a function of the number n of periods.
d) N decay is the number of the disintegrated nuclei during a time t. Determine the expression of N dt in
terms of N 0 and n. Deduce N dt at t = 2.2T.
e) i. Write the equation of decay of cesium-13 7.
ii. Prove that, m dt < m 0 - m. Where m 0 is the initial mass of the sample, m dt is the mass of the
daughter nuclei obtained during a time interval [O; t], and mis the remaining mass of the sample
at the instant t.
m(kg)
1 O. E_>tRonential decax of polonium -21 O 1

t
The adjacent curve is the decay curve of a sample of 0,9
the polonium isotope-210. mis the remaining mass in 0,0
the sample at an instant t. The tangent to the curve at 0;7 I
t = 200 days is drawn. 0,6
The half-life of polonium-210 is 138.38 days. 0.'5
a) Specify the coordinates of the point P. 0.4
0,3 1
b) Prove that:
0,2
c) Verify the above expression graphically. 0,1 t x 102 days
11-- 41
o+o---1-2--�4 �6�=:=i:0---1�0

379
11. Half- lives of three radioactive isotopes
The adjacent figure includes three curves
(1), (2) and (3). Each curve represents the t
I
t
variation of the remaining number of
nuclei of a certain radioactive isotope, as
a function of time.
a) Refer to the figure to specify the
curve which corresponds to the
isotope of the longest half life. 0.5 No I
l
b) The time needed for 63 % of the
initial number of nuclei to decay, is
called 't'.
i. Write the law of radioactive decay. t (days)
ii. Determine the expression of 't' as a
function of the decay constant 11.. 0 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
iii. Determine the decay constant of the isotope (2). Deduce the half life of this isotope.
iv. The period of the isotope (1) is 0.6 days. Determine the value of instant t 1 on the fi gure.

12. Differential equation in N

Consider a sample of a radioactive substance of decay constant "A.
At t 0 = 0, the number of the non-decayed nuclei is N O • At an instant t, the activity of the sample is A
and the number of the non-decayed nuclei is N.
a) Write the expression of the activity A in terms of the number of the disintegrated nuclei (- dN)
and the time t.
b) Write the expression of the activity A in terms of N, and 11..
c) Deduce the differential equation that shows the variation of N as a function of time.
d) The solution of the obtained differential equation is N = K e at where a and K are constants.
Determine the expressions of a and K.

13. Determination of the half life of potassium- 40

To determine the half-life T of potassium-40, we use the
Age of a rock
table of the adjacent figure. The right column gives the age N/No (years)
of a rock containing this isotope at certain instants. The left
column gives the ratio at certain instants of the remaining 1 0
number of nuclei of potassium-40 to its initial number at
t0 = 0 which is taken as the instant of formation of the rock.
a) Draw out the half -life of potassium-40. l/2 1.3 x 109
b) Draw the graph of .fn � as a function of time
No l/4 2.6 x 109
using the following scale:
Along the horizontal: 1 cm -+ 10 9 years;
Along the vertical: 1 cm -+ 0.1. 1/a 3.9 x 109

c) i. Determine the expression of in � in terms of A and 1 S.2 x 109

No /16
the time t.
ii. What does the slope of the obtained graph 1 6.S x 109
represent?
/32
iii. Deduce again the half-life of potassium-40.

380
14. Radioactivity of radon -219
Given: Nucleus z�lRn iPo
Mass in u 218.962 297 214.953 336

A - Determination of the period T and the number N0 of radon-219

We measure the number of disintegrations per second of a sample of radon-219, at two different instants:
* At t0 = 0, the rate of disintegrations is 3.7 x 10 14 decay/s .
* At t = 16 s, the rate of disintegrations is 0.23125 x 10 14 decay/s .
a) Define the activity of a sample. Deduce the activity A0 at t0 = 0.
b) Determine the period of radon-219. Deduce the decay constant A of radon.
c) Deduce the initial number N0 of radon at t0 = 0.
B- The disintegration of radon-219
The radon 2 iian is an a emitter and it transforms into polonium 1Po. Neglect the kinetic energies of
the parent and the daughter nuclei.
a) Write the equation of disintegration of this radon nucleus and determine A and Z.
b) The daughter nucleus iPo is born either in the fundamental state or in an excited state.
i. In which of the above two states the daughter nucleus will emit radiation? Indicate the
type and the nature of this radiation.
ii. Determine the released energy by the disintegration of one radon nucleus, in MeV .
iii. During the disintegration of the radon sample, some nuclei emit a particles of kinetic energy
6.9499 MeV, while other nuclei emit a particles of kinetic energy 6.43 MeV. y rays accompany
one of these two groups of decay. Specify which group. Calculate the energy of this y radiation.

15. Liberated energy by the decay of a radioactive substance ./

Cobalt ��Co is a �-emitter and has a half-life T = 5.3 years.
Consider a sample of cobalt ��Co of mass m0 = 20 g at the instant t0 = 0.
Given: mass of ��Co = 59.9190 u, mass of nickel �gNi = 59.91544 u.
A. Disintegration of cobalt- 60
a) Write the equation of the nuclear disintegration of this cobalt isotope and identify the daughter
nucleus.
b) Write the nucleon disintegration that justifies the emission of the electron.
c)
i. In 1930, Pauli postulated that the anti-neutrino accompanies the emission of the electron in
radioactivity, to satisfy a certain law. Name this law.
ii. Indicate two common properties and two distinct properties between the anti-neutrino and
the photon.
d) i. Determine the initial number of nuclei in the sample at the instant t0 = 0.
ii. Deduce the number of the remaining nuclei after a time of 10 years.
B. Energy liberated by the decay of cobalt-60
The daughter nucleus Ni is practically born at rest in the excited state, and then it emits a photon of
energy Ey = 1.332 MeV. The kinetic energy of the emitted electron is 1.2 MeV.
a) Determine the energy liberated by the decay of one cobalt nucleus, in MeV then in joule.
b) Knowing that ��Co is initially at rest, apply the conservation of total energy to determine the
energy of the emitted antineutrino.
c) (For G.S students). Use the expression of the relativistic kinetic energy to calculate the speed of
the emitted electron.
d) Determine the energy liberated by the sample between:
i. t0 = 0 and t1 = T;
ii. t 1 = T and t2 = 2T.

381
C. Energy liberated by radioactivity of cobalt-60 and energy liberated by combustion of coal
The energy liberated from the complete combustion of 1 kg of coal is 3 x 10 7 J.
Determine the mass of cobalt-60 needed to decay in order to liberate the same amount of the
energy liberated by the combustion of lkg of coal.

16. Radioactivity of potassium-40 v'

The object of this exercise is to study the decay of the potassium isotope 1gK, and to measure the age
of a rock.
For this, we consider the decay of this potassium isotope into the daughter nucleus argon �Ar.
This daughter nucleus could be born in an excited state or in the ground state.
Given: mass of the nucleus of potassium 1gK = 39. 953 577 u.
A. Decay of 1gK
The equation of the decay of potassium 1gK into argon is represented as follows:
1gK � Ar + 1X + 8v
a. The particle X is a positron. Why?
b. Determine M and N and then write the complete equation of this decay.
c. The energy liberated by the disintegration of one nucleus of potassium-40 is E = 1.5 MeV.
Deduce the mass defect of each disintegration of potassium-40, in u.
d. Deduce that m 1gK == (1.000054) m� Ar. (Neglect the mass of the neutrino)
e. Neglect the kinetic energies of the parent and the daughter nuclei. The energies of the positron
and the neutrino are 0.48 MeV and 0.44 MeV respectively.
Show that the daughter nucleus is in the excited state. Calculate the energy of the photon emitted
by this nucleus.
B. Dating of a rock
The radioactive period of potassium 1gK is 1. 3 x 10 9 years.
When a rock is formed at t0 = 0, it contains potassium- 40 of mass m 0 and does not contain any argon
nucleus. To determine the age of the rock, it is sufficient to measure the present mass of argon and
that of potassium-40 in a sample of the rock.
A sample of the rock contains 1.676 007 g of potassium-40 and 1.396 673 g of� Ar
a) Use part A-d to calculate the initial mass m 0 of potassium-40.
b) Deduce the age of the rock.

382
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
•!• Define the stimulated nuclear reaction.
•!• Apply the laws of conservation of mass number, charge number and total energy.
•!• Define fission reaction.
•!• Explain the mechanism of the fission reaction.
•!• Define chain reaction.
•!• Define fusion reaction.
•!• Indicate the advantages and the disadvantages of fission and fusion reactions.
•!• Define radioactive waste and specify its types.
•!• Calculate the absorbed dose and the physiological equivalent of the dose of a radiation.
•!• Specify the biologic and the genetic effects of radiations.

383
Introduction
At approximately 8.15 am on 6 August 1945 a US B-29 bomber dropped an
atomic bomb, of energy equivalent to that given by 14000 tons of TNT, on the
Japanese city of Hiroshima, instantly killing around 80,000 people. In this bomb,
0.77 kg of uranium had undergone fission.
Three days later, a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki of energy equivalent to
that given by 21000 tons of TNT, causing the deaths of 40,000 more. In the
months following the attack, roughly 100,000 more people have died slow, and
horrendous deaths as a result of radiation poisoning.
Since 1942, scientists of the Manhattan Project had been working on the bomb's Oppenheimer
development. At first, scientists worked in isolation in different parts of the US (1904-1967)
unaware of the magnitude of the project in which they were involved. Later, the
project was centralized and moved to an isolated laboratory headed by physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer
in Los Alamos, New Mexico. On 16 July 1945, scientists carried out the first trial of the bomb in the New
Mexico desert.
As of April 2015, 31 countries worldwide are operating 443 nuclear reactors for electricity generation.
Nuclear power supplies now (2015) almost 11.5 % of global electricity needs.

1. Definition of a Stimulated Nuclear Reaction

Stimulated (provoked or activated or triggered) nuclear reaction is a nuclear reaction which
needs an external intervention to take place.
Fission and fusion are two examples ofstimulated nuclear
reaction.
Figure (1) is a diagram ofthe fission ofuranium-235 which
is divided into rubidium-93 and cesium-140 with the emission
ofthree neutrons.
The reaction takes place under the impact ofa neutron.
Uranium-235 cannot split into rubidium and cesium
spontaneously. So this reaction is stimulated.
2. Laws of Conservation
The laws ofconservation, which were explained in the previous
chapter, are applied for all spontaneous and provoked nuclear
reactions:
I
* The law ofconservation ofmass number: Abefore = Aafter I
I I
Fig.1
* The law ofconservation ofcharge number: Zbefo� = Za fter
Consider the stimulated reaction of figure (1): Remark
An + 2 ��u � 1 t�cs + j�Rb + 3 An The neutron is a suitable
projectile in fission
Abefore = Aa fter = 236 and Zbefore = Za fter = 92. reactions since:
• it is neutral. so it does not
* The law ofconservation oftotal energy: ETotal( before) = ETotal (after) undergo a repulsive force
from the positive nucleus;
• its mass is relatively large
3. Nuclear Fission enough to become
Nuclear fission is a stimulated nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus embedded in the nucleus
and not to penetrate it
is divided into two lighter nuclei under the impact of a neutron. without interaction.

384
•:• History of nuclear fission
In 1919, Rutherford performed the first fission reaction by which a nitrogen nucleus is transformed into
oxygen and hydrogen under the impact of an a particle:
iHe + 1 �N -+ 1 �0 + }H
But this reaction yielded a small amount of energy.
In 1934, Frederic Joliot and Irene Joliot -Curie performed the second fission in which an aluminum
nucleus is divided into phosphorous-30 nucleus and a neutron, under the impact of an alpha particle:
iHe + fiAI -+ igP + An
The two scientists produced in this reaction the first artificial
radioactive parent nucleus, as mentioned in the previous
chapter. However, this reaction was endoergic- it needs
energy to take place.
In 1938, Otto Hahn and Fritz Stresemann performed the first
fission reaction that yields enormous amount of energy.
They obtained this reaction by bombarding uranium-235
nucleus by a neutron. Otto Hahn Fritz Stresemann
The era of nuclear energy has been started! (1879-1968) 1902-1980
Figure (2) represents three possible fission reactions of
Neutron
uranium-235.

//
Fission
fragment
1
giXe + jgSr + 45n + y

-
Projectile
5n + i�!U 1
tics + 1�Rb + 35n + y neutron Neutron

1
�iBa + jlKr + 35n + Y
Target Fission
Fig. 2 nucleus fragment
Consider the following nuclear fission reaction of Fig. 3
uranium-235: An + ��U -+ ;isr + t�xe + 2 An
2 1
The uranium nucleus is called the target, the neutron which is bombarded on uranium is called the
projectile, and the strontium and xenon nuclei are called fission fragments (Figure 3).

•!• Mechanism of nuclear fission

To understand the mechanism of
nuclear fission, let us consider the Molybdenum-I 02
nuclear fission of plutonium-239, which
produces molybdenum-I 02 and
tellurium-135.
A thermal neutron (KE= 0.025 eV)
enters into a collision with the
plutonium nucleus and becomes
embedded in it. An excited nucleus of
Pu-240
plutonium-240 is formed.
The nucleons of the excited nucleus are Tellurium-135
more agitated, so they become farther Fig. 4
from each other. As a result, the
electrostatic forces between the protons overcome the strong nuclear forces (strong interactions)
between the nucleons. So the excited plutonium is divided into two lighter more stable nuclei with the
emission of a certain number of neutrons.

385
 •:• The liberated energy (.1m.c2)
In a stimulated nuclear reaction, the mass of the reactants is not equal to that of the products
( m befo re i- IDafter ), if:
"' mbefo re > IDafter , this reaction liberates energy (exoergic);
• mbefo re < maft e r , this reaction needs energy to take place (endoergic).
The law of conservation of total energy
Consider the stimulated nuclear reaction: in + 2��U -+ :�Mo + 1��La + 2 in + 7 _1e + 7 8v + y
Let: Ev be the energy of the anti-neutrino; Ey be the electromagnetic energy of the y-ray(s); KE befoe r be
the sum of the kinetic energies of the neutron and uranium nucleus; KEafter be the sum of the kinetic
energies of the products (molybdenum, lanthanum, the neutrons and the electrons) and mc 2 be the rest
energy.
ETotal( before) = ETotal (after) :=::} KEbefor e + m C (befo r e) = KEa fter + m C (aft e r) + Ev + Ey
Z Z

r ) - m C Z (after) = KEafter + Ev + Ey
:=::} KEbefore + m C (befoe
Z

I 2
KEbefore + Am.c = KEafter + Ev + Ey I Recall that Euberated = Am. c
2

I I
:=::}

2 2
r is neglected relative to L\m.c then:
If KE befoe Am.c = KEafter + Ev + Ey
The last obtained rule is modified according to the products of the nuclear reaction; y- ray(s) do not
necessarily accompany the reaction, and the products might include neutrinos instead of antineutrinos.
However, some nuclear reactions do not produce neutrinos or antineutrinos.
The forms of the liberated energy for the exoergic fission reaction are:
• kinetic energy of the fragments and the produced particles;
• electromagnetic energy of the y-ray(s);
• energy of neutrinos (if they are produced in the fission).
Generally, a most probable fission of one uranium Reading
nucleus liberates about 200 MeV. Thennal neutrons have the most probability to
The nuclear fission of lkg of uranium liberates stimulate nuclear fission; they are in thennal
8.2 x 10 13 J. It is equivalent to the energy liberated by equilibrium with the moderator material where
the combustion of 2000 tons of petroleum. the temperature isl7 °C :! 290 K (K is the
Kelvin which is the S.I unit of temperature).
•:• Condition of nuclear fission At T = 290 K, the expression of the kinetic

=
A thermal neutron , of energy around 0.025 eV and of
speed V 2200 mis, has the most probability to
stimulate fission nuclear reaction.
energy ofa neutron is: KE = K T where K is
Boltzmann's constant. K = l.38x 10-23S.I.
•KE= (1.38 x 10-23) (290)
•KE= 4.002 x 10-21 J = 0.025 eV
• If the neutron is·. ery slow, most probably, it will
bounce back without stimulating the fission reaction;
=
But K.E = Y2 mV2 4.002 x 10-21 J
• v = 2 )( 4.002 )( 10-21 =
• If the neutron moves fast, most probably, it will 1.67 )( 10-27 2189 mls.
penetrate the nucleus and leave it without stimulating If Vis much greater or much smaller than
the fission reaction. 2200 mis, the neutron has a very small
probability to stimulate the fission reaction.
•:• Chain reaction
A chain reaction is a nuclear reaction which Reading
continues by itself. A first reaction produces neutrons that might The fission fragments are
stimulate the next one, and so on . . . radioactive materials, so they
To produce chain reaction, more than one neutron must be included in might liberate neutrons that may
stimulate fission reactions.
the products of fission (Figure 5).
If two neutrons are produced in the fission, this might lead to a In order to maintain the chain
chain reaction, while if three or more neutrons are produced, this reaction, the average number of
the emitted neutrons in each
must lead to chain reaction. fission must be 2.5 to 2.8
neutronR.

386
 1u
0

l
0 .,,

ln
0

Fig. 5
The moderator
The neutrons produced in fission reactions move at high speeds (non-thermal). These neutrons
must be slowed down by the moderator inside the reactor to become thermal in order to stimulate
other fission reactions. These neutrons are slowed down by the elastic collisions with the nuclei of the
moderator material, which surround the uranium in the nuclear reactor like water or graphite. 75% of the
world's reactors use light water (H 2 0), 20% use solid graphite, and 5% use heavy water; deuterium
oxide (D 2 0).
Controlling the chain reaction Control rods ---, Fissile material
The number of neutrons available to provoke fission must be
controlled. This can be done by a series of control rods Moderator
(usually made of boron or cadmium) to absorb number of the
produced neutrons (Figure 6).
The control rods can be raised or lowered into the reactor core
to maintain the reaction rate. To reduce the rate of the reaction,
more rods are lowered to absorb more neutrons, thus
Cold
leg ' Hot
leg
preventing them from stimulating fission. To increase the rate
of the reaction, more rods are raised.
However, lowering the rods fully will shut down the reactor. Fuel
If the allowable reaction rate is exceeded, the reaction will rod
quickly grow out of control which might end with an Heat transfer
explosion.
•:• Fissionable {Fissile} and fertile nuclei Fig. 6

Fissionable (Fissile) nucleus is the one that undergoes fission when bombarded by a thermal
neutron.
Uranium-235 and plutonium-
239 are examples of
fissionable nuclei. ZHU
9Z
Fertile nucleus:

I
A nucleus is fertile if it
gives rise to a fissionable
nucleus by a nuclear
reaction.
Fig. 7
387
 Uranium-238 is an example ofa fertile nucleus. This nucleus, when bombarded by a neutron,
transforms into uranium-239. uranium-239 is radioactive, so it decays and transforms into plutonium-
239 which is fissionable (Figure 7).
The following reactions show the transformation ofthe fertile nucleus 2 i�u into the fissionable
nucleus 2�iru:
in + 2��U-+ 2��U (radioactive);
z3929U-+ 23939Np + oe 0- ,.
+ ov
-1
z3939Np -+ 23949p0 + oe + ov-
0 The overall reaction then is: 0 n + 92 u-+
1 23 s 23 9Pu
94 + 2 -1oe + 2o0 v
-1
Application 1
14�Ba.
•
The adjacent figure is a diagram ofa fission ofuranium- Thermal
235 which gives rise to barium-141 and krypton-92 with neutron
the emission ofthree neutrons and y-rays.
Given: Mass ofuranium-235 is 234.9935 u; •
mass ofbarium-141 is 140.883 689 u; mass ofkrypton-
92 is 91.906406 u; mass ofthe neutron is: 1.008665 u;
1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2 ; 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J and
1 u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg.
The fission fragments are born in the excited states. Fig. 8
1. Specify whether this reaction leads to a chain reaction or not.
2. Write the equation ofthis fission and determine the charge number ofbarium.
3. Indicate the forms ofthe liberated energy.
4. Determine the energy liberated by this fission in MeV then in J.
5. Deduce the energy ofthe emitted y- rays knowing that the kinetic energies offission fragments and
each neutron are 152.58 MeV, and 2.96675 MeV respectively.
6. i. Determine the energy E' liberated by the fission of 10 g ofuranium-235, in J.
ii. Suppose that the energy E' feeds a nuclear power station whose nuclear power is 100 MW.
Calculate the time Lit needed to consume the 10 g of 2��U.
Solution
1. This reaction leads to a chain reaction since three neutrons are produced.
2. in + 1Ju � Jl
2
Kr+ 14lBa + 3 In y
+
Law ofconservation ofcharge number: 92 + 0 = 36 + Z + 3 (0) => Z • 56 .
3. Kinetic energy ofthe produced neutrons and the fission fragments and electromagnetic energy of
y-rays.
4. Lim = m b efore - mafter = [ 1.008665 + 234.9935] - [140.883689 + 91.906406 + 3(1.008665)]
MeV MeV
Lim = 0.186075 u = 0.186075 x 931.5 - c2
= 173.32886-
c2

= =
Elib = Lim. c2 = 173.32886 - M�
x c => Eub • 173.32886 MeV.
2 · • ·
c2
13 => Eub = 2. 7733 x 10 -u J.
Elib = 173.32886 x 1.6 x 10-
5. The kinetic energy of the bombarded neutron is KEn 0.025 eV « Elib = 173.32886 MeV, then
KE b efore is neglected => Elib = KEafter + Ey = KEfragments + KEneutrons + Ey
=
=> Ey = 173.32886 - [ 152.58 + (3 x 2.96675) ] => Ey 11.84861 MeV.

