EXPLORE

1. Poetic Forms and Genres:

15 Types of Poetic Forms
From sonnets and epics to haikus and villanelles, learn more about 15 of literature ’s most
enduring types of poems.
1.1. Blank verse. Blank verse is poetry written with a precise meter—almost always iambic
pentameter—that does not rhyme.
1.2. Rhymed poetry. In contrast to blank verse, rhymed poems rhyme by definition, although their
scheme varies.
1.3. Free verse. Free verse poetry is poetry that lacks a consistent rhyme scheme, metrical
pattern, or musical form.
1.4. Epics. An epic poem is a lengthy, narrative work of poetry. These long poems typically detail
extraordinary feats and adventures of characters from a distant past.
1.5. Narrative poetry. Similar to an epic, a narrative poem tells a story. Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow’s “The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere” and Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s “The Rime
of the Ancient Mariner” exemplify this form.
1.6. Haiku. A haiku is a three-line poetic form originating in Japan. The first line has five syllables,
the second line has seven syllables, and the third line again has five syllables.
1.7. Pastoral poetry. A pastoral poem is one that concerns the natural world, rural life, and
landscapes. These poems have persevered from Ancient Greece (in the poetry of Hesiod) to
Ancient Rome (Virgil) to the present day (Gary Snyder).
1.8. Sonnet. A sonnet is a 14 line poem, typically (but not exclusively) concerning the topic of love.
Sonnets contain internal rhymes within their 14 lines; the exact rhyme scheme depends on the
style of a sonnet.
1.9. Elegies. An elegy is a poem that reflects upon death or loss. Traditionally, it contains themes
of mourning, loss, and reflection.
1.10. Ode. Much like an elegy, an ode is a tribute to its subject, although the subject need not
be dead—or even sentient, as in John Keats’ “Ode on a Grecian Urn”.
1.11. Limerick. A limerick is a five-line poem that consists of a single stanza, an AABBA rhyme
scheme, and whose subject is a short, pithy tale or description.
1.12. Lyric poetry. Lyric poetry refers to the broad category of poetry that concerns feelings
and emotion. This distinguishes it from two other poetic categories: epic and dramatic.
1.13. Ballad. A ballad (or ballade) is a form of narrative verse that can be either poetic or
musical. It typically follows a pattern of rhymed quatrains. From John Keats to Samuel Taylor
Coleridge to Bob Dylan, it represents a melodious form of storytelling.
1.14. Soliloquy. A soliloquy is a monologue in which a character speaks to him or herself,
expressing inner thoughts that an audience might not otherwise know. Soliloquies are not
definitionally poems, although they often can be—most famously in the plays of William
Shakespeare.
1.15. Villanelle. A nineteen-line poem consisting of five tercets and a quatrain, with a highly
specified internal rhyme scheme. Originally a variation on a pastoral, the villanelle has evolved
to describe obsessions and other intense subject matters, as exemplified by Dylan Thomas,
author of villanelles like “Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night.”
ACTIVITY:
Choose one the poetic forms enumerated above and create/write your own poem.
2. Survey of Poetry Authors and Their Unique Styles:
The Most Commonly-Mentioned Great Poems

It is nearly impossible to narrow down all the poems of the world into a selection of ten that are the
best of them all. The poems that are listed in this category are my attempt to do so, but I recognize
that there are many that deserve recognition that will not be listed. There are so many poems in the
world and there are far more than ten that could be considered exceptional. In addition, greatness
must be judged by some type of objective criteria, but in a genre such as poetry, objective analysis of
a poem’s elements must share equal footing with the subjective response one has to a poem, since
poetry is intended to evoke an emotional response. So these poems contain elements that I think
make them superior, but they are also poems that I personally like for various reasons. In order to
complete this category, I also think it is important to take both the poem and the poet into account. I
want to give recognition to the greatest poets who have had a lasting impact on our culture, as well
as the specific masterpieces they have created.

Poetry has been around for centuries, and therefore, there is a great deal of variation in styles. I want
to be fair in my selections so that no style or period is given more weight than another. Some periods
of history have had a more significant impact on literature and poetry than others, but there have
been important poets and poems in every era since the first poem was written. Because of this, some
of the earliest oral poems, even before the advent of written language and literature, should be given
a great deal of credit for shaping the foundation for future poetry. Even so, my selections tend to lean
towards works of the past two centuries, since those poems are more accessible to me than more
ancient verse, no matter how well written they may be.

Poems

2.1. The Road Not Taken by Robert Frost: Robert Frost’s “The Road Not Taken” is a classic that's
regarded by many as one of the greatest masterpieces of American poetry. Robert Frost was an
excellent poet that contributed much to the art in his years of writing. This title is one of the
most widely known poems, but there is a great deal of contrast in the analytical interpretations of
its meaning. Perhaps the most commonly embraced meaning is that of individuality and being
yourself, but I think the meaning is a bit more subtle than that. In the poem, the speaker states
that the roads are equally worn and it is only at the end that he says he took the less traveled
one and that is what has made all the difference in his life. Because of this difference in the
description of the roads at the beginning and the end of the poem, I think Frost is saying that we
have freedom of choice, and once we have made a choice and gone down a path, it is impossible
to know where that other path would have led us. I like this interpretation of the poem far more
than one where the traveler must somehow make the “right” choice, because it seems deeper
and more philosophical and less of an attempt to be inspirational.
2.2. Sonnet XVIII by William Shakespeare: Perhaps the most famous poet of all time is William
Shakespeare. He is not my favorite poet, and in fact, I often find his works taxing to read. I do
not, however, need to like his works for me to still consider him a great poet. I do like many of his
sonnets, maybe because he has to say whatever he is going to in 14 lines, which limits his ability
to be longwinded. His most well known sonnet is Sonnet 18, “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’
s Day?” This sonnet is an elegant metaphor comparing a summer’s day, which everyone can
 understand, to his love for an unnamed woman. I think I like this poem so much because I can
picture some knight back in medieval times saying these words to woo his fair lady. Although the
poem fits the strict requirements of a Shakespearian sonnet, the strictness of form does not
interfere with the fluid language used to describe his lover.
2.3. Love Song of J. Alfred Purfrock by T.S. Elliot: “The Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock” is one of
the few poems I remember studying in high school, and it is because of this that I decided I must
like it. T.S. Elliot is an excellent poet and I really like the imagery he uses. For example, the
personification of “the smoke rubbing itself on the window-panes” is a gracefully-worded means
of using imagery that evokes the mood of the speaker who is out of his depth at a party.
2.4. Howl by Allan Ginsberg: The Beat Movement was full of rebellion and contempt for society at
large. One of the most influential and representative examples of this movement is the poem “
Howl.” At first, It was met with much controversy because of the obscenity it contained, but
eventually, it became the most popular poem of the Beat Generation. The opening lines are by far
the most famous and are often quoted because the alliterative description of the horrors of
addiction are made searingly clear. “I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by
madness, starving hysterical naked, dragging themselves through the negro streets at dawn
looking for an angry fix, angel-headed hipsters burning for the ancient heavenly connection to the
starry dynamo in the machinery of night, who poverty and tatters and hollow-eyed and high sat
up smoking in the supernatural darkness of cold-water flats floating across the tops of cities
contemplating jazz, who bared their brains to Heaven under the El and saw Mohammedan angels
staggering on tenement roofs illuminated.”
2.5. Because I Could Not Stop for Death by Emily Dickinson: “Because I Could Not Stop for Death”
is a melancholy, but thought-provoking poem by Emily Dickinson. It has consistent meter and
exhibits subtle use of end rhyme, internal rhyme, and alliteration. Repetition of the phrase “We
passed…” in the third stanza emphasizes the inevitability of death. Dickinson personifies death
and does so in a way that shows she does not fear it, but almost welcomes it.
2.6. Sailing to Byzantium by W. B. Yeats: “Sailing to Byzantium,” by W. B. Yeats first caught my eye
because of the opening line, “no country for old men.” This line inspired the title of a book and
was later turned into a movie. Beyond this fact, the poem was also very interesting. It seems to
be about the agony and pain of growing old and how the speaker is ready to depart this life and
move on to the next, to the city of Byzantium.
2.7. I Carry Your Heart With Me by E.E. Cummings: I really like the poem “I carry your heart with me”
By E.E. Cummings. Each time I read it, I read it differently, sometimes the parts inside the
parentheses seem like a second voice; perhaps those lines represent the woman he is talking to.
Other times it seems like it is one person and the parenthesis represent what he is thinking and
how his thoughts are different than what he is actually saying. The lack of the usual conventions
of punctuation and capitalization encourages the reader to read the poem in different ways and
find new meanings with each reading.
2.8. The Fish by Elizabeth Bishop: Elizabeth Bishop uses fantastic imagery in the poem “The Fish.”
She uses many similes and metaphors, which give what she is saying even stronger meaning. Her
use of a great deal of visual imagery in her description of the simple event of catching a fish
captures the imagination of the reader.
2.9. The Village Blacksmith by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow: “The Village Blacksmith” by Henry
Wadsworth Longfellow is one of my favorite poems, describing the day to day routine of a
blacksmith. He is a single father who has to work hard, but he does not complain and does what
 he needs to in order to finish the day’s work and provide for himself and his family. The poem
uses a very regular meter and rhyme scheme, which adds to the regularity and routine of the
blacksmith’s day.
2.10. Still I Rise by Maya Angelou: “Still I Rise” by Maya Angelou is a very uplifting and
inspirational poem by a more modern poet than the previous nine. It gives a feeling of strong
independence. The poem gives conveys a sense of being able to overcome and rise up despite
any obstacles that may present themselves. This poem also inspired a song and album by the
same name by Tupac Shakur.

ACTIVITY:
What is your favourite poem to read and who is the author?. Explain why that poem is your
favourite and cite some of its poetic language that you like the most.
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3. Language of Poetry:
3.1. Form
Form refers to a poem’s structure, or the way the words are arranged on the page. All poems are
made up of series of lines. The length of the lines, where they break, and how they are punctuated all
contribute to a poem’s rhythm and meaning. In many poems, the lines are grouped into stanzas,
which function like paragraphs in prose. Each stanza plays a part in conveying the overall message of
a poem.
 traditional form
 organic form
3.2. Poetic Elements
For a poet, deciding on a subject and form is just the beginning. Will the poem hum along at a steady
beat or charge ahead with a bold rhythm? What images or sounds will convey a mood or establish a
distinct tone? Using sound devices and language, poets can convey meaning, make music, and tap
into the senses.
 sound devices
 imagery and figurative language
3.3. Analyze the text

Note: A comprehensive and detailed discussion of Language of Poetry is appended in a PDF file.

4. Rhythm, Meter, and Beat

4.1 Rhythm
Rhythm is the use of stressed and unstressed syllables, which creates what you experience as a
pattern of beats in the sound of the words. The word rhythm comes from the Greek word rhythmos,
which can be translated as “measured motion”.
4.2 Meter
Meter is a stressed and unstressed syllabic pattern in a verse, or within the lines of a poem.
Stressed syllables tend to be longer, and unstressed shorter. In simple language, meter is a poetic
device that serves as a linguistic sound pattern for the verses, as it gives poetry a rhythmical and
melodious sound. For instance, if you read a poem aloud, and it produces regular sound patterns, then
this poem would be a metered or measured poem. The study of different types of versification and
meters is known as “prosody.”

4.2.1 Common Examples of Meter

Meter is a formal element of poetry (e.g., contributing to a structured form), and thus it is not
so common to find in normal speech patterns. Also, there are many examples of meter in common
idioms and nursery rhymes, such as in the following:
 Who’s afraid of the big bad wolf?
The big bad wolf, the big bad wolf.
 Hickory, dickory, dock,
The mouse ran up the clock.
 Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.
Humpty Dumpty had a great fall.
All the king’s horses and all the king’s men
Couldn’t put Humpty together again!
 6Jack, be nimble,
Jack, be quick,
Jack, jump over
The candlestick.

4.3 Beat
Beats within poetry represent the rhythm, sound, meter and rhyme of the entire piece of poetry.
There are many different types of beats the poet can use as well as different types of meters used
to write poetry. Rhyme, rhythm, meters and sound are all related to poetic units or poetic beats. Feet
are various patterns of accented and unaccented syllables within the lines of a poem. A meter
reflects the number of feet within a line.

5. Types of Feet

5.1 Feet
The literary device “foot” is a measuring unit in poetry, which is made up of stressed and unstressed
syllables. The stressed syllable is generally indicated by a vertical line (/), whereas the unstressed
syllable is represented by a cross (X).
The combination of feet creates meter in poetry. Later, these meters are joined for the
composition of a complete poem. Therefore, a foot is the formative unit of the meter.
5.2 Types

1. Iamb (x /)
This is the most commonly used rhythm. It consists of two syllables, the first of which is not
stressed, while the second syllable is stressed. Such as:

“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”

(Sonnet 18, by William Shakespeare)

comPUTE, disPEL, aGREE

2. Trochee (/ x)
A trochee is a type of poetic foot commonly used in English poetry. It has two syllables, the first of
which is strongly stressed, while the second syllable is unstressed, as given below:

“Tell me not, in mournful numbers”

(Psalm of Life, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow )

ARgue, BISHop, DOCtor.

3. Spondee (/ /)
Spondee is a poetic foot that has two syllables, which are consecutively stressed. For example:

“White founts falling in the Courts of the sun”

(Lepanto, by G. K. Chesterton)

ICE CREAM, HOT LINE, CELL PHONE.

4. Dactyl (/ x x)
Dactyl is made up of three syllables. The first syllable is stressed, and the remaining two syllables are
not stressed, such as in the word “marvelous.” For example:

“This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks,”
(Evangeline, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow)
The words “primeval” and “murmuring” show dactyls in this line.
ELephant, POSSible, TRINity.

5. Anapest (x x /)
Anapests are total opposites of dactyls. They have three syllables; where the first two syllables are
not stressed, and the last syllable is stressed. For example:

” ‘Twas the night before Christmas, and all through the house,”
(‘Twas the Night Before Christmas, by Clement Clarke Moore )

of a KIND, souvenIR, underSTAND.

ACTIVITY:
Identify the type of feet that was used in the following sentences. Discuss why.

1. People become what they believe. (___________________)

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2. Those who can dream it, they really can achieve it. (___________________)
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3. Don’t search faults. Find remedies. (___________________)
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4. When you give and accept gratefully, you feel blessed. (___________________)
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5. Be happy, be positive, be you. (___________________)
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6. Poetic Techniques

Allegory: A representation of an abstract or spiritual meaning. Sometimes it can be a single word or

phrase, such as the name of a character or place. Often, it is a symbolic narrative that has not only a
literal meaning, but a larger one understood only after reading the entire story or poem

Allusion: A brief reference to some person, historical event, work of art, or Biblical or mythological
situation or character.

Ambiguity: A word or phrase that can mean more than one thing, even in its context. Poets often
search out such words to add richness to their work. Often, one meaning seems quite readily
apparent, but other, deeper and darker meanings, await those who contemplate the poem. Example:
Robert Frost’s ‘The Subverted Flower’

Analogy: A comparison, usually something unfamiliar with something familiar. Example: The plumbing
took a maze of turns where even water got lost.

Apostrophe: Speaking directly to a real or imagined listener or inanimate object; addressing that
person or thing by name. Example: O Captain! My Captain! our fearful trip is done…

Cliché: Any figure of speech that was once clever and original but through overuse has become
outdated. If you’ve heard more than two or three other people say it more than two or three times,
chances are the phrase is too timeworn to be useful in your writing. Example: busy as a bee
Connotation: The emotional, psychological or social overtones of a word; its implications and
associations apart from its literal meaning. Often, this is what distinguishes the precisely correct word
from one that is merely acceptable.

Contrast: Closely arranged things with strikingly different characteristics. Example: He was dark,
sinister, and cruel; she was radiant, pleasant, and kind.

Denotation: The dictionary definition of a word; its literal meaning apart from any associations or
connotations. Students must exercise caution when beginning to use a thesaurus, since often the
words that are clustered together may share a denotative meaning, but not a connotative one, and
the substitution of a word can sometimes destroy the mood, and even the meaning, of a poem.

Euphemism: An understatement, used to lessen the effect of a statement; substituting something

innocuous for something that might be offensive or hurtful. Example: She is at rest. (Meaning, she’s
dead)

Hyperbole: An outrageous exaggeration used for effect. Example: He weighs a ton.

Irony: A contradictory statement or situation to reveal a reality different from what appears to be
true. Example: Wow, thanks for expensive gift...let’s see: did it come with a Fun Meal or the Burger
King equivalent?

Metaphor: A direct comparison between two unlike things, stating that one is the other or does the
action of the other. Example: He’s a zero. Example: Her fingers danced across the keyboard.

Metonymy: A figure of speech in which a person, place, or thing is referred to by something closely
associated with it. Example: The White House stated today that... Example: The Crown reported today
that...

Oxymoron: A combination of two words that appear to contradict each other.

Example: a pointless point of view; bittersweet.

Paradox: A statement in which a seeming contradiction may reveal an unexpected truth.

Example: The hurrier I go the behinder I get.

Personification: Attributing human characteristics to an inanimate object, animal, or abstract idea.

Example: The days crept by slowly, sorrowfully.

Pun: Word play in which words with totally different meanings have similar or identical sounds.
Example: Like a firefly in the rain, I’m de-lighted.

Simile: A direct comparison of two unlike things using “like” or “as.”

Example: He’s as dumb as an ox.
Example: Her eyes are like comets.
Symbol: An ordinary object, event, animal, or person to which we have attached extraordinary
meaning and significance – a flag to represent a country, a lion to represent courage, a wall to
symbolize separation. Example: A small cross by the dangerous curve on the road reminded all of
Johnny’s death.

Synecdoche: Indicating a person, object, etc. by letting only a certain part represent the whole.
Example: All hands on deck.

ACTIVITY:
How can using these poetic techniques help a writer improve his literary pieces?

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7. Stylistic Analysis of Poetry

7.1 Poetry Explication

A poetry explication is a relatively short analysis which describes the possible meanings and
relationships of the words, images, and other small units that make up a poem. Writing an explication
is an effective way for a reader to connect a poem’s plot and conflicts with its structural features.

While studying a literary text from a stylistic perspective, we should start reading the text to
understand the overall picture. Then, we should start dissecting the text by looking at peculiar and
eye-catching peculiarities. According to McIntyre here are a few points to consider (a set of
questions to answer) while analyzing a text from a stylistic perspective:

1. Does the text contain some striking irregularities of form in comparison to traditional texts
that are within the same genre?
2. Are there deviant grammatical or graphological elements?
3. Despite all deviant characteristics, is there order in the text?
4. How about the text’s phonological qualities? Are some sounds repeated?
1. Are there some sounds missing?
5. Are there neologisms or awkward word usage? Does the author use jargon, slang, or standard
language?
6. Semantic fields are especially important while analyzing a text stylistically. For example, can
you categorize the words in different semantic fields? What kind of feeling do the verbs give?
By looking at the verbs, do you get the feeling of the past or do they point at an ongoing
activity?
7. In conclusion, are the linguistic features of the text directly related to the overall or particular
meanings reached?
ACTIVITY A:
What is the importance of Poetry Explication to Styslistics?

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ACIVITY B.
Read the Poem “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost

1. Identify all the lines in the poem that uses Poetic Techniques. Write what technique was used.
2. Using the poem, write a Poetry Explication by answering the questions stated by McIntyre in
analyzing a text from a stylistic perspective (7.1). The stylistic analysis must be in paragraph form.