SCHOOL CIVIL ENGINEERING

Introduction to Fire Safety Engineering

FIRE3700/FIRE7600
Tutorial #1 – Egress (Solution)
You are charged with the design of the egress strategy for a 10-storey office building. The
building has a square open floor plan of 25 m x 25 m. The core of the building covers
approximately 5.5 m x 7.5 m2, and includes two stairwells and unoccupied service areas.
Each floor is intended to house approximately 100 employees. The two stairwells placed at
the centre core of the floor plan are independent. The entry door of the stairwells is 1 m. The
stairs have 60 steps per floor interrupted by a mid-landing between floors. The stairs have a
width of 1.20 m wide, and each step has a tread width of 0.28 m and a rise of 0.18 m. The
stairwells end at ground floor with a 2 m wide door leading straight into the street.
For calculating the values in each task, make use of the data and information provided during
the lecture slides and in this document.

25 m

7.5 m

5.5 m

25 m

2m

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Note that this assignment uses Figure 1 and Figure 2, which is the hydraulic egrees
model provided by the SFPE. The lecture slides present other useful data that may be
used as well, and that may be asked in the exam. The most important is that you get
familiar with the concepts. Also, we recommend that you use SI units.

Figure 1. Velocity of movement for different areas.

Figure 2. Maximum specific flow rate of occupants for different areas. For the stairwell use the indicated curve.

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Task 1
Assuming that the unoccupied areas are not to be occupied by employees and the two
stairwells are available for evacuation, calculate the following:
a) The density of occupants on each floor, D (persons/m2).
The available area on each floor is:
A = 25 ∙ 25 − 7.5 ∙ 5.5 = 583.75 m!
Then, the density of occupants on each floor is:
100 persons
D= = 0.17 persons/m!
583.75 m!
Note that this density of occupants dictates the movement of people when there is no
queuing. When queuing occurs, the density of occupants will change at the queuing point.
Therefore, be mindful using this value within the assignment.

b) The largest travel time to the stairwell entry doors from the farthest point of the floor,
tmov,floor (s). Assume pre-movement time is negligible and that the velocity can be
calculated using Figure 1.
The maximum distance from any point on the floor to the door of the staircase can be
estimated as (see the sketch below):
d"#$%&#'()*,,)- = 12.7 m + 9.3 m = 22 m
The velocity of movement can be calculated using the formula below:
S.*##$ = k ! − ak ! D = 1.40 − 0.266 ∙ 1.40 ∙ 0.17 = 1.37 m/s
where k ! is a constant (1.40 for corridor, aisles, ramps, doorways), a is a constant (0.266
m/s) and D is the density of occupants on the floor. Note that the selection of k ! is based on
assuming that the movement on the floor is equivalent as in an aisle or corridor. Alternatively,
solutions may include selecting other speeds based on occupant type.
Therefore, the maximum time to reach the stairwell entry doors is:
d"#$%&#'()*,,)- 22 m
t ,#/,.*##$ = = ≈ 16 s
S.*##$ 1.37 m/s

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25 m

12.7 m 7.5 m 12.7 m

5.5 m
8.5 m
25 m
9.3 m

11.7 m

9.3 m 2m

You need to assess the most critical evacuation element. For that purpose you have to
determine:
c) The maximum flow rate capability of the door providing access to the stairwell, ṗ 0##$,.*##$
(persons/s) using Figure 2.
The maximum flow rate capability of the door (ṗ 0##$,.*##$!"# ) is given by the following formula:
persons
ṗ 0##$,.*##$!"# = ṗ 10##$,.*##$ ∙ W0##$,.*##$ = 1.3 ∙ 1.00 m = 1.30 person/s
m s
where ṗ 10##$,.*##$ is the maximum specific flow rate (persons/m/s) based on Figure 2, and
W0##$,.*##$ is the width of the door (m). For this case, it is assumed that the effective width is
1.00 m, i.e. there is no reduction in the effective width.
d) The maximum flow rate capability of the stairwell, ṗ 2()%$34** (persons/s) using Figure 2.
The maximum flow rate capability of the stairwell (ṗ 2()%$34**!"# ) is:
persons
ṗ 2()%$34**!"# = ṗ 12()%$34** ∙ W2()%$34** = 1.01 ∙ 1.20 m = 1.21 person/s
m s
For this case it is necessary to estimate what type of stairs we have. The riser is 0.18 m (180
mm / 25.4 mm = 7 in) and the tread is 0.28 m (280 mm / 25.4 mm = 11 in). Therefore, the
54$2#'2
maximum specific flow rate is ṗ 12()%$34** = 1.01 , 2 .