=
6. i. The mass ofone nucleus ofuranium-235 is :
mu = 234.9935 x 1.66 x 10-27 3.900892 x 10-25 kg.
=> 3.900892 x 10-25 kg --+ 2.7733 x 10 -ll J }
0.01 kg --+ Eproduced =? => Eproduced !:! 7. 11 X 10 11 J,
E' 7 111 x 10 11
ii. p = � => Lit = �00 10 6 = 7111 s => �t !:! 1.975 h.
x

388
Application 2 �
Consider the following fission reaction: 1 + 235 + A + 1 + x Je + y; !v +
Mass ofuranium-235 is 234.993586 u; mass ofmolybdenum-95 is 94.882799 u; mass oflanthanum-139
is 138.875075 u; mass ofthe neutron is: 1.008665 u; mass ofthe electron is 5.486 x 10-4 u;
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J; 1 u = 1.66 x 10- 27 kg and c = 3 x 108 mis.
1. Determine the mass number A ofthe produced lanthanum, the number x ofthe produced electrons,
and the number y ofthe produced antineutrinos.
2. Show that this reaction is exoergic. Justify the liberation ofenergy. Th� ooti��wm�
3. Indicate the forms ofthe liberated energy. a��p,affl� th�
:fu�tioo Qiffu� �e.Qtf�
4. a. Determine in J then in MeV the energy liberated due to this fission. in n\\Qle� :1;-�aQti�s..
b. Suppose that a nuclear reactor whose maximum nuclear power is 200 Th®. th� l\\m\ll.� o-Hh�
MW operates according to the above reaction. Determine the f� �ti�ne."tdn� is.
maximum number offission reactions that take place per second. �ual to, t� nwah� Q,f
C, The nuclear reactor feeds an electric power station ofoutput electric th� lQ{ffi� �le.�U-QJ\$...
power of50 MW. Determine in kg the yearly consumption of
uranium-235 needed to operate this station according to the above reaction. Assume that 32 % of
the nuclear energy is converted into electric energy. Use 1 y = 365 days.
Solution
1. Law ofconservation ofmass number: 235+ 1 = 95+ A+ 2(1) + x (0) + y (0) => A a llt ..
Law ofconservation ofcharge number: 92+ 0 = 42 + 57+ 2(0) + x (-1)+ y (0) => � a 7/ .
But number of electrons is always equal to the number of antineutrinos => y = 7.
2. �m = m b efore - IDafter = [ 1.008665+ 234.993586] - [94.882799+ 138.875075+ 2(1.008665) + 7
(5.486 x 10- 4)] =>am• 0.2232068 u > 0 => The reaction is exoergic .
The energy is liberated due to the transformation of the mas� defett (l0$t mau) lam Ql\Q�,
3. The forms ofthe liberated energy are: Kinetic energies of the electrons, the neutrons and the
fission fragments; energy of the anti-neutrinos and electromagnetic energy ofy-ray(s).
4. a. �m = 0.2232068 u = 0.2232068 u x 1.66 x 10- 27 = 3.70523 x 10- 28 kg.
E = �m . c2 = 3.70523 x 10- 28 x ( 3 x 10 8 )2 = 3.335 X to U J.
=

= 3·335 x io- 11 E es 2
E => 08.44 MeV.
1.6 x 10- 13
b. P= � => E = P x t = 200 x 10 6 x 1 => E = 200 x 10 6 J. But each fission reaction produces
t
_ . 200 x 10 6 nn aul
3.335 x 10 11 J => Number offiss10ns: N = 3_335 lo-n =>Nii 5,;;,;;,1 � 1Y tta.�ttoui,
x
5 0 06
c. Efficiency: T] = Puseful => Pto tal = /3� => The nuclear power: Ptotal = 15.625x 10 7 w.
Ptotal
=>Yearly produced nuclear energy: Ey= P. t = 15.625x 10 7 x (365 x 24 x 3600) = 4.9275 x 10 15 J.
One nucleus ofuranium 235 has a mass 234.993586 x 1.66 x 10- 27 kg= 3.90089 x 10- 25 kg.
3.90089 X 10- 25 kg - 3.335 x 10-11 J }
m= ? - 4.9275 x 10 15 J => m el 57.64 kg.

Application 3
Curium-242 was produced for the first time by bombardin a nucleus ,ftPu by an alpha-particle,
according to the following reaction: 4 + 2ij9 - 2� + An
Given: Mass ofplutonium-239 is 239.000589 u; mass ofcurium-242 is 242.00617 u, mass ofhelium-4 is
4.0015 u and mass of 5n is 1.00866 u.
1. Prove that this reaction is endoergic.
2. The plutonium nucleus is initially at rest. The curium-242 is born in the ground state. Apply the law
ofconservation oftotal energy to determine the kinetic energy KE a of the alpha particle, knowing
that the kinetic energy of the products is KEafter = 20.1316 MeV.
Solgtfgn
1. �m = mb efore - IDafter = [ 4.0015 + 239.000589] - [242.00617 + 1.00866 ]
=> �m ;;; • 0.012 741 u < 0 => The reaction is endoergic.

389
2. Erotal (before ) = Erotal (after) � KEa + ma C 2 + mpu C 2 = KEcm + mcm C 2 + KEn + mn c 2
� KEa + ( mpu c 2 + ma c 2 ) - (mcm c 2 + mn c 2 ) = KEcm + KEn
� KEa + � mc2 = KEafter . [But �m. c2 = (- 0.012741 X 931.5 MeV/c2). c2 = -11.8682415 MeV].
� KEa - 11.8682415 = 20.1316 � KEa � 32 MeV.

4. Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is a stimulated nuclear reaction by which
two or more light nuclei merge (unite) to form a heavier + +
one.
Figure (9) is a diagram of the fusion of two deuterium
iH
iHe An
nuclei which merge to form a helium nucleus with Fig.9
the emission of a neutron.
iH + iH --+ iHe + tn + 3.27MeV
Figure (10) shows some possible fusion reactions
of hydrogen and helium isotopes, with the liberated
energy by each fusion.
iH + iH --+ �H + in + 4.03MeV
The laws of conservation of charge number, mass
number and total energy are applied also for iH + �H � 1He + Alil + 17.S9MeV
fusion reactions.
iH + �He --+ �He + }H +18.3MeV
•!• Conditions and mechanism of fusion
In fusion reaction, it is required to merge two positive Fig.10
nuclei together. But according to Coulomb's law,
these nuclei repel each other. To overcome the
repulsive force, these nuclei must have very high
kinetic energies. The fusion of some nuclides
requires around 0.013 MeV. This can be attained if the
temperature is about 10 8 Kelvin.
The fusion of two protons requires a temperature of
about 10 7 Kelvin.
But on Earth,. at a temperature of over 10 million
Kelvin, all matter exists as an ionized gas or plasma.
What can you use to hold something this hot?! ! !
(Fig.11) JET's torus (Tokamak)
The JET (Joint European torus) project was set up to
carry out research on fusion power. JET uses magnetic fields in a doughnut­
shaped chamber called a torus to keep the plasma away from the container
walls. Figure (11) shows a scientist working inside JET's 6 m diameter torus.
This idea was used for the first time by the Soviet scientist Andrei Sakharov
who named this apparatus " Tokamak".
In the core of our sun, the temperature is approximately 1.5 x 10 7 K, so
nuclear fusion reactions of light nuclei take place (Proton cycle).
Fusion reaction in the core of a star is the origin of its energy.

Andrei Sakharov
Name of Name of (1921-1989)
Symbol
isotope nucleus
Reading
Hydrogen tH Proton Inside the sun, every second 594.4 x 10 6
ton of hydrogen is converted into 590 x
Deuterium IH Deuteron 106 ton of helium � �m = 4.4 x 106 x
1000 x (3 x 10 8 )2 = 3.96 x 1026 J is
Tritium iH Triton
delivered by the Sun each second

390
The first hydrogen bomb (H-Bomb) test
was on November 1 st 1952. The
mushroom cloud was 8 miles wide and
27 miles high (Figure 12).

Fig.12
•:• Energy of fusion reaction
Consider a series of fusion reactions which take place in the sun's core:
}H + }H -+ fH + �e + gv + 0.42 MeV ;
}H + fH -+ �He + 5.49 MeV;
�He + �He -+ !He + 2 }H + 12.86 MeV.
If you multiply the first two equations by 2, and then add the three equations, you will get:
4 }H -+ !He + 2 �e + 2 gv + 24.68 MeV.
Recall that a most probable fission of one uranium nucleus yields about 200 MeV. But this does not mean
that nuclear fission produces more energy than fusion. In fact, the produced energy per nucleon is the
value that must be compared.
f f 2 68
Fission: = ��� = 0.85 MeV/nucleon ; Fusion: = \ = 6.17 MeV/nucleon.
�:�; = 7.26 then the energy produced by fusion is greater than that produced by fission, by a factor of
7.26.
5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Fusion and Fission
Fusion has a number of advantages over fission:
* For equal masses, fusion yields more energy than fission;
* Hydrogen is more abundant in nature, and cheaper than uranium and plutonium;
* Fusion produces much smaller amounts of radioactive waste than fission reactions .
Fission has one advantage over fusion:
The released energy by fission can be controlled and used for civilian use as in nuclear power
station, while the nuclear fusion is not used for generating electricity since it takes very high
temperature to start the fusion reaction and once started it is difficult to control (Explosion as
in thermonuclear or hydrogen bomb).

Application 4
Figure (13) is a diagram of an overall fusion reaction of hydrogen which takes place inside the sun's core.
Given: Mass of the hydrogen is 1.00728 u; mass of

••
helium-4 is 4.0015 u; mass of each of the emitted
particles is 5.486 x 10- 4 u and 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2
= 1.66 x 10- 27 kg.
/
- Enor1y-
The helium nucleus is born in an excited state.
1. Write the equation of the fusion reaction and
4}H
l'
identify the two emitted identical particles.
2. Indicate the forms of the liberated energy. Fig.13
3. a. Determine the energy liberated by this reaction, in MeV then in J.
b. Deduce the energy liberated by the fusion of 5 g of hydrogen.
c. Determine the number of the hydrogen nuclei present in the 5 g of hydrogen. Deduce again the
energy liberated due to the fusion of 5 g of hydrogen.

391
Solution
1. 4 }H --+ fHe + 2 ix + 2 gv + y
Soddy's laws: 4 (1) = 4 + 2 (A) + 2 (0) => A = 0; 4 (1) = 2 + 2 (Z) + 2 (0) � Z = 1.
The two emitted particles are positrons.
2. Kinetic energy of the positrons and the helium nucleus ; energy of the neutrinos and
electromagnetic energy of the y-ray(s).
3. a. Llm = mbefore - mafter = [ 4 x 1.00728] - [4.0015 + 2(5.486 x 10-4 )]
Llm = 0.0265228 u = 0.0265228 x 931.5 MeV/c2= 24.706 MeV/c2
E = Llm . c2= 24.706 MeV/c2 x c2 => E = 24.706 MeV = 24.706 x 1.6x 10- 13 = 3.953 x 10-12 J.
b. The mass of four nuclei of hydrogen is: 4 x 1.00728 x 1.66 x 10-27 kg= 6.6883 x 10-27 kg.
6.6883 X 10-27kg - 3.953 X 10-12 J }
5 X 10-3 kg - Eproduced =? => E produced :!!! 2.955 X 10 12 J.
c. Number of nuc1e1· m
5 10-
x
3

x _ - ,
=
· 5 g 1· s: N = 1.oons x1.66 10 27 => N 2 99 x 1024 nucIei.
4 nuclei -- 3.953 x 10- 12 J}
2.99 x 10 24 -- Eproctuced =? => E p roduced :!!!! 2.955 X 10 12 J.

Application 5 �
Figure (14) is a diagram of the fusion of deuterium and
Deuterium
tritium.
Given: mass of deuterium is 2.0136 u; mass of tritium is Helium
3.0155 u; mass of the alpha particle is 4.0015 u; mass of
the neutron is 1.00866 u; mass of the proton is 1.00728 u;
1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2 = 1.66 x 10-27 kg.

-
1. Refer to figure (14) to write the equation of the fusion
reaction.
2. Determine the energy liberated by this reaction in MeV
then in J. """
3. a. Determine the binding energy of deuterium, in MeV.
b. The binding energies of the tritium and the helium Tritium Neutron
nuclei are: Erritium = 8.47665 MeV and
Fig.14
EHelium = 28.29897 MeV respectively.
Calculate the difference in the nuclear binding energy of the fused nuclei and the resulting products.
Compare your answer to the value of the liberated energy by this reaction.
Solution
1. !H + Ju � jHe + An
llem11rl(
2. Llm = mbefore - mafter = [2.0136 + 3.0155] - [4.0015 + 1.00866] We can gen@ralii@ thueault a!!:
Lim = 0.01894 u = 0.01894 x 931.5 MeV/c 2 = 17.64261 MeV/c2 Eliber?tec! = Ea(?fter }- Ea{before l
Mev
E = Lim. c2 = 17.64261 c 2 x c2 => E = 17,64261 MeV. But thia method of c;akmMin�
E = 17.64261 x 1.6 x 10- 13 => Ea; 2,823 x 10-n J. th@ liberated @n@rgy usin� th@
,:Uffl?renoe ofbinc:ling energiea is
3. a. Llm = [Z mp + N mn] - mx not valid if there imi' ele@t!'Pn§ or
Llffi = [(1.00728) + (1.00866)] - 2.0136 = 0.00234 u. pmlitn>na in thll prggygt1:1,
2
Llm = 0.00234 x 931.5 = 2.17971 MeV/c
But EB= Llm . c2 = [2.17971 MeV/c2 ]. c2 => E q;;:: 2,17971 MeV.
b. The neutron is one nucleon so it does not have a binding energy =>
L1Ebinding = EHelium - (Ecteuterium + Etritium ) = 28.29897 - [2.17971 + 8.47665 ] = 11,64261 MeV.

392
 6. Nuclear Waste
Nuclearwastesare wastes that contain radioactive material

Radioactive wastes are usually by-products of nuclear fission or nuclear technology, such as research and
medicine.
Radioactive waste naturally decays over time, so it has to be isolated and confined (stocked) for a
sufficient time until it no longer poses a hazard.
•!• Types of radioactive waste
1. Low· level waste (LLWJ
Low-level waste is generated by hospitals and industry. It makes up 1 % of the radioactivity of all
radioactive waste. It comprises paper, tools, clothing etc, which contains small amount of short-lived
radioactivity. This waste does not require shielding. It is suitable for shallow land burial.
2. Interlllediate·level waste (IL»')
Intermediate-level waste contains higher amounts of radioactivity. It makes up 4 % of the radioactivity
of all radioactive waste. It comprises nuclear reactor components, chemical sludges, etc. This waste is
encased in cement inside stainless steel drums. The drums are then
stored in concrete vaults or underground.
3. High.. levelwaste(HLWl
High-level waste has long half-lives and remains hazardous for
thousands of year. It makes up 95 % of the radioactivity of all
radioactive waste. This waste contains the fission products and
transuranic elements (elements with Z > 92) generated in the reactor
core. High-level waste is often hot so it requires cooling and shielding.
It is sealed inside glass blocks which then placed in sealed containers
Fig. 15
and buried deep underground in steady geological areas.
7. Effects of Radiation on Living Organisms
Irradiationis the exposure of a living organism to an ionizing radiation.
To specify the possible effects of radiation on living things, we must study first the following two
physical quantities:
•!• Absorbed dose
Absorbed doseDis the energy received per unit mass of the living thing., D
.....____.!......_.
Eis the energy in joule; m is the mass in kg and D is the absorbed dose in Gray (Gy).
Gy is the S.I unit of D. 1 Gy = 1 J/Kg.
(rad) is another unit used to express the absorbed dose, where
•!• Physiological equivalent of dose

biologic and genetic effects of radiation on living things.

i �
i
E_ D x _t =
Physiologicalequivalentof dose(or equivalent dose) ED is a hysica antity which measures the
i
Quality factor (radiation weighting factor) is a constant which depends on the nature of the radiation
(Figure 16). It is used because some types of radiation, such as alpha particles are more damaging to live
tissue than other types of radiation when the absorbed dose from both is equal.
Quality factor has no unit.
IfD is expressed in Gy then the physiological equivalent of dose�ssed in Sievert (Sv).
(rem) is another unit used to express the equivalent dose, where -- .

393
 Type of radiation Energy range Quality factor
Photon - Electron - Positron All energies 1
< 10 keV 5
10 -.100 keV 10
Neutron 100 keV-. 2 MeV 20
2 -.20MeV 10
>20MeV 5
Proton < 20MeV 5
Alpha All enerii:ies 20
Fig. 16
Genetic effects of radiation
The genetic effects include the induction mutation and the breakage of chromosome.
Biological effects of radiation
Biological effects start from modification ofblood formula for ED= 50 mSv to death for ED> 10 Sv,
provided that the dose is absorbed during a short period oftime. Among these effects, we have digestive
problems, diarrhea, vomiting, alopecia, sterility and cancer.

Beading
Factors that affect biological and genetic effects of radiation
• The absorbed dose;
• Type of the radiation (quality factor);
• Rate of the received dose: If the same dosage is received by the tissue over a number of days or weeks, the
results are often not as serious if a similar dose was received in a matter of minutes;
• Part of the body exposed: Extremities such as the hands or feet are able to receive a greater amount of radiation
with less resulting damage than blood forming organs;
• Age of the Individual: As a person ages, cell division slows and the body is less sensitive to the effects of
ionizing radiation. Once cell division has slowed, the effects of radiation are somewhat less damaging than when
cells were rapidly dividing;
• Biological differences: Some persons are more sensitive to the effects of radiation than others.

Application 6
The absorbed dose of a radiation by a man body is 5 rad. Given : QF of(a) = 20 and QF of (y) = 1.
1. Calculate the energy received by the body ofthe man if his mass is 70 kg.
2. Calculate the equivalent dose.
3. Calculate, in Gy and in rad, the absorbed dose ofy-rays having the same equivalent dose.
Solution
E
1. D= - m
=> E= D x m , but D= 5 rad= 0.05 Gy => E= 0.05 x 70 => E • 3.S J.
2. ED= D x QF = 0.05 x 20 => ED• 1 Sv.
1
3. ED= D x QF => D= => D• 1 Gy, but 1 Gy= 100 rad => D • 100 rad.
1

Application 7 l!:li
Assume that the activity ofpotassium-40 in a liter ofmilk has an activity of74 Bq. A person ofmass 50
kg, drinks 0.5 L ofmilk per day. The halflife ofpotassium-40 is 1.24 x 10 9 years. The most probable
decay of potassium 1gK produces calcium 18Ca and supplies 0.8 MeV. The quality factor is 1 for they­
ray and for the electron. 1 eV= 1.6 x 10- 19 J.
1. Determine the type ofthe decay ofpotassium-40.
2. The activity ofpotassium in milk does not practically change during one year. Why?
3. a. Determine the number ofdisintegrations that takes place inside the body ofthe person during
one year.

394
 b. Deduce in J the energy produced inside the body of this person during one year.
4. a. Assume that the body absorbs 10 % of the energy produced by each decay. Determine the
equivalent dose during one year.
b. The maximum allowed safe equivalent dose is 0.5 rem per year. Is it safe for this person to
drink 2 glasses of milk daily? Why?
Solution
1. 18K � 18ca + 1x
Soddy's laws: 40 = 40 +A� A = 0 19 = 20 + Z � Z = - 1
� The emitted particle is an electron, so the type of decay is beta-minus ( �-).
2. T = 1.24 x 109 y » 1y , so its half-life is much greater than one year.
number of decays = Nctecay
· · can be cons1"dered constant durmg
3 . a. The activity · one year� Aav = - -. --�
-time Llt
74 =
� Ndecay = Aav X Llt, but the activity of 0.5 L of milk is: Aav = 37 Bq
2
� Ndecay = 37 x 365 x 24 x 3600 => Ndecay S! 1.167 X 109 decays.
b. Eyearly = 1.167 X 10 9 X 0.8 X 1.6 X 10- 13 � Eyearly S! 1.494 X 10-4 J.
received energy = 0.1 x 1.494 x 10- 4 � D = •
4. a. D = 2 988 X 10 -1 Gy.
mass SO
But ED D x QF 2.988 x 10- x 1� ED= 2.988 X 10-7 Sv.
= = 7
b. 0.5 rem = ��� = 5 x 10-3 Sv, but 2.988 x 10-7 Sv « 5 x 10-3 Sv � It is safe.

Reading
A.The nuclear reactor
The coolant
The coolant ofthe reactor has a dual purpose: first it is used to remove heat from the nuclear reactor core and
transfer it to electrical generators; second it helps to keep the temperature of the core within safe limits for the
materials used in the construction of the reactor.
Almost all currently operating nuclear power plants are light water reactors using ordinary water under high
pressure as coolant and neutron moderator.
The coolant becomes radioactive as it passes through the core, so it must be fully contained. When the water used
as a coolant is returned to the natural environment, it causes thermal pollution.
Safety
The reactor core is inside a steel
pressure vessel surrounded by a thick
concrete shield to prevent or to stop
the radiation from escaping away.
Moreover, the building which includes
the reactor is made of steel and
concrete to prevent escape ofradiation
in case ofaccidents (Figure 17 ).
Critical mass
Inside the nuclear reactor, not all the
produced neutrons stimulate fission
reactions. Actually, some ofthem are Fig. 17
lost due to escape from the reaction
vessel and others due to interaction with non-fissile nuclei. If the rate of losing neutrons is greater than that of their
formation by fission. the chain reaction will not be self-sustaining (maintained).
The critical mass is the smallest mass of fissile material required for a nuclear chain reaction to be maintained.
The loss ofneutrons can be reduced by surrounding the fissionable material with neutron reflectors - like
beryllium.
If the loss of neutron is reduced, a smaller critical mass is needed to maintain the chain reaction. In this case, 5 kg
of plutonium-239 or 15 kg ofuranium-235 is needed to achieve critical mass.

395
 Enriched uranium
Uranium is a silvery-white metal. It occurs naturally in low concentrations of a few parts per million in soil, rock
and water. Uranium is commercially extracted from uranium- bearing minerals such as uraninite.
The extracted uranium from the mine (after being removed from the rock through the milling process) has a
percentage ofuranium-238 of about 99.3 % , and ofuranium-235 ofabout 0.7 % . t .,.,. _ _
The percentage ofthe uranium-235 in the fuel ofthe reactor ofthe nuclear power station musf 5e'1,i'!Ween 3 % and
5 % ( In the atomic bomb the percentage ofuranium-235 in the sample should be more than 80 %).
If the percentage of uranium-235 in the sample is below 3 % , the chain reaction could not be maintained.
When the percent composition ofuranium-235 is increased through the process of isotope separation, the uranium
is called then enriched uranium.
Isoto12e se12aration
The isotope separation process separates natural uranium into enriched uranium and depleted uranium DU ( the
removed uranium-238).
There are many separation techniques, among which we have the gaseous diffusion, thermal diffusion, gas
centrifuge, laser excitation ...

B.Nuclear accidents
Worldwide there have been 99 accidents at nuclear power plants. 56 out of 99 of all nuclear-related accidents have
occurred in the USA. The four serious nuclear power plant accidents are:
"-' The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear
disaster (2011)
The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident took
place in Japan on 11 March 2011 (Figure 18).
A 15-meter tsunami disabled the power supply
and cooling of three Fukushima Daiichi
react,m,, causing a nuclear accident. All three
cores largely melted in the first three days.
There have been no deaths or cases of radiation
sickness from the nuclear accident, but over
100.000 people had to be evacuated from their
homes.
"-' Tho Chernobyl disaster (1986)
The Chernobyl accident took place in Ukraine
in 1986. The accident was the result of a
flawed reactor d!.!11i� coupl!.!d with seriou11
mistakes made by the plant operators.
The re,mlting steam exploiiion and fires
Fig. 18
rell.lased at least 5% of the radioactive reactor
cor@ into the atmosphere. Large Amounts of radiation were carried across Europe by wind.
Two Chernobyl pl1mt worker!! died on the night of the accident, and a further 28 people died within a few weeks as a
re1mlt of acute radh\ticm poisoning. Over l 00 000 people were evacuated from the region.
• The three Mile bland oeeident (1979)
The Thr@e Mile bland E1-Ccid@nt hi most !leric:ms aecident in U.S. commercial nuclear power plant operating history.
A combination of equipment malfunction!l, d@sigiwelated problems and worker errors led to TMI·2's partial
meltdown and very :nnall off-site rl;llease11 of radioaetivity.
lt11 small radioaetive rl.llea!ll.l!l had oo detectable health effect� on plant wprkers or the public. However, significant
increa§@ in cancer11 from H>i!J=l!J85 amoni p1,mple who lived within ten mile!l of'fMI, were recorded.
ift The SIA 1miithmt (1961)
The �L=l. or Stationary Low,Power Reactor NYmber One was a United State!! Army experimental nuclear p()wer
r@actor, The reaetor underwent a !lteam @1(plo11ion and meltdown on January 3, 1961 killing its three operatorn. The
direct cause wall the improper withdrawal of the central 1iontrol rnd rei,ponsible for absorbing neutron� in the reactor
cor@, The ev1mt is the only known reactor ineident in the United Statl.lll which reimlted in immediate deaths.
The @mill!lion!l werll! oot gon!lidcred 11i�ficimt due to it!l location in the remotl.l high de11ert of eastern Idaho.

396
C.Released energy by fusion and fission
Question: Why fusion produces energy 9 -

,, • •:
per kg more than fission? _,r I
Answer: The nuclei having mass numbers -
up to that of nickel participate in fusion
I
reactions; while nuclei having mass I nerg rel ea ed by 1ssion
numbers greater than that of nickel
1
c:
0 I
participate in fission (Figure 19). �::, 8 I
In nuclear reactions, energy is released or c: ..!!:! •
ai
absorbed as a result of differences in the !;. " I
>
nuclear binding energy of the original 0 :::::·
ai
materials and the resulting products.
c: I
Figure ( 19) shows that these differences in
�c: 7 I
I
binding energy are much larger for fusion. c:
iii I
So fusion gives out more energy per I
nucleon, than fission. I
I
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Fig. 19 Mass number (A)

397
 Problems
Whenever needed use: h = 6. 6 x 10-34 J. s ; 1 eV = 1. 6 x 10-19 J; c = 3 x 10 8 m/s;
; 1 u = 1. 66 X 10-27 Kg = 931.5 MeV/c2 ; N A= 6.022 X 1023 ; mneutron = 1.00866 u;
m roton = 1.00728 u; me = 5.486 X 10-4 u and m 4He = 4.0015 u.
1. Stimulated and spontaneous nuclear reactions ./
The adjacent box includes 3 nuclear reactions.
a) Specify the type of each nuclear reaction (1) &n + 2:fu _,.. ll«r + 1j�ea + 3 tn
(Fission, fusion, or radioactivity). (2) f H + iu --+ 1He + An
b) Does the fission reaction in this box lead to a
chain reaction? Why? (3) 2 ��Ra --+ 2 ��Rn + 1He
2. Fission of uranium- 235 ./
Consider the nuclear reaction:
a) This nuclear reaction is stimulated. Justify.
b) The bombarded neutron that has the most probability to stimulate the fission reaction must satisfy a
condition. Indicate this condition.
c) Determine Zand A. Deduce that this reaction leads to a chain reaction.
d) The mass defect of the nuclear reaction is �m = 0.135 7649 u. Deduce the energy liberated due to
this fission, in MeV and in J.
e) The molar mass of 2 �W is 235 g/mol.
i. Determine the energy liberated by the fission of 1 gram of 2��U if it undergoes fission
according to the above reaction.
ii. Determine the number of fission reactions which is needed in order to liberate energy of 10 10 J.
3. Fusion of carbon in the core of a star
In later stages of evolution, the temperature in the core of a star becomes very high which provides the
conditions of the fusion of carbon nuclei. In one reaction two carbon 1 i C nuclei fuse to give magnesium
2�Mg. Given: mass of carbon-12 is 11.996 708 u and mass of magnesium-24 is 23.978 459 u.
a) Write the equation of this fusion and determine the charge number of magnesium.
b) Determine the mass defect of this reaction in Kg. Deduce the energy liberated in J.
c) Deduce the speed of the produced magnesium nucleus if it is born in the ground state. Neglect the
kinetic energy of carbon.
4. Determination of the kinetic energy of a lithium nucleus
Consider the following nuclear reaction: An + 1�B � �Li + fa
This reaction is observed to occur even when very slow moving neutrons (KE == 0) strike the boron
atom at rest. Given: mass of 1�B is 10.010 193 u and mass of �Li is 7.014 357 u.
a) Prove that this reaction is exoergic. Calculate in MeV the energy liberated by this reaction:
b) The ejected a- particle has a speed of 9.3 x 10 6 m/s. Calculate the kinetic energy of the lithium
nucleus which is born in the ground state.
5. Di�covery of the neutron
In 1932, Chadwick discovered the neutron by bombarding one of the beryllium isotopes lBe with
alpha-particles of kinetic energy KE a which produced a carbon isotope and a neutron.
Given: The mass of beryllium-9 is 9.009 988 u and the mass of the produced carbon isotope iC is
11.996 708 u . The beryllium nucleus is initially at rest.
a) Indicate one common property and one distinct property between the neutron and the proton.
b) Write the equation of the formation of the neutron according to above reaction and determine A.
c) Determine the mass of the produced neutron if the energy liberated by this reaction is
Euberated = 5.70078 MeV.
d) The carbon is born in the ground state. Apply the law of conservation of total energy to determine

398
 the expression ofthe kinetic energies ofthe products in terms of Eliberated and KEa .

6. Fusion of hydrogen and deuterium

The figure is a diagram ofthe fusion between hydrogen and
deuterium which produces a helium nucleus and a photon.
Given: mass ofthe hydrogen is: 1.6726 x 10- 2 7 kg; mass of Deuterium
deuterium is: 3.3436 x 10- 2 7 kg and mass ofhelium-3 is
5.0064 x 10- 2 7 kg .
a) Refer to the figure to write the equation ofthe fusion reaction.
I
b) i. Calculate the mass defect ofthe nuclear reaction in Kg.
ii. Deduce the energy liberated Elib by this reaction in joule.
c) Justify the emission ofthe photon.
d) i. Calculate the energy E liberated by the fusion of
7.174 x 1024 hydrogen nuclei with an equal number of Helium-3
deuterium nuclei.
ii. The heat capacity ofpetroleum is 4.4 x 10 7 J/kg. Calculate the mass ofpetroleum needed to
undergo combustion in order to produce the same amount E ofenergy.

7. Fission of plutonium-239 ./
Consider the following fission reaction of lutonium-239:
in + z39Pu -+ i�oMo + l�tf e + k 1x
Given: mass ofmolybdenum-100 is 99.884 435 u; mass oftellurium-134 is 133.882 842 u.
and mass ofplutonium-239 is 239.000 589 u.
a) Verify that 6 neutrons are produced in this fission reaction.
b) Calculate the mass that is converted into energy in this nuclear reaction.
c) Calculate the percentage ofthe mass which is transformed into energy, to the mass which
undergoes fission.
d) Determine the energy liberated by this fission reaction in joule and then in MeV.
e) Suppose that a nuclear power plant functions according to the above reaction. Determine the mass
ofplutonium required to operate this power plant, during one day. The output electric power of
this power plant is 500 MW and its efficiency is 40 %

8. Endoergic nuclear reaction between a proton and a triton ./

Consider the following nuclear reaction: IB + lH -+ }H + i_H
A proton ofkinetic energy KEproton = 5.70 MeV is incident on a triton which is at rest.
Given: mass ofthe triton is 3.0155 u and mass ofthe deuteron is 2.0136 u.
a) Prove that this reaction is endoergic.
b) Apply the law ofconservation oftotal energy to prove that: KEproton + dm c2 = KE ct euterons ,
where Llm is the mass defect ofthe nuclear reaction.
c) Deduce the kinetic energy ofone ofthe produced deuterons ifthe other one has a kinetic energy
of 1.43 MeV.
9. Endoergic reaction between an alpha particle and a nitrogen nucleus
The following nuclear reaction is the first fission reaction, which was carried experimentally by
Rutherford in 1919.
�He + 1�N -+ 1�0 + }H
Given: mass ofnitrogen-14 is 13.999 234 uand mass of oxygen-17 is 16.994 743 u.
a) Calculate the mass defect ofthis nuclear reaction. Deduce that this reaction is endoergic.
b) Determine the minimum kinetic energy ofthe alpha particle which is needed to make this reaction
happen. Suppose that 1 �0 horns in the ground state and 1 jN is initially at rest.

399
1 O. Neutron moderator ./
In the nuclear reactor, the neutrons collide elastically with the nuclei of the moderator. Energy is
transferred to the moderator nuclei, and neutrons slow down.
A neutron produced in a fission reaction has a speed of 12.661 743 x 10 6 mis.
a) Calculate the kinetic energy KE 0 of the neutron in J and then in eV.
b) The neutron loses half of its kinetic energy in each collision. A neutron produced by a fission
reaction makes n collisions with the moderator nuclei in order to become thermal of kinetic energy
0.025 eV. Determine n.
11. Liberated energy- Binding energy ./
Consider the following fusion reaction which takes place inside a star: 1H + 1�N � fHe + 1�C
Let EN ; Ee and Ea be the binding energies of 1�N, 1�C, and fHe respectively.
a) Determine the mass of each the above nuclei in terms of the mass mp of the proton, the mass m0
of the neutron, the speed c of light in vacuum, and the binding energy of the considered nucleus.
b) Deduce the expression of the energy liberated by this reaction, in terms of E N , Ee and Ea .
Note : This expression is applicable only when no emission of electrons or positrons takes place.

12. Absorbed dose rate

Electron capture is a type of radioactive decay where the nucleus of an atom absorbs one of its orbital
electrons and transforms into a new nuclide. Electron capture is one of the types of decay of cobalt-57.
Cobalt-57 initially at rest captures an electron and produces iron-57 with negligible kinetic energy and a
neutrino:
Given: mass of cobalt-57 is 56.921 479 u, mass of iron-57 is 56.921 132 u and the half-life of
cobalt-57 is 271.8 d�ys.
a) Neglect the energy and the mass of the neutrino. Determine the energy of y-ray(s) in joule.
b) A person of mass 70 kg swallows cobalt-57 of initial activity 74000 Bq.
The person's body absorbs 50 % of the emitted y-rays.
During the first 20 days:
i. Determine the number of the decayed nuclei.
ii. Deduce the energy released by cobalt.
iii. Deduce the absorbed dose.
13. Implanting of phosphorous ./
Consider the following radioactive decay:
The energy liberated by this decay is 1.709 MeV. A source of phosphorous-32 of initial activity 1 mCi is
injected in an organ of mass 21 g. It is required to supply 50 Gy to this organ.
Given: period of phosphorous-32 is 14.3 days and 1 Ci= 3.7 x 10 10 Bq.
a) Calculate the physiological equivalent of dose received by the organ when it absorbs 50 Gy,
knowing that the quality factor of the electron is QF = 1.
b) i. Calculate the energy received by the organ when the absorbed dose becomes 50 Gy.
ii. Suppose 34 % of the energy released by the decays is absorbed by the organ. Determine the
number of disintegrated nuclei at this dose.
c) Determine the initial number of phosphorous nuclei present in the phosphorous sample.
d) The source should remain implanted in the organ for a time t. Determine t.
14. Proton -Boron Fusion Reactor
When a boron-11 nucleus fuses with a proton, the result is Proton
three helium nuclei and energy, but no radioactive waste.
Given: mass of boron-11 is 11.006 562 u.
a) Refer to the figure to write the equation of fusion of
boron and proton.
b) Determine the energy liberated by this fusion in MeV.

400
c) Some ofthe produced helium nuclei undergo fusion with boron nuclei. This fusion produces a
nitrogen nucleus 1N and a neutron. Write the equation ofthis fusion and determine the charge and the
mass number ofthe produced nitrogen.
d) Producing electricity in the future using the proton-boron fusion reactor is cheap and efficient (around
85 %). Determine during one year, the mass ofboron-11 needed in order to operate a power plant of
electrical output power of 200 MW.
e) Proton-boron fusion requires lbillion Kelvin, while proton-proton fusion requires 10 7 K. Deduce
why the proton -proton fusion could be more practical.
15. Fusion of deuterium ./
The adjacent figure is a diagram ofthe
fusion oftwo deuterons to give an alpha
particle. The energy released by this
fusion reaction is 3.8408 x 10-12 J.
Given: mass ofa deuteron is 2.0136 u.
+
a) Write the equation ofthe fusion of
deuterium.
b) The minimum kinetic energy required for the two deuterons to undergo fusion must be 0.05175
MeV.
i. Justify the above condition.
ii. �translational kinetic energy ofa gas molecule at a temperature T is given by
1
- where K = 1.38 x 10- 23 J.K- is called Boltzmann's constant and T is the
temperature ofthe sample in Kelvin. Deduce the minimum value of T for the two nuclei to
undergo fusion.
c) i. Determine the energy E liberated by the fusion of2 kg ofdeuterium.
ii. Suppose that the energy liberated by the fusion ofthe 2 kg ofdeuterium is used to generate
electricity in a power station ofelectric power 60 MW and efficiency 30 %. Determine
in months how long the deuterium fuel would last.
iii. Knowing that 1 ton ofwater contains 33 g ofdeuterium. Calculate the mass ofwater needed
to extract 2 kg ofdeuterium.
iv. Knowing that the combustion of1 kg ofcoal produces 3 x 10 7 J. Calculate the mass ofcoal
necessary to produce the energy E.
d) Suppose that a nuclear power station that functions according to the above reaction is at work with
an efficiency of30 %. A school receiving energy from this nuclear power station requires 4800 W
ofelectric power on average. Determine during one day, the mass ofdeuterium fuel needed to supply
the electrical needs ofthis school.
e) Nuclear fusion has advantages and disadvantages over nuclear fission . Indicate three advantages and
one disadvantage.
16. Extinction of the sun ./
Consider the overall reaction ofthe fusion ofhydrogen:
Suppose that all the energy emitted from the sun is due to this reaction.
a) Energy reaches the earth from the sun at an average rate of200 W/m2 . Earth is considered as a
sphere ofradius 6400 Km. Determine the average energy received by the earth during one day.
b) The radiant power ofthe sun in space is about 4 x 1026 W. Assume that this power remains
constant.
i. Prove that 2.67 X 1011 Kg ofthe mass ofthe sun is converted into energy during one minute.
Deduce the mass-decrease rate �mM
ofthe sun in Kg/s.
ii. From the above reaction, the liberated energy is 25 MeV. Deduce the number ofhydrogen nuclei
which undergoes fusion each second.
iii. The Sun will extinct after 1010 years. Determine mass lost by the sun during the 1010 years.
As an approximation, suppose that the mass-decrease rate of the sun will remain the same during
the 10 10 .years.

401
17. Controlled nuclear fission
Natural uranium contains mainly 2ij�U ( 99.3 %) and only 0.7 % ofthe fissionable uranium 2ij�U. If
the percentage ofuranium-235 in the sample is below 3 % , the chain reaction could not be maintained.
When the percent composition ofuranium-235 is increased to 3 % , the uranium is called then enriched
uramum.
Given: Mass of 2.]/u = 234.993586 u.
a) Indicate the constituents of 2ij�U and 2ij�U nuclei. What do we call these nuclei?
b) 2 i� U is fissionable. Define the fissionable nucleus.
c) When 2.]]u is bombarded by a thermal neutron ofkinetic energy 0.025 eV, it undergoes fission.
One ofthe possible reactions is represented by:

i. Determine x and y and then complete the above nuclear reaction.

ii. Calculate the speed ofthe thermal neutron.
iii. The mass defect ofthe above nuclear reaction is Am= 197 MeV/c2.
1. This reaction is exoergic. Why?
2. Calculate in MeV then in J the energy liberated by the fission ofone nucleus of 2 ��U.
iv. The three neutrons produced in each fission reaction possess 3 % ofthe liberated energy.
1. Calculate the kinetic energy ofeach one supposing that they have equal kinetic energies.
2. Deduce that the produced neutrons might not be able to stimulate other fission reactions.
v. The produced neutrons should be slowed down so that they can stimulate other fission
reactions. Among the control rods, the moderator, and the coolant, which one slows down the
neutron?
d) i. Ifthe chain reaction is not controlled in the reactor, the number ofthe produced neutrons which
provoke fission exceeds the maximum allowed number. What do you expect to happen?
ii. To control the fission chain reaction inside the nuclear reactor, we must control the number of
thermal neutrons. This can be done by the control rods (see figure). Explain briefly the role ofthe
control rods in controlling the chain reaction.

e
Flnlo11
fr11gmtmt
Uranium-235
Control rods

e) A power plant ofelectric power Pelectric = 900 MW has an efficiency of30 % .

Suppose that this power plant functions according to the above reaction.
i. Determine the number ofthe thermal neutrons that stimulate fission reactions in one second.
ii. In reality, the fuel ofthis nuclear power station is uranium oxide U0 2 . Determine the mass of
U0 2 needed to feed the station during one year. Given mass of 1 �0 is 15.990 526 u.

402
 Unit 1: Energy
Chapter 1: Energv:
1. a) Conserved, b) not conserved, c) not conserved.
2. a) Increases. b) Increases. c) i. decreases.
ii, constant.
3. a) Both are vertically upward. T1 = 8 N.
T2 = 12 N. b) K 2 = 120 Nim. c) EPE= 1 J.
d) EPE1 = 2.5 J.
4. a) i.& ii Vs= 4 mis. b) L LiMEs-,c = - 12 J. ii,MEc
< MEs. iii. f= 1.2 N. c) i. Constant. ii Increases.
5. A· a)ME0 = 100 J. b) Zmax = 5 m. c) i. 100= v 2 +
20 Z. ii. a= -10 m/s 2 • B- a) Zmax I= 4 m.
b) i. 100= v 2 + 25 Z. ii. a= -12.5 m/s 2.
6. a) GPE= - 1.6 J. b)8'= 4.082 rad/s.
7. a)ME= 0 J. b) No. Since r..wnon-c onservative forces =
Wr-=!=- 0. c) i.MEB = 105 J. ii. T= 105 N. d) i, v=
.,fH mis. ii. Zc = 0.525 m.
8. a) i.ME0 = 3300 J. ii)MEr= 3140.25 J. iii) fr = 8 N.
b) v= 8.28 mis. c) Decreases the speed.
9. a)MEc = 10.45 J. b)VA= 6.5 mis. c) i. 8= 0. Since
8= 0 �v is max. ii.8 = ± 107.8 ° .
10. a) Yes. b) ist : v 7' and h 7'. z nd : LiU \, and Li E=
constant. c) i. L'lMEz = 2.90525 x 10 9 J.
ii. 1 Kg� 4.35 x 10 7 J .
11. a) i.MEA = 0.92 J. ii.MEB < MEA .
iii) w1= - 0.3575 J.
b) i. KEr= KEi . ii, 1. Xm = 10.6 cm. 2. v= 1.3 mis.
12. a) AB 62.5 m. b} F' = 5200 N. c) fbr = 8133.33 N.
=
13. A a)ME= .!:.2 m v 2 - m g y. a= 10 m/s 2 . UARM.
b) & c) v= 24.49 mis . B- a) There are no non-
conservative forces. b) GPE� KE � EPE.
c) K = 90.82 Nim. d) y= 50.4 m. v = 22.45 mis.
14. a)ME0 = 2000 J. b) vG = 11. 55 mis. c) Z= H-x
f 4. a)V2 = - 0.21 (mis) . b) i. Zero . ii. LiME 26 J .
sin 30 �GPE=M g ( H- x sin 30). d)ME= M
(V G ) 2 +M g ( H- x sin 30). a= 3.33 m/s 2.
15. a) i.ME1 = 7.5 J. ii.8'= 3.35 rad/s. iii. v= i 8 1=
3.35 mis. b) i.ME0 = 3.366 J. MEB = 1.566 J.
ii, f= 0.9 N. iii. W heat = 1.8 J.
16. a) BO= 0.6 m. v0 = ../6 mis. b) i. Proof. ii. OC= 30
cm. iii. Tmax = 60 N. c) i. (1): ME. (2): GPE. (3):
EPE. ii. KE= 6; 6.25 ; 6 ; 5.25; 4 and 0. iii. Figure:
17. A- a) Proof. b) EPEB = 0.125 J. GPEB = - 0.25 J.
c) CB = 0.44 m .
B- a) i.MEB = 0.25 J. ii. X m = 7.32 cm.
b) i.ME= .!:.2 K x 2 + .!:.2 m 1 v 2 + m 1 g x sin 30.
.. _ Kx+m1 gsi n 3 0 _ 2
11. a - - . a(x=O) - - Sm/ s .
m1
403
c) i. LiME= - 0.25 J. ii, f= 2.5 N. iii. LiU= 0.25 J.
18. a) i, GPE� KE ii. KE � Electric energy.
b) m= 1.9008 x 109 Kg. c) i. Pt= 10 8 W. ii. Proof.
iii. h= 454.55 m.
19, A) a) i, GPE < 0 when Z < 0. ii. ZA = 2 m. b) KE 7'
from A to C. c) i.ME= 12, 10 and 8 J_ ii. ME\..
d) Figure: straight line from (-2m ; 8J) to (2m; 12 J).
B) a) Z0 = 1 m . b) i.MEc =ME0 • ii. Figure:
Horizontal st line from (-2 m ; 8 J) to (1 m; 8 J).
C)W7 =-41.
20. a) i. GPE= const. ii. No it is not constant. iii. KE0 =
O and ME < KE Since GPE < 0 . b) GPE= - m g R
�R = 10 cm . I= 0.01 kg/m 2 . 8'= 80 radls.
c) i.Uniformly decelerated rotation ii. 8 11= -2radls 2.
iii.M7= I811= - 0.02 N.m.
d) Li8= 400 rad. e) Graphically LiME = Oand
L.,W non-c onservative forces = W7 + Wcouple = - 40 + 40= 0 .
21.a) i. GPEs hort = - 4 J .GPELong = - 91. ii,ME0 -13 J.=
b) i, GPE= GPERigh t part + GPELeft part =
- 50 x 2 - 10 x- 13 (S.I) ii. ME= 2.5 v 2 - 50 x 2
- 10 x- 13 (S.I). iii. v 2 = 20 x 2 + 4 x.
iv) a= 20x+2' amin = 2 m/s 2. amax= 10 m/s 2.
c) i. t= 0.5 s. ii. X= 0.1 m. v= 0.775 mis.
Chapter 2: Linear Momentum
1. a) P= 0. b) i. Pstud ent = 1200 Kg.mis. ii. Psystem
2400 Kg .mis. iii. P = 0. c) i. P0 = 201- 20 J.
*
ii. P5 = - 10 J. (kg.mis) d) P1 Pz. Ptotal = 0 . e) Vs
= - 4.61 (mis) t) P1 = 201 (kg.mis).
0
2. a) Pi Pr
= = 31. )
b L F ext = 0 .
3. v/ 0 and v2 ' = 3 mis .
=
=
iii. LiU= - 26 J .
5. a) a G= 10 J ( m/s 2 ). b) VG (l) = 10 J (mis).
-11 II II
c) i L Fi nternal » L F ext ernal II ·
ii. Ve = 0.51+ 30.67) ( mis).
6. a) Vb = Vb II II = 0.4 mis . Direction is opposite to
that ofVm. b)VG = O.
7. u = 62.5 m.s .
600
8. a) V= 41 mis. b) F Bullet / B lock = 29268.29
c) F B ! ock / B ull et = 29268.29 N . d) In-elastic collision.
9. a) Weight and the normal reaction. b) i. V2 = 0.4 mis
direction: horizontal to the right. ii. VG = 0 .
iii. There are no non-conservative forces.
K= 96 Nim.
 fo mis . b) mg + -
10. a) V = v8 Fimpact
�p 21. a) i. There are no non-conservative forces. ii. Proof.

*
�t
iii. Ve = 0.311 i (mis). b)i. Elastic potential energy.
� F1mpact = 28.88 N. c)F1 mpact 3.43 N.
1

ii. 1. VB =- 1.738 i (mis). 2. X1 = 1 7.31 cm.

d) When it falls on the ground.
11. a) VB'= VA . b) The balls exchange their velocities iii. 1. PG = (m 1 + m 2 ) Ve = m1 V1 + m 2 V2 � V =VG .
2. Xm = 25.28 cm. c)i. V1' = ( mi - z) V1 +
m
when B collides with C and when C collides with D 1 +mz
m
and so on � VE'= VA . (�)Vz. Vz'=(�)V m1+ m 2
+ ( m2-m 1) V2 .
12. a) f = 2.5 m. b)V1'= 0. Vz'= 5 mis . c} i. V = 2 mis. m 1+ m 2
1
m1+ m 2
ii. Proof. iii. V1 (mi n) =4.35 mis.
ii In-elastic collision .
22.a) h = 2-. b)V1'=( m i- mz ) V1 . Vz'=(�)V1
2 m m
13. a)V0 = 1.64 mis. b) u =548.3 mis.
2g 1+ 2 m 1 +m 2
14. A- a)t = 1 s. b)P1 =0.4 i + 0.6 j ( Kg.mis).
c)V1' is horizontal to the left. Vz' is horizontal to the
P2 = 0.6 i - 0.6 j ( Kg.mis). c)P =i ( kg.mis). . ht. d).I. -
m1 1 .. m 1 1
ng =-. II. - =--.
l v'Z
d) rFext = 0. Isolated system. e)VG = 2 i (mis). mz 3 m z +
23. VB = 6 Km/s. 8 =40°.
B - a) V = 2 i (mis). b) KEbefore =2.5 J. KEarter = 1J .
24. a) A 0 A1 = A1 A 2 = ...A11 A 0 • b) V =0.325 mis.
In-elastic collision. c)t.t =0.02 s.
c) Figure. P0 and P2 are tangent to trajectory at A 0
15. a) i. t.P = - 480 kg.mis . ii. F1 = 24000 N .
and A 2 respectively and each oflength 3.25 cm.
b) i. F2 =4800 N. ii. F2 < F1 . iii. Reducing the
forces exerted by the steering wheel on the driver. d)Figure: �P0 , 2 passes through O and oflength 3.4
16. a) For Vi'= 0.5 mis and Vz'=1.5 mis � m 2 = 1 Kg. cm. e)�Po, 2 = 0.17 kg.mis. t) IIEFext II = 2.125 N .
b) For m1 = 3 Kg: KEbefore = KEafter = 1.5 J. 25. a)VA =0.3 mis. VB =0.4 mis. b) Figure: PB is along
For m1 = 1 Kg: KEbefore = KEafter = 0.5 J. the x- axis and oflength 4.8 cm. c) E Fext = 0.
c)0 < m1 < 1
I Kg . d) V = 0.5 mis . m1 = 3 Kg. d)Figure: PA is vertical upward and of length 3.6
e) V1cmax/ 0.875 mis. V2 cmax)
= '=
1.875 mis . cm. P0 is along (BM) and oflength 6 cm. e) Proof.
17. A- a) VG 2 i (mis). b)U.R.M. B- a)P = 0.3 i
= t) Elastic collision: KE before =KE after = 0.075 J.
(Kg.mis). b)VA '= - 0.75 i (mis). c)Non elastic 26. a)A 0 G0 = 2.8 cm . b) Trajectory is a straight line.
collision. C- a) Ve =- 0.5 i (mis). b) Ball C exerts a c)Uniform rectilinear. Ve (before ) = Ve (after ) = 0.38

*
force on ball A then Lfext (A , B ,spring ,stri ng) 0 ·
18.A- a) P0 =- 100 k (kg.mis). P1 = 100 k (kg.mis).
t. P= 200 k (kg.mis). b)g = 10 r ( mls 2 ). B-a)p = 0.
b) Weight and normal reaction. rFext = 0. Isolated
system. c) Figure: Length ofPA is 4 cm and that of
PB is 6 cm. d)Figure: Length ofPc is 7.2 cm.
Pc = 180 Kg.mis. Ve = 180 mis. C- a) Linear
momentum and kinetic energy. b) i. m 0 > 2 Kg.
ii. m 0 = 2 Kg. iii. 0 < m 0 < 2 Kg.
19. A-a) VB= 36 mis. b) Lfext = 0. c) No friction.
B-a) VM = 1.7 mis direction as that of Ve .
b) KEbefore = 729 J. KEafter = 642.89 J . In-elastic
collision. c) Since GPE remain the same but KE
decreases . C- a) Po = 36.8 i + 16 j (Kg.mis) .
b) P = 36.8 i + ( 16 - 20 t) j ( S.I). c) t = 0.8 s.
20. A- a)i. GPEwater =16 J. ii. GPE car = 0.
b) ME 0 = 16 J. c) Lfext =0. Isolated system.
M--+ • 7.
d) P0 = 0 . B-a)V = - - U. b) I. ME car -Earth = 6.25
- --+ --+
mis. d)Pc ia along the trajectory and of length=
4.8 cm.
Chapter 3: Angular Momentum
1. A- a) a = - 0.064 t + 0.64 (S.I). b) LMext = - 0.064
N.m. B- a) I = 0.238 kg.m 2 . b) cr = 0.0476 kg.m 2 Is.
2. a) a =108.52 kg.m 2 /s. b) F = 45.216 N.
c)N = 640 revolutions.
3. a) V = 12 mis. G = 14.4 kg.m 2 /s. b) LMext = 0.
c) P = - 2.4 sin (2t ) i + 2.4 cos (2t) j (S.I) .
d)Lfext = - 4.8 cos (2t ) i - 4.8 sin (2t) j (S.I).
4. a) Weight ofthe system and the reaction at the axis.
b)8' table < 0. 8\able =- 0.36 rad/s. c) �8= 0.75
rad. d) ME is not conserved. t.ME= 100 J.
5. a)8\ = 1.6 rad/s. b) KEi =1 J. KE f =0.8 J. c) Heat
energy. Wheat =0.2 J.
6. a) G0 =4.5 kg.m 2 /s. b) LMext =0.
c) Sense is positive 8\ =3 rad/s. d) WF =13.5 J.
a) Its weight. LMext =0. b) R 1V1 =R 2 V2 and R1
* a=

m R 2 . c) i. 7.42 x 10 36 kg.m 2 /s.

J. ii. fiME car -Earth = 6.25 J. iii. fiMEwater -Earth = - ii. V 2 = 29.29 km/h.
6.25 J. C-a) �p = - 5 i (Kg.mis). b) �t =2 s. 8. a)P =6 kg.mis. b) G0 =6 kg.m 2 /s. c)LMext = 0.
8'=1.8 rad/s. d)Non- elastic collision(6 J > 5.4 J).

404
9. First a) 8'z 0.05 t (S.I). b)LMext = 0. c) 0'1 - 48
= =
7. a) ME = 0.16 J. b) Vm = 0.4 mis. c) i. ME = 0.16 J.
t (S.I). d)N2 1.67 revolutions. e) Figure: straight
=
ii. X'm 11.3 cm. iii. Decreases.
=

line passing through the origin. 8. A- a) a - w 0 2 X m sin (w 0 t+ <p). b) mg+ N + T =

=

Second 8' = - 0.03125 radls. - ...., .. _,

ma � T = m x" 1 � T = - -
Vm KTo • ..
- - sin ( w 0 t + q>) 1.
° radls.
1 2 "
10. A- a) T0 =
0.16 N. b) IMext = 0. c) 8'r =
9 B- a) i. X 0 O; V0 0.2 -v'10 mis. ii. T0 = 2 s.
= =

d) (MEi 0.04 J) <(MEr 0.111 J) . e) Wr1 =

= =
iii. Vm 0.2 vlO mis. <p 0 . iv) Xm = 20 cm.
= =

0.071J. B- a) There are no non-conservative forces. w 0 -v'lOrad/s. K = 8Nlm. b) T -1.6 sin (Tit)1(S.I).
f radls.
= =

b) 8'r = 9. a) i. v - w 0 Xm sin (w 0 t + <p). ii. and b) Proof.

=

c) i. x ±X m when v 0 and v ±Vm when x 0.

= = = =

c) (0' 0 0.2 kg.m2 Is ) > ( a 1 = 0.12kg.m2 Is).

=
ii. X m 0.16 cm. vm 1.6 mis. d) WO 10 rad/s.
= = =

=
11. a) Mm Ag = 800(cos 8) (S.I), M m8 g -750 (cos 8) =
e) K 100 Nim.
=

(S.I). b) 8" 0.144 (cos 8). c} 8" 0.144 radls 2 . =

10. A) a) ME =
.!:.2 m v 2 + .!:.2 k x 2 . b) Proof. c) w 0 =
�
12. a) I 0.5 kg.m2 . CJ 0 0 . a 5 10 Kg.m2 ls.
= = =
�;
d) Vm w 0 X m . e) Proof. B) a) Free undamped
=
=

b) IMext 2 N.m. c) Proof. d) (),.8 = 50 rad.

=

mechanical oscillations. b) v0 - 0.32 mis. Vm = =

n 8 cycles. e) W1 055 = 250 J. t) d = 40 cm. 0.64 mis. To 1.25s . W a 5.024 rad/s. c)X m
= = =

13. a) i. a = 0.25 t (S.I). ii. a = I 8' � I = l kg.m2 . 12.74 cm. <p = ::3 rad. x 0 = 11.033 cm. d) m 396 g. =

= 2.5 S. C) l• . 8" -
2.5 X -1 ••
b) L1t
A - -- 2 . U. X mi n -
- 0 , 4 m +.
11. A-a) i. P0 = - 0.4 kg.mis. P0 m1 Vi :::::} m 1 0.1 kg. = =
1+ x
iii. 1. 8' 3.33 radls. 2. Wr1 20.83 J.
= =
Vm =
� = 0.8 mis. ii. In the positive direction
m 1+ m 2
14. a) T = 30 - 3aG (S.I). b) a = (M7 + 0.6 T) t (S.I).
(horizontal to the right). iii. Pm = const � Vm =
55
c) 8" = 99 M·r + ioo . d) M·r - 9.16 N.m. =
const. b) ME0 = 0.16J. X m = 6.4 cm. c) V 0.71 =
11
mis. B- a) i. Pmax = 0.4 kg.mis. w 0 = 4 TI radls.
Chapter 4: Mechanical Oscillations(1)
<p =
TI rad. ii. dP =
-5.03 sin (4TI t + TI) (S.I).
Horizontal Elastic Pendulum dt
b) i. a -10.1 lsin (4TI t + TI) (S.I).
=

1. a) dtattal 20 cm. b) i. Vm = W 0 X m . ii. x = 0.

=
ii. IF ext = -5.03 sin (4TI t + TI) (S.I).
c)amax = 17.75 mls 2 . d)x ± X m = ± 5cm. =
C- They are equal. Yes it is verified.

=
2. a) X m = 8 cm. b) X m is constant. c) T0 4 s. w 0 = = � 12. A- a) X m = 10 cm. T0 = 2 s. b) ME= 0.05 J.
radls. K 1 Nim. d)V0 .s < 0 , V1 .5 < 0 , Vz.5 > 0. c)V0 0.316 mis. V8 0. B- a) tM = tN 1 s.
= = =

e) <p :: rad. = b)v� = - 0.251. c)X'm 0.187 m. =

2
d) Remains constant it depends on K and m.
3. A = - 10 cm. <p =
- :: rad. X m =
10 cm .
3 13. a)x" - 200 x. b) x"+ 200 x 0. Simple harmonic
= =

4. a) w 0 5 {2 radls. T0 0.89 s. b) <p - 2.42 rad.

= = =
motion. c) i. No friction. ii. Conserved.
X m = 5.34 cm. c) X m = 5.34 cm. d) t1 = 0.1202 s. tz d) w 0 = 10{2 rad/s. K = 100 Nim. e)Xm 0.1 m. =

= 0.5643 s. e) Figure: sinusoidal function of time

Vm {2 mis. f) i. !),.ME = - 0.18 J. ii. !),.U = 0.18 J.
=

starts from - 4 cm and of period 0.89 s.

14.A- a) V1 0.3 mis. b) i. IFext 0. ii. v !:. V1 =
= = =

5. a) ME =
.!:.2 m v 2 + .!:. k x 2 . x"+ � x =
0 15
m
2 m
500mls. B- a)v0 (S.I). b) 1 X 2 1 MV 2
---+
M 2K m =
2 0
=

b)IF ext mg+N+T = ma�x"+-x

K = O.
- - - --+
=
m � M x K = 10 4 Kg.Nim. c) i. T0 = 0.63 s.
Simple harmonic motion.
c) Substitute x and x" in the diff eq. d) <p =
� rad. ii. T0 =
2n:Jf,. K =
996.83 Nim. iii. M = 10.03 Kg.
e) i. Fig (b). ii. X m = 3 cm. w 0 = TI radls. 15. A- a) i. T1 : ( magnitude 0.2 N , horizontal to the

=
iii. Vm W aX m = 9.42 cmls. iv. Vav = 6 cmls.
= left. Tz: ( magnitude 0.6 N , horizontal to the right.
=

t) ME 2.22 x 10- 3 J. K 4.9 Nim.

r
ii. LFext 0.4 * 0 . horizontal to the right.
=

6. A- a) ME = .!:. m v 2 + k x 2 . b)x"+ � x 0.

l·
=
iii. ME 0.04 J.
f f f
=
2 m
b) ME = m v 2 + K 1 ( M + x) 2 + K 2 ( M - x)z.
Simple harmonic motion. c) w 0 =

c) Proof. d) T0 � s. B- a) x 1 5 cm.Xm
= = =
5 cm.
B- a) ME = .!:. m v 2 + .!:. k ( M - x)Z + .!:. k ( M + x)Z.
2 2 2 b) T0 0.5 TI s . Equal. C) Vm 0.2 mis.
= =

b) x"+-x
2K
=
0. c) w 0 =
-
K
. C- Equal. w 0 does d) ME = 0.04 J. e) ME = Const.
m l m
not depend on the initial conditions.

405
 16. A- a)Lit = /. Lit = 5 cm. b) L mg (-x) + K ( Lit
m
f 4. A- a) Since 8" + w 0 2 8 = 0. T0 = 2rr .Jf .
40 I
+x)2 + � m v 2 . iL Sincex" + w 0 2 x =
0. w 0 =
�. b) C 9 (S.I). B- a) !tota l I+ 0.035 (S.1).
= =
2

f fmv .
�;
b) C= 2.5(1 + 0.035) (S.I). I 0.045 Kg.m 2 .
Independent ofg. B- a)mg (-x) + K x 2 +
=
2
C 0.2N.m.
=

-+ -+
b) Proof. c)v w 0 Xmcos (w 0 t + cp ). Simple
= mg
5. a) Use IF e xt = 0 and IM e xt= 0. b)8" +-a 8 = 0.
I
harmonic motion. d)Proof.
I
17. a) mg K Lit:::} �,f = 0.1 m. b) V1 604 i (mis): e) Form: 8" + Wo 2 8 = 0 . To = 2n j
= =
m ga
1 1
c) proof. d) ME = mg x + 2 m v 2 + 2 k ( M - x)2. d) T0 1.8 s. e)I 0.65 Kg.m 2 . .t) a= 40 cm.
= =

6. a) ME = �I 8' 2 + � C 8 2 + mg ( - � cos 8).

x" + �x 0. Simp le harmonic motion. 2 2 2
2c
=
m
b) 8" + [ : � gf]s 0. Simple harmonic motion.
e)t = 0.2093 s. f) i. GPE = -12 sin (10 t + n) (S.I). =

KE = 24 cos2 (10 t + n) (S.1). ii. EPE = 25.5 - 24 2 m 12

)To
C 211 6C+3 mgf
cos2 (10 t + rr) + 12 sin (10 t + rr) (S.1). iii. (a) : ME,
=

(b) : EPE, (c) : K .E, (d): GPE. iv) T energy 0.314 s. =

7. a) T0 =
2n.JN.b)d = �m = 33.33 cm..
T0 =0.628 S. TK.E =
T°
8. a) T0 1.884 s. t 1 0.471 S. b) i. Sm 2 =7.073°.
= =
2
18. A-a) Free damped mechanical oscillations. ii. T� 1.332 s. iii. t 2 = 0.804 s. e) t 2 2 s.
= =

b) T= 1 s. T � T0 • T0 0.9 s. c) h = 1.22 kgls. = 9. A-a) Since oscillates with almost same amplitude.
dx 1 +BC x 10-4)
d)v - When v=x'= 0 thenx = - + Xm . e)fr = 0 . b) 8" + £ 8 0. T0 211
dt ' 0.0115 (S.I).
=
= =
15
f) Wy; - 0.0306 J . B- a) x decreases to zero. 3
c)I 1.7875 x 10- Kg.m . B- a) Proof.
=
2
b) h' 2.791 Kgls. h' > h.
=

b)Use ME �C 8m2 �C 82 + � I 8' 2

=

19. a) T0 = 2.115 s . b) i. Free damped mechanical •

= =
2 2 2 5

oscillations. ii. T = 2.367 s. T > T0 • c) Sm= 0.144 rad. cp = 1 rad.

ili.1. K 1.22 Nim. 2. ME Loss = 4.392 x 10-5 J . 10.A- a)IM e xt �:::} cr'+�a M. b) proof.
dt
=

iv) I. See course. 2. Pav= 8.247 x 10-5 W.

= =
I

i = 5
c) I 1.52 x 10- Kg.m . B- a) ME � I 8' 2 +
2 =
2 A
20. a)x" + ;;;-x 0 (w 0 ). b)Wiost = Wy; = mg R 1
mg (- R cos 8). b)8" + 8 = 0. T0 = 2nj A
= =

IA mg R
-h Wo Xm Tl. c) WF(driven) h W o Xm Tl.
2 2
c)I A = 4.52 x 10-5 Kg.m 2 .
=

21. a) Free damped mechanical oscillations. d) I = l.52x 10- 5 Kg. m 2.

b)T= 1 s. Pseudo-period. c)Proof. d)i. x 0 = Xm(o)
C-a) ME = �I 8' 2+ C82 . b) 8" + � 8 0.
and vO 0 :::} A = -- and tan <p
=
2mw 2 I
Xm(o)
= -- .
sin q,
)¥-.
=
h
ii. Proof. iii. C 0.951 . h 0.05 kg/s. iv)K =19.72
= = w0 = c)cp = rr rad. A
- 0.1 rad. =

Nim. <p = 1.56 rad. A = 8.00025 cm= Xm(O) . d)w 0 102.6 rad/s. I 1.52 x 10-5 Kg.m 2 .
x 0.08 e- 0·05 t cos (6.28 t + 1.56 ) (S.I).
= =

11. A- a) a = 0.2 m. b)I = 1 0 + 0.18 (S.1).

f
=

22. a) Xm decreases with time. b) i. ME0 98 mJ. =

c) ME = I 8' 2 + ( m + M)g a ( 1 - cos 8).
K 10 Nim. ii. V0 = 0.51 mis. ill. fr 0.108N
= =

c) i. Wy; = - 0.048 J. ii. MEr 0.05 J . =

d) 8" + (m+M)g a 8 =
0. e) Wo = j(
m+ M)g a
.
I I
23. A-a) v =x' whenx = ±Xm :::}x '= v= O.
b) Weight, Normal reaction, Tension and friction. f) i. ffi 0 = 2.898 radls. 1 0 = 0.177 Kg.m 2 .
ii. Verification. B- a)a'= 0.5 m. b)I' 1 1 + 0.405
c) Proof. When v Vm:::} v' =a 0:::} x = ± h :m .
=

m + )g
(s .I). c)w 1 O = ( 1,M a' . d)1.. w 1 O 3.349 radls.
= =

B- a)i. T = 0.446 s . ii. v = 2.3 mis. x= 5 cm and =

h= 2.17 kg/s.b)ME 1 = 1.4475 J. ME 2 0.36125 J. =

1 1 0.263 Kg. m . ii. Verification.
= 2

12. A- a)i. a 0.25 + 0.5x. ii. I = m ( � + x 2 ).

f
=

Chapter 5: Mechanical Oscillations(2)

b)i. ME = I 8' 2 + 2 mg a ( 1 - cos 8).
Torsion-compound-simple pendulums
ii. Since 8" + w 0 2 8 = 0. T0 = �where w 0 =
1. H = -f = 35.78 m.
.JH · b)Tsi
Wo

30 x +15 . dy 90 x 2 +90 x-30 d y =

2. a) Tcomp o und 211 211 R c) 1' ctx" = :::} ctx" O whenx
mpl e 3 x 2 +1 · (30 x+1 5) 2
= =

>Tc mpou d · c).f' f -f. = = 0.264 m ....

ii. To( x=O) 1.621 s.To(x=0. 2 64)= l.442s.
o n
3. a)Proof. b)No. c)Free undamped mechanical
*
=

oscillations. d)V = 1.39 mis. e) n= 15 oscillations. B- a) 8" + 8 '+ � a 8 = 0.b)i. Pseudo-period.

m

406
 11. T =1.481 s. Hi, Use 80 = 0.1 rad and 8 10 = 0.
13. A· a) I= 3 m R2 . b) ME= � m R2 s'2 + �K r2 82 .
6, A- a) V0 = 0.6 mis. b) T0 = 2 IT ft. mass m and
stiffness K. e) In both figures m and K do not
2 2

e) 8" + : : 2 8 = 0. d) i. Since 8" + w0 2 8= 0.

r
3 change and T remains the same. d) Xm(a )= 10 cm.
To =
2
: RH. ii. T �oo. No oscillations. m. Use
o
X m(b)= 6 cm. Initial conditions. B�;i) Ta = 0.63 s.
T0 = 1.046 s => m =100 g. iv) r = lO cm. To(min) = Tb = 0.642 s. b) the coefficient of damping h.
0.628 s. e) S m = 0.1 rad. B� a) 8"= 0 and 8'0 =I= 0. e)X m(O) , m, h and time t. C-a) Ta = 0.4188 s.
b) t= 31.4 s. C-a) 8" +� 8'= 0. b)i:r= .!. Tb = 0.628 s. Factors: period TE . Exciter imposes its
I h
ii, h= 9.554 x 10- 5 Kg/s. iii. N = 5 Cycles. period on the resonator. b) i. Fm , h, K, m and TE .
14, A· a) I = 0.0135 Kg.m2 . b) LU'.= 4 cm. B- a) Proof. Ji.X m = Fm · Jll,
••• s·mce T= T0 • Fm = 0.625 h (S.I).
Wah
b) Proof. c) i. T0 = IT §. T0 =0.365 s. <p= - �3 rad·
�K iv) Fm 2 = 0.0729 h2 + 3.24 (S.I). h = 2.975 Kg/s.
C� a) Use IM ext = :;= I 0" . b) Pcou pl e = - h 82 . F m= 1.86 N.
7. A· a) Exciter: motor, Resonator: System (spring-
e) i. large damping. ii. T= 0.38 s. w= 16.53 rad/s.
iii. A =0.11 rad. <p= 1.148 rad. block). b) Proof. B- a) Since w =w 0 b) h= Fm §.
Xm �K
•

iv) => h =0.2 Kg/s.

e) h= 0.077 Kg/s. d) Proof. e) ME=�K xm 2 [
2
Chapter 6: Forced Oscillations cos zcw0 t) + sm
· 2(w t)] = 1 K X 2 = const.
0 2 m
1. a) Forced mechanical oscillations. b) Amplitude
resonance. e) Curve (c). The amplitude at resonance
c� a)�2 ID V,m2 = �ID
z w Xm
2 2 2 = ID W 2
and � k Xm
2
� o 2

is the smallest. It has the smallest resonance Xm

2
=> 1 ID Vm2 -f:. 21 k X m
2
.
2
frequency. It is the most flattened. b) ME= ( � m X m ) sin (wt)[w0
2 2 2
- w 2 ] +� m
d) f0 =1.5 Hz. e) equal. 2 2

2. a) Exciter: motor, Resonator: The mechanical w 2X m 2 =I= const ( since w =I= w0 ).

oscillator. b) i. Figure. li. f0 =3.2Hz; ID=200 g.
iii. No, since resonance will not take place. Chapter 7: Special Relativity
e) Free undamped mechanical oscillations; f0 = 3.2 1. a) L V= 0.1 c. iL V= 1.9 c. b) V = c in each case.
Hz . X m = 1.2 cm. 2• .1t =8.3 s.
3. a) Exciter: B . A is the resonator. b) i. f8 = 2 Hz. 3. Line of action: parallel to AB .Magnitude: V= 0.6 c.
i Amplitude resonance. ill. X m 1 > X m2 Since f8 1 is 4. d' = 3840 Km.
closer to fA than f82 . 5. 30°.
4. a) K= 15405.652 Nim. b) i. Exciter: humps (road), 6. a) Yrelativistic = 0.8929 C
Resonator: The car. ii. M= % (S.I). ill. d= 4 m. b) Vc1 assical = 4.688 X 108 rn/s =1.5627 c.
e) i. V'= 12 Km/h. li. Decreases the amplitude of 7. a)V=0.87 c. b)V = C ..J11- - 1
- . v�c
(K+ )2 1
oscillations => less damage.
8. a) i. W= 600 N. m= 60 Kg. ii.a 1 = 1 rn/s 2 .a 2= 0.
S. a) The frequency of the resonator is always equal to
a 3= - 0.75 rn/s2 . ffi. Second phase. lb) Wapp= 510 N.
that of the exciter. b) i.X m 1 = 8.8 cm ii. Amplitude
resonance. iii. f0 =2.5 Hz. . iv. 2.4 Hz � f � 2.6 Hz. 9. a) d= 659.604 m. b) .1t = 63.52 µs.
c) Figure: sinusoidal function of period 0.5 s and d 0 = 19043.98 m. d 0 > 15000 m � it reaches
amplitude 1.6 cm. d) i. Weight mg, normal reaction sea-level.
N , exciting force F , tension T and friction f . 10. a) t.t= 1.507 x 10-4 s. b) L= 4.311 Km.
e)M 0 = 1.444 x 10-s s .
ii. IFext= ma => f-F = m x" + K x= 0 .... F= f.
11. Relative to the car, we must add the fictitious force
ill. h= 1.013 Kg/s, e) Ji. Always Fexci ter = fresonator ·
li. Figure: The curve becomes more flattened, the fficti tiou s = - ma n to the external forces.
The persons are at ,est relative to the car, so that
amplitude at resonance decreases and amplitude
resonance takes place at a frequency slightly less L Fext = mg + N + ffictitious = 0
=> ffictitious = - (mg + N ) so the persons feel as if
than 2.5 Hz.
there is something pushing them away from the
center of the trajectory.

407
 Unit 2 : Electricity

Fe.m = 0.12 N.
Chapter 8: Electromagnetic induction a) (j) Bf x. b) e -BfV - 0.5Volt.
= = =

1. a) From A to D. b)From A to E. c)Clockwise. c) R eq = 2.5 0. d)i = - 0.2 A. i flows in the rod

d) Clockwise sense.
from M to N. e)iR 1 = - 0.125 A. iR2 - 0.075 A. =

2. a) Electromagnetic induction. B at each point 12. a) <P =Bf x. b)e = -Bf v. c)Req 2.5 0. =

increase then <P varies then e is induced.

d) i. -0.2 A. From M to N through the rod.
=

b) i. Figure (a). The circuit is closed.

e)i 1 = -0.125 A. i 2 -0.075 A. =

ii. Anti-clockwise sense.

13. A-a) S varies:::} <P varies:::} e is induced.
c) No. They are at rest relative to each other.
Circuit is open then i 0. b)e = B f v. =

3. a) a= 15.5 cm. b)No. No variation in the flux.

c) UAc = UMN :::}UAc =Bf V. d) mg ma , V = gt =
4. a) i. Horizontally to the right. ii. Horizontal to
the left; (P) is north b)LED (I) only glows. :::}UAc =Bfg t. e)g = 10 mls 2. B-a)i. i = Bfv
R+r
5. a) i. <Pi - 0.02 t-001 (S.1). <Pz = - 0.05 Wb.
= .
•• (c1ockwise).
n. b) Proof. c) i. uAC(ma x) 0.3V. =

ii. e 1 0.02V . i 1 > 0. e 2 = 0. i 2 = 0.

=
.. s z cz v
n. Vmax = 8 mis. d) Fem ·
= -- .
b) Figure. c) i. Ptotal 4 x10-4 W.
= r+R
• _ Fe.m B2t2 v
Pi ost 8 x10- 5 W. Puseful = 3.2 x10- 4 W.
=
e)1. a-g- - g - m--.=
m (r+R)
ii. UsA 0.016 V. iii. R 0.8 0.
= =
ii. a 0. iii. g 10 m/s 2 .
= =
6. A- a)B varies:::} <P varies:::} e is induced and
14. A- a)S varies:::} <P varies:::} e is induced.
the circuit is closed. i is clockwise.
Circuit is open then i 0. From M to N in the rod.
=

b) <P 0.09B (S.I). c)e 1 - 0.0135V.

= =
8 e2 v 2

b)e -Bf v . i < 0. c) Fem .

i 1 is clockwise. e2 0. i 2 0 . e 3 0.09 V. r+R .
= =
= = =

i 3 is anti-clockwise. d) i 1 - 45 mA. i 2 = 0.
=
d) Free damped oscillations.
i 3 30 mA. Ptota l 6.075 mW.
= =
B- a)i 0 and Fe,m = 0 .
=

Pi ost 6.075 mW. b)T - k xi of direction horizontally to the left.

=
=

B- a) ,\_______J � c)W1amp = 0.5 J .

b) Figure� e = - 0.135V.
=

C- Sense ofi is anti-clockwise and Fe.m is

7. a) Left face (S), right face (N).
horizontal to the right. D- a)Bf v + i R = o.
b) During [O; 2 s]. c)cp 0.003 t (S.1).
=
- ___. d .....
d) i. i 1 -l.5x10- 3A. From left to right through
= h)Fe.m +T = m d;:::} ifB-Kx = m x"
the lamp. ii. i 2 = 0 . e)B decreases then cp :::} m x" + k x - i f B = 0.
decrease then e is induced. From right to left 8 fv 8 ex'
.
c) Substltute 1. -R = -- -
-- R in the last
=

through the lamp. 2 2

t B
8. a)e lOOn t (S.1). b)cp 0.64cos (IOOn t) (S.I).
= =
equation:::} x" + --x'
K
+ -x = O.
mR m
c) e 64n sin(lOOnt) (S.1).
d) ME' = (.!:. m v 2 + .!:. k x 2 )' = i f B v
=

d) i. u0c = - 64n sin (1OOnt) (S.1). Alternating 2 2

sinusoidal. ii. Figure: u 0 O; Umax 64n V, and ,, - ez s z , K
= =
:::} x + mR -x + -x m
= 0.
T 0.02 s.
=
_2wmR _ 0.1
9. a) i. w 1 rad/s. ii. e 20 cos t (S.I). e) tan(j)---. f2 B 2
A - -.
= =
sin cp
b) <P -20 sin t (S.I). c)B 0.4423 T. s v s z ez v
lS. a) e -Bf v. b) i - Re . c) F e.m
= =
= =
R .
10. A- a)B varies:::} <PVaries:::} e is induced. - -
d) mg+ N + Fe.m ma:::} mg sin e - Fe.m = mv'
-
b) Electromagnetic induction. c)e = - N S a .
=

,
IIBII
8 2 f2 .
0
=- �v g sm .
d) i. uoc iR > 0 . ii,
=
decreases. :::}V + =

iii. 1. e = 8V. 2. R = 6 0 . iv. a 0.2 Tis. e) V0 0. V, 0.63Vmax. V5 , = 0.99Vmax.

= =

as t �oo; v � Vmax .
*
B· a) <P N B S cos wt . e NB S w sin cos w t .
= =

b) i. t 1 = 0.5 s . ii. et 1 0 . et 1 = 50.28V. [O; 5T]: accelerated. [5T; oo[: uniform.

16. A· a) Electromagnetic induction.
c) et2 0 . <Pt 2 -160136 Wb .
= =

d) <P Bf x. c)e = -Bf v. d) Since i . e < O .

=

d) e and <P are not directly proportional.

11. a) <P = Bf x. b)x varies:::} <P varies:::} e is induced e) mg+ N + Fe.m ma:::} I rn = mv' ""
=

and the circuit is closed. Direction of i: from M to N t} llc A = UC N + UNM +UM Q :::} E = r i-e """
through the rod. B· a)v' = � e-� sub in the diffeq:::} A = �
f 8'
c) N: positive pole ; M: negative pole. T -t
d) e -Bf v. e) i, V0 8 mis. Decelerated Also Ae� = 0 is rejected:::}. = .;; .
B2 t
= =

motion. ii.= - 0.51 e- o. 33t (S.I). iii-1. v3 = 2.9 7 . E _s z ez t

mis. e 3 = - 1.88 v. 2. UNM = 1.73V. b) 1 -;:- e m r • C- a)E 8 v. b) r = 2 O

= =

c) T = 0.39 s. m= 0.02 Kg.

408
Chapter 9: Self Induction •• · = Im
11.1 -T
t. ••• ·
Ill. I=I m => t=T =3 ms.
.
1. a) r = 20 Q. b) L = 0.065 H. . =
du r+ R
B-a) u R 1 R,R 1s const. b)cttR + -L-2 u R =
L.E
2. A- a) i. Lamp glows gradually then glows
stable. ii. e < 0 . c) Derive uR then substitute d:t in the differential
b) Lamp goes off with a certain delay.
equation. d)U R (max)= � 18.4 V. e)i. Llt 5,'.
B- a) [2 ms; 5 ms]. b) e 1 < 0 ;receiver. e 2 =O;
=

r + R1
=

pure resistor. e 3 > 0 ; generator. ii. t < � . iii.t (ln 2) T = 0.963 T < 2.5 T .
=

2
c) [O ; 2 ms]: storing magnetic energy;
12. A- a) u AD u AF + u Fc + urn => E = i R1 + u L
=
[2 ms ; 5 ms]: neither storing nor supplying du R1
energy; [5ms ; 6 ms]: supplying magnetic => L + u L =O. b),=_!:_ R1
. c)Atto=0,1 = 0 =>
dt L
energy. UL0 =U 1 E. d)i.E = lOV. ii.T = 2 ms.
=

C- a) Self induction. b) Self induction in a circuit L 0.01 H. e)I m = 2 A.

=

is due to the variation of the magnetic flux B- a) Same original direction(clockwise). i 0 = 2 A

created by the same circuit while
b) UL - (R1 + R 2 ) i . UL < 0 . c) At t0 0,i �
= = =

electromagnetic induction in a circuit is due to R1

E
the variation of <P created by an external circuit. => Uco =U2 =- (R1 + R2) -. d) R 2 = 1 n.
R1
4 TIX 10-7 N 2 S
3. a) L = 5 m H. b) L = e . c) .e = 0.5 m. e) IU2I > IU 1 I-
E di r + R1 . E
4. a) Resistor. b) I= 1 Ac)I L = 0.4 A 13.A- a) I m = -- . b) - +-- 1 =--. c) •1. At t --HJO,
. di di r + R1 dt L L
5. a) u AB = ir + L . b) 1.
ctt
. s teady state ctt = O i �I m => M =I max. ii. At t �o, i= 0 => K = -
=> r = 5 Q. ii. L = 5 mH. M.

=
L
6. A- a) i. At t0 0, i = 0 .... => L = 0.2 H.
=
iii., ___ d)i. At t = 0, U R =O. ii.At t = 0,
=

R1+ r
ii. i = 0.08 A iii t 20 ms.
u L 20V = max then decreases. iii. R 1 = 4 r.
iv. e < 0 . b) I m= 0.2 Ac) WL = 4 x 10- 3 J.
=

r 2 n. e), =1 ms. t) L = 0.01 H.

=

B- a) Anti-clockwise. b) i. u FM = 20 V. _E r + .
ii. urn = - 20V . iii. e =22V > 0. B• a) l. o __ I max __
-- --
r + R1
. b)�t + R2I. c) � =
d L dt
e. i > 0 acts as generator. r + R2
i, substitute in the diff eq ....
c) WR = 3 X 10- 3 J. L
d) i.. UH F > 0. ii. Urn =- U R2· iii. R 2 =18 n.
7. a) It is reverse biased. b) i. I m =1.2 A
C- a)W mag 0.02 J. b)i,W J0 p dt =
= =
00
ii. R = 8 n. c) e - 600Le- 500t. e. i < 0.
= =
=

L R22 E R r)t oo
2 ( 2+
d) i. UAB 7.46 V. UBc = 4.54 V. ii. L 0.02 H -
( )
2(
2r+ R1 R2+ r ) -
[ e L ] O · · · · ·· =

iii. WL = 0.0144 J. e)i decreases => <p

decreases => e is induced in the coil and the ii, WR2 0.018 J. Wr = 2x10- 3 J.
=

E , __ 1 -
diode becomes forward biased. 14. a) I m = - = 0.8 A b) I, W m ag -- - L O m ) 2 e �'.
r+ R 2
8. A· a) i. <p varies => e is induced and the circuit is •• 1 2 __ t · 2
__ Im R T -� t
closed. ii.e 0.02 V. From D to C in (M).
= n,W0 2Ll m .C)WR f0 R12 dt----
= --
-[e ,] 0 .
2
iii. r 2 Q, b) i. <ps elf = l.2x10- 5 Wb.
=

=> ... WR W0 (-)[ 1- e , ] .

R -=2._t_
r + R
=

ii. L = 6 mH. B· a) r = 2 n. b)i. i = 2 t (S.I).

=
3
ii, UD c= 4t + 2L. iii, L 6 mH. =
d) f,W0 4.8 x10- J. L = 15 mH. , 0.5 ms.
= =

4rr x 1 0-7N 2 s . 4rr x 10-7 N 2 s

ii. WR= 2.8 x10- 3 J. iii, Wr l.6x10- 3 J.
9. A· a) <P = 1. b) L = ·
e e e) WRmax= 3.2 xl0- 3 J,at t i, WR 2mJ = = =

c) L 3 mH. B· a) I m 0.2 A b)i, WL

= = =
0.63U Rmax.
6x10- 5 J. ii. L = 3 mH. 15.A· a)i. I m 2A. WL 2 J. ii. U K 0. b)i. e > 0.
= = =

C· a) Figure. b) u AM =ir + L� . u CM - R i. ii. e =1000 v. iii. UAB + UBc + U CM + U MA = 0

dt
=

du cM di __ - r L du cM => u K + ir -- e + R i - E = 0=> uK 1020 - 10 i.

R'
=

)
C dt -
=
R dt => UAM -- UcM - R'dt. ( x)= 1020 V. iv. u K is very large.
u K ma
d) i, Uc M 0 . if. UAM = - 0.6 V.
=
di r + R' . , di
B• a) L - +-- 1 = 0. b) 1. e - L- = ......
iii. cM = 4X10 5 V/s. e)L=3 mH.
du =

dt L dt
dt ii, Since e. i > 0. iii, em ax 6 V. C) UK E + R' i = =

f) [t1 ; t 2 ] and [t3 ; t4 ]. u K is maximum,at t = 0, i = I m => u K m( =

di )
10, a) T = 4 ms. U 8c (max) 0.3 V. b)UBc 0.1 dt (S.I).
= =

E + I m R'. Since u K m( = ) 22V « 1020V.

c) i. i 1 3 t (S.I). ii. i 2 = - 3t + 0.06 (S.I).
=
16, A· li)Electromagnetic induction and self induction .
d) u c 1 30t + 0.3 (S.I). u c 2 = -30 t + 0.3 (S.I).
=

b) <p = - B .ex. e = B .e v. C) mg+ N + F e . m = ma

E di r + R1. E di E
11. A· a)Im -- - + -- 1 - . At to: - =-.
. b) dt .
=> - 1 .e B =m-
dv . -m dv
1= - -.
dt =>
= =

r +R L L dt L
1 f B dt
di
c) I•., A E
-- L
; T = -- . U,
II. I I m (1 - e _.!_T ). d) UMN + il ea = 0 => e + Ldt = 0 .....
=
= --
R1+ r R1+r
=

" e d W circuit
3 ms . R 1 13 n. II, E =12V, e) I.. slope = - ( !_mV 2 + �Li 2 )' = 0 => .....
Im
d) i• T =
) =

2 2
T dt

409
 B· ft) The diffeq has the form of: v"+ w0 2 v= 0. i ( _.!.. + .!..)= 0. e)i. u R= i R ( R is const).
Type: Free undamped oscillations . T T
ii, u R decreases during charging.
b) i.= A E sin(!:.
--.jK t+ <p). U, <p = 0. A= V0 . iii, i > 0. Im = 0.15 A. d) uAM > 0 and q= CuAM �
vmL q > 0. i enters the+ve plate. B· a) (d): uc, (c): u R .

=
17, ll) UMN + U ca = 0�ri - e + L� = 0� b)l < 0. i leaves the+ve plate.
dt du
d2V rd v s 2 e2 C) J, R +�= 0, f1,C 68.18 mF.
-Z + - - + - v= 0 . b)l. Free damped dt R C
dt L dt m L
d) Figure: uc = uc+ u R .
oscillations. ii. i= fB e -ihw sin(wt+<p)+ ...:....
Am
cos
2L 11, A·ft)u R= Ee-�. b) ln(u R)= ln( Ee-�)= 1n (E) - .: .
=
-r V T
(wt+ <p)]. iii,tan<p=-. A=-. 0

cos cp 1
2Lw c) i, Slope= - - . C= 2 µF. ii, E 20 V.
d . E L RC
. A· ft)L -+
18, i R 1= E. b) i. Im = - . ii, fit= 5 - R
. 4
B·a)Wc= 4x10- J. b) We = 8x10-41.
dt R
iii, Figure: i starts zero and increases exponentially to c) W R= 4x10- 4 J. Equal. C· ft) We = 3.37x10- 4 J.
-+ dv
--+
Im . B· a) mg+f= ma �m-+ hv= mg. b) W R1 = 3.974x10-4 J. W Rz = 2.6x10-6 J.
dt c) W Rz < W R1 . During [O, 2.5 t] the average value
. _.!c_t
b) L= m; R = h; 1 = v; E = mg. c) i, v = h(l-e mg m ) of i is much greater than that during [2.5 t , 5 t]
mg "i
l'I, V x = -. II , utA -- 5-
·
m . iV, F"1gure. v starts zero
2
and W R(av ) = i av R 6.t�W Rz < WR!.
ma h h
and increases exponentially to Vm . 12, 1 exp: a) i. At t 0 = E = I 0 R = 12 V. ii, t = 0.2 s.
st

du
iii, t= RC�C= 2 rnF. b) i, RC e + uc = E.
dt
Chapter1 O: Capacitor ii, A= E= 12 V. B= -12 V. a= - ..!..= - 5 s-1 .
1, ll) Charging. b) Upper: negative, Lower: positive t
T

c) Zero. d) Remains constant. iii, i= g e- � . yes , i decreases exponentially.

R
2, 11) Table. b)table. iv, We 0.049 J. z nd exp: ll) U FN =12V. b)At t0 = 0:
=
3. A· a) U AM = 4 V. b) Q = 4 x10-5 c. U MN = 10 v. i 0 = 0.06 A and u FN = 12V= i 0 r =:::) r= 2000.
c) uc= .!..c t . d)uA8 = 62.5 t+ 4 (S.I ). B· fit= 0.32 s. i= 0.06e-2·5 t (S.1). c) uAM = 12e-2·5 t (S. I).
d) t= 0.395 s.
J
4, A· a) W= i uc dt= CJ
uc due = �Cuc 2 + const 13. A· a)Uc= E - iR 1 . b) i. E= 12 V. ii. R 1 = 10000.
uc= 0 ; W= 0�const= 0 . b) C= 10- 3 F. a du Rz �
E c) i. uc= C'.1.. ii.C =2µF. B- ) dt + = 0 .
5, A· a)Anti-clockwise. b) i = -/ e . c) R= 1000 n. RzC
b)i, uAH > 0�i leaves plate g then g is+ ve plate.
d) Generator: supplies. R andC: consume. U. H= 0. P = 24V. t'= 1 ms. iii,C = 2 µF. C· a) No,
B- a)Clockwise. b)C= 2 rnF. c) C: supplies,
R: consumes. d) We = 6.4 J. e) Pav 2.76 W.
6. a) E = 24 v. b)UAB = 16 V. c)C = 2 µF .
= in the steady state qi, 0. b) i. Z = 32x10-6 C.
ii, q' = - �- C R3
Hi.CR 3 = l.2x10-3F.il. iv) C= 2 µF.
7, a)i. T= 24 ms. E= 16 V. ii. 1 and 4: u L . F .G during u
14,A- a) Rd e + uc= E . b) i, U m = E. 6.t = 5 RC.
charging and discharging respectively. dt
ii. Figure: uc increases exponentially from zero to U m .
2 and 3: uc during charging and discharging - --+ -+ --+ h-dT
. E B-a)T+F+f=O � F= T+ hv=:)F= T+(- ).
respectively. b) I,' Uc' + -
ue
= -. K dt
RC RC 1 -
b) C =- . R = h, Uc= T and E = F.
K
t
ii. Uc' = �e- , substitute in the diffeq ....
T .
c) I, T= F(l - e -�) " Tm = F and ut
h • II, A =5 h
-.
... = = , d ue = E E
K
m. T 2 ms. C= 0.2 µF. c) 1. - dt
- . uc = - t.
T T
iii. Figure:T increases exponentially from zero to Tm .
ii. E= �t�t= T .d)i. uc'+ � = 0. ii,P = E. 15,A- a)Vertically upward. b) Charging of the
T RC
t
capacitor and electromagnetic induction. c) e = -B .f v.
-c' = RC . iii. e-;- has no unit�T has a time unit.
d ) i > 0 . Since e. i < 0 �MN acts as a receiver.
8, A-a) i. T= 1 ms. fit= 5 ms. ii. C= 1 µF. b)At t0= --+ -+ --+ -+ i t 8 = dv
t e) mg+ N + Fem = m a �- -.
0, uc= 0�D= 10 ; at t =5 T: e -, = 0 and uc= E m �
�E= D. c) Figure: U R= Uc - Uc . d) i. Uc= 3.7 v. t) U NM + U Ma + Ua D + UoK + UKN 0 =

ii. W R= 9.3155 x 10- 5 J . B-a) Fig(3-b); 2ms < 5ms. �ir+ B .f v- E+ �= 0 Derive both sides w.r .t
b) Increasing R or/andC. . d m + CB 2 f 2 .
time � dt -i + ( m rC ) 1 = 0. B-a) Usmg
9, A- a) Figure: ground at M, Y1 at A and Y2 at B with
"INV". b) i. (A): Uc and (B): u R. ii. SV1 = 6 V/div, ir+ B .f v- E+ '.lc = 0, At t0 = 0 � i 0 r+ 0 -E+ O= 0
1 E .. E . d= .
SV2 = 3 V/div. C)'l, q'+RC q = R° 11, Q m =C E.
= T e - .!., m the d"ff
�i 0 = -r = A. Subst1tute dt -i - A- I eq

t= RC. iii. t 2 ms. d) i. q= Q m ( 1 - e- 1 ) = _ m rC b . dv = �

.... � t - . ) Usmg dt
m +CB z1 2
0.37Q m �uc= 0.37 E. ii. Vb = 1 ms/div m

10,A- a) i' +_..!:__ i= 0. b) i' = -�sub in the diffeq� m

J
�v= � i dt and we have vO = 0
Rc T

410
 -(m +es Z e Z )t . .
b ut m current resonance u AM = uN M => u8N =-L-.
ili
EfBC E
=> V = ( 1 - e m r e ). C) ll) I 0 = -r dt
m + CB f
11, A= X: resistor. Y: coil. Z: capacitor. JJ-o) j, Um = U
2 2

=> E = 10 V. b) C = 1 mF. b) Figure: The tangent

cuts each asymptote at a point of abscissa 0.004 s. 15V . ii, <p = � rad. uc leads uc.
b) Uc = 15cos (lOOTit- � ).
d d
C.) l. i = q = C ue = 4710 C cos 100 nt (S.I) .
dt dt
Current m.
l, ll) j, . .1<p 1 ,2 = <+>2 - <+> 1=- ::3 rad . .1q:> 1 ' 3 = ::2 rad.
U, u1 leads u2 . u 3 leads u1 . b) Figure (2).
=
ii, Since i and Uc are in phase.
iv) L 0.34 H. d) R = 107.14 n.
C= 2.97 x10- 5 F.

12, a) to measure uMB not u 8M . b) l, (a): u L . (b): u R·

2, ll) Pav = 92.256 W. b) COS q:> = 0.62. u. U R since UR= i R (R = canst). m.
R = 100 n.
3, ll) UBA = UBM + UMB => Usin (wt+ q:>) = Rim sin(wt) iv) Vb =5 ms/div. v) /:,.q:> �2 rad. Since Li<p = �.
=
2
+ Lwl m cos (wt) Take wt = 0 and wt = � c) Pav = 0.08 w. R = 100 n. d) U L= 4 TILcos lOOrrt.
Lw
=> tan <p = - and I m = -;====
R 2 2 ,/t w
U
+ Rz
=
L 0.318 H. e) i, uc = - --
4 x 10-4
CTI
cos(lOOnt).
b) As m increases, , I m decreases. ii, C =11.7 µF.
4, ll) u08 =- � cos wt and u Ao = uAB + u80 13, A· a) W = 28512 x 10 5 J. b) l eff = 5 A. c) Wiost =

=
Cw 1296 X 10 5 J. d) Wtotal = 2.9808 X10 9 J . B· a) P
=> Usin (wt+ q:>) = R I m sin(wt)- �
Cw cos wt, and t remain the same. b) WtotaI' 3.1157 x 10 9 J.
Take wt = 0 and wt = � C· a) Cost = 39600 L.L. b) WtotaI ' > Wtota1 .
1 U c) As cosq:> decreases , Wioses increases.
=> tan <p = - - and I m =
RCw /_1_ + Rz
14,A· a) w = 209.33 rad/s. b) i. ltiq>I = TI rad. ii.
--Jc 2 w 2
.
=
TI 4.77x10-3 .
Smce IAuq:> I =f:.-rad.C)i,uc =
TI
b) As w increases , I m increases. 2 C
smw( 1 t--).
2
!, D) w 0 = 1000 rad/s . b) Um 100 V. C) 12 = 0.2 A. i =4.77 x10-3 m 1 cos(m 1 t -�).
R 1 =2000 Q .
6, D) R = 500 Q. b) Pav = 2 mW. q:> = 0 . C) i and Uact u L =- Lw/x 4.77 x10- 3 sin(w1 t - �).
2
are in phase. d) L = 0.4 mH. e) Ube = L:'.!. and ii. U L = U L emax)sin( W1 t + �)=> U L leads Uc by TI
dt
u c ct = �c f idt and use w = -
1
- => ub c = - uc ct .
../LC rad then u represents U L . m.
L = 0.024 H.
1) Figure: Two anti-phase alternating sinusoidal C= 2.385x10- F. iv) Since w1 ::t= ;,...,, .
4
curves of same amplitude and period. vLC

=
B·a) uL + uc = 0. b) Since i and uc are in phase.
7. D) Figure. b) U L leads UR . c) U Rema ) = 10 V.
c) w2 417.97 rad/s. t 1 = 0.015 s.
w = 100 TI rad/s. .1q:> = 0.32 TI rad. d) uR = lO(sin
lOOTit) (S.I). u L = 9.3 (sin lOOTit+ 0.32 TI) (S.I) d) i. Uc = � f i dt=> Uccmax) = � => I m = 2 A.

=
C C Wz
e) i, uMA = O.lr sin (100Tit)+ lOTIL cos(lOOTit) (S.I).
ii, L = 0.25 H. r 50 Q . f) U = 17 V. ii, Um = 1Ov'3 V. iii, Pav = 10 .../3 W.
8, D) Ch 1: uAo and Ch 2: u80 . b) i. Curve (b) leads
w
15. A· a) i"+ �L i'+ .2..
LC
i= U m cos wt
L
curve (a) and it has the larger amplitude (Sv is the
b) UAM = UAB + Uso + UoM .... . ..
same)=> u 0 leads Uc. ii• Sv = 10 V/div.
c) Substitution.
=-
Vb= 0.5 ms/div. iii, uc =18cos(500Tit- 0.295TI) (S.I).
ct d d) Substitution. B-a) Pav = Ieff Uceeff) cos <p .
c) i, i = q = C ue = i sin( 500nt- 0.295n) (S.I).
dt dt b) Substitute the expressions of J eff and cos q:>=>
ii, uR= R sin (500Tit -0.295TI) (S.I). d) R = 24 n.
R U err
9, A· 11) Figure. b) i, Same vertical sensitivity and top
2
pav = . c) When LC w2 = 1 =>
Rz + e _..!..._ - L w )2
of curve (a) is higher => (a) has the larger amplitude Cw
2
. ii, Since i and Uc are in-phase. 1 U
- - L w = 0=> Pav = .....ill... = max .
Cw
iii, U = 5-/2 V. f0 =125Hz. 1 0 = o; A. c) L= 0.5H.
R
0 2
d) i.w0= lOOOO rad/s. ii, Pav = 40=>R=10 Q.
=
•: =
d) Pav = 0.45 W. Pav = leff2 (r+ R)=> r = 11.1lQ.
e) Figure. B· 11) Since f < f0 b) Uc = 10 sin (wt- iii. L 1 mH. C = 10 µF.
1.4363) (S.I). c) i. u L = 0.012 r sin( wt)+ 0.012L 16, A-a) I=�. b) R. B- a) I=�. b) R. C- a) Q.
w cos ( wt) . ij , uc =- -- cos wt. d) L= 0.5H.
48000 R R
13 w
r = 11.llQ . b) i. Z = jR2 + (Lw - /)2 . ii. R, L, C and w.
10, A· 11) i. m 0= 314 rad/s. ii, <p = 0. Current resonance.
z:
c) 1.• uc =- I m cos wt . Zee) = c1 . 11. Zee) = 200Q.
w
..

b) w 0 =
�. c) i. i leads u0 . ii. i lags behind u0 .
d) i. U L = L w I m cos wt. ZeL) = L w. ii. ZeL) =
d) Figure. B· a) Proof. b) i. LC w2 = 1 . ii. I m = 10 A. 250 Q . e ) C = 1 µF . L = 0.05 H.
iii, U AM = UAB+ UBN + UNM

411
Chapter12: Electromagnetic ii.W e .m (O) = 50 µJ. iii. WL = 46 µJ. I = 0.03 A.
iv)w, ost = 42 µJ.
Oscillations
1. a)(a): ele tromagnetic energy. (b): ele tri energy. 11. a)w0 = 500 rad/ . b) uc" + �L uc' + � = �-
LC L C
s
c c c

=
( ) magneti energy. b)We . m = on t. c) C = 0.5µF.
c

d) L 0.2 H. e) i = 8.94 mA.

2. a)i. i= - W0 Q m in(w0 t). ii. Proof.
c s c) i. w G = 80 rad/ . ii. w = 4 79.39 rad/ . w <
w0 . Large dampmg. . m. TG : u = 20V.
••• 0 < t < 2 G
s s

T2G < t < TG : U G = 0.' iv)cp = - 0.2838 rad. d) i. Uc

s

b) Proof. c) i.For q= 0: i2= Q m2w0 2 ...

ii. For q = Q m : i2= 0 . d) i. Q m = 8 µFC. I m= 40 mA. only in rea e and d e not de rease. ii. R'= 9000.
c s s o s c

ii. W 0 = 5000 rad/ . iii. L= 4 mH. s

12. A- a)Free damped ele tromagnetic o illations. w = c sc

500 rad/ . b) q" + ( L+r) q' + ...:!...

R
3. a) At the teady tate We = con t.
s s s s
LC = O '
b)C = 4.5 µF. L = 3.25 H. c) i. Q 0 = F o cp. ii. Proof. iii. At t 0 = 0, i0 = 0 =>
c s
2
4. a)We = ;me sin2(w0 t +cp) . b)
2 L w iv.r 6n. F 2.511 x10 c.
tancp = -(�). = = -5

u W1oss = 3.01 x 10-5 J. B- a) Pav 4.793x10-3 W.

2
L o2 2
W = W Qm cos 2 (w t +cp). c) W . = Qm = on t.
=

L 0 em c s
q
2 b) i. q" + L c 0. ii.Diff. eq. has the form
=
5. a)i. At t0 = 0, i = 0. ii. W e . m = on t. iii. T0= 2n m . c s s

b)Alternating urve and of period TI m and tart

c s s s
q" + W o 2 q = 0.
13. a) I m = Um . b) i. W 0 = 10000 rad/s.
from (0,1.6 mJ) c) C=50 µF. L= 20mH. d) I m= 0.4 A.
6. a)i. Wc(o) = 15 µJ. ii. WL (o) = 0 . iii.W e . m = 15 µJ. J
R2 + (L w - _!_)2
Cw
b)i = 47.14 mA. c) i. T0 = 7.536 x10-4 s. ii. ii.LC w2= 1 =>I m = u: . R = 100n. c) i. Q m =

=
Figure: Alternating inu oidal of period T0 and tart
s s s s
max for a ertain value of w. ii. when w = w0 , Q m
*
c

from 6 µC. iii.At t 1 : q = 0. At t2: q = - 6 µC . maximum. iii. L 0.0 14 H. iv) C = 0.714 µ F.

At t3 : q = 0. At t4: q = 6 µC. d) i. Generator. 14. A- a) i.w = 4000 rad/ . u R = 6.25 in (4000 t).
. s

• • * w0 -
s

.. Clockwi e. e) 1.• q" + LC

1
n. q - O . n. - v'LE -
- .. UL = 500 L o (4000 t). .Ill. .. Uc = - 3. 12s x io-s o
n.
s
c s
c c s

8333.33 rad/ . *cp = �rad.

=
2
A = 6 µC.
s
(4000 t). C= 5 µF. iv. u G = 7.64 in(4000 t- s

iii.uc = 5 in (8333.33 t + �).

s 0.195TI)(S.1). b)L 0.0213 H. c) i.Sin e Iii in rea e c c s s
2
. ii. Sin e luc I de rea e . iii. i and u G are po itive.
1. a)Free ele tromagneti o illation . b) dt + �
du c c c s s s
=
LC d) Generator: on ume energy. Coil: upplie energy.
c c sc s

E .. .1 = - w0 F C m
.
c s s s s

LC . C)'I. co cp = - E . Il.
F
s (w0 t +cp).
cp TI rad. iii. F 8 V. Figure: uc o illate aboutE
= = sc
s

s
Capa itor: onsume energy. Re i tor: alway
c s
c

s
c

=
on ume energy. e)Pav = 0.39W. B· a) T0 2.05m .
b)T = 2.04ms T0 and i i in pha e with u G .
s s s

= s

while i o illate about 0. s s

=
sc s

8. A·a)Zero. b)q = 0.16 C. We = 1.281. B-a)I = c) i and u G alway have the ame ign. s s s

1.6 A. b)WL = 0.128 J. c) Uo F = 3.2 V. C- a)W e . m = d) Pav 0.584 W. C- In a e w = w 0 . c s s

1.408 J. b) i. Anti - lo kwi e. Di harging c c s sc

15. A- a)Ex iter: motor. Re onator: oscillator.
c s

ii. Dis harging in e the oil n ume energy.

c s c c co s s
b) Pro f. c) Sub titute x' and x" in the diff eq ....
o s

C) T= 0.22 . T0 = 0.2 . ::ST. d)Ele tri energy.

s s c c
B- a)Ex iter: L.F.G . Re onator: L-C ir uit.
c s c c

e) i. Wiost = 1.408 J. ii. Pav = 3.2 W. b) i. We . m = i L i + ;�. ii.Proof. c) i. q = x; i:::::: v;

2
<l 2
9, 1 st ExpaA)uc = 12 V.i=O. B·a) 2q +...:!... =O. b) L =m; R =h; C =Kand U =Fm .ii. q = Q m in (wt)
1
dt LC s

Sub titute q and q' in the diff eq. c) i. Q = 24 µC. ... Rw

s
.m. tancp= L ( w 2 w 2 ) and
C = 2 µF. ii, w0 = 5024 rad/ . L= 0.02H. s 0 -

d) i, i = - 0.12 in(5024 t). ii. Figure: alternating Qm . ) i. i = W Q m (wt).

v'(Rw)Z+[L�w o2-wZ) ]Z d
s
= cos

inu oidal urve of period 1.25 m .

i'I. cpl = 2 -cp . Ill. W = Wo .
s s c s TI ""

:z nd Exp. a) u 0F +uFM + uMN + uNo = 0 ....q" + � q' L 16. Aa a)Ele tromagneti indu tion, elf indu tion and
c c c s c

+ Lqc = 0. b) i. A= 24.45 µC. ii. w= 4906.25 rad/ . s

di harging of the apa itor. b) e = - B f, v. c) LFe xt =
sc c c

iii, R = 38.54n. m g + N M + N N + Fe . m = m a ......=> i = � .

dv
10. A· a) Llt = 5 R 1 C. b) Q m = CE. IB �
B� a) Free damped ele tromagneti o illation . c c sc s
d) UMN + UNh + Uhs + Us a + Us M = 0 ......
b) i, [0.5 m , 1 m ]. ii. w = 1000 TI rad/ .
s s s
B· a) At t 0 = 0, i0 = 0 =>...cp= 0. b)Pro f. o

u RT c)A = ..!_.
Lw
=
c) i. 2..±.!.= e-TL
Un d) Figure: alternating with de rea ing amplitude. c s

ii. U 3y = 5.5 V and U4y = 4.5 V ... R 20 Q, iii, w2

=_2_-(�)2= (1000 TI)2 =>C = l µF.
LC 2L
d) W n +l = e-L. e)i. i = -C duc
RT

Wn �
=> Uc is max when i = 0.

412
 Chapter13: Transformer
1. 1)a) i 1 varies => 81 varies => <pz varies then e.m.fis
induced in the secondary, i2 is induced since the
secondary circuit is closed. b)20 Hz.
c) i. m = 2. Step-up. ii. 1 2 < 1 1 . 1 1 = 4 A.
d) i. Pav= 38.4 W. W = 69120 J.
2. a) Urn = 12.5 V. b)�<p = 0.975. c)i. open
secondary mode. ii. Urn = 12.6 V.
3. a)U HN = 16 V. UEF = 4V. Unc = 12V. UAB = 24V.
b) Pav= 48 W.
4. A- a) U2 > U 1 m = 50. b) 12 = 0.01818 A. c) 1 1 =
0.91 A. B-a) i. 1 2 = 0.01818 A. 1 1 = 0.956 A.
Unit 3 : Optics
Chapter 14: Diffraction
1. a) Diffraction oflight b) Amplitude ofintensity
varies alternately ...
c) a = 0.01185 rad. d)a= 0.101 mm.
2. a) i. Figure: ii. See course. iii. See course.
b)Graph: similar to figure (15). c) a = 0.003 rad.
L = 3 mm. d) X 3 (dar k) = 4.5mm. x3 (bright ) =
5.25mm. e) i. fringes become broader and clearer.
ii. No. Diffraction takes place. f) We observe a
spot ofdiameter equal to that ofthe laser beam.
3. a) i. composed ofone wavelength.
v = 4.74x10 14 Hz.
ii. Diffraction. iii. Wave aspect. b)x = 4.75mm.
c)x = ± 4.75mm. d) As 'A,or D increases L
increases, and as a decreases L increases.
e) a = 0.126 mm. ii. D' = 2.37m.
f) Two perpendicular diffraction patterns.
4. a) Ultraviolet. No, since v does not change.
b)c= 3xl0 8 mis. c)abroad = 2.89 x 10- 3 rad.
d) x 3 = ± 1.37 mm. e)d = 2.18 mm.
5. A- a) 250. b)a = 0.008 rad. L = 8 mm . c) 8 mm.
B- a) Figure: We observe a spot ofdiameter equal
to that ofthe incident beam oflight. b)i. 'A,' =
1.6x10-4 m. A' ! = 250. ii. Yes. Since A' ! = �J..
6. a) 84= - 0.006 rad. x4= - 12mm.
b)i. Xn (bright ) = ± [ ( n +D (\ 0
] ii. Center ofthe
3 bright on the positive side. c) i. Narrower.
rd
ii. d = 0.75 m. d) Increasing 'A,; increasing D or
decreasing the width a ofthe slit.
7. a) i. Horizontal. ii. Double. iii. Zero. iv. 1 8 < I A .
v.L = 22 mm. b)i.D = 4m. ii.d = 0.2 mm.
8. a) i. sin 8 = �
a n is a non zero integer. ii. 6.
b)i. Center ofthe 3 rd dark on the positive side.
ii) 1 Aw = ,.air . 2. Decreases. 3. Center of4th dark
n b)i. O N= SS 2 N - SS 1 N = (SS 2 - SS 1 ) + (S 2 N -
fringe on the positive side of 0.
9. a)While light. b)i. 3.2 mm. ii. Lviolet = 3.2 mm.
iii. D = 4 m. a = 1 mm. c)n = 4. x = 12.8 mm.
d)A1 = 625 nm: 4th dark; Az = 500 nm: 5 th dark;
A3 = 416.6 nm: 6 th darkfringe.
413
ii. U 2 < h. b)m' = 51 . c) The lamp does not glow.
U 1 12
5. a) i. r = 4 n. ii. Piost = 10 6 W.
iii. 12 = 500A. b) Uz = !.J. => Urn = 20000 V.
U1 12
Step-up. c) Nz = 3125 loops. d) Pinstal = 9x10 6 W.
B- a) Piost= 9765625 W. b) 97.66 %.
c) Reduce the loss ofenergy in the transmission
lines.
6. A- a) N 1 = 500 loops. b) i2 = 0.56 cos (lOOnt +1.2)
(S.I) B-a) Pav= 3.18 W. b) PR= Pav c) L = 0.85 H.
Chapter 15: Interference of light
1. a) Light originates from one laser source. b)i. See
course. ii. i = 2 mm. c) 'A,= 750 nm.
2. a)i. x = 0 . ii. x 2 = 1.5 mm. iii . i = 1 mm.
iv. d = 2.5 mm . b)a = 0. 8 mm.
3. a) i. Fig (b): diffraction since the width ofthe
C.B.F is double that ofthe other bright fringes.
ii. L = 1.2 cm. iii. i = Imm. b) a 1 = 0.1666 mm.
4. Mis the center of 4th bright fringe on the positive
side of0.
5. a) Synchronous and coherent. b) The two lights
originate from a laser source or from a point
source. c) a = 0.8 mm. i = 0.8 mm.
d) i. b p= 32x10-8m. ii. S 2 P= 1.00000032 m.
iii. Center ofthe 1st darkfringe of order K = 0.
6. a) Similar to figure (3). b)i. Synchronous and
coherent. ii. Since the two lights are originated
from the same point source. c) i. o = K 'A,, k E Z.
KAD
X = a . ii. 0 = (2K+J) � 2
, k E Z. x = (ZK+l)AD.
Za
d) 8 0 = 0 = K 'A,, K = 0 . e) i. See course. i = 2.4
mm. ii. d = 12 mm. iii. d' = 25.2mm. f) i. Pis the
center ofthe 3 rd bright fringe on the negative side
of 0. ii. I p= zero. g)Wave aspect oflight.
7. a) tan% = � => D = lm. b)i. i = 1 mm. ii. d = 2.5
mm. iii. OB = 12 mm. c) i. Mis the center ofthe
2nd bright fringe on the negative side of0.
ii. XM = - 2 mm.
8. A- a) i. i = 1.2 mm. ii. A1 = 600 nm.
B-a) No, since lights are not synchronous.
b) Dichromatic. c)Az = 400 nm. d)n = 15 .
i
C- a) Yes , 8 0 remains 0. b) in = � = air .
na n
c) Closer. d)n = 1.3333.
• n e .. ...
9. a)1. T = . n. d Opt = n e. 111. e(n - 1).
---;:--
*
S 1 N) = � - e(n - 1) ii. 0 0 0.
••• KA D e D
Ill, Xb right = - + -(n - 1).
a a
_ (2K + 1) AD + eD l) . ) . _AD
Xdar k - 2a --;-(n - . IV 1 - --;;-·
i = 1.2 mm. c)i. n = 1.48. ii. d = 8 i = 9.6 mm.
 lU. x 0 ' = d = 9.6 mm. d) v = 6.06 X1014 Hz. V > Yo(ees ium )·
10. A· a) Mis the center of the 5 th bright fringe on e) l, Vmax 0.37328 x 105 mis. U. Pr 0.01 W.
= =

the positive side. b) i 2.4 mm. x M 12 mm. = =

Ul, I 80 µ A. f) The corpuscular aspect of
=

B· a) o' (S 2 M) opt - S 1 M [S 2 M +e(n-1) - S 1 M]

= =
light.
o' � + e(n - 1). b) e 3x10-3 mm.
= = 10, a) 1. E ph 6.768 x 10-191. A= 293 nm. U, See
=

11, a) Vertical. b) 3.2 mm. c) White. d) l . Center of the course. A0 >A.lit, A0 354 run.iv) N 0.
= =

the 4th B.F in the positive side of O . II Center of v) Corpuscular aspect of light. b) 1. N total =
the 5 th D.F of order K 4. e) A1 0.8 µm: = = l.77x10 2 0 photons. 11, N eff= 3.55 x 10 1 8 e-.
C) l. p
Etotal he Nrotal he Nlib •
3 rct D.F; Az 0.571 µm: 4thD.F; A3 0.444 µm: = = =
= =
t At At r
5 thD.F. f) Az 0.5625 µm. =
11, As A or/and r increases, N lib increases.
12, A· No. Since the two lights are synchronous but 11, a) I, A0 538 nm. A0 < Ai . II, KE 2 =
=

not coherent. 2.8x 10-2 01. KE 3 l.27xl0-1 9J, Ul. KE 3 > KE 2 .

=

B· a) The two lights are originated from the same Iv) As A decreases, KE increases. v) Since P2 < P3
point source so they are synchronous and and KE 3 > KE 2 . b) I. Pr 4 x10-4 W. N ineide nt =
=

1.0101 x 10 1 5 photons, II, N 1 = 2.02x 1013

*
coherent. b) o0 = 0 . c) In phase.
C· a)I . o0 SS 2 0 - SS 1 0 0.ti, SS 2 > SS 1
=
electrons. Il l, N2> N 1 . As P increases, N eleet
� 5 1 0'> S 2 0'. b) t. oM SS 2 M- SS 1 M =
mcreases.
aZ ax
o M (SS 2 - SS 1 ) + (S 2 M - S 1 M) � o - + - .
= =
d D
KA D D (2K+l)A D D
11, Xbright =
-3- - d Z. Xctark za -dZ
=
·
m. i =
A0
a
. c)I. Z =
0.18 mm. 11, Xo' -1.8 mm. =

a a
13, a) I, e(n - 1).11, o ; + dz + e (n - 1). b) P is the
=

center of the 14 1 h bright dark . c) 0 is neither the

d) x 0 ' = 0 O' 16 cm. =-

center of a bright nor the center of a dark fringe.

e) IZI = 2.8 mm. Direction: downward.

Chapter 18: Corpuscular aspect of

naht
1, The liberated electrons (If exist) are attracted by
the positively charged zinc plate.
2, a) v is independent of medium� E hv canst, = =

b) EA h c. =

3. a) Both statements are wrong. b)I, Increasing P;

increasing the exposure time; replacing the
radiation with another one of smaller frequency
(keeping the same P).
U. Replacing the radiation with another one of
smaller frequency.
4, a) I, See the course, 11. A0 550 nm, b) AA > A0 • =

c) Ae 495 nm, d) Vmax = 546718.5m/s.

=

5, a) Eph = 1.32 eV < W0 • b)1, 25.5 s.

U. After 25.5 s, the electron must be extracted,
which contradicts (a).111, No. Corpuscular aspect
6. a) v = 1.5 x 101 5 Hz> v 0 • b) Pr 5.97x10-4W. =

c) N = 7.238x10 1 6 photons.
d) N lib = 2.17x101 5.
7, a) Threshold frequency of sodium.
b) 1, KE h v - h v0 • 11, h= 6.6 xl0-3 4 J. s
=

c) I. Slope.11, Figure:A straight line parallel to that

in the figure and passing through 8.92 x1014 Hz.
he he
8. a) KE - =
A
--
A0
. b) A0= 588 nm. c) Represents h c
h = 6.6x10- J.s . d) 2.1 eV.
34

9. a) Neutral and has a zero mass.

b) See the course. c) 334.8 run

414
I
Unit 4 : Atom and Nucleus
Chapter 17: The Atom 12. a) Ebefo re = Eafter ::::} T = KEe +
1. a) i. E1 = - 13.6 eV. ii. E2 = - 3.4 eV. iii. E00 = 0.
b) Figure. They are not equally spaced. c) Wmin =
13.6 eV. d) 3-+2; 3-+l and 2 -+l. e) i& ii v = 4.58
X 1014 Hz. t) i. x -+oo and y= 1. ii. Amin = 9lnm.
iii. Lyman series. g) i. Atom becomes in the pt
excited state. ii. Atom remains in the ground state. Chapter 18: Atomic Nucleus
2. a)E1 f. - 13.6 eV. b) 6 probable transitions. c) The
atom does not have energy: Eh= -21.6 eV.
b) KE = 2.816 x10-18J. e)v = 2.109x101 5Hz.
3. a) (1) and (4). b) i. Lyman series. ii. A= 94.78 nm.
iii. Invisible. c)Paschen series. v =2.976x1014 Hz.
Invisible. d) i. Eph= 10.2 eV. ii. Eph = 13.6 eV.
4. a) It has specific values of energy. b) The atom does
not have energy: Eh= -1.95 eV.
c) v = 4.388x1014 Hz. d) i. KE = 2.62 eV
ii. Atom might be excited toE2 , toE3 or toE4 .
5. A-a ) No. The atom has discrete values of energy.
he
b) T=E3 -E1 ::::} E1 = -10.42 eV. c) Eµh= 2.27 eV
= 3.632x10-19 J . d) E
Ph(4 _, 2 ) is visible. B-a)Ex
= -
4.99 eV. b) Amax 248 nm.C- a) Each line in the
= 5. a) ��Fe . b) For 1He: m= 4.001505 u. Es =
emission or in the absorption spectrnm corresponds
to a certain transition in the atom. The energy of the
atom is quantized then these spectra consist of lines.
b) Particle or corpuscular aspect of light.
6. a) Doublet b) i. Ep h = 2.109 eV.
ii. Eph=E2 -E1 . iii. En = -3.033 eV. iv) E2 is
constituted of two very close energy levels
( -3.03eV and -3.033 eV) then E2 is double.
c) KE 1 = 4.2eV::::} v= 1215287.24 mis.
7. A) a) Has discrete values.
b) i. Fundamental state. ii. Ionized state.
B- a) E p h(min) = 10.2 eV. b) i. Ground state.
ii. 1st excited state. KEafter = 1.3 eV.
c) v = l.46x101 5Hz.
C- a) Amin= l.456µm. Ama x = 4.044 µm. b) 3--+2. Chapter 19: Radioactivitll
8. a) m-1 . b) R= 1.096 x107 m-1 . 1. a) (3) . b) ��Rb --+ Je + ��Sr + v ,
9. a) Pb efo re = Parter ::::} Vi = - Vz · b) KEbefo re f. KEafter
c) A= 97.06 nm. d) n = 4::::} 3 rd excited state; K= 3. 2.
10. a) E2 . b) 6--+2; 5--+2; 4--+2 and 3--+2.
c) B= �= 3.646 X107 m. d)Amin = 364.6 nm.
3.
Ama x = 656.28 nm.
11. A)E3 -E2 = 3.02x10-19 J. E2 -E1 = 1.632 x
10-1s J. Not equally spaced. B-a) Proof.
b) i. Atom remains in ground state. ii.E2 orE3 .
c) ForE2 : KEafter = 2.3 eV, 4.
ForE3 : KEafter = 0.4l eV.C-a)Eph=En -Em. 5.
::::} h= 6.6 x10- 3 4J.s. b) i. 4-+l; 4-+2; 4-+3;
3-+l; 3-+2 and 2-+l; ii. Balmer: 3-+2 and 4-+2; 6.
Lyman: 4-+l; 3-+l and 2-+l. Baschen: 4-+3 .
c) n = 3.
7.
415
hc
· 6 x 10- 18
217
(S.1). b) i. Amin = 398 nm.
n2
Ama x = 515 nm.
ii. Since 398 nm:<:: A:<:: Amax = 515 nm.
1. a) ��Ni. b) %Be and 2§�U
2. a) The nucleus has specific values of energy.
b) Ephl = 0.19 MeV. E µ112 = 0.83 MeV.
c) 1.02 - 0 = 0.19 + 0.83.
3. a) A= 14. 1 iN . b) r= 2.89 x 10-1 s m.
c) 24221.45 . d) i, m= 2.324xl0-26 kg
ii. p = 2.3 x1017 kg/m3 . iii. V' = 1.71 x 10- 3 0 m 3 .
4. a) They have the same charge number but different
mass numbers. b) See course. c) For ��Co : Es =
8.69 MeV. For gco: � = 8.74 MeV. For �5Co :
Es = 8.767 MeV. For 60Co : Es = 8.7466 MeV.
A 27 A
d) �5Co.
7.074MeV. For 5�X: mnucl eo ns = 56.44908 u.
L'im= 0.528404 u. EB= 492.208304 MeV.
For 2§�U: L'im= 1.933808 u. EB = 1801.342 MeV.
� = 7.5687 MeV.
6. a) m 1iC = 13.9999504 u. b) m = 2.32 x 10-s g.
c) i. See the course. ii) E: = l.206x 10-12 J = 7.537
Mev. iii) Verified since A= l4 < 20 and�< 8 Mev
A
7. A- a) 92 protons and 143 neutrons. b) r= 7.405
x10-1 5m. c) L'im= 1.91464 u. d) Es = 7.589 MeV.
B-a) m1 iC= 11.996648 u = 1.99 x 10- 2 6Kg .
b) 7.67959 MeV. c) Carbon.
p- type.
1
c) gC -,�e + gB +v. 5n--.tH+�e +v .
1
a) p type, b) Neutrino. Uncharged and does not
+
interact with matter. c) 1 gC --+ 1 gB + �e + v .
d) T= 20.3 min.
a) i. §�X -+2 §iM +1He & 2 §�N --+ 2§�Y + -�e + v.
2
ii. 2 a-decay and 4 P-decay.
b) 2 a-decay and 4 P-decay.
c) §�X --+ §�Y + 2 1He + 4Je + 4 v.
2 2
t 5288.55 y.
=
a) N = 2.0242x10 22 nuclei. b)l= 1.54 x10-10 y-1 .
T = 4.5 X 109 y. c) m 0 = 45.255g. A0 ::: 559085.8 Bq.
a) EMg --+ fiAl +-�e + v. Electron. b) p- type.
c)Elib = 2.611 MeV. d) i. KE = 1.591 MeV.
ii.. KE= 1.781 MeV.
a) i. p-- decay. ii. 2§{iTh--+ 2 §iPa + -�e + v + y.
b) Due to de-excitation of daughter nucleus.
 2
ij1Pa* ------> 2 ij1Pa + y. c)Protactinium.
d) i.A = 3.3289x10-7 s-1 . A 0 = 6.8561x 1016 Bq.
ii. A = l.088lx 1016 Bq . N ctecay = 1.733 x1023
iii. A av = 3.134 X 1016 Bq. iv)Pav = 1353.89 W.
8. a)Initial activity; A 0 • b) 11. = 0.04 s-1 . T =17.33 s.
c)t = 18 s. d) Npositrons = 4 X 1019 positrons.
9. a)P( l; 0.5x1012 ). b)n = 2 . c)lx1020nuclei =N0 •
Figure: horizontal line passing through N 0
d) N dt = N0 ( 1 - z-n ) . Ndt = 0.7824x1012 nuclei.
e) 1.• 13557cs------> 137856 a +_e
0
1
- . ••
+ v u.m deca = m 0 -m
_ Elib
ffi ctecay - ffi ctt + m v+ me-+ 7 => ffi ctt < m 0 - m .
t
10. a)P(l38.38 days , 0.5 Kg). b)m = m e-" 0 ii. m = 143806 Kg.
=> :: = -11.m e-H. 0 :: = slope. c)Verification.
. . n (0. 63 )
1l .a) Curve (3). b)1. N = N 0e-A t .u. , = _ I
,.
1
iii. 11.2 0.462 day- . T2 1.5 days.
= =
iv) t1 = 0.4 day.
dN dN
12. a) A = - . b)A = 'J...N. c) + 'J...N = 0.
dt dt
d) a = -'J.... K N 0 • = 9. a)L'lm = - 1.289 x 10-3 u. Since �m < O.
13. a) T = 1.3 x 109 y . b) Straight line of negative
slope passing through 0. c)i.In (�) = -11. t
No
ii.Slope = -'J... • iii.T = 1.3 x 109 y.
14.A- a) See course. A 0 = 3.7 x 1014 Bq. b)T = 4 s.
A = 0.1733 s-1 . c) N 0 = 2.135 x 1015 nuclei.
8 - a) 2§iRn ------> 2§iPo +1He. b)i.Excited state.
y- ray(s). Electromagnetic radiation. ii. E lib = 6.9499
MeV. iii.KE a = 6.43 MeV. Ey = 0.52 MeV.
15. A- a) ��CO ------, �gNi + Je + v. Nickel.
b) 5n------> lH + �e + v. c) i.Law of conservation of
-
total energy. ii. Common: uncharged and travel in
vacuum with speed c. Distinct: 1- photon has zero
mass while anti-neutrino has extremely small mass.
2- photon interacts with matter while anti-neutrino
does not.
d)i. N 0 = 2.0107 X 1023 nuclei. ii. Nremaining =
5.437lx 102 2 nuclei.B-a)E lib = 2.8051 MeV =
4.48816 x 10-13 1. b)Ev = 0.2731 MeV. c) v =
2.863 x 108 mis. d)i. Er = 2.82 x 1023 MeV.
ii. Ezr = 1.41 x 1023 MeV . C- m = 6.65 mg.
16. A- a)Since 1X is a neutrino. b)M = 40. N = 18.
c)L'lm = 1.610306 x 10-3 u . d)L'lm = m K - (m Ar
+ m e => m 1SK = (1.000054) m� Ar. e) Ev+
E e < 1.5 MeV. Ey = 0.58 MeV.B- a)m 0 =
3.072755 g. b) t = 1.137 x 10 9 y.
Chapter 20: Stimulated nuclear
reaction Fission & Fusion
1. a) (1): Fission. (2): Fusion. (3): Radioactivity.
b)Yes, since 3 neutrons are produced.
2. a)It needs external intervention (impact of neutron).
b) Thermal neutron or speed about 2200 km/s.
c) Z = 0. A = 1. Since 12 neutrons are produced.
d) E lib = 126.465 MeV = 2.02344 x10-11 J. e)i.
10 20
E 1 gram = 5.l852x10 J. ii. 4.9421x10 reactions
3. a) 1 �C + 1 �C ---) iiMg .b)dm::::: 2.483x 10-29 Kg
E = 2.559 x 10-12 J.
c) V = 1.134 x 10 7 mis.
4. a) L'lm = 2.996 x 10-3 u > 0. E = 2.790774 MeV.
b) KEu = 0.9954 MeV.
5. a) Common: both have the same mass number.
Distinct: proton has a positive charge while neutron
has no charge. b) lBe +1He - 1 �C + 5n.
c)m n = 1.00866 U . d) KEafter = E liberated + KE a
6. a lH + iH ---) �He+ y. b) i. dm = 9.8x10-3 Kg. °
ii. E lib = 8.82 x 10-13 J. c)Due to the de-excitation
of the produced helium. d) i. E = 6.3275 x1012 J.
7. a) Apply Soddy's laws. b) L'lm = 0.190012 u.
c)0.0795 %. d) E = 2.8388 x 10- 11 J = 177.43
.
MeV. e)m = 1.5094 Kg .
8. a) dm = - 4.42 X 10-3 U < 0. b) E total before =
Etotal after => KE proton + dm C = KE deuterons
2
c)KE cteuteron = 0.15277 MeV.
b) KE a (min ) = 1.2 MeV.
10.a) KE 0 = l.342x 10-13 J = 838750 eV.
b)n = 25 collisions.
11. a)m lH = m p . m N = 7 m p + 8 mn - E� .
c
me = 6m p + 6 mn - � Ee
. ma = 2 m p + 2 m n - Ea -
�
b)E lib = Ee + E a - EN .
12. a)E1 = 1.33 X 10-13 J. b)i. Nd ecayed = 1.2467
x 1011 nuclei. ii. E = 0.01658 J.
iii. D = 1.1843 x10-4 Gy.
13. a) ED = 50 SV b)i. E = 1.05 J.
ii. Ndecay = 1.1294 X 1013 Nuclei.
c)N 0 = 6.5952 x 1013 nuclei. d) t = 3.8751 days.
14. a)1 gB + lH ---) 31He . b)E = 8.7021 MeV.
b) 1He + 1 gB------> 11N+ 5n d)m = 97.372 mg.
e)It requires much smaller temperature.
15. a) iH + iH ---) 1He. b)i.To overcome the
electrostatic repulsive force between the nuclei.
ii. T = 4 x 108 K . c)i. E = 1.15 x 101s J.
=
Kg. ii. t = 2.218 months. iii. m = 60.6 ton.
iv.m = 38.333 x 106 Kg. d)m' 2.4 x 10-6 Kg.
e) See the course.
16. a)W = 8.8897x 1021 J. b)i . L'lm = 2.67x1011 Kg.
6 =
67 44.44 x108 Kg/s. ii. N = 3.99x1038 nuclei.
iii. m,ost = 1.4 x1027 Kg.
17. a)2 iw: 92 protons and 143 neutrons. 2ij�U: 92
protons and 146 neutrons. Isotopes. b)See course.
c)i. x = 91. y = 6. ii. v = 2186 mis. iii. 1. Since L'lm
> 0. 2.E = 197 MeV = 3.152x10- 11 J. iv)1- KE =
1.97 MeV. 2- Since 1.97 MeV » 0.025 eV.
v) The moderator. d)i. Chain reaction becomes out
of control which leads to nuclear explosion.
ii.Control rods absorb neutrons, they can be lowered
or raised into the reactor core according to the
required reaction rate.
e)i.N = 19.52 x10 19 neutrons.ii.m = 1330.2 Kg.
416
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