Risk Based Assessment of Subsynchronous Resonance in ACDC Systems

Springer Theses
Recognizing Outstanding Ph.D. Research
Atia Adrees
Risk Based
Assessment of
Subsynchronous
Resonance in
AC/DC Systems
Springer Theses
Recognizing Outstanding Ph.D. Research

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Atia Adrees
Risk Based Assessment

of Subsynchronous
Resonance in AC/DC
Systems
Doctoral Thesis accepted by
the University of Manchester, UK
123
Author Supervisor
Dr. Atia Adrees Prof. Jovica V. Milanović
School of Electrical and Electronic School of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering Engineering
University of Manchester University of Manchester
Manchester Manchester
UK UK
ISSN 2190-5053 ISSN 2190-5061 (electronic)

Springer Theses
ISBN 978-3-319-44946-3 ISBN 978-3-319-44947-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-44947-0
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016949599
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017

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To my family
Supervisor’s Foreword
Future transmission networks will be characterized by increased number of heavily

compensated lines due to vast proliferation of renewable energy sources and
efficient operation of the electricity market. In many cases to secure rights of the
way for new transmission lines is becoming increasingly difficult. In order to
facilitate bulk power transfer between different areas of the network and to transfer
remotely generated power by renewable generation to consumer centers as well as
to facilitate efficient electricity market operation future transmission networks are
expected to include medium length or even short heavily compensated AC lines and
HVDC lines operating in parallel with existing AC lines.
Fixed series compensation is a highly effective and economical means of
improving power transfer by reducing transfer reactance of a transmission line.
Presence of series capacitors in transmission lines also enables a decrease in the
angular separation of the end voltages, contributing towards an increase in the
angular stability. In 1971 following the turbogenerator shaft failure, it was dis-
covered that series compensation can create adverse interactions between series
compensated electrical system and turbine generator mechanical system leading to
shaft fatigue or ultimate shaft damage. The phenomenon is known as subsyn-
chronous resonance (SSR) since it is the result of a resonant condition with a natural
frequency below the synchronous frequency of the system. Following this, it has
been demonstrated in numerous studies that compensated AC lines and HVDC line
controls pose a risk of SSR. Self excitation or dynamic instability due to SSR
produces very high amplitude mechanical torques in turbine generator shaft that
could lead to shaft damage. Transient torque amplification problem caused by SSR
yields high amplitude mechanical torque following electrical disturbances that
could result in shaft fatigue and ultimately shaft breakdown. The studies also
demonstrated that the generators connected radially to the compensated AC line or
HVDC line are at higher risk of SSR than the generators in highly meshed power
networks. There can be a range of circumstances, however, (e.g., outage of AC
lines, nearby generator out of service, change of compensation level, etc.) that could
change the degree of exposure to SSR in meshed networks.
vii
viii Supervisor’s Foreword
In addition to fixed series capacitors, thyristor controlled series capacitors

(TCSC) have been increasing used for line compensation. Subsynchronous fre-
quency characteristics of the power system with thyristor controlled series capac-
itors however, differ significantly from fixed series capacitors compensated system.
Flexibility of changing the compensation level and ability to effectively damp
subsynchronous resonance and electromechanical oscillations make TCSCs an
attractive and versatile series compensation option. These additional benefits come
with considerable higher costs. Therefore, future transmission networks will have
many instances where thyristor series capacitor will be used in conjunction with
fixed series capacitors due to reliability and economical reasons.
Power system loads that always had a degree of uncertainty associated with them
will further diversify in the future due to new type of devices connected to the
network and particularly due to proliferation of electric vehicles whose contribution
will be characterized by both spatial and temporal uncertainty. Finally, integration
of new types of generators in the network (mainly stochastic and intermittent) will
add another layer of uncertainty to system operation. This uncertain, to a large
extent probabilistic, behavior of power system is the root origin of risk. Risk
management and quantification of risk have become increasingly important when
discussing and assessing operation of power system.
Most of the past SSR studies adopted deterministic approach to analyze SSR
problem. Primary objective of this research was to develop an approach to evaluate
SSR risk associated with different compensation levels in various contingencies
taking into account the combination of probability of occurrence of each contin-
gency, probabilities of different operating conditions and severity of SSR problem.
SSR risk evaluation can assist in the selection of best mitigation scheme for a given
transmission system by providing information about the severity and probability of
SSR occurrence.
The work presented within this thesis is very timely, extremely relevant and to a
large extent pioneering as it uses for the first time risk based assessment tools to
analyze the interaction between electrical and mechanical systems in mixed AC/DC
power networks at subsynchronous frequencies. The research first developed SSR
indices to assess the severity of SSR problem the generators in the network are
exposed to. It then moved to investigate the effect of VSC-HVDC lines on dynamic
instability of torsional modes (one of the first, if not the first work in the field) and
finally it developed a methodology based on risk evaluation methods for SSR
studies. The application of the developed methodology in a large network for the
assessment and optimal SSR mitigation (combination of fixed capacitors and
TCSCs) demonstrates that risk evaluation can assist in the selection of the best
mitigation schemes for a given transmission system by providing information about
the severity and probability of SSR occurrence. This is one of the pioneering
applications of risk based assessment in power system dynamic studies. The
research also addressed the issue of assessment of the effect of uncertainties in the
mechanical parameters of a turbine generator on SSR in a meshed network with
both types of compensation schemes symmetrical and asymmetrical compensation.
Supervisor’s Foreword ix
Substantial research contributions can be found throughout this thesis and it

should prove to be an excellent reference for all interested in the topic. The content
is readily accessible and easy to follow, as the methodical progression with each
chapter develops on the ideas found before it, and makes excellent reading on a
fascinating subject.
July 2016 Prof. Jovica V. Milanović, CEng, FIET, FIEEE

Deputy Head of School and Director of External
Affairs & Business Engagement
in the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
at the University of Manchester, UK
Visiting Professor at the University of Novi Sad, Serbia
University of Belgrade, Serbia and Conjoint Professor
at the University of Newcastle, Australia.
Parts of this thesis have been published in the following journal articles
and conference proceedings:
• J. V. Milanovic and A. Adrees, “Identifying Generators at Risk of SSR in

Meshed Compensated AC/DC Power Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems, vol. 28, pp. 4438–4447, 2013.
• A. Adrees and J. V. Milanovic, “Methodology for Evaluation of Risk of
Subsynchronous Resonance in Meshed Compensated Networks,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 29, pp. 815–823, 2013.
• A. Adrees and J. V. Milanovic, “Optimal Compensation of Transmission Lines
Based on Minimisation of the Risk of Subsynchronous Resonance,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 31, pp. 1038–1047, 2015.
• A. Adrees and J. V. Milanovic, “Subsynchronous resonance in meshed net-
works with HVDC lines,” IEEE Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Europe
(ISGT) 2011, Manchester, U.K, 5–7 Dec. 2011.
• A. Adrees and J. V. Milanovic, “Effects of uncertainties in shaft mechanical
parameters on maximum torsional torques in meshed networks with HVDC
lines,” IEEE Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition (T&D)
2012, Orlando, U.S.A, 7–10 May 2012.
• A. Adrees and J. V. Milanovic, “The Effects of Uncertainties in Mechanical
Parameters on SSR in Meshed Power Networks with Different HVDC
Technologies,” IEEE International Conference on Probabilistic Methods
Applied to Power Systems 2012, Istanbul, Turkey, 7–10 May 2012. Best
Student Paper Award
• A. Adrees and J. V. Milanovic, “Index for ranking generators based on risk of
subsynchronous resonance in the network,” IEEE PowerTech (POWERTECH)
2013, Grenoble, France, 16–20 June 2013.
• A. Adrees and J. V. Milanovic, “Study of subsynchronous resonance in meshed
compensated AC/DC network,” 2013 IREP Symposium Bulk Power System
Dynamics and Control - IX Optimization, Security and Control of the Emerging
Power Grid (IREP) 2013, Crete, Greece, 25–30 Aug. 2013.
• R. Preece, A. Adrees, and J. V. Milanovic, “Risk-based framework for
assessment of operational constraints for power systems focusing on
small-disturbance stability and sub-synchronous resonance,” IEEE Innovative
Smart Grid Technologies Europe (ISGT) 2013, Copenhagen, Denmark, 6–9
Oct. 2013.
• R. Preece, A. Adrees, and J. V. Milanovic, “Risk-based framework for
Establishing And Visualising Operational Constraints of power systems,”
Power Systems Computation Conference (PSCC) 2014, Wroclaw, Poland, 18–
22 Aug. 2014.
xi
xii Parts of this thesis have been published in the following journal articles …
• A. Adrees, and J. V. Milanovic, “Effectiveness of Asymmetrical Series

Compensation for Mitigation of SSR in Meshed Power Networks,” IEEE
Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Europe (ISGT) 2014, Istanbul, Turkey, 12–
15 Oct. 2014.
• A. Adrees, and J. V. Milanovic, “Establishing the Sensitivity of Dynamic
Instability due to SSR,” IEEE PowerTech (POWERTECH) 2015, Eindhoven,
Netherlands, June 29–July 2 2015.
Acknowledgements
I must express my gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Jovica V. Milanović for his

guidance, advice and encouragement. It has been pleasure and privilege to work
with him during this research. The effort he has applied to review this thesis and the
publications arisen from this work has been exceptional.
Special thanks must also go to Power Network Research Academy (PNRA) and
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) who have jointly
sponsored this project.
I would like to extend my appreciation to all members of Power Quality and
Power Systems Dynamics group in The University of Manchester for all the help,
support and guidance. Special acknowledgement must go to Mrs. Selma
Awadallah, Dr. Robin Preece and Dr. Manuel Avendaño-Mora for all the enter-
taining discussions that on occasions evolved new ideas for this research. A special
footnote of gratitude goes to Dr. Robin Preece, who has helped me become much
better in formatting documents.
I would also like to thank my parents, brothers and sister for the support and
encouragement they provided me throughout this period is invaluable
Most importantly, I would like to thank three the most important boys in my life,
my husband and my two sons, for the patience throughout this research. I would
particularly like to thank my dear husband for providing me the resources to enjoy
the flexibility in time. Without his support and encouragement this period would
have been far more stress full and far less enjoyable.
xiii
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Power System Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Oscillations in Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Subsynchronous Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Self Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Transient Torques Amplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Known Cases of Subsynchronous Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 The Mohave Incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Navajo Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3 HVDC Turbine Generator Interactions
at Square Butte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 HVDC Transmission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 HVDC Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.1 LCC-HVDC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.2 VSC-HVDC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Past Research on Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6.1 Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6.2 Potential Sources of Subsynchronous Oscillations . . . . . . 15
1.6.3 Mitigation of SSR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6.4 Summary of Past Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.7 Research Aims and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.8 Main Contributions of This Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.9 Thesis Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2 Power System Modelling and SSR Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.1 Synchronous Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2 Modelling Power System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.1 Modelling Synchronous Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.2 Modelling Turbine Generator Mechanical System . . . . . . 43
2.2.3 Generator Excitation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
xv
xvi Contents
2.2.4 Power System Stabilizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

2.2.5 Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.2.6 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3 HVDC System Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3.1 LCC-HVDC Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3.2 Converter Transformer Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.3.3 LCC Converter Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.3.4 VSC-HVDC Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.3.5 VSC-HVDC Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.3.6 VSC Control Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.4 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSCs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.5 SSR Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.5.1 Frequency Scanning Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.5.2 Eigenvalue Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.5.3 Electromagnetic Transients Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.6 Comparison of SSR Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.7 Test Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.7.1 Test Network 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.7.2 Test Network 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3 Ranking of Generators Based on the Exposure
to Subsynchronous Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.1 Frequency Scanning Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.1.1 Simplified Analytical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2 Two Axis Analytical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.3 Test Signal Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.4 Choice of Frequency Scanning Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.4.1 Validation of Frequency Scanning Program . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.5 Modified Test System 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.6 Indices for Assessing Generator Exposure to SSR . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.7 Index for Assessing Self Excitation Due to Torsional
Interactions (RISSR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 77
3.7.1 RISSR for 70 % Compensation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 80
3.7.2 Effect of Compensation Level and Network
Topology on Ranking of Generators Using RISSR . . . . . . 82
3.8 Index for Assessing Amplification of Transients Torques . . . . . . . 90
3.9 Ranking of the Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.10 Verification of Generator Ranking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.11 Effect of Different Compensation of Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.11.1 Uncompensated Line in Parallel with Compensated
Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 96
3.11.2 Uneven Compensation of Parallel Lines . . . . . . . . . .... 97
3.11.3 Asymmetrical Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 99
Contents xvii
3.12 Effect of VSC-HVDC Line on Generator Ranking . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

3.13 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4 Methodology for the Evaluation of Risk of Subsynchronous
Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 107
4.1 Methodology for Risk Evaluation of SSR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 108
4.1.1 Line Outage Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 108
4.1.2 Selecting System Contingencies and Calculating
Their Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.1.3 Calculation of Risk Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.1.4 Modified Test System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.2 Risk Evaluation of SSR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.2.1 Example of Risk Evaluation for G1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.2.2 Risk Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5 Influence of Uncertainties in Mechanical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.1 Influence of Uncertainties in Meshed AC/DC Networks . . . . . . . . 127
5.1.1 Modification in the Test System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.1.2 Modelling Uncertainty in Mechanical Parameters . . . . . . 130
5.1.3 Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.1.4 The Influence of Uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.1.5 Results of Modal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.2 LCC-HVDC Versus VSC-HVDC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.3 Effect of Uncertainty in Mechanical Parameters on Peak
Torques Due to Different Types of Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.3.1 Three Phase Short Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.3.2 Two Phase to Ground Short Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.3.3 Influence of Different Types of Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.4 Effect of Uncertainty in Mechanical Parameters on Risk
of Subsynchronous Resonance with Different Types
of Compensation Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 159
5.4.1 Modelling Uncertainty in Mechanical Parameters
of Turbine Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.5 Effect of Uncertainty on Dynamic Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.5.1 Critically Compensated System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.5.2 SSR Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.6 Effect of Uncertainty on Transient Torque Amplification . . . . . . . 161
5.7 Dynamic Stability Analysis in the Presence
of Uncertainties in Shaft Mechanical Parameters . . . . . . . . . .... 162
5.7.1 Dynamic Stability Analysis in the Presence
of Uncertainties in Shaft Mechanical Parameters . . . .... 164
xviii Contents
5.7.2 Effect of Uncertainties on Level of Risk of SSR

for Different Compensation Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6 Optimal Series Compensation of Lines to Minimize
the Exposure of Generators to SSR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.1 Mitigating SSR with TCSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.2.1 SSR Severity Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.2.2 Selection of Network Contingencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.2.3 Probability of Network Contingencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.2.4 Assessment of Risk of SSR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.2.5 Modified Test System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.2.6 Application of Proposed Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.2.7 Validation of Results with EMT Simulation . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7 Future Work and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.2 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Appendix A: Network Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Appendix B: Risk Indices Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Symbols
a, b, c Three phase windings

e Voltage
f Synchronous frequency
ω Speed
ψ Generator flux
i Current
R Resistance
fne Natural electrical frequency
fme Frequency of voltages and currents introduced in the armature by the
generator rotor oscillations
Xc Capacitive reactance
XL Inductive reactance
Cline Series capacitance
Rline Transmission line resistance
Lline Transmission line inductance
Lgen Generator inductance
Lext Equivalent inductance
Rgen Generator resistance
T Torque
δ Generator rotor angle
V Voltage
S Power
P Power
Pm Pulse width modulation index
K Constant
β Angle of advance
xix
xx Symbols
Special Symbols
uCZ Reversal voltage (at instantaneous reversal)

uCM Measured capacitor voltage
iLM Measured line current
tZ Time instant, when it is desired that the capacitor voltage be zero
tM Time when line current and capacitor voltage measurements are made
X0 TCSC reactance at resonance
Ke ðjkÞ Electrical complex torque coefficient
Km ðjkÞ Mechanical complex torque coefficient
e Rotating phasor
Ke Electrical spring constant
De Electrical damping constant, after dividing the imaginary part in (Eq. 3.2)
by λ
Ω Modulation frequency
Subscripts
Acronyms
AC Alternating Current
AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator
DC Direct Current
FACTs Flexible AC Transmission system
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
LCC Line Commutated Converter
PI Proportional Control
PSS Power System Stabilizer
SSR Subsynchronous Resonance
TCSC Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors
VSC Voltage Source Converter
Chapter 1
Introduction
Abstract Electric power transmission networks are undergoing continuous chan-

ges and restructuring to accommodate integration of renewable generation and
facilitate efficient operation of electricity markets. Series capacitor compensation
has always been most effective and economic means to increases the power transfer
capability of transmission lines. Voltage source converter (VSC) based HVDC
systems with higher power transfer capabilities per line, independent control of
active and reactive power flow and no technical line length limitations are also an
attractive alternative for an AC system. Therefore, future electricity transmission
networks are expected to incorporate a large number of VSC-HVDC lines resulting
into many instances where VSC-HVDC lines might be operating in parallel with
existing uncompensated or compensated AC lines. In order to increase, the effi-
ciency and economics of their use power systems are increasingly being operated
closer to the boundaries of stability. Stochastic renewable generation sources such
as wind and solar are replacing conventional power generation sources, leading to
more uncertain operating conditions. It is important to take into account the
increasing uncertainty in the operation of power systems, and explore the potential
improvements and challenges created by the new structure of electric power
networks.
1.1 Power System Stability
Power system stability describes the ability of an electric power system to maintain
stable operation during normal conditions and regain stability following a distur-
bance [1]. Small disturbances continually occur in power systems as loads are
connected or disconnected and the system must be capable of responding to these
variations without failure. In addition, as the size of power systems grow there is an
increasing likelihood that the system will be subjected to large disturbances, such as
the sudden loss of a transmission line. In these situations, following the operation of
protection equipment to remove the faulty component from the network, the
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 1