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e) The maximum flow rate capability of the door providing access to the street, ṗ 0##$,2($44(
(persons/s) using Figure 2.
The maximum flow rate capability of the door is:
persons
ṗ 0##$,2($44(!"# = ṗ 10##$,2($44( ∙ W0##$,2($44( = 1.3 ∙ 2.00 m = 2.6 person/s
m s
f) Discuss which is the most critical element in the egress. Based on this and assuming the
evacuation of only one floor, estimate the queuing time at the door providing access to
the stairwell.
The queuing time at the door giving access to the stairwell is controlled by the minimum flow
allowed in the system, in this case, the maximum flow provided in the stairwell. This maximum
flow is lower than those calculated at the door giving access to the stairwell and the door
giving access to the street, i.e.:
ṗ 2()%$34**!"# < ṗ 0##$,.*##$!"# < ṗ 0##$,2($44(
!"#

person person person
1.21 < 1.30 < 2.6
s s s
Therefore, the queuing time at the door giving access to the stairwell can be estimated as:
100
N persons
t 78484,.*##$ = = 2 ≈ 41.3 s
ṗ 1.21 persons/s
where N is the number of occupants on the floor and ṗ is the flow rate (persons/s). This
calculation considers that the two stairwells are available and occupants distribute evenly to
both exists, therefore the number of occupants to evacuate is 50 persons.
g) Determine the density of occupants at the door providing access to the stairwell and in
the stairwell.

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The density of occupants at each location needs to be calculated considering that:

ṗ = ṗ 1 ∙ W = S ∙ D ∙ W
[person] [person] [m] [person]
= [m] = [m]
[s] [s][m] [s] [m]!
Note that the specific flow, ṗ 1 (person/m/s), is related to the speed of flow and the density of
occupants at that flow section:
ṗ 1 ∙ W = S ∙ D ∙ W
[person] [m] [person]
=
[s][m] [s] [m]!
The density can be calculated substituing the speed equation into the equation above, thus:
ṗ = (k − a ∙ k ∙ D) ∙ D ∙ W
This results in the quadratic equation:
ṗ
a ∙ k ∙ D! − k ∙ D + =0
𝑊
The solution to this equation is:

ṗ
𝑘 ± L𝑘 ! − 4 ∙ (a ∙ k) ∙ (𝑊 )
D=
2(a ∙ k)
Note that this equation provides two values. It is indicated by the literature that the lower
values is taken, as the higher value is beyond the optimal (maximum) density, which will
induce stop of movement (choking).
Then, the density of occupants in each of the locations is as follows:
Parameter Entry door to the stairwell Stairwell
k 1.40 1.08
W 1 1.2
ṗ 1.21 1.21
D 1.35 or 2.41 1.73 or 2.03
Actually, it should give only one value, as
that is the optimal density leading to a
maximum characteristic flow (D=1/2a).
Dreal (choose lower) 1.35 persons / m2 1.73 persons / m2

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Note that the stairwell is the governing section of the egress, providing the maximum flow
possible. That means that in theory the stairwell density should be a maximum single value
as shown in the figure below. The solution above does not provide a single value due to the
number of decimals provided for the maximum specific flow in Figure 2.

Task 2
Using the model for calculating the speed in the stairwell as shown in Figure 1, calculate:
a) The time for each person to walk down a flight of stairs. Use the model in Figure 1 to
estimate the velocity in the stair.
The distance required to travel down a storey is calculated first estimating the inclined travel
length. For calculating the distance we shall use Pythagoras theorem:

d%'9*%'40 = 30 ∙ M0.28! + 0.18! = 30 ∙ 0.333 m = 10 m

The travel length of a mid-landing is:
𝑑:;<=>?@<;@A = 1.2 𝑚
Considering that between each floor there are two inclined travels and two mid-landings, the
travel distance is:
m
d.*##$ (# .*##$ = 2 ∙ (10 m + 1.2 m) = 22.4
storey
The velocity of movement in the staircase can be calculated as:
S2()%$34** = k ! − ak ! D2()%$34** = 1.08 − 0.266 ∙ 1.08 ∙ 1.73 = 0.58 m/s
where k ! is obtained from Figure 1 and the density D2()%$34** is the one calculated in previous
section.

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Therefore, the time to reach the stairwell entry doors is:

d.*##$ (# .*##$ 22.4 𝑚
t ,#/,B2(#$4C = = ≈ 38.6 s
S2()%$34** 0.58 m/s
b) The time for the last occupant to leave the top floor to reach the exit of the building.
The detection and premovement time can be neglected.
The time to reach the exit of the building for the last occupant leaving the top floor can be
calculated as the horizontal travel time plus the vertical travel time:
t ,#/,(#()* = t ,#/,"#$%&#'()* + t ,#/,/4$(%9)* = maxRt ,#/,.*##$ , t 78484,.*##$ T + n2(#$4C ∙ t ,#/,B2(#$4C
t ,#/,(#()* = max(16,41.3) + 10 ∙ 38.6 s ≈ 427.3 s
c) Considering the queuing time estimated before, discuss whether the compatibility
requirement can be guaranteed. Discuss the implications for carrying out a
simultaneous evacuation, i.e. all the floors evacuating at the same time.
The time for one floor to reach the floor below (t ,#/,B2(#$4C ) is 38.6 s and the time queuing at
the door giving access to the stairwell (t 78484,.*##$ ) is 41.3 s. Then. it can then be affirmed
that:
t ,#/,B2(#$4C ≈ t 78484,.*##$
and therefore compatibility can be achieved.

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The principles of compatibility guarantees that if all occupants start evacuating at the same
time, occupants from a floor would never cross paths with occupants from another floor.
Under this assumption, the system is to perform optimally.
d) Estimate the required safe egress time to evacuate the building.
If the detection and pre-movement times are neglected, the required safe egress time
corresponds to the solution to section (b), i.e. 427 s.
RSET = t 04( + t 5$4=,#/ + t ,#/
where t ,#/ is the time queuing at the floor, plus the time travelling down the stairwell until the
exit door is reached.
If we consider the premovement time equivalent to that from a school (lecture slides week
#2, page 38), this can be considered conservatively as 30 s:

The detection time would need to be calculated using fire models. However, if we assume
that detection is really fast and has been designed adequately, the value would be t 04( ≈ 0.
Therefore, the RSET is:
RSET = t 04( + t 5$4=,#/ + t ,#/ = 0 + 30 𝑠 + 427.3 𝑠 = 457.3 𝑠

Task 3
In your engineering design, you are asked to consider that one stairwell will be blocked during
the fire. Therefore, all occupants shall only evacuate through one stairwell. Determine:

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a) The queuing time at the doorway leading to the stairwell in each floor, assuming that
the flow is not interrupted, and discuss whether compatibility is guaranteed in this
scenario.
If the flow is not interrupted due to clash to other occupants from other floors in the stairwell,
the calculation is as shown in the previous exercise but considering the number of occupants
as 100:
N 100 persons
t 78484,.*##$ = = = 82.6 s
ṗ 1.21 persons/s
Assuming that the density in the stair has not changed, i.e. the stairwell still controls the
evacuation flow, the travel time in the stairwell remains the same, i.e. t ,#/,B2(#$4C = 38.6 s.
This suggests that compatibility is not guaranteed and therefore people queuing at each floor
will have to wait for other occupants to clear the stairwell.
b) The number of people on each floor and the stairwell as a function of time for the full
duration of the evacuation. Do not include pre-movement or floor travel time, assume
everyone queues at the door in each floor, which acts as an inlet valve into the
stairwell. You can assume that occupants from top floors have priority. Plot the number
of people as a function of time.
In the first t ,#/,B2(#$4C = 38.6 s, the stairwell gets full with occupants from all floors. From
there, the stairwell is saturated and can only provide access to occupants as the stairwell is
freed. The stairwell has the maximum capacity at this time. The number of occupants left in
54$2#'2
each floor is 100 − 1.21 2 ∙ 38.6 s ≈ 53 persons.
DE FGHIJ@I
At t = 38.6 s + B.!B FGHIJ@I/I = t 78484,.*##$ ≈ 83 𝑠, the occupants from level 10 have entered the
stairwell. The stairwell has evacuated persons at a rate of 1.21 persons/s. Therefore, the
stairwell experiences no change in persons compared to previous time step (same amount
of persons entered and left the stairwell).
At t = 83 s + t ,#/,B2(#$4C = 83 s + 38.6 s ≈ 121 s, the occupants from level 10 have reached
level 9. Then, level 9 can start evacuating. In this period of time the stairwell did not receive
new occupants while it was discharging to the street at a rate of 1.21 persons/s.
DE FGHIJ@I
At t = 121 s + B.!B FGHIJ@I/I ≈ 165 𝑠, the occupants from level 9 have entered the stairwell. The
stairwell has evacuated persons at a rate of 1.21 persons/s. Therefore, the stairwell
experiences no change in persons compared to previous time step (same amount of persons
entered and left the stairwell).
The process continues iteratively, resulting in the following process.
Tim Floor Floor Floor Floor Floor Floor Floor Floor Floor Floor Stairw Remaining in
e 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ell Exit building
0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 0 1000

39 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 467 0 1000

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83 0 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 480 53 947 10th F- F-E = fully

E evacuated
121 0 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 420 100 900 9th S- S-E = start
E evacuation
165 0 0 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 420 153 847 9th F-
E
204 0 0 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 374 200 800 8th S-
E
248 0 0 0 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 374 253 747 8th F-
E
287 0 0 0 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 327 300 700 7th S-
E
331 0 0 0 0 53 53 53 53 53 53 327 353 647 7th F-
E
369 0 0 0 0 53 53 53 53 53 53 280 400 600 6th S-
E
413 0 0 0 0 0 53 53 53 53 53 280 453 547 6th F-
E
452 0 0 0 0 0 53 53 53 53 53 234 500 500 5th S-
E
496 0 0 0 0 0 0 53 53 53 53 234 553 447 5th F-
E
534 0 0 0 0 0 0 53 53 53 53 187 600 400 4th S-
E
579 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 53 53 53 187 653 347 4th F-
E
617 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 53 53 53 140 700 300 3rd S-
E
661 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 53 53 140 753 247 3rd F-
E
700 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 53 53 93 800 200 2nd S-
E
744 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 53 93 853 147 2nd F-
E
782 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 53 47 900 100 1st S-
E
826 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 47 953 47 1st F-
E
865 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0
0 All out

100
Floor 10

80 Floor 9

Floor 8
60
Persons

Floor 7
Floor 6
40
Floor 5
Floor 4
20
Floor 3

0 Floor 2
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 Floor 1
Time /s

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1200

1000

800 Stairwell
Persons

Exit
600

Remaining
400 in building

200

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time /s

c) Estimate the required safe egress time to evacuate the building.

The total time to evacuate neglecting the detection and pre-movement time is 865 s (14.42
minutes).
Note that the final value may change depending on how many decimals and rounding are
considered.
Task 4
Discuss the effect of the following changes in the design:
a) A decrease of the stairwell width down to 0.8 m (door widths remain as originally
stated).
The maximum flow rate capability of the stairwell is then reduced:
persons
ṗ 2()%$34**!"# = ṗ 12()%$34** ∙ W2()%$34** = 1.01 ∙ 0.80 m = 0.81 persons/s
m s
The stairwell is still the most critical element of the egress since it has the lowest flow rate
capability. As a result, a rough estimation of the time of evacuation for one and two stairs
would be, 1235 s (1000 persons/0.81 persons/s) and 617 s (500 persons / 0.81 persons/s),
respectively. Note that this estimation is assuming compatibility; a larger value would be
expected if no compatibility is guaranteed.
b) A decrease of the width of the doors down to 0.8 m (stairwell width remains as
originally stated).
If the door width is decreased it means that the maximum flow rate will be reduced to:
persons
ṗ 0##$,.*##$!"# = ṗ 10##$,.*##$ ∙ W0##$,.*##$ = 1.3 ∙ 0.8 m = 1.04 person/s
m s

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This flow rate is lower than the stairwell maximum flow rate:
person person
ṗ 0##$,.*##$!"# = 1.04 < ṗ 2()%$34**!"# = 1.21
s s
As a result, the door will be the critical element in the egress. This indicates that the stairwell
will have a density below the optimal density. If compatibility is guaranteed, this will have no
further implications in the movement within the stair. If compatibility is not guaranteed, a
merging of flows will occurs in the stairwell (this calculation is out of the scope of this course).
c) How can compatibility be guaranteed if only a stairwell is provided?
Compatibility assumes that:
t ,#/,B2(#$4C ≈ t 78484,.*##$
For the single stairwell case, the values were:
d.*##$ (# .*##$
t ,#/,B2(#$4C = = 40 s
S

N
t 78484,.*##$ = = 83 s
ṗ

The three alternatives are:

• Increase the walking distance from floor to floor (d.*##$ (# .*##$ ). This is, however, a
geometric design not very easily controllable.
• Reduce the number of occupants per floor (N). The number of building occupants may
be forced to be reduced. This is however not ideal, especially considering the low
density in the office space (0.17 persons / m2).
• Increase the flow rate in the stairwell (ṗ ). In order to increase the flow rate in the
stairwell, a higher width may be required

d) What other elements in the fire safety strategy are required to guarantee the
simultaneous evacuation studied in this tutorial?
• Compatibility, to ensure an efficient evacuation process.
• Compartmentation to ensure no fire or smoke spread to neighbouring compartments.
• Protected lobbies may be a good solution since smoke pressurisation may not work in
a simultaneous evacuation.

e) What other egress strategies may be proposed?

A staged evacuation could be proposed if compartmentation and pressurisation are
guaranteed.

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