A. Adrees, Risk Based Assessment of Subsynchronous Resonance
in AC/DC Systems, Springer Theses, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-44947-0_1
2 1 Introduction
remaining power system must return to an acceptable stable operating point quickly
to restore the supply of power to affected loads.
Power system stability can be classified under the following headings [1].
• Rotor Angle Stability refers to the ability of the interconnected synchronous
generators within the electric power system to maintain synchronous operation
at the same frequency. The processes of maintaining rotor angle stability are
complex and depend not only on the inherent properties of the electrome-
chanical machines themselves, but also the myriad of controllers which are used
to regulate their operation.
• Voltage Stability relates to the ability of the system to maintain acceptable
voltages at all system buses. A system can be considered voltage unstable if an
increase in reactive power injection at any system bus leads to a drop in the
voltage at the same bus. Voltages may collapse if a sequence of events sup-
plements underlying unknown voltage instability, resulting in unacceptably low
voltages in major parts of the power system.
• Mid and Long Term Stability studies are concerned with slow system dynamics
following severe system issues and significant frequency deviations. Study
periods are long, typically range from minutes to tens of minutes and include the
thermal properties of boilers and generating plant in addition to electrome-
chanical components.
This thesis deals with a special class of rotor angle stability of the power system
referred to as subsynchronous resonance.
1.1.1 Oscillations in Power System
Electromechanical Oscillations within power systems have varying causes, and

entail varying techniques to improve their damping. The oscillatory modes within a
power system can be classified as follows [1].
• Torsional Modes (5–120 Hz) are associated with the rotational components in
the turbine generator shaft system. These modes can be challenging due to
interactions of the turbine generator mechanical system, with HVDC system
controls and Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) devices and high
speed controllers of generators in particular when high levels of series com-
pensation are installed.
• Control Modes (0.1–0.5 Hz) are associated with the installed controllers within
the power system, such as automatic voltage regulators (AVRs), turbine speed
governors, HVDC system controls and controllers of FACTS devices.
• Local Modes (0.8–2.5 Hz) are associated with the machines at one generating
station swinging with respect to the rest of the power system. The term local is
used because the oscillations are localized at a small part of the power system.
1.1 Power System Stability 3
• Interarea Modes (0.1–0.8 Hz) are associated with swinging of many machines
in one part of the system against the machines in other parts. They are caused by
groups of closely coupled machines connected by weak transmission lines
swinging against each other.
This thesis will investigate the phenomenon of subsynchronous resonance due to
torsional modes oscillations, which is causing concern again due to an increased
number of series compensated lines and HVDC lines in power systems.
1.2 Subsynchronous Resonance
IEEE Committee Report defines subsynchronous resonance (SSR) as an electric

power condition where the electric network exchanges energy with a turbine
generator at one or more of the natural frequencies of the combined electro-
mechanical system below the synchronous frequency of the system [2, 3].
This definition incorporates all states of the systems that provide opportunity to
exchange energy at given subsynchronous frequencies. This includes natural modes
of oscillations which are due to system inherent characteristics and forced modes of
oscillations which are determined by a particular device or control system.
There are two aspects of SSR
1. Self Excitation
2. Transient Torques Amplification.
1.2.1 Self Excitation
Subsynchronous frequency currents flowing in the generator terminals produce

subsynchronous frequency terminal voltage components. These voltage compo-
nents may uphold the currents to produce the effect termed as self excitation. Self
excitation can be further divided into two categories [3–5]:
• Induction Generator Effect: The rotating mmf produced by the subsynchronous
frequency armature currents is rotating at slower speed than the rotor, the
resistance of the rotor at subsynchronous frequencies viewed from armature
terminals is negative since the slip of the machine viewed as an induction
generator is negative. When the magnitude of this negative resistance exceeds
the sum of the armature and network resistance at one of the natural frequencies
of the electric circuit, self excitation occurs.
Induction generator effect includes only rotor electrical dynamics, and results in
growing subsynchronous voltages and currents in the system and at the
4 1 Introduction
generator. Induction generator effect can lead to voltages and currents large
enough to damage the generator and power system equipment.
• Torsional interactions: Generator rotor oscillations at a torsional mode fre-
quency fn induce voltages in the armature at frequencies
fme ¼ f fn ð1:1Þ
Series compensation of transmission lines introduces electrical frequencies (fne),

below the synchronous frequency (f) in the network.
When the subsynchronous frequency component fme is close or equal to fne
(electrical resonant frequency), the mechanical torques produced by the sub-
synchronous voltage component are sustained. This exchange of energy
between the electrical and mechanical system is termed as torsional interactions.
Torsional interactions involve the electrical and mechanical dynamics of the
rotor. This effect is much more significant than the induction generator effect.
These torsional vibrations are accompanied by excessive field currents, field
ground and negative sequence currents. Extreme heating caused by the cyclic
torsional stress and low cycle fatigue vibrations can lead to plasticity (defor-
mation, non-reversible changes of shape) and shaft damage [5].
1.2.2 Transient Torques Amplification
Transient torques amplification refers to the phenomenon that occurs when the
system electrical disturbances produce high amplitude torsional torques in the
turbine generator shaft.
The transient electrical torque typically has many components including unidi-
rectional exponentially decaying and oscillatory torques from subsynchronous to
multiples (generally second harmonic) of network frequency. Immediately fol-
lowing the disturbance, the subsynchronous frequency components of torque can
have large amplitude due to SSR phenomenon although they may decay eventually.
The decay rate is typically low, and the oscillations may persist for a long time.
Each occurrence of these high amplitude transient torques removes some of shaft
life due to fatigue damage.
1.3 Known Cases of Subsynchronous Resonance
Until 1971, it was a common notion that up to 70 % series compensation could be

used in any transmission line with little concern, apart from the selection of suitable
line protection. In 1971, it was discovered from the Mohave project in the south
western USA that series capacitors can produce a significant adverse effect on
1.3 Known Cases of Subsynchronous Resonance 5
turbine generator units that are connected to a series compensated power system.
This phenomenon is referred to as subsynchronous resonance since it is the result of
a resonant condition with the resonant frequency below the fundamental frequency
of the power system [5].
1.3.1 The Mohave Incidents
In 1970, a 750 MVA cross compound turbine generator at Mohave Generating

station, located in southern Nevada USA, experienced shaft damage when the
500 kV transmission system was switched such that the unit became radial to a
series compensated transmission line [6, 7]. Almost an identical incident happened
in 1971. For each event, the control room operators shut down the unit. The
operators responded to, the flickering lights in the control room which continued for
1 or 2 min, vibrations of the control room floor, and alarms for high vibration, field
ground, negative sequence currents [5]. Subsequent, investigations showed that slip
ring area of the shaft section in high pressure turbine generator unit experienced
extreme heating due to cyclic torsional stresses. The mechanical strain cycling
which involved plasticity caused the shaft to heat up to temperatures which resulted
in insulation failure between the collector rings and the shaft. The heavy current due
to the positive and negative generator field short circuits eroded large pockets of
metal from the shaft and the collector ring [7].
Analysis of line current oscillograms taken during the disturbance on the line
revealed the presence of significant currents of subsynchronous (below syn-
chronous frequency) frequency. In general, these subsynchronous frequency cur-
rents do not cause any harm to the electrical system. These currents do flow in the
generator armature and interact with the main flux of the generator to generate a
pulsating torque on the rotor system at the slip frequency (difference between the
synchronous frequency and frequency of subsynchronous currents). The slip fre-
quency following the disturbance which caused the Mohave failures nearly coin-
cided with the second torsional mode frequency of the turbine generator mechanical
system, effectively amplifying the magnitude of the shaft response torques. The
amplified turbine generator shaft torques generated voltages in the armature circuits
and the electrical currents that these voltages produced reinforced the original
subsynchronous currents. The armature current produced by the Mohave turbine
generator rotor oscillations was large enough to produce sufficient torque to sustain
the rotor oscillations, which generated this component of armature current in the
first place. At Mohave generating station, this condition caused the rotor oscilla-
tions to grow instead of decay leading to steady state instability which damaged the
generator exciter shaft.
Rigorous investigation by the turbine generator manufacturers and utilities led to
the conclusion that the Mohave incident occurred due to an interaction between the
series compensated electrical system and the spring mass mechanical system of the
turbine generator. This aspect of SSR is now referred to as Torsional Interaction.
6 1 Introduction
1.3.2 Navajo Project
The Mohave events introduced the industry to SSR problem, and Navajo project
showed its complexity and severity. The Navajo project comprises three 750 MW
tandem compound turbine generators and 500 kV, 2900 km transmission system.
All lines except short tie lines are compensated with series capacitors.
Compensation levels range from 40 to 70 %.
The Navajo SSR problem contrary to Mohave was very complex due to network
configuration, which can produce any subsynchronous frequency between 19 and
45 Hz when all series capacitor variations, credible transmission contingencies, and
generator combination are considered [5, 8, 9]. In 1971, newly developed SSR
analysis methods were applied to determine the severity of Navajo SSR problem. It
was found that Navajo generators were subjected to all three aspects of SSR, i.e.,
induction generator effect, torsional interactions and transient torque amplification.
Study results showed that torsional interactions would occur at the Navajo power
station for the normal network configuration.
In next 3 years, significant progress was made in SSR analysis and its control.
Therefore, in 1974 Navajo project decided that the project would proceed with the
planned level of series compensation [8, 9]. Several countermeasures were devel-
oped and applied at Navajo units between 1975 and 1978. The series capacitors
have been in continuous service since 1978, and there have not been any SSR
problems at Navajo power station ever since.
1.3.3 HVDC Turbine Generator Interactions

at Square Butte
The advent of thyristor valves in nineteen seventies initiated the continuous

increase in the application of HVDC transmission since the fast control of power in
the HVDC line has become feasible as thyristor valves do not have problems of
backfires that were associated with mercury arcs. This implies the fast control of
HVDC line can be used to improve system stability and security, by utilizing DC
power modulation and rapid control of power during emergencies. Using an aux-
iliary controller with a control signal derived from bus frequencies or power in
parallel AC line, swing modes can be damped in the same manner as with power
system stabilizers (PSS) that are used in conjunction with generator excitation
systems.
While it was anticipated that high gain power modulation control, like PSS, can
destabilize the torsional modes, in October 1977 during field tests conducted at
Square Butte (North Dakota USA) HVDC terminal, adverse interactions occurred
with the basic current control of HVDC line converter. During the tests, 11.5 Hz
torsional mode of the turbine generator became unstable when parallel transmission
line was switched out [4, 10, 11].
1.3 Known Cases of Subsynchronous Resonance 7
The impact of this discovery led to new HVDC system design that included
mitigation for torsional interaction as a major design criteria and control functions
to ensure torsional stability as an integral portion of the overall system [11].
The potential destabilization of torsional modes due to HVDC system is similar
to that due to the series capacitor compensated AC system. However, the problem
can be solved relatively simply with the control modifications.
1.4 HVDC Transmission
In spite of the fact that a large majority of installed electrical transmission networks
worldwide use AC, HVDC systems often emerge as the better power transfer
solution in a number of situations. The recent proliferation of HVDC systems is so
huge that despite taking 47 years from the first commercial installation in 1954 to
reach a worldwide installed capacity of 50 GW in 2001, it took only nine further
years for this to double to 100 GW by 2010 [12]. It is expected based on currently
planned projects that this will be doubled again to 200 GW by 2016.
1.5 HVDC Technology
There are currently two converter technologies available commercially for use in
HVDC transmission:
• Line Commutated Converter (LCC-HVDC) employed mercury valves initially,
and now utilises high power thyristors.
• Voltage Source Converter (VSC-HVDC) uses insulated gate bipolar transistors
(IGBTs).
1.5.1 LCC-HVDC
LCC-HVDC was the first practical HVDC conversion technology to be developed.

Despite the most widely used HVDC technology, LCC-HVDC has limitation due to
thyristor switching. The lack of turn off controllability leads to
• Poor power factors—reactive power can only be consumed with thyrsitor
control schemes and is in the order of 50–60 % of active power flow under
normal operation [13].
• Considerable waveform distortion—this leads to large filtering requirements,
considerably increasing the physical footprint of the converter station.
8 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.1 Pulse converter I dc

bridge Smoothing
I phase A 1 3 5 Reactor
I phase B
V dc
V ac
1:n I
(rms, φ -φ ) phase C
4 6 2
Line commutated conversion is basically simple; it is the external plant required

for reactive power compensation and filtering, which is elaborate and expensive.
LCC-HVDC is employed for the largest power transmission projects, capable of
operating at 800 kV and delivering up to 8000 MW.
1.5.1.1 General Operation Principle
A converter performs AC/DC conversion and provides the means to control power
flow through HVDC link. The main elements of converter are the transformer and
the valve bridge shown in Fig. 1.1. The valve bridge is an array of valves which
sequentially connects the three phase alternating voltage to DC terminal for desired
conversion and power flow control.
Control of turn on instant of the valves is achieved by firing angle α to allow
control over rectification or inversion, and DC voltage on the line is also controlled
by firing angle and tap changing. The converter operates as an inverter for thyristor
firing angles >90° providing following conditions are met.
1. Presence of strong AC voltage source to provide the voltage waveforms to
commutate against
2. Control over firing angle to delay commutation beyond 90°
3. A DC power source.
1.5.1.2 Control of HVDC Systems
A HVDC transmission is highly controllable. Its efficient use depends on appro-

priate utilization of its controls to ensure desired performance of the power system.
Various levels of controls are arranged in a hierarchical manner, to obtain efficient
and stable operation by maximizing the flexibility of power control without com-
promising the safety of equipment. Generally, the controls of an HVDC link are
divided into four different levels [14].
1. Bridge controls—to control the firing instants of the valves within the bridge
and to define minimum firing angle αmin and constant extinction angle γ0 limits.
1.5 HVDC Technology 9
2. Pole controls—to co-ordinate the bridges in the pole to provide the ordered
current, with minimum harmonic generation.
3. Master controls—to provide co-ordinated current orders to all the poles.
4. Overall controls—to provide the current orders to the master controls in
response to required functions such as power transfer control, system frequency
control, system damping or combination of these.
The LCC-HVDC system is basically constant current controlled for two
important reasons.
1. To limit overcurrent and minimize damage due to faults
2. To prevent the system from running down due to fluctuations of the AC voltages
This is because of the high-speed constant current control characteristics that the
HVDC system is very stable. However, in some cases bridge controls of
LCC-HVDC system may affect the damping of torsional modes.
Under normal operation, the rectifier is at current control and firing angle con-
trol. The minimum firing angle αmin is kept at 5° to ensure sufficient positive voltage
across the valves at the time of firing to allow successful commutation. In the
current control mode, a closed loop regulator controls the firing angle and thus the
DC voltage to maintain the DC current equal to the current order.
The inverter is provided with a constant extinction angle (CEA) control and
current control. Under the normal operation, inverter is at constant extinction angle
control mode. If there is reduction in AC voltage at the rectifier end, the rectifier
firing angle decreases until it reaches αmin limit. At this point, the rectifier switches
to αmin control and inverter will operate on current control mode.
Higher levels as described above are used, in addition to this basic control to
improve AC/DC system interaction and enhance AC system performance.
1.5.1.3 Inherent Damping Characteristics of LCC-HVDC
A HVDC system connected to a turbine generator, in the absence of control, would

appear as a load on the turbine generator with positive damping characteristics but
the presence of current loop changes the HVDC system characteristics from posi-
tive to negative. This could be better understood by considering that a DC line has
no resistance and an inverter is connected to the system having infinite capacity,
then inverter voltage would be constant and addition of a constant current control
will result in a constant power load on the turbine generator. A constant power load
can be shown to have pure negative damping characteristics [4]. A constant power
load varies its internal impedance to achieve a constant power regardless of the
voltage which is being fed to it. In order to maintain its constant power in case of
voltage drop, its current rises opposite to a standard resistor where the current and
voltage rise/fall together. This is example of negative resistance and, therefore,
constant power load can induce negative damping.
10 1 Introduction
1.5.2 VSC-HVDC
VSC-HVDC has developed since 1990s and deals with many shortcoming of
LCC-HVDC such as
• Large reactive power absorption during rectification and inversion
• Low order harmonic production
• Requirement of strong AC systems to commutate against
The main difference between VSC and LCC-HVDC is the use of power devices
with turnoff and turn on capabilities. Most commonly used are IGBTs (Insulated
gate bipolar transistor) and benefits offered by this extra controllability include
[13, 15].
• Continuous and independent control of reactive power on both end of the
HVDC link
• Independent control of voltage and power flow for power transfer applications
• Capability to provide power to weak AC system
• Highly reduced harmonic distortion
• Much easier development into multi terminal HVDC system.
1.5.2.1 General Topology and Operation
The basic operating principle is developed from that used in industrial drive sys-
tems where nearly all current commutated conversion (as in LCC-HVDC) has been
replaced by voltage source conversion [13, 14].
A VSC terminal can be considered as voltage source connected to an AC net-
work through three phase reactor [15, 16]. The output voltage waveform can be
described by (1.2) where V ^con (voltage amplitude) and θ (phase angle) are con-
trollable variables that can be changed to produce a waveform with the desired
amplitude and relative phase with respect to the AC system fundamental operating
voltage.
^con ðwt þ hÞ
vcon ¼ V ð1:2Þ
By changing the amplitude and phase shift of Vcon,, it is possible to control active
and reactive power flow at each VSC terminal. Therefore, effective control of Vcon
and θ provides the means to control P and Q almost independently. Figure 1.2
shows the basic configuration of a VSC terminal, with phase reactors and coupling
transformer. The AC filters may not be needed if the conversion process is free of
harmonics, though, in almost all applications AC filters are required. However,
filtering requirements of VSC conversion are much less than those associated with
LCC conversions.
Phase Interface
vcon Reactors Transformer vsys
Vdc VSC
AC
Filters
Fig. 1.2 Production of converter output waveform
v con
+V dc /2
V dc /2
V dc /2
v con
-V dc /2
Fig. 1.3 Two level single phase VSC topology and basic voltage output waveform
+Vdc /2
a
Vdc N b
c
-Vdc /2
Fig. 1.4 Two level three phase VSC topology
Figure 1.3 shows the basic configuration of a two level single phase voltage
source converter including IGBTs with anti-parallel diodes. Control of IGBT turn
off and turn on allows the production of any desired rectangular wave. Using
appropriate control of turn on and turnoff of IGBTs, it is possible to reproduce a
three phase sine wave AC output. The single phase two level VSC can easily be
extended to a three phase configuration (as shown in Fig. 1.4).
The output vcon is determined by the switching of IGBTs. Anti-parallel diodes
are required to ensure that bridge voltage always has one polarity while current is
free to flow in both directions. Each cycle of operation consists of periods of
rectification and inversion, determined by the phase angle θ.
12 1 Introduction
This output is refined further to eliminate harmonics by using PWM control [13]
or multilevel topologies. Pulse width modulation and more specifically sinusoidal
pulse width modulation can be used to control the switching of VSC valves and
reproduce desired AC voltage output. All commercial VSC-HVDC currently
installed and operational make use of PWM to control the output waveform in a
different manner. This allows modulation of the output voltage amplitude whilst
maintaining a constant DC link voltage. This is more flexible and allows much
faster control of the output waveform (and power flows associated with it).
Regardless of the converter topology and the control method employed, there are
various controls that are generally implemented at a HVDC converter station
[13, 17, 18].
• Frequency Control
• AC Voltage Control
• Active Power Control
• Reactive Power Control
• DC Voltage Control.
1.5.2.2 Inherent Damping Characteristics of VSC-HVDC
The AC reference voltage controls VSC-HVDC in accordance with the demand of

active and reactive power flow between the AC network and the converter. The
desired AC voltage results from the control process which includes active power or
DC voltage control and reactive power or AC voltage control. Using pulse width
modulation, converter produces an AC side voltage which contains a fundamental
component equal to the AC reference voltage. The following two equations govern
the active and reactive power flow between the AC network and converter.
Vac Vcon sinðdÞ

P¼ ð1:3Þ
X
Vac ðVcon cosðdÞ Vac Þ
Q¼ ð1:4Þ
X
Vac is the AC system voltage, Vcon is the AC side converter voltage, δ is the
phase angle and X is the reactance between Vcon and Vac.
It can been seen from (1.3) that the active power is affected by the phase shift
angle between the AC bus voltage and AC side output voltage of the converter and
(1.4) shows that reactive power mainly depends on the amplitude difference of the
two voltages.
When the AC network frequency increases, the actual phase of AC bus voltage
moves in advance, and the phase shift angle δ increases if the converter is operating
as rectifier, and decreases if the converter is operating as an inverter. As a result,
more active power is exported from AC side in case of rectifier and less active
power is imported to the AC side in case of inverter. In both operations the ten-
dency of frequency increase in AC network is subsided. On the other hand, in case
of reduction in the AC network frequency, the phase shift δ decreases with the
rectifier operation and increases with inverter operation. This applies an immediate
brake on the reduction of AC network frequency automatically, as the rectifier
exports less active power from the AC side and inverter imports more active power
to the AC side [13, 19]. Therefore, VSC has an inherent positive damping effect on
the subsynchronous oscillations whether it operates as a rectifier or an inverter or
STATCOM.
1.6 Past Research on Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR)
The phenomenon of subsynchronous resonance in AC power system was first

discussed in technical literature in late 1930 [20]. Charles Concordia pointed out the
possibility of self excitation of induction motor operating with series compensated
line in [20]. When an induction motor is supplied through a line containing a series
capacitor, then in addition to the synchronous frequency currents flowing due to the
normal operation of the motor, under certain conditions the motor may act as
induction generator of subsynchronous frequency currents. These low frequency
currents are only limited by the impedance of the supply circuit, and may reach
relatively large values. These large subsynchronous frequency currents not only
produce current surges and voltage swings, but also high amplitude rotor oscilla-
tions. This phenomenon of self excitation does not occur always and may be
completely eliminated by sufficient line or shunt resistance [20]. At least five more
papers dealt with same subject up through 1947 [21–25]. These papers presented
analysis method, more detailed explanation of the phenomenon and established
criterion to identify self excitation. One more paper dealing with same phenomenon
was published in 1970 [26]. The work presented in [26] explained the self exci-
tation (electrical phenomenon) and electromechanical oscillation (hunting) using
the same approach, i.e., the frequency scanning analytical method developed to
study self excitation and electromechanical oscillations. This analytical method
included the effect of distributed circuit parameters in both generators and trans-
mission network. The work in [27] indicated that the possibility of self excited
oscillations is very real and presented a method to predict the self excitation phe-
nomenon. This work also suggested the corrective measure to mitigate the problem.
However, all these papers treated the subject as strictly an electrical phenomenon.
After two successive shaft failures in Mohave generating station at Nevada, the
theory of interaction between a series compensated transmission system in electrical
resonance, and a turbine generator mechanical system in torsional mechanical
system resonance was developed [28–30]. During the investigation of the cause of
Mohave shaft failure, two other types of potential problems were also identified that
could be created by the interaction of series compensated transmission system and
14 1 Introduction
the turbine generator connected to that system. These aspects of SSR were referred
to as Induction generator effect and Transient torque amplification.
The Mohave incidents made utilities fully aware of the potential SSR hazards of
capacitor series compensation. This caused the utilities that were applying series
capacitors or were considering series capacitor compensation, to think about the
alternatives. The main alternatives were additional transmission lines and HVDC
transmission, each of them required greater capital investment and an increase in
the environmental impact of the transmission systems. Hence, the continued use of
series capacitors was highly desirable. If capacitor series compensation use were to
carry on, it would be absolutely essential that SSR hazards must be avoided. This is
only possible by the thorough understanding of the phenomenon, and availability of
analytical tools to study and evaluate the severity of the problem accurately, and
development of reliable SSR countermeasures. Several utilities and power equip-
ment suppliers made a significant effort which is reported by IEEE SSR Working
Group, established in 1974.
1.6.1 Analysis Methods
The existence and severity of SSR can be established by one or more analytical
methods, whereby the general concepts and types of SSR can be related to
meaningful numerical results. Several analytical methods have been proposed. The
most dominant three tools used by the industry are frequency scanning, eigenvalue
analysis and electromagnetic transients simulations.
Simplified analytical frequency scanning method is introduced in 1977 to study
SSR. A number of useful formulae, and the approximations required for their
derivation are presented which with help of output of frequency scan method can
identify all three types of SSR [31]. This method is based on the calculation of
network impedance as seen from the generator neutral. The study generator is
represented by the induction machine equivalent circuit. Transmission lines and
loads are represented by equivalent impedance circuit [32]. Demonstrated the use of
frequency scanning technique for SSR analysis and presented the correlations of
these results with field test results in 1979. This method was quickly adapted by the
industry and now widely used for SSR screening studies.
Electromagnetic transient program (EMTP) is a class of simulation software that
had its beginning at Bonneville Power Administration and was initially adapted for
SSR analysis in the early 1970s [33, 34]. This type of analysis is time domain
simulations that use detailed electrical system models with three phases, ground and
neutral. The turbine generator unit can also be modelled in detail and the mutual
coupling of the mechanical and electrical system is included. EMTP is extensively
used for SSR analysis, due to its generality and flexibility to study all three type of
SSR.
In 1970, a considerable effort was being made to apply eigenvalue analysis to
study large system dynamics [35, 36]. After the Mohave incident, application of
1.6 Past Research on Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) 15
eigenvalue analysis to study all three aspects of SSR was presented in [29, 37]. In
the beginning, the use of eigenvalue analysis for subsynchronous resonance was
limited to smaller networks since the work on larger systems computed only
selected eigenvalues and needed skilled and experienced analyst. In 1976, a method
involving the determination of eigenvalue sensitivities of an interconnected power
systems with the inclusion of network and shaft dynamics was presented in [38].
The work in [39, 40] also presented the methods to perform eigenvalue analysis in a
large system.
1.6.2 Potential Sources of Subsynchronous Oscillations
The extensive research after the Mohave incident identified the potential sources of
subsynchronous resonance which can be classified into two categories [4, 41, 42].
1. Series capacitance compensation of network
2. Device dependent subsynchronous resonance.
1.6.2.1 Series Capacitor Compensation of Networks
Series compensation of transmission lines introduces natural resonant electrical

frequencies in the network given by
rffiffiffiffiffi
Xc
xn ¼ x ð1:5Þ
XL
where ω is the system frequency, Xc and XL are capacitive and inductive reactance
respectively.
These natural frequencies appear at the generator rotor as modulations of the
system frequency giving rise to supersynchronous and subsynchronous rotor fre-
quencies. It is the subsynchronous frequency which might interact with one of
natural torsional modes of the turbine generator shaft and set up conditions for
exchange of energy at the subsynchronous frequency that can lead to torsional
fatigue damage to the turbine generator shaft [4, 28].
The series impedance of the series compensated transmission line and generator
can be estimated by the following equation if lumped parameter equivalents are
used for lines and shunt elements are neglected.
1
Z ðfne Þ ¼ Rext þ j2pfne Lext þ Rline þ j2pfne Lline þ þ Rgen þ j2pfne Lgen
j2pfne Cline
ð1:6Þ
16 1 Introduction
where Rext, Lext are equivalent load resistance and inductance Rline, Lline, Cline are
transmission line resistance, series inductance and series capacitance Rgen, Lgen
generator resistance and inductance as viewed from transmission system at fn.
At resonance, inductive reactance of the system becomes equal to the capacitive
reactance, i.e.,
1
ImðZ ðfne ÞÞ ¼ 0 ¼ j2pfne Lext þ Lline þ Lgen þ ð1:7Þ
j2pfne Cline
The natural electric frequency, fne, of the line can be computed as follows
1
fne ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð1:8Þ
2p Cline Lext þ Lline þ Lgen
For resonant oscillations to be sustained, the net system resistance must be

nearly or equal to zero which couldn’t be achieved in simple series circuit. The
impedance of a large synchronous round rotor generator can be calculated
approximately as
Rr fne
Zgen ¼ þ j X 00 ð1:9Þ
S 60
fne f
where S ¼ ð1:10Þ
fne
where f is the synchronous electrical frequency, Rr is per unit rotor resistance and
X″ is generator per unit transient reactance.
It is evident from (1.10) that for fne < f, the value of slip is negative and the
synchronous generator operates as an induction generator offering negative resis-
tance to the system. Equation (1.9) calculates the impedance of synchronous
machine; its real part (resistance) becomes negative when slip is negative. When the
magnitude of this negative resistance is equal or greater than the system resistance
external to the generator, undamped selfexcited oscillations occur [28].
Torsional interactions occur when the natural electrical frequency (fne) is equal
or very close to the synchronous frequency complement of the torsional mode
frequency (fme), in addition, the negative damping introduced is greater than the
inherent mechanical damping [4, 5, 29].
1.6.2.2 Device Dependent Subsynchronous Oscillations
In addition to SSR resulting from the interactions between a turbine generator and
a series capacitor compensated network, the interactions between a turbine gener-
ator and power system components can also give rise to subsynchronous resonance
[41–43].
Other likely sources could be static VAr compensators, high speed governors,
power system stabilizers, variable speed drive converters [4, 41, 43]. In general, any
device that controls or react fast to speed or power deviations in the subsynchronous
frequency range has a potential to excite subsynchronous oscillations.
Interactions with HVDC Converter Controls
In 1977, tests on the HVDC system at Square Butte north Dakota USA indicated
that an HVDC terminal can interact with torsional modes of the turbine generator
shaft and have the potential to alter the stability of these modes considerably. The
severity of the interaction depends on several parameters, including AC transmis-
sion configuration, the load level of DC line, control mode and characteristics of the
HVDC terminal. In particular these test demonstrated that DC current control at the
rectifier will produce inherently negative damping of rotor oscillations over certain
frequency range. The level of destabilization and the frequency range over which it
occurs can be adjusted by current control modifications. In addition, controllers to
damp oscillations in the range of 0.25–2 Hz have a high probability to destabilize
torsional modes of oscillations. For both normal and supplement control systems,
the magnitude of interactions increases as the parallel system AC transmission
system gets weaker and worst interaction occurs when DC system is operated
radially from the turbine generator [10, 11]. Frequency band of currents generated
by HVDC converters is quite wide. Therefore, HVDC converters can be potential
source that excite torsional modes of turbine generators through constant DC
power, current or voltage control loops and or by the auxiliary control loop used to
improve stability of interconnected AC systems at low frequencies [3, 10]. The role
of HVDC converter station to the controller interactions phenomenon is predomi-
nantly due to natural oscillatory modes of its controls [41, 42].
Static VAr Compensator (SVCs)
SVCs are member of flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices family.
A static VAr compensator is a static device which controls the flow of reactive
power in a system by generating or absorbing reactive power. In contrast to syn-
chronous condenser, SVCs don’t have inertia or any major moving or rotating parts.
This feature enables them to respond very fast to changing network conditions.
Since SVCs are composed of passive parts, they do not contribute to the short
circuit fault level of the bus to which they are connected.
Because of their high speed response and versatility, SVCs are employed
[44–46]
• To achieve voltage control
• To damp low frequency oscillations
• To increase active power transfer capacity
• To increase transient stability margins
• To balance the loading of individual phases
• To provide reactive power to AC/DC convertors
• To reduce temporary overvoltages.
18 1 Introduction
By applying auxiliary controls that use control signals derived from bus fre-
quency, line current and the venin voltage [47, 48]. Without any doubt SVCs offer
many benefits but under certain conditions auxiliary controller and basic voltage
controller of SVCs can have undesirable torsional interactions [44, 49].
Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVRs)
AVRs are used to maintain constant voltage level. A voltage regulator is an
example of negative feedback control loop. In central power station generator
plants, AVRs are employed to control the output of the plant. In an electric power
distribution network, AVRs may be used at substation or along the distribution line
to provide steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the line. It
has been observed that depending on the “electrical distance” between the appa-
ratus, the associated closed loop controllers have potential to interact and lead to
either unsatisfactory operation of the devices, sustained oscillations or in some
cases small signal instability [4, 41, 42].
Power System Stabilizer (PSS)
Power system stabilizer (PSS) provides damping to the unit’s characteristic elec-
tromechanical oscillations at very low frequency (0.1–2.5 Hz) by modulating the
generator excitation to develop components of electrical torque in phase with rotor
speed deviations [4, 50]. Depending on the feedback signal and the parameters of a
PSS, one or more oscillatory signals with the frequencies close or equal to torsional
modes can be injected into the generator field winding, consequently this may
excite torsional modes resulting into subsynchronous oscillations [51]. Excitation of
the subsynchronous modes by the PSS can be avoided by torsional low pass filters
in the PSS loop or by modifying or augmenting the controls [4, 41, 43].
1.6.3 Mitigation of SSR
The purpose of mitigation is to maintain system stability, prevent equipment damage

and personal injury. Numerous SSR mitigation techniques have been studied, but
only a dozen have been implemented. SSR mitigation techniques are often divided
into two types: unit tripping and non-unit tripping mitigation techniques.
1.6.3.1 Unit Tripping Mitigation Techniques
Table 1.1 summarizes all unit tripping countermeasures.
Table 1.1 Unit tripping countermeasures

Measure References
1. Torsional motion relay [5]
2. Armature current relay [52]
3. Unit tripping scheme [5]
Torsional Motion Relays

Stationary reluctance probes near a magnetic toothed wheel mounted on the shaft
senses the torsional motion of the turbine generator unit. Demodulation of the
sensed signal provides the torsional motion signal. This signal is sent to the logic
circuitry to identify a condition of sustained or growing torsional oscillations,
indicating the presence of torsional interaction or induction generator effect. When
such conditions are detected, a unit trip is initiated [53].
Armature Current Relay
Generally, armature current relays make use of signals that are proportional to the
three armature currents. Each of these signals is multiplied with a signal that is in
phase with the corresponding armature voltage. The sum of three resulting signals is
an approximated electrical torque of the study generator. This signal is applied to
logic circuitry to identify a condition of sustained or growing torsional torques,
which indicates torsional interaction or induction generator effect. Existence of such
conditions, detected by the relay initiates the unit trip [54, 55].
Subsynchronous Oscillation Relay
A Subsynchronous oscillation relay which has capabilities to detect all three types
of SSR was developed in late 1970s [54, 56]. The inputs to the relay are the three
armature currents and one terminal voltage. The 60 Hz complement of the positive
sequence armature current after some processing is used to approximate the sub-
synchronous component of electrical torque. This equivalent torque is fed to dif-
ferent section of relay to provide protection against all three aspects of SSR [54].
Torsional and subsynchronous oscillations relays are the most effective measure
for SSR stability problems. They continuously monitor the turbine generator shaft
for torsional oscillations and provide trip output contact when shaft fatigue reaches
predetermined levels. The output contacts can be used to trip the source of SSR
problem, such as bypass a series capacitor bank or trip a line. A secondary set of
output contact can be used to trip the generator. Torsional and subsynchronous
relays can be configured to protect a single turbine generator with multiple torsional
modes or configured to protect up to three turbine generator units in certain com-
bined cycle plants [52].
Unit Tripping Logic Schemes
Several schemes have been also developed that will begin tripping of the protected
unit when a pre-specified set of conditions occur. These schemes typically require
three or more line outages to occur simultaneously. One of such scheme is pre-
sented in [57] including extensive redundant communications systems. With the
growing confidence in unit tripping relays, these schemes did not prevail.
20 1 Introduction
Table 1.2 Non-unit tripping countermeasures

Measure References
1. Static blocking filter Applied [5]
2. Line filter [43]
3. Parallel filter [43]
4. Dynamic filter [43]
5. Dynamic stabilizer Applied [58]
6. Excitation system damper Applied [5]
7. Larger exciter Applied [43]
8. System switching [43]
9. Turbine generator modification Applied [5, 43]
10. Reactance in series with generator [43]
11. Pole face damper winding Applied [5, 43]
12. Dual gap flashing Applied [5, 43]
13. Reduced series capacitor setting Applied [43]
14. Force gap flashing Applied [43]
15. Coordinated capacitor control Applied [5, 43]
16. Coordinated series capacitor use with loading Applied [5, 43]
17. Thyristor switched resistor Applied [59]
18. Damping resistors Applied [43]
19. Static VAr compensator Applied [5, 43]
1.6.3.2 Non-unit Tripping SSR Mitigation Techniques
Table 1.2 presents all applied and suggested non unit tripping countermeasures.
Static Blocking Filter
The static filter is applied in series with the generator that it protects. It includes
filter stages that are tuned to the subsynchronous frequency complement of each
active torsional mode. The filter blocks the flow of subsynchronous frequency
currents that would excite the torsional modes of turbine generator mechanical
system. The filter is tuned to contribute positive resistance at frequencies, which
corresponds to synchronous frequency complement of active torsional mode fre-
quencies. Furthermore, combining the filter impedance characteristics with the
transmission impedance characteristics causes parallel resonances at the rotor
complementary frequencies. This causes the system series resonance points to shift
to frequencies where it cannot damage the turbine generator. In essence, the filter
separates the turbine generator from the critical subsynchronous frequencies cur-
rents. The filter is made up of inductors and capacitors. The best location for a static
filter is in the neutral end of each phase of the generator step up transformer high
voltage winding. This location requires minimum voltage and current ratings for the
filter components. A properly tuned static blocking filter can mitigate torsional
interaction and torque amplification effectively [60, 61].
Dynamic Filter
A dynamic filter is an active device which is placed in series with the generator to
block the electrical currents at the frequencies corresponding to torsional mode
frequencies [9].
Rotor oscillations produce subsynchronous and supersynchronous frequency
armature voltages. The supersynchronous voltages produce armature currents
which tend to damp the oscillations. The subsynchronous frequency voltages
produce armature currents which amplify the oscillations. The dynamic filter picks
up a signal derived from the rotor motion and with suitable control circuitry pro-
duces a voltage in phase opposition and of sufficient magnitude to overpower the
subsynchronous voltage generated in the armature by the rotor motion. The filter
can produce positive damping in addition to the positive damping provided by the
mechanical system.
Dynamic Stabilizer
The dynamic stabilizer is a 3-phase device connected in shunt near the generator
terminals. It resembles a Static VAr Compensator. This is a shunt inductive load
connected to the terminals of a generator which includes means for modulating the
reactive current drawn from the line. The amount of three phase lagging currents is
determined by an external control signal derived from turbine generator rotor
motion. Torsional motion of the turbine generator is sensed by stationary reluctance
probes near a magnetic toothed wheel mounted on the shaft. The sensed signal is
demodulated, thus providing a torsional motion signal. The signal is processed to
generate firing angles at appropriate frequency and phase to produce positive
damping at the torsional frequencies. It is essential to appropriately size the com-
ponents of dynamic stabilizer, so that the device is effective in controlling torsional
interaction immediately following severe system disturbance [58, 62, 63].
Excitation System Damper
The excitation system damper uses the generator excitation system to apply a torque
to the turbine generator rotor. The applied torque includes subsynchronous fre-
quencies that are appropriately phase shifted to yield positive damping. The
effectiveness of a excitation system dampers is strongly dependent on the specific
type of excitation system. There have been many papers written on proposed
control strategies for excitation system dampers [5].
The signal is obtained in the same manner as described for the dynamic stabilizer
and torsional motion relay. The excitation system damper is effective only when the
turbine generator oscillations are relatively small, but may not be effective fol-
lowing a major system disturbance due to saturation of the control signal [64, 65].
Turbine Generator Modification
The natural torsional frequencies of turbine generator units can be modified within
certain limits. In one specific case, a torsional mode frequency of a turbine gen-
erator at approximately 51 Hz could be excited by DC offset current in the
22 1 Introduction
armature, because 60 Hz complement of DC is 60 Hz. Although there was 9 Hz

difference, the 60 Hz electrical torque could sufficiently excite the 51 Hz torsional
mode so that significant fatigue would be experienced for close in faults. Results of
the conducted studies prior to the turbine generator shipment indicated the problem
which was then corrected by changing the spring constant of one of machine’s
shaft. The torsional mode frequency was reduced to 47.5 Hz and could not be
excited by a 60 Hz torque. Though such modification cannot be considered as a
general mitigation measure, it could have a specific application to detune the spring
mass system for a specific frequency, thus avoiding torsional interactions or torque
amplification [5].
Pole-Face Damper Windings
Windings inserted on the pole faces of a generator rotor reduce the rotor resistance
and thereby reduce the apparent negative resistance to the flow of subsynchronous
armature current. This mitigation measure is only effective for induction generator
effect [9].
Dynamically Controlled Resistor Bank
The use of a resistor bank to reduce the impact of electrical system disturbance on
the torsional mode is also demonstrated in [66, 67]. A thyristor controlled resistor
bank is connected to the machine terminals. Resistors are chosen on the basis that at
the rated voltage, the resistor bank is capable of dissipating large amount of power.
During the normal operation the resistor bank is out of service and no power is
dissipated. Following a disturbance, resistor are enabled, power dissipation by the
resistor banks damps the torsional oscillations.
Series Capacitor Bypassing
Bypassing the series capacitor has been used in several ways as an effective SSR
mitigation countermeasure [68]. One application has been by limiting the energy
stored in a series capacitor bank during a system fault. For series capacitor banks
that use gap to protect capacitor, gaps can be utilized to limit the energy storage
during faults and thus reduce the effect of torque amplification. A scheme referred
to as dual gap flashing facilitates low gap flashing levels but a high probability of
successful reinsertion.
The application of varistor for capacitor overvoltage protection can also limit
series capacitor energy storage. Therefore, varistor series capacitor overvoltage
protection can also be considered as an SSR mitigation measure that limits torque
amplification.
A scheme proposed in [55, 69] utilizes the series capacitor control that bypasses
capacitors on a dynamic basis so as to force voltage across capacitor banks to have
predominately synchronous frequency.
This scheme involves a linear resistor in series with back to back thyristors
connected across the capacitor. This scheme uses the fact that presence of any DC
or subsynchronous frequency in the voltage changes the half cycle time period of
the voltage from that of synchronous frequency voltage signal. Therefore, when a
zero voltage crossing point of the capacitor voltage is detected, the succeeding half
cycle period is timed. When the half cycle exceeds the set time, the corresponding
thyristor is fired to discharge the capacitor through the resistor and bring about its
current zero earlier than it would otherwise. The thyristor stops conducting when
the capacitor voltage reaches zero, therefore, the measuring of the half cycle period
restarts from a new voltage zero. The effectiveness of this scheme to control tor-
sional interactions, torque amplification and induction generator effect has been
demonstrated in [70].
Coordinated Series Capacitor Control with Loading
Mechanical damping of a turbine generator increases with the generator loading,
such that the severity of torsional interactions is reduced as loading increases. Series
capacitors typically are required as the system load increases. Therefore, series
capacitors can be bypassed at light load and can be reinserted as the system loading
is increased [52].
Such an application requires a thorough analysis and closely coordinated control
system to switch series capacitors. However, this scheme cannot be used if series
capacitors are used to control voltage at light load.
Static VAR Compensator
Voltage controller of the thyristor controller reactor (Static VAR Compensator)
with control signal derived from the generator speed [63, 71–73] can improve the
damping of torsional modes and counteracts the problem of torsional interaction.
However, in the absence of the voltage controller, the phenomenon of damping one
mode while introducing negative damping in one or more otherwise stable modes
can occur. This could happen due to the action of the rotor speed feedback con-
troller when not ideally tuned at all subsynchronous modal frequencies.
Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
A programme, named “FACTS” for “Flexible AC Transmission Systems” was
initiated and scoping studies were conducted to identify the benefits of FACTS
devices [74, 75]. These studies showed that thyristor controlled series compensation
(TCSC) system should be developed since a number of benefits could be achieved
in a cost effective manner. The major benefits include being able to directly control
power flows in transmission lines, to modulate the effective impedance rapidly in
response to power swings and to permit higher levels of conventional series
compensation without being restricted by subsynchronous resonance (SSR) aspects.
First prototype TCSC was installed at Slatt substation in USA in the Slatt
Buckley 500 kV line. A number of factors made the Slatt substation particularly
attractive. One major factor was the high fault level of more than 20 kA rms which
allows the evaluation of thyrsitor switch. The site was also connected to a coal
plant, a steam turbine generation facility suitable for SSR testing by configuring the
network to place the TCSC in series through a radial 500 kV transmission line
[76, 77]. The results of TCSC installation at the Slatt substation demonstrated that
the TCSC is a SSR neutral. A TCSC can mitigate SSR due to other series capacitors
24 1 Introduction
Table 1.3 SSR mitigation examples

Generating Units × MVA Line % Comp SSR mitigation and protection
plant kV
Mohave USA 2 × 909 500 70 lowered Reduced compensation, torsional relay
to 26
Navajo USA 3 × 892 500 70 SSR blocking filters, SEDC, redundant
torsional relays
Jim Bridger 4 × 590 345 45 Load switch capacitor, SEDC, redundant
USA torsional relays
Colstrip USA 2 × 377 500 35 Torsional relays
2 × 819
Wyodak USA 1 × 402 230 50 Torsional relays
Boardman USA 1 × 590 500 29 TCSC, torsional relay
San Juan New 2 × 410 345 30–34 Torsional relays, (dynamic stabilizer
Mexico 2 × 617 abandoned)
La Palma USA 1 × 192 345 50 Switched capacitors segments via SSR
current monitoring
[77]. Application of TCSCs to mitigate subsynchronous resonance has proved to be

very successful in general [59, 78].
Table 1.3 provides the list of applied mitigation measures at well-known gen-
erating plants [79].
1.6.3.3 Mitigation Techniques for Torsional Interactions Due

to HVDC Controllers
Several studies have been carried out in the past to determine the characteristics of
the HVDC controls interaction with the turbine generator and to identify the
important parameters [10, 11, 80].
In the network, the HVDC converter appears as a constant load to the AC
transmission system within current or power controller bandwidth. A constant
power load offers negative damping characteristics in proportion to the power level
of the HVDC link to any deviation of generator shaft speed.
Unless special gain linearization methods are used, the effective gain of the
regulator is proportional to the sine of the firing angle and consequently gain
increases as firing angle increases. Besides, independent of voltage response, the
effect of speed on the torque change is also directly proportional to sine of firing
angle. Therefore, the amplitude of torsional interactions with HVDC link increases
as the firing angle increases, this phenomenon also causes the current control at the
inverter to have a stronger effect than the current control at the rectifier, because an
inverter operates at the firing angle closer to 90° (sin 90° = 1) compared to rectifier.
The interactions are also a function of the electrical distance between the unit
and the HVDC system. Hence, maximum interactions occur with a turbine gen-
erator unit feeding a HVDC line radially.
The magnitude of interactions increases as the AC system becomes weaker and

the negative damping introduced by HVDC system increases as HVDC power
increases but the inherent damping of the turbine generator increases with generator
output.
There are several system conditions which can lead to worst case of torsional
stability, with respect to AC system strength variations, the highest interactions
occurs with the DC system operating radially. However, the DC power is limited to
generator output in case of radial operation, whereas it could be higher with an AC
system present. Since negative damping increases with DC power, therefore, the
worst case may occur with an AC system present and HVDC system at a higher
power level than the turbine generator.
The method of synchronizing the HVDC firing control to the AC voltage
waveform also affects the interactions between the HVDC system and torsional
vibrations of adjacent turbine-generators. Equi-distant schemes lead to greater
interactions than the equi-angle schemes [60, 61].
It can be concluded from various case studies and analysis, that the adverse
interactions are significantly less compared to that caused by fixed series com-
pensation. There are two ways to avoid adverse torsional interactions.
Modification of Control
First option can only be implemented successfully if modifications do not disturb
the normal operation of the controller during normal and abnormal conditions. It is
prerequisite for the controller to ensure satisfactory transient response during DC
line faults and recovery from AC line faults. Whenever the frequency of first
torsional mode is higher than 15 Hz, the torsional interactions problem can be
resolved with minor modifications of the exiting converter controls [4, 41–43].
Using a Subsynchronous Damping Controller (SSDC)
The second method, that make use of SSDC to damp subsynchronous oscillations is
more adaptable [4, 80]. The objective of SSDC is to improve the damping torque to
make net damping positive at the critical range of torsional frequencies and this
critical range of frequencies is determined by the negative damping introduced by
the electrical system in the absence of SSDC [80, 81].
1.6.3.4 Mitigation Techniques for SSR Due to Shunt Compensators
It is observed that voltage control loops of electrically close SVCs are very likely to
interact with each other. Due to this type of interaction generally the control mode
of the SVC with lower Effective Short Circuit Current Ratio (ESCR) becomes
unstable. Interactions are stronger at higher values of controller gains. This requires
the coordination of controller parameters of SVCs in case of multiple SVCs
application [44].
26 1 Introduction
Dynamic shunt compensation of a very weak transmission system where the first
resonant frequency of the network is low, can cause interaction between the SVC
control modes and first resonant frequency [42, 44].
Torsional interactions between SVC and turbine generator system may arise
under particular operating conditions. The severity of the phenomenon depends on
the operating conditions and SVC control. Applications of SVCs to series com-
pensated system raises serious concern regarding the stability of shunt reactor
resonance. This mode of resonance is sensitive to thyristor controlled reactor
operating point and SVC control gain. Therefore, a compromise should be made
between the stability of resonant mode and SVC performance [41, 42, 44].
It is known that shunt capacitors do not contribute towards torsional interactions,
therefore, it is worthwhile to investigate the factors behind the torsional interactions
with shunt FACTS voltage regulators. Past results show that voltage regulator of
the compensator produce negative damping at torsional frequency, but unlike to
fixed series compensation, the negative damping is caused by supersynchronous
frequency currents [4]. These types of interactions can be avoided by proper
selection of SVC control parameters and filtering the voltage feedback signal.
Besides, SSDC can be added to SVC for damping of SSR [44, 49].
Although AVR, PSS and governor system can lead to torsional oscillations in
some cases, the excitation is mainly due to inadequate control design. Therefore,
adequate control design with filters in control circuitry can eliminate this problem
[4, 42, 44].
1.6.3.5 Turbine Generator Model
Many parts of generator turbine cannot be theoretically analysed because of their

complex construction and geometry. Therefore, finite element analysis techniques
are used to obtain modelling parameters, and models are fitted empirically by both
stationary and rotating tests of turbine generator and exciter. The coupled response
of the turbine generator can only be verified by field tests [82, 83]. Lumped mass
model of turbine is compared against continuum model (continuum model consists
of many hundreds of connected sections) and both model shows quite good
agreement for first four torsional modes of an 800 MW two pole unit [83]. These
models illustrate that small rotor components such as turbine blades are more
sensitive to higher frequency components of electrical torque while small frequency
components of electrical torque provide main stimulus to the main shaft section
[83].
Efforts have been made to predict critical level of compensations and its sen-
sitivity to different parameters in the system. It was found that in general, the
predicted critical compensation level depends on the mathematical model and
validity of parameters, in particularly on the electrical and mechanical damping. By
physical model of the mechanical system, the values of all nonstrain related factors
which contribute towards damping can be neither calculated nor measured.
Therefore, mechanical system equations have to be transformed into modal form

(frequency domain) where all the equations are decoupled and all parameters
including damping, inertia and stiffness are associated with each natural torsional
mode of vibration of shaft [43, 84]. By using measured values of modal damping
with the modal model, the critical compensation can be determined more precisely
[43, 85, 86].
Standstill frequency technique was used to build models of different machines of
similar rating, but different rotor constructions. Studies highlighted that complexity
of the rotor design depends on rotor construction, specifically it was found that a
machine with a continuous damper winding required more detailed model than a
machine without such a winding [87]. Validation test for the models demonstrated
that rotor parameters in case of complex models are sensitive to particular test
conditions [88]. Later, online frequency response test confirmed that complexity of
the rotor model is function of rotor design and complex models are more sensitive
to particular test conditions. Online frequency test generally provides better values
for parameters in case of complex models [89].
1.6.3.6 Shaft Fatigue
Series compensation has a potential to amplify the shaft stress level during major
network transient events. Transient torque amplification becomes significant
problem when electrical resonances of the series compensated transmission network
and shaft resonances of particular turbine-generator are closely aligned [4, 5, 90].
Though there is no incident of severe damage due to transient torque amplification,
only anticipation of this problem has led to number of system design and operating
criteria to limit the exposure of a turbine generator to radial feed configurations
through highly compensated lines after a system fault clearance [91, 92]. The duty
(loss of shaft fatigue life) associated with major out of phase synchronizing acci-
dents has long been recognized [93]. Studies have been carried out to identify
different parameter values that influence fatigue life reduction of steam turbine
generators [83]. It was observed that shaft fatigue caused by any electrical distur-
bance varies widely with the operating conditions, e.g., the fault clearing and
closing time as well as network configuration and turbine generator design
[91, 94–96]. The work was also carried out to develop fatigue models and correlate
the results with test results [85, 97, 98]. Different methods to estimate shaft life
reduction due to exposure to disturbance were developed in [99]. Automatic
reclosing of line to line faults with multiple circuit connection of the station bus
with the transmission system generally leads to higher shaft fatigue. Normal line
switching is the most frequent event that can excite turbine generator shaft torsional
oscillation. Therefore, to avoid undesirable shaft fatigue, it is necessary to ensure
that a sudden power change of >0.5 p.u does not occur at the generator terminals
during switching operations.
28 1 Introduction
1.6.3.7 VSC-HVDC
As discussed above that classic HVDC systems based on line-commutated current

source converter (LCC) suffer from the problem of commutation failures and
operation with weak AC system is difficult. The new HVDC technology is based on
voltage source converters (VSC) instead of current source converters (CSC) used in
classic HVDC. Due to this fundamental difference VSC-HVDC has several
advantages. Not much work, however, has been published or publically available
regarding the subsynchronous torsional interactions with VSC-HVDC.
Studies show that damping characteristics of VSC-HVDC are dependent on
the strength of AC system to which it is connected. In case of rectifier on power
control and inverter on the DC voltage control, reduced AC strength lowers the
damping of torsional modes when the generator is at rectifier end and increase
the damping of torsional modes when the generator is near the inverter. The change
in damping of torsional modes is small, therefore, VSC-HVDC is not expected to
change the state of dynamic stability of the system [19, 100]. With rectifier on DC
voltage control and inverter on power control, there is positive damping contri-
bution in higher range of torsional frequency (30–300 rad/s) if the generator is at
the rectifier end of the line. However, magnitude of positive damping is small. The
damping at lower frequencies is reduced. The constant power control of the rectifier
situated close to the generator contributes small negative damping. This clearly
indicates that different control modes, particularly choice between DC voltage and
power control may lead to different effect on the subsynchronous torsional oscil-
lation damping. Active power control is more beneficial to SSTI damping. At active
and reactive power (P & Q) control mode, the damping characteristics can be
insensitive to power flow direction and load level. The structure of the control
system and the parameter setting are equally important regarding the subsyn-
chronous torsional oscillation damping as well as stability of the control.
DC voltage control of the VSC (rectifier/inverter) close to generator units results
in better damping of SSR. The constant power control of the rectifier situated close
to the generator contributes to small negative damping and the system is stable as
the net damping is positive. The constant power control of the inverter situated
close to the generator can destabilize the system in a narrow range of low fre-
quencies. Unlike LCC-HVDC, SSR interactions with VSC-HVDC are of minor
concern except in case of constant power control at inverter when some destabi-
lizing effects are possible.
1.6.3.8 Uncertainty in Mechanical Parameters
Uncertainty in mechanical parameters inertia constant H and spring constant

K introduce uncertainty in torsional modes frequencies, damping of the mode and
peak torques of torsional oscillations. The effect of machine models and system
parameters on torsional oscillations was investigated in [101–103]. The effect of

modeling of hysteretic damping of the shaft was studied in [104]. The influence of
uncertainties in modal parameters on subsynchronous studies was investigated in
[84]. It was shown in [105] that uncertainty in spring constant (stiffness) can
considerably affect the damping and frequency of the torsional modes. The influ-
ence of uncertainty in mechanical parameters inertia, spring constant, internal and
external mechanical damping on torsional mode frequencies, mode shapes and
maximum torsional torques in the turbine generator shaft is studied in [106].
1.6.4 Summary of Past Research
Having reviewed the past research in the field, it is appreciated that this phe-
nomenon has been investigated extensively and successfully. A wealth of literature
has been written to explain the phenomenon, propose analysis methods and miti-
gating measures. The areas which have not received adequate attention, and need to
be addressed further have been identified and summarized as follows:
• The effect of HVDC lines operating in parallel to compensated/ uncompensated
lines in a meshed power network requires thorough analysis. Research to date
includes some case studies conducted on large AC networks in 1970s and
1980s. Most of the studies with VSC-HVDC system are conducted on radial
network or small network.
• There is no work concerning the effect of uncertainties in mechanical parameters
of a turbine generator system with line commutated converter (LCC) HVDC
system and voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC system. Previously pub-
lished research investigated SSR phenomenon in radial AC network only.
• The application of risk assessment methods to SSR studies is entirely unex-
plored. Risk based approaches keep the balance between maximizing the usage
of the system assets and avoiding potentially catastrophic system failures. Such
an approach is crucial to ensure system resources are not curtailed in order to
mitigate for extremely rare system contingencies.
• Past research investigated the effectiveness of asymmetrical series compensation
on 2nd bench mark model only [107]. A direct comparison of symmetrical and
asymmetrical compensation schemes on dynamic instability and transient torque
amplification due to SSR in a large meshed power network would be extremely
beneficial in evaluating the merits of the scheme. The influence of uncertainties
in mechanical parameters of a turbine generator shaft system with symmetrical
and asymmetrical compensation is not explored in the past.
30 1 Introduction
1.7 Research Aims and Objectives
This research aims to address the issues which have been identified within the
current body of research. The main aim of this research is to explore all possible
scenarios which can lead to SSR in meshed power networks with relatively short
but heavily compensated lines operating in parallel to HVDC lines and to propose,
using probabilistic risk based index, appropriate AC/HVDC topologies that mini-
mize the probability of occurrence of SSR phenomenon. In order to achieve these
aims, the following research objectives have been defined.
1. To summarize and critically evaluate SSR analysis methods, in order to choose
appropriate techniques for different types of studies.
2. To select and develop appropriate multimass model of turbine generator shaft,
LCC-HVDC and VSC-HVDC model within DIgSILENT PowerFactory to
integrate with AC network models in order to perform SSR analysis in a meshed
AC/DC power network.
3. To develop indices to assess (torsional interaction) dynamic instability and
transient torque amplification problem due to SSR.
4. To rank the generators in the network based on the proximity to SSR using the
developed indices and verifies the ranking through simulations.
5. To investigate the effect of different network configurations, compensation
levels and different types of lines including VSC-HVDC line operating in
parallel to AC line.
6. To develop an approach to perform risk evaluation of SSR phenomenon for
different compensation levels in various contingencies taking into account the
combination of probability of occurrence of each contingency, probabilities of
different operating conditions and the severity of SSR problem.
7. To investigate the effect of uncertainties in mechanical parameters of the turbine
generator shaft on the degree of risk indicated by the developed approach. This
should include a thorough analysis of the influence of uncertainties in
mechanical parameters of turbine generator on dynamic instability and transient
torque amplification problem caused by SSR phenomenon with symmetrical and
asymmetrical compensation schemes.
8. To develop an approach for the optimal proportion of fixed series capacitors and
thyrsitor controlled series capacitors to mitigate subsynchronous resonance
based on the developed indices.
9. To perform a robust evaluation of the effect of uncertainties in mechanical
parameters on SSR in a meshed power network with HVDC line operating in
parallel to AC line for various operating conditions of the turbine generator.
1.8 Main Contributions of This Research 31
1.8 Main Contributions of This Research
The work presented within this thesis contributes to a number of areas of sub-
synchronous resonance phenomenon. All research objectives identified above are
fully met. The main outcome of this research is the development of novel appli-
cation of risk evaluation methods to study subsychronous resonance in power
networks.
References prefixed with the letter ‘C’ refer to publications which have arisen
from the work completed during this research. A complete list of international
journal and conference publications is included in the Appendix C at the end of the
thesis. The main contributions made by this thesis can be summarised as follows:
• The development of SSR indices, to assess the severity of SSR problem the
generators in the network are exposed to in different network configurations and
at various series compensation levels. The application of the developed indices
to identify the area where the generators are most affected by series compen-
sation, and to rank the generators accordingly. The developed indices also
successfully identify the severity of SSR problem for different operating con-
ditions of a turbine generator [C1, C7, C9, C10].
• A study to investigate the effect of VSC-HVDC on dynamic instability. The
results of the studies show that VSC-HVDC controls add minor positive
damping to the torsional modes, however, are unable to increase the decay rate
of torsional modes [C1, C8].
• Development of a methodology based on risk evaluation methods for SSR
studies. The application of the developed methodology to a generator in a large
network demonstrates that risk evaluation can assist in the selection of the best
mitigation schemes for a given transmission system by providing information
about the severity and probability of SSR occurrence [C2].
• Development of a methodology based on the risk of SSR for the optimal
combination of TCSCs and fixed series compensation for SSR mitigation. The
developed methodology maximizes the proportion of fixed capacitors by not
only considering the severity of SSR in the network, but the probability of a
turbine generator operating condition and probability of different contingencies.
• A study to evaluate the effectiveness of asymmetrical compensation to mitigate
SSR. This concluded that critical series compensation level is increased with
asymmetrical compensation scheme in each network configuration [C3, C11].
• The assessment of the effect of uncertainties in the mechanical parameters of a
turbine generator on SSR in a meshed network with both types of compensation
schemes symmetrical and asymmetrical compensation. It has been found that in
normal network configuration, critically compensated system may become
unstable with as low as ±5 % uncertainty in the mechanical parameters. The
probability of becoming unstable due to mechanical parameter uncertainty stays
the same with both type of compensation schemes in the normal network
configuration and reduces with asymmetrical compensation in N–1 and N–2
contingency [C3].
32 1 Introduction
• A thorough analysis of the effect of uncertainties in mechanical parameters of a

turbine generator system in an AC/DC network. Studies were performed with
both type of HVDC technologies, i.e., VSC-HVDC and LCC-HVDC. It was
found that uncertainties do affect the modal damping of torsional modes and
maximum peak torques in the turbine generator shaft with both type of HVDC
technologies. Since torsional torques are higher and modal damping is lower
with LCC-HVDC compared to VSC-HVDC, the shaft fatigue inflicted in the
presence of uncertainties in the mechanical parameters in case of LCC would be
higher as compared with VSC, even for the same percentage increase in tor-
sional torques [C4, C5, C6].
1.9 Thesis Overview
This thesis includes seven chapters in total. The six chapters which follow this
introduction are outlined below:
Chapter 2: Power System Modelling and SSR Analysis Methods
This chapter provides the necessary information about the power system modelling
for SSR studies and SSR analysis methods. In addition, it presents the mathematical
descriptions of power system components, turbine generator mechanical system,
HVDC systems and thyrsitor controlled series capacitor. Since phenomenon of
subsynchronous resonance occurs within the turbine generator, therefore, basic
structure and operation of the synchronous machine is also included in this chapter,
alongside the test networks utilized throughout this thesis.
Chapter 3: Ranking of Generators based on the Severity of Subsynchronous
Resonance
This chapter presents a critical overview of frequently used SSR analysis methods.
Using an existing SSR analysis technique, an approach to develop SSR indices,
SSR risk index RISSR measuring the severity of torsional interaction and RITT index
representing the severity of transient torque amplification is presented. Following
this risk indices are calculated for various compensation levels in normal and radial
network configuration, and generators are ranked on the basis of proximity to SSR
quantified through developed indices. The ability of RISSR to identify safe operating
conditions of a turbine generator is also demonstrated. Following this, the ranking
of generators is verified through simulations, and risk indices are calculated for
different types of lines and compensation schemes. The chapter also presents the
effect of VSC-HVDC line on SSR and ranking of generators based on the severity
of SSR, when operating in parallel to compensated AC line.
1.9 Thesis Overview 33
Chapter 4: Methodology for the Evaluation of Risk of Subsynchronous

Resonance
The need and increasing importance of risk management and quantification of risk
in the operations of power system is outlined at the start of this chapter. Following
this, a methodology for the risk evaluation of SSR in accordance with standard risk
assessment methods in power system is presented. The developed methodology
considers not only the severity of SSR problem but also the probability of different
contingencies and probability of different operating conditions of a turbine
generator.
Chapter 5: Influence of Uncertainties in Mechanical Parameters
This chapter describes the benefits of HVDC transmission and basic operation of
LCC-HVDC and VSC-HVDC system. Following this, a robust analysis of effect of
uncertainties in mechanical parameters of a turbine generator on the amplification
of torsional torques in a meshed network with both types of HVDC technologies
has been performed. This includes several case studies with different power transfer
through the HVDC link and various operating condition of a turbine generator in a
meshed network.
Chapter 6: Optimal Series Compensation of Lines to Minimize the Exposure of
Generators to SSR
A methodology for the optimal proportion of series capacitors and thyrsitor con-
trolled series capacitor is proposed within this chapter. The developed methodology
maximizes the use of fixed series capacitors and guarantees that the severity of SSR
in the network is always kept within the acceptable level. Following this effect of
uncertainties in mechanical parameters of a turbine generator shaft on SSR has been
thoroughly investigated with symmetrical and asymmetrical compensation
schemes. The effect of uncertainties in mechanical parameters on the degree of SSR
risk assessed through the developed methodology has been also investigated.
Chapter 7: Conclusions and Future Work
In this chapter the main conclusions of the research are discussed and suggestions
are made for the future development and improvement of the presented
methodologies.
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and mitigation methods for series capacitor applications. IEEE Power Eng. Soc. Inaug. Conf.
Expos. Afr. 2005, 386–392 (2005)
80. R.J. Piwko, E.V. Larsen, HVDC system control for damping of subsynchronous oscillations.
81. P.K. Dash, A.K. Panigrahi, A.M. Sharaf, Analysis and damping of subsynchronous
oscillations in AC—HVDC power systems. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 11, 27–38
(1989)
82. C. Raczkowski, G.C. Kung, Turbine-generator torsional frequencies: field reliability and
testing (1978)
83. D.G. Ramey, A.C. Sismour, G.C. Kung, Important parameters in considering transient
torques on turbine-generator shaft systems. IEEE Trans. Power Appar. Syst. 99, 311–317
(1980)
84. G.D. Jennings, R.G. Harley, D.C. Levy, Sensitivity of subsynchronous resonance
predictions to turbo-generator modal parameter values and to omitting certain active
subsynchronous modes. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 2, 470–479 (1987)
85. D.N. Walker, S.L. Adams, R.J. Placek, Torsional vibration and fatigue of turbine-generator
shafts. IEEE Trans. Power Appar. Syst. 100, 4373–4380 (1981)
86. J.S. Joyce, D. Lambrecht, Status of evaluating the fatigue of large steam turbine-generators
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38 1 Introduction
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99. R.A. Williams, S.L. Adams, R.J. Placek, O. Klufas, D.C. Gonyea, D.K. Sharma, A
methodology for predicting torsional fatigue crack initiation in large turbine-generator shafts.
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models on the analysis of torsional dynamics. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 7, 1456–1463 (1992)
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vibrations in generator shafts following severe disturbances on the system supply. IEEE
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103. A. Dimarogonas, N. Aspragathos, The effects of some system parameters on the fatigue life
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shaft torsional oscillations. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 1, 152–160 (1986)
105. J.V. Milanovic, The influence of shaft spring constant uncertainty on torsional modes of
turbogenerator. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 13, 170–175 (1998)
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uncertainty in shaft mechanical parameters. Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 29, 867–881
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resonance. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 5, 219–226 (1990)
Chapter 2
Power System Modelling and SSR
Analysis Methods
Abstract Numerous well documented tools are available for power system mod-
elling and analysis. This chapter will describe the most dominant and commonly
used methods to study subsynchronous resonance phenomenon in power system
networks. Since this phenomenon is closely related to the operation of turbogen-
erators, the fundamental structure, and operation of a synchronous machine is also
explained. Within this chapter, models for all of the main power system compo-
nents, including excitation systems, power system stabilizers, transmission lines,
loads, synchronous machine and turbine generator mechanical system are descri-
bed. The modelling of Line Commutated Converter, Voltage Sourced Converter
based HVDC system and thyristor controlled series capacitor is also provided.
2.1 Synchronous Generators
The modelling and analysis of the synchronous machine has been subject of
investigations since 1920 [1, 2], several more studies investigated the same subject
[3–5]. Many books also covered the operation and performance of synchronous
machines [1, 6]. Within this section the basic structure and operation of the syn-
chronous machine is described. The synchronous machine is an AC generator,
driven by a turbine to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Understanding of synchronous machine operation and accurate modelling of its
dynamic performance are extremely important in subsynchronous studies.
The two major parts of synchronous machine are ferromagnetic structures. The
stationary part which is basically a hollow cylinder, called the stator or armature
shown in Fig. 2.1a. The armature has longitudal slots in which there are coils of the
armature windings. These windings carry the current supplied to an electrical load
by a generator. The rotor is the part (shown in Fig. 2.1b) which is mounted on the
shaft and rotates inside the hollow stator. The winding on the rotor, called field
winding, carries DC current and produces magnetic field which induces alternating

40 2 Power System Modelling and SSR Analysis Methods
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.1 a End view of a 26 kV 908 MVA. b Rotor of a two-pole 3600 r/min turbine. Adapted from
http://www4.hcmut.edu.vn/*tcbinh/File_2012/May_dien/C3_Electric%20Machinery_C4.pdf
voltages in the armature windings. The very high mmf produced by the DC current
in the field winding joins the mmf produced by the currents in the armature
windings. The resultant flux across the air gap between the stator and rotor gen-
erates voltages in the coils of the armature windings and produces electromagnetic
torque.
The DC current is supplied to the field winding by an exciter, which may be a
generator placed on the same shaft or separate DC source connected to the field
winding through brushes bearing on slip rings. Large AC generators usually have
exciters consisting of an AC source with solid state rectifiers. In case of generators,
the shaft is driven by a prime mover which is usually steam or hydraulic turbine.
The electromagnetic torque developed in the generator when it delivers power
opposes the torque of prime mover [1, 6].
Figure 2.2 shows the cross section of a three phase synchronous machine with
one pair of poles. It can be observed that the opposite sides of a coil, which is
almost rectangular are in slots a and a′ 180° apart. Similar coils are in b and b′ slots
and c and c′ slots. Coils sides in a, b, c are separated by 120° in space so that the
uniform rotation of a magnetic field generates voltages displaced by 120° in time
domain in the armature windings.
The armature windings usually operate at a voltage that is considerably higher
than that of the field voltage, and they are subjected to high transient currents.
Therefore, generally armature is mounted on the stator to provide more space for
insulation and adequate mechanical strength [6].
The balanced three phase stator currents produce magnetic field in the air gap
which rotates at synchronous speed. The field produced by the field windings
revolves with the rotor. The rotor field and stator field must rotate at the same speed
for the production of a steady torque. Hence, the rotor must run at the synchronous
speed.
2.1 Synchronous Generators 41
air gap
d-axis
q-axis
c
b
stator
N
a a'
S
b′
f c′
dc field
winding of rotor
rotor
Fig. 2.2 Elementary three phase AC generator showing end view of the two pole cylinder rotor
and cross section of stator
The field winding indicated by f, gives rise to two poles N and S as marked in
Fig. 2.2. The axis of field poles is called direct axis or d-axis while the centreline of
the interpolar space is called the quadrature axis or q-axis. In the actual machine the
winding has a large number of turns distributed in slots around the circumference of
the rotor. The number of field poles is determined by the mechanical speed of the
rotor and the electrical frequency of the stator currents. The synchronous speed is
given by (2.1)
120 f
Synchronous Speed ¼ ð2:1Þ
Pf
Speed is measured in rev/min. f is the synchronous frequency in Hz and Pf is the

number of the field poles.
There are two basic rotor structures, salient (100–1500 rpm) and cylindrical
(>1500 rpm) depending on speed. Hydraulic turbines operate at low speeds,
therefore, relatively large number of poles are required to generate the rated fre-
quency. A rotor with salient or projecting poles and concentrated winding, is better
suited mechanically for this kind of prime movers. The poles mounted on the rotor
are made of steel laminations and connected to the rotor shaft by means of dovetail
joints. Each pole has a pole shoe around which winding is wound. Salient pole
rotors often have damper windings to prevent rotor oscillations during oscillations.
Steam and gas turbines operate at higher speeds, they have two or four field poles.
Their generators have round rotors, made up of solid forged steel. The slots on
which windings are fixed, milled on the rotor since the rotor is cylinder, the
windage loss is reduced.
2.2 Modelling Power System Components
This section includes models of all main power system components. These models
have been used throughout the studies presented later.
2.2.1 Modelling Synchronous Generators
DIgSIENT PowerFactory software is used in the studies presented within this

thesis. The descriptions of the models will be centred around the mathematical
models available in DIgSILENT PowerFactory. The software provides sixth order
generator model for RMS, and eight order model for EMT studies. The per unit
stator voltage equations are given by (2.2) and (2.3).
1 dWd x
Ed ¼ Wq Ra id ð2:2Þ
x0 dt x0
1 dWq x
Eq ¼ þ Wd Ra iq ð2:3Þ
x0 dt x0
where Ed and Eq are the d-axis and q-axis stator voltages. wd and wq are the d-axis
and q-axis stator flux linkage. id and iq are the d-axis and q-axis currents. Ra is the
stator resistance per phase, ω is the angular frequency and ω0 is the rated angular
frequency.
The per unit rotor voltage equations are given by (2.4)–(2.7)
1 dwfd
Efd ¼ þ Rfd ifd ð2:4Þ
x0 dt
1 dw1d
0¼ þ R1d i1d ð2:5Þ
x0 dt
1 dw1q
0¼ þ R1q i1q ð2:6Þ
x0 dt
1 dw2q
0¼ þ R2q i2q ð2:7Þ
x0 dt
where Efd is the field voltage, wfd is the field flux, Rfd and ifd are the field resistance
and field current. w1d , w1q and w2q are the rotor circuit flux linkage in d-axis and
q-axis. R1q , R2q are rotor circuit resistances. i1d , i1q , i2q are the rotor circuit circuits.
2.2 Modelling Power System Components 43
The equations of motion of a generator referred to as the swing equation can be

expressed as
dx 1
¼ ðTm Te KD ðx 1ÞÞ ð2:8Þ
dt 2H
dd
¼ x0 ðx 1Þ ð2:9Þ
dt
where Tm is the mechanical torque, Te is the electrical torque, KD is the damping

factor, H is the inertia constant, δ is the rotor angle.
2.2.2 Modelling Turbine Generator Mechanical System
The rotor of a turbine generator is a complex mechanical system made up of several

rotors of different sizes. The length of the rotor system can exceed 50 m and weigh
several hundred tons. The system also has quite a few smaller components such as
turbine blades, rotor coils, retaining rings, blowers and pump. An exact analysis of a
rotor system may require a continuum model, however, multimass model is ade-
quate for SSR studies [7, 8].
DIgSILENT PowerFactory provides built model of a turbine generator
mechanical system. Figure 2.3 shows the turbine generator rotor model used
throughout these studies. It is typical model for SSR studies. It consists of a high
pressure turbine (HP), an intermediate-pressure turbine (IP), two low pressure
turbines (LPA and LPB), the generator rotor (GEN) and the exciter (EXC). They
together constitute a linear six-mass spring system. In this model each major ele-
ment of the system is modelled (such as generator, different sections of turbine,
exciter) as a rigid mass connected to adjacent elements by mass less springs. The
natural frequencies of the mechanical system calculated using this model are
generally lower than system electrical frequency and reasonably match the lower
frequency modes of the unit vibration. Lower frequency modes contribute most to
shaft stresses caused by terminal short circuits, therefore, this simple model is
adequate to evaluate the integrity of the main shaft section.
Dip Dlpa Dlpb Dgen Dex

Dhp
Kh_i Kip_la Kla_lb Klb_g Kg_ex
HP IP EXC
GEN
Dip_la Dla_lb LPB Dlb_g Dg_ex
Dh_i LPA
Fig. 2.3 Rotor model for transient studies

In Fig. 2.3, Di represents the external damping, Di_i is the internal damping in
the shaft material and Ki_i represents the stiffness of the shaft. Damping is measured
in s−1 or radians/s, and K is measured in p.u. or p.u. torque/rad.
The mechanical system consisting of generator rotor, exciter and turbines shafts
can be viewed as a mass-spring damper system. The equation for the ith mass
connected by elastic shaft sections to mass (i − 1) and mass (i + 1) is given by

2H d 2 di ddi ddi ddi1 ddi ddi þ 1
þ Di þ Di;i1 þ Di;i þ 1
x0 dt2 dt dt dt dt dt ð2:10Þ
þ Ki;i1 ðdi di1 Þ þ Ki;i þ 1 ðdi di þ 1 Þ ¼ ðTmi Tei Þ ¼ Ta
where H is the inertia constant expressed in s, K is the spring constant or stiffness

measured in p.u. torque/electrical rad and δ is the angular position of the mass i in
electrical radians.
p
Note: electrical radians = mechanical radians ( 2f ) where pf is the number of
generator field poles.
The differential equation that describes the motion of the generator

2H d 2 d dd dd ddB dd ddE
þ DG þ DGB þ DEG
þ KGB ðd dB Þ þ KEG ðd dE Þ ¼ ðTm Te Þ ¼ Ta
The differential equation that describes the motion of the low pressure turbine B

2HB d 2 dB ddB ddB ddA ddB ddG
þ DB þ DBA þ DGB
þ KBA ðdB dA Þ þ KGB ðdB dG Þ ¼ TLPB
The differential equation that describes the motion of the low pressure turbine A

2HA d 2 dA ddA ddA ddIP ddA ddB
þ DA þ DA IP þ DBA
þ KA IP ðdA dIP Þ þ KBA ðdA dB Þ ¼ TLPA
The differential equation that describes the motion of the intermediate pressure
turbine

2HIp d 2 dIP ddIP ddIP ddHP ddIP ddA
þ D IP þ D HP IP þ D AIP
þ KHIP ðdIP dHP Þ þ KAIP ðdIP dA Þ ¼ TIP
The differential equation that describes the motion of the high pressure turbine

2HHp d 2 dHP ddHP ddHP ddIP
þ DHP þ DHPIP
x0 dt2 dt dt dt ð2:15Þ
þ KHIP ðdHP dIP Þ ¼ THP
Equations (2.11)–(2.15) describes the torque developed in each turbine section.

Mechanical power Pm and mechanical torque Tm of the ith mass are related by
(2.23)
xi
DPmi ¼ Tmi ð2:16Þ
x0
where x0 is the rated angular speed of the rotor and xi is the angular speed of the
ith shaft section. After initialization (2.16) can be rewritten as (2.17)
Dxi
DPmi ¼ Tmo þ Tmi ð2:17Þ
x0
where Tm0 is the initial torque developed.

The state equation for the turbine generator mechanical system can be expressed
as
Xm ¼ ½Am Xm þ ½Bm1 DPm þ ½Bme DTe ð2:18Þ
where
Xm ¼ ½ dE d dB dA dI dH DxE DxG DxB DxA DxI DxH T

ð2:19Þ

066 I66
½A m ¼ ð2:20Þ
A21 A22
2 K KEg
3
2HEgE 2HE 0 0 0 0
6 7
6 KEg þ KgB KgB 7
6 KEg
0 0 0 7
6 2Hg 2Hg 2Hg 7
6 7
6 KgB

KBA þ K gB KgB 7
6 0 0 0 7
½Am21 ¼ 6 7
2HB 2HB 2HB
6 7
6 0 KBA þ KBA
KAI2H KAI
0 7
6 2HA 2HA 7
6 7
A
0
6 KAI þ KAI
KHI2H KHI 7
6 0 0 0 7
4 2HI I 2HI
5
0 0 0 0 KHI
2HH 2H
KHI
H
ð2:21Þ
Table 2.1 Comparison of SSR analysis methods

FH FI FA FA1 FB FB1 References
0.28 0.24 0.24 – 0.24 – [1]
0.3 0.3 0.4 – – – [1]
0.3 – 0.7 – – – [1]
0.3 0.3 0.4 – – – [4]
0.287 0.313 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 [118]
0.28 0.36 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 [119]
0.3 0.26 0.22 – 0.22 – [120]
2 DE þ DEg DEg 3
2HE 2HE 0 0 0 0
6 7
6 DEG
DG þ D2HEGGþ DGB DGB
0 0 0 7
6 2HG 2HG 7
6 7
6 DGB
Tm0 FB þ D2H
B þ DGB þ DBA DBA 7
6 0 0 0 7
½Am22 ¼ 6 7
2HB B 2HB
6 7
6 0 0 DBA
Tm0 FA þ D2H
BA þ DA þ DAI DAI
0 7
6 2HA A 2HA 7
6 7
6 0 0 0 DAI
Tm0 FI þ D2H
I þ DAI þ DHI
0 7
4 2HI I 5
0 0 0 0 DHI
2HH Tm0 FH þ2HDHH þ DHI
ð2:22Þ
FH, FI, FA and FB represent the fraction of mechanical power delivered by each
turbine.
The torques generated by the individual turbine sections depend on the dynamics
of the steam turbine and its governing system. The typical values found in literature
are given in Table 2.1.
Since the mechanical power is considered constant, no governor action is con-
sidered, therefore, the perturbation of input torque Tm is considered zero.
2.2.3 Generator Excitation Systems
The primary function of the excitation system is to provide direct current to syn-
chronous machine field winding. In addition, the excitation system can contribute
towards maintaining power system stability by controlling the field voltage Efd and
thereby the field current. This is achieved through AVR which manipulates the field
voltage in order to reach the generator stator terminal voltage reference set-point, Ei,
and to ensure the first swing stability of the machine.
A power system stabilizer may also be incorporated in order to reduce rotor
speed variations following disturbances. Figure 2.4 illustrates operational rela-
tionship between the synchronous generator, excitation system and PSS.
Various excitation systems are used in practice, comprehensive details can be
found in [9]. Excitation systems used within this thesis are described in the fol-
lowing sections.
Etref Exciter Et
Synchronous
Generator
EPSS PSS
Δωr
Fig. 2.4 Signals between the synchronous generator, excitation system and power system
stabilizer
2.2.3.1 Manual Excitation
Manual excitation is the most basic and simplest excitation scheme. It maintains the
field voltage Efd at a constant value determined through the synchronous generator
parameter initialization. This scheme does not employ AVR, therefore, the gener-
ator terminal voltage may vary from the desired value if operating conditions
change.
2.2.3.2 Static Excitation (IEEE Type STIA)
Static excitation systems provide direct current to field winding of the generator
through rectifiers which are fed by either transformers or auxiliary machine
windings [9]. A simplified version of IEEE Type ST1A static exciter used within
this thesis is presented in Fig. 2.5. It consists of voltage transducer delay, exciter,
and Transient Gain Reduction (TGR). The signal Epss is a signal from the PSS, if
one is used in conjunction with the exciter.
Two versions of this excitation system are used within this thesis, referred to as
ST1A_v1 and ST1A_v2.
ST1A_v1 considers the transducer delay as negligible (TR = 0) (used in Test
network 2, will be introduced later in this chapter).
ST1A_v2 has no time constant in the exciter block (ðTAex ¼ 0Þ, and no transient
gain reduction block (used in Test network 1, will be introduced later in this
chapter).
Etref
E max
fd
Et
1 + ∑- K Aex 1 + sTcTGR
E fd
1 + sT R 1 + sT Aex 1 + sT Bex
+ E min
fd
Tranducer E pss Exciter TGR
Delay
Fig. 2.5 Simplified block diagram for the IEEE type ST1A static exciter
Etref max
Eex
1 +
- K Aex + 1
Et ∑ ∑ E fd
1 + sT R + 1 + sT Aex min - 1 + sTEex
Eex
Tranducer E pss AVR
Delay ∑ +
K Eex
+
ex
BE E fd
AEex E fd e
DC Exciter
Fig. 2.6 Simplified block diagram for the IEEE type DC1A DC exciter
2.2.3.3 DC Excitation (IEEE Type DC1A)
Excitation systems which use a DC current generator and commutator are referred
to as DC exciters. These type of exciter respond slower than static systems [9].
A simplified version of the IEEE Type DC1A DC excitation system used within
this thesis, is shown in Fig. 2.6 (used in Test network 2).
2.2.4 Power System Stabilizers
A power system stabilizer acts to provide additional damping to generator rotor

oscillations through supplementary control signal sent to the excitation system. The
most commonly and logical input signals to the power system stabilizer are rotor
speed deviation Dxr , terminal frequency and power [1].
Figure 2.7 shows the block diagram of the PSS used within this thesis. To
compensate the phase lag between the exciter input and the electrical torque to
ensure that the introduced electrical damping torque component is in phase with the
rotor speed variation, the PSS must include suitable compensation blocks. This
phase compensation is introduced by a number of phase lead/lag blocks which are
combined with a washout filter so that steady state changes are ignored.
max
EPSS
sTWPSS 1+ sT1PSS 1 + sT3PSS K PSS
ωr EPSS
1 + sTWPSS 1+ sT2PSS 1 + sT4PSS
min
E PSS
Washout Phase CompensaƟon Gain
Fig. 2.7 Block diagram of a PSS

[L] [R]
i1 i2
V1 ½[C] ½[C] V2
Fig. 2.8 A single phase π equivalent of a transmission line
2.2.5 Transmission Lines
Transmission lines are fundamentally distributed parameter components of the

power system. It is essential to model them in some detail for the study of fast
switching transients. Transmission lines representation by a single π circuit, how-
ever, is adequate for the power system dynamic studies involving frequencies
below the synchronous frequency [4]. Within this thesis transmission lines are
modelled using standard π equivalents. Figure 2.8 shows a single phase π equiv-
alent of a transmission line.
Basic assumptions in three phase representation of transmission lines are that
they are symmetric, self impedance of all three phases is equal and mutual impe-
dance between any two phases is the same, line parameters are constant and the
network is linear. It can be demonstrated that in steady case, a symmetric three
phase linear network connected to synchronous generators has only fundamental
frequency voltages and currents [1]. On the other hand, a lack of symmetry pro-
duces imbalanced currents (with negative sequence component) which can results
in third harmonic voltage generation. The symmetry is disturbed during imbalanced
faults such as single line to ground or line to line faults. However, their duration is
brief and their presence can be neglected.
DIgSILENT PowerFactory provides both π and distributed model for trans-
mission lines. Throughout this thesis, transmission lines are represented by a
lumped parameter model, the common π representation.
2.2.6 Loads
Representation of loads in a power network can have a significant impact on

analysis results [11, 12]. It was shown that dynamic load models can affect the
damping of electromechanical modes and participation of a generator in the mode.
Further examples of the effects of the loads modelling can be found in [13]. Within
this thesis, a constant impedance load model is used, represented as a shunt
admittance Yiload connected to the ith load bus. This load model is considered
adequate for subsynchronous resonance studies.
2.3 HVDC System Modelling
2.3.1 LCC-HVDC Converters
DIgSILENT PowerFactory provides integrated Line commutated inverter and

rectifier models. These models are used in this thesis. The model for load flow
calculations, RMS and EMT simulations are based on the fundamental frequency
approach. In steady state, the converter is modelled as a load with constant active
power P and reactive power Q. The transmitted DC power across HVDC system
can be expressed by (2.23).
Pdc ¼ Vcon Idc ð2:23Þ
where Vcon is the converter voltage and Idc is the current through DC line.
The DC voltage of the ideal and uncontrolled converter without load is called
ideal no load voltage represented by Vdio. For a six pulse converter, it is given by
(2.24) where VLL is the AC voltage supplied to the converter station.
pffiffiffi
2
Vdio ¼ 3 Vac ð2:24Þ
p
The gate control of the thyristors is used to delay ignition of the valves. The time
delay due to turn on applied signal is given by
xt ¼ a ð2:25Þ
and (2.24) is modified as follows
Vdia ¼ Vdi0 cosðaÞ ð2:26Þ
By considering the current commutation from one valve to next, (2.26) can be
rewritten as shown in (2.27)
Vdia ¼ Vdi0 cosðaÞ DVcon ð2:27Þ
where ΔVcon is defined as a function of Idc and commutation reactance Xc.
3
DVcon ¼ Xc Idc ð2:28Þ
p
In HVDC systems the commutation reactance is assumed to be the leakage

reactance of the converter transformer given by (2.29)
2.3 HVDC System Modelling 51
2
Vr;sec
Xc ¼ Xr;sec ¼ ukr ð2:29Þ
SrT
Xc is the commutation reactance, SrT is the rated power of transformer, ukr is the
short circuit voltage and Vr,sec is the transformer secondary side voltage.
By considering the commutation reactance and ignition angle, the DC voltage
given by (2.27) can be written as
ukr
Vdia ¼ Vdi0 cosðaÞ ð2:30Þ
2
The power factor can be calculated assuming symmetrical firing angle and using
positive sequence voltage as a reference.
Valves are triggered using the built in trigger circuit which converts the firing
angle supplied by the converter controller to six correct firing signals of the discrete
thyristors.
2.3.2 Converter Transformer Model
Converter transformer is modelled by three phase three winding transformer, with

grounded Wye-Wye and delta connection. The model uses tap setting arrangement.
2.3.3 LCC Converter Controls
DIgSILENT PowerFactory offers the flexibility to use built in converter controls. In

this work, the built in controls for LCC HVDC system are used.
The LCC controls mainly consist of generation of firing signals, firing angle and
extinction angle measurement. In the studies that will be presented later rectifier is
operated at constant current and firing angle control while inverter have constant
extinction angle and voltage control.
2.3.4 VSC-HVDC Converters
DIgSILENT PowerFactory provides PWM converter model that represents a self

commutated, voltage sourced AC/DC converter.
The circuit in Fig. 2.9 is built from valves with turnoff capability which are
usually realized by GTOs or IGBTs. Fundamental frequency models provided in
DIgSILENT PowerFactory for load flow, and stability are valid for three level
UDC
UAC
Fig. 2.9 PWM converter model in DIgSILENT powerfactory
PWM designs as well. The VSC converter supports sinusoidal and rectangular
modulation.
The model of all steady state functions including RMS simulations and EMT
simulations are based on a fundamental frequency approach. At fundamental fre-
quency, the ideal loss-less converter can be represented by a DC-voltage controlled
AC-voltage source conserving active power between AC and DC side. The Pulse
width modulation index Pm is a control variable of PWM converter.
For |Pm| < 1, the following equations can be applied:
Vacr ¼ K0 Pmr Vdc ð2:31Þ
Vaci ¼ K0 Pmi Vdc ð2:32Þ
The active power conversion between AC and DC side can be written as

Pac ¼ Re Vac Iac ¼ Vdc Idc ¼ Pdc ð2:33Þ
where Vacr is the real part, Vaci is the imaginary part of AC voltage (rms) value, K0
is the constant depending on the modulation method. Pmr and Pmi are real and
imaginary part of modulation index respectively. V−ac is the AC voltage phasor,

Iac is the conjugate complex value of the current phasor.
2.3.5 VSC-HVDC Controls
The common feature of all VSC-HVDC systems is the generation of a fundamental

frequency AC voltage from a DC voltage; the control of this voltage magnitude and
phase is the basic function of the VSC. The phase angle δ and thus active power
transfer is controlled by shifting the fundamental frequency voltage produced by the
converter. The power transfer can be from AC system to converter or vice versa
depending on the sign of the phase angle difference. Present HVDC schemes are
designed to maintain the nominal DC voltage, and control the converter AC voltage
by means of PWM. In VSC PWM conversion, the AC voltage output is varied by
means of a modulation index defined as the ratio of the required AC voltage
Id_ref
id - 1 Pmd
K d [ 1+ ]
sTd
iq - 1 Pmq
K q [1 + ]
sT q
Iq_ref
Fig. 2.10 Current controller
magnitude to the maximum AC voltage that can be generated for a given DC size
capacitor. When the magnitude of this modulation index is close to one, converter
voltage is greater than the AC system, and reactive power is transferred to the AC
system. When the index is less than one, converter voltage is lower than the system
voltage, and the converter absorbs reactive power [14].
The control system for a voltage source converter has a hierarchy structure, with
each inner loop to be faster than its outer loop. Vector control also known as dq
current control forms the most inner loop of VSC-HVDC system within this thesis.
In this control strategy, the three phase currents are transformed to d and q axes,
which are then synchronized with the AC system three phase voltage via a phase
locked loop (PLL). The d and q voltages generated by vector control are trans-
formed to three phase quantities and converted into line voltages by the VSC.
Figure 2.10 shows the current controller used in this work. The input currents to
the controller are the converter’s AC currents expressed in a reference frame and
output signals are Pmd and Pmq.
2.3.5.1 Outer Control Loops
Vector current control offers the flexibility of independent control of real and reactive
power by means of dq transformation. Based on this the most inner control loop,
different controls strategies can be applied namely, active power control, reactive
power control, DC voltage control, AC voltage control, and frequency control. The
outer control loops used in the studies within this thesis are described below.
DC Voltage Control
Large variations in a DC system voltage are not acceptable in normal operation of a

VSC-HVDC system as this might lead to power imbalance or equipment failure.
Id-max
Vdc - error Id-ref Inner Current Id
+ PI Loop
Vdc-ref Id-min
Fig. 2.11 DC voltage control loop
Therefore, one converter in the DC grid is responsible to maintain a constant DC

voltage. This is achieved by adding an outer loop control that modifies the reference
d-axis current input of the inner current loop. The voltage controller is significantly
slower than the inner current loop.
Figure 2.11 shows the structure of the outer voltage loop. It is feedback control
which requires the measurement of DC link voltage. During a severe disturbance,
large variations in DC link may lead to an unacceptable value of current reference.
Therefore, the output current must be limited.
AC Voltage Control
VSC-HVDC link can also regulate AC side voltage directly with vector current
control loop as the inner loop. The basic operation of this control is similar to the
reactive power control which maintains the grid side AC voltage.
AC voltage control is also a feedback control, as shown in Fig. 2.12 and requires
the AC voltage at the point of control to be measured. VSC-HVDC link with AC
voltage control can provide support to improve the AC network dynamic
performance.
Active and Reactive Power Control
The control of the active power transferred through HVDC link, and the reactive
power generated or absorbed by the VSC can be obtained by means of d and
q current references of the dq current controller [15].
P ¼ vd id ð2:34Þ
Q ¼ vd i q ð2:35Þ
Iq-max
Vac - error Iq-ref Inner Current Iq
+ PI Loop
Vac-ref Iq-min
Fig. 2.12 AC voltage control loop

Id-max
P - error Id-ref Inner Current Id
+ PI Loop
P-ref Id-min
Iq-max
Q - error Iq-ref Inner Current Iq
+ PI Loop
Q-ref Iq-min
Fig. 2.13 Feedback control for real and reactive power loop
Figure 2.13 shows the feedback control for active and reactive power. Control of
active power transfer can be achieved by manipulating d-axis reference current of
the inner dq current controller. Reactive power absorbed or generated is controlled
by the q-axis reference current of the inner dq current controller.
2.3.6 VSC Control Structure
Figure 2.14 shows the VSC control system including dq current controller, the most
inner control loop, and DC voltage control and reactive power control making the
outer loops [15].
The rated DC voltage is a reference signal for DC voltage control, it is compared
with the measured DC line voltage. The output of the DC control is the d-axis
component of the grid current id−ref. The actual grid current id is compared with the
reference and difference is fed to the d-axis current control. A compensation term
Lg xg iq (where Lg is the grid side filter inductance and xg ¼ hg ) is added for
Lg
Vd c Converter
v a vb vc i a ib ic
Vg PLL
PWM d
θg
abc-dq
dq-abc Iq Id
DC voltage d-axis current q-axis current ReacƟve
Vdc controller
- control Vd Vgd Vq controller power control - Q
Vdc-ref + + + + + +
Id-ref - - Iq-ref
Id Iq Q-ref
Lg ωiq − Lg ωid
Fig. 2.14 DC voltage control and reactive power control of the converter (adapted from [125])
decoupling the d and q axis. Grid side d-axis grid voltage is also added as feed-
forward control to current controller output to produce d-axis converter voltage Vdc.
The q-axis current is used to regulate reactive power in the AC grid. The error
signal (Qref Q) is fed to the reactive power control to obtain iqref . The error
signal produced by comparing iqref and iq is sent to q-axis current controller.
A compensation term Lg xg id is added for decoupling the control between d axis
and q axis to the output of d axis current controller to produce q axis component Vq.
The two voltage components Vd and Vq are transformed to three phase voltages
for PWM control.
For the other converter, the DC voltage control is replaced by the active power
control, and the reactive power control is replaced by the AC voltage control.
2.4 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSCs)
The TCSC is modelled as a fixed capacitor in parallel with variable inductive

reactance (TCR) as shown in Fig. 2.15.
The TCR and effective TCSC reactance is controlled by firing angle α and is
given by the following equations.
p
XL ðaÞ ¼ XL ð2:36Þ
p 2a sin 2a
Xc2 ð2ðp aÞ þ sinð2ðp aÞÞÞ

XTCSC ðaÞ ¼
ðXc XL Þ p
2
4Xc cos ðp aÞ ½j tan jb tan b
2
þ Xc ð2:37Þ
ðXc XL Þ ðj2 1Þ p
rffiffiffiffiffi
Xc
where j ¼ ð2:38Þ
XL
For practical TCSC implementations, κ is typically between 2 and 4 [4, 126].

TCSCs are usually operated such that XTCSC
XC is between 2 and 3 [10, 16].
Fig. 2.15 TCSC block diagram

2.4 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSCs) 57
Line current
t(sec)
boost
Capacitor t(sec)
voltage
Fig. 2.16 Illustration of capacitor voltage and line current during TCSC operation
In these studies, TCSC is operated in constant impedance control mode. Thyristors

valves are triggered using synchronous voltage reversal approach (SVR) since it
provides better damping characteristics in subsynchronous frequency range [17, 18].
Synchronous voltage reversal scheme exploits the fact that capacitor voltage reversal
occurs during the thyristor conduction interval. When a thyristor is triggered, a current
pulse passes through the thyristor and adds to the line current. Thus, an extra charge is
pushed into the capacitor from the thyristor branch. This is, in addition, to the charge
due to line current such adding an extra voltage across the capacitor. With no losses,
the thyristor valve stops conducting when the capacitor voltage is equal in magnitude
but opposite in the direction as it was at the turn on instant. The maximum reactance
boost depends on the actual line current and the duration of the boosting action.
Figure 2.16 shows the boost in capacitor voltage due to conduction of thyristor
valves. Required TCSC impedance can be obtained by an equivalent, instantaneous
voltage reversal in the middle of the thyristor conduction interval.
Figure 2.17a illustrates TCSC control structure used in this work. The firing
angle is calculated by the impedance control, and start pulse is given to the SVR
unit at tstart as shown Fig. 2.17a, it fires thyristor at tf. Time tf is selected such that
the thyristor current reaches at its peak with a fixed delay, t0. The SVR block
calculates the firing instant, based on the measured instantaneous values of
capacitor voltage and line current using (2.45)–(2.41) [17].
uCZ ¼ uCM þ X0 iLM kWN ðtZ tM Þ ð2:39Þ
uCZ ¼ X0 iLM ½kb tanðkbÞ ð2:40Þ
b
tf ¼ tZ ð2:41Þ
x
where uCZ is the reversal voltage (at instantaneous reversal), uCM is the measured
capacitor voltage, X0 is TCSC reactance at resonance, iLM is the measured line
current, tZ is time instant, when it is desired that the capacitor voltage be zero, tM is
(a) iL
Phase
Locked θ Boost tstart
Loop (PLL) Controller SVR
err
Vc kB
Phasor Boost uc
Ic ∑ voltage
Evaluation Measure -
+ measurement
kBref
(b)
Thyristor
t0
current
tstart tf Ɵme
Fig. 2.17 a TCSC control structure. b Thyristor triggering (adapted from [127])
the time when line current and capacitor voltage measurements are made. tf is the
thyrsitor triggering time and β is the angle of advance.
2.5 SSR Analysis Methods
There are several analytical methods developed to study subsynchronous resonance

phenomenon. Three most frequently used techniques both in the industry, and
academia are frequency scanning, eigenvalue analysis and electromagnetic tran-
sients simulations [10, 19, 20]. Calculations and results using these three methods
have been compared with test results, and there is every indication that all three
methods give very good results when accurate data is available [21].
2.5.1 Frequency Scanning Method
Frequency scanning technique involves the determination of the driving point

impedance as a function of frequency, looking into the network from a point behind
the stator winding of a study generator [22]. All the three aspects of SSR namely,
2.5 SSR Analysis Methods 59
Induction generator effect, Torsional interactions and transient torque amplification

can be identified with the help of this technique. Frequency method is best suited
for the preliminary studies.
Presence of reactance minima at the frequency which is near to a slip frequency
(difference between system frequency and a torsional mode frequency) indicates a
potential problem of transient torque amplification. Frequency scanning provides
only an approximation for transient torque amplification if such a problem exists
[10, 21, 22]. However, it clearly indicates that transient torque amplification
problems do not exist if there are no reactance minimum within ±3 Hz of a slip
frequency.
Figure 2.18 adapted from [21] shows the frequency scan results for Navajo
Project for the normal system configuration and all series capacitors in service. This
figure is selected because it clearly demonstrates that all three aspects of SSR can be
identified from frequency scanning method. When frequency scanning is used in
conjunction with “interaction equation” given by (2.42), negative damping caused
by the fixed series compensation can be calculated with reasonable accuracy [23].
!
f fn Rsub f þ fn Rsup
Drn ¼ þ ð2:42Þ
8fn Hn R2sub þ Xsub
2 8fn Hn R2sup þ Xsup
2
where fn is mechanical modal frequency, Hn is equivalent p.u. stored energy for a

pure modal oscillations, Rsub, Xsub are subsynchronous resistance and reactance
determined by the frequency scan at frequency (f − fn), Rsup, Xsup are
Reactance (Ω)
Fig. 2.18 Frequency scan for the Navajo project generating units (adapted from [9])
supersynchronous resistance and reactance determined by the frequency scan at

frequency (f + fn), respectively.
In Fig. 2.18 reactance zero or significant reactance dip are highlighted by red
boxes. Figure 2.18 shows that there can be transient torque amplifications problem
for Mode 3 (34 Hz) since slip frequency (60 − 29 = 31) is within ±3 Hz of the
reactance dip. Severity or presence of transient torque amplification can be deter-
mined accurately only from EMT simulations, but frequency scanning is extremely
useful to develop scenarios for EMT simulations.
Frequency scanning on the other hand is the best technique to establish the
existence of induction generator effect. It is indicated when reactance curve passes
through zero at a frequency that corresponds to net negative resistance of the power
network [21, 22]. Figure 2.18 shows that induction generator effect is not a problem
for Navajo generators since resistance is always positive. This is due to damper
windings that were applied to the Navajo generators [24, 25].
Torsional interactions or self excitation due to SSR can be evaluated with
adequate accuracy using frequency scanning method with the interaction equation
developed in [23], given by (2.42).
Formula (2.42) provides the negative damping due to torsional interaction for
Mode n with the system configuration represented in the specific frequency scan-
ning case. It can be observed that (2.42) consists of two parts, subsynchronous and
supersynchronous frequency. First part, subsynchronous part will always contribute
negative damping, and the second part, supersynchronous part will always add
positive damping.
The severity of torsional interactions can be established for Mode n by com-
paring the calculated negative damping given by (2.42) with the Mode n natural
mechanical damping of the turbine generator.
rnet ¼ rn Drn ð2:43Þ
where rnet is the net damping of a torsional mode, rn is the turbine generator
damping for Mode n and Drn is negative damping due to torsional interactions.
The validity of the frequency scanning method has been tested in several case
studies and now widely used in the industry [22].
2.5.2 Eigenvalue Analysis
Eigenvalue technique presents additional information about the performance of the

system. This type of analysis is performed with linearized model of the network and
the generators using linear set of differential equations. Therefore, this technique is
quite straightforward for studying SSR aspects that can be approximated as linear,
i.e., induction generator effect and torsional interactions [19, 21, 26].
2.5 SSR Analysis Methods 61
Eigenvalue analysis provides both the frequencies of oscillations and damping of

each mode, therefore, it is used to investigate the effects of different series com-
pensation levels and systems configurations on the damping of torsional oscillations
[27–30]. Eigenvalue analysis uses standard linear, state space form of system
equations. The eigenvalues of a system matrix A are given by the values of a scalar
parameter λ for which there are nontrivial solutions to (2.44)
A/ ¼ k/ ð2:44Þ
A is a n × n system matrix and ϕ is n × 1 vector

To find the eigenvalues, (2.44) can be written in the form
ðA kIÞ/ ¼ 0 ð2:45Þ
For a non-trivial solution
det½A kI ¼ 0 ð2:46Þ
Thus for a complex pair of eigenvalues
k ¼ r jx ð2:47Þ
The imaginary parts of the eigenvalues represent the natural frequencies of the
combined system. The corresponding real part of the eigenvalue is a quantitative
measure of the stability of the mode, a negative real part signifies the modal
stability. The real part of an eigenvalue is a direct measure of the damping of the
mode.
Eigenvalue analysis for torsional interactions first requires identifying those
eigenvalues that corresponds to natural mechanical modes of the turbine generator
unit. The imaginary parts of these eigenvalues represent torsional mode frequencies,
and the real parts indicate the damping of the corresponding mode.
Induction generator effect can also be evaluated with eigenvalue analysis. An
unstable eigenvalue that is only related to electrical system may be an indication of
induction generator effect. By varying the rotor resistance or series compensation,
more insight into induction generator effect can be obtained. There is generally
reasonable correlation between the frequency scanning and eigenvalue analysis
results.
On the other hand, eigenvalues method has several shortcomings.
• The results are only valid for small disturbances, therefore, this technique can’t
be used to study torque amplification.
• Physical nonlinearities of the system can’t be easily included in the model, like
magnetic saturation of generators.
• Similarly it is very difficult to represent switching devices, for example thyristor

valves are represented by approximated linear transfer functions that neglect the
effect of switching on the system behaviour.
2.5.3 Electromagnetic Transients Simulations
The Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) is a programme for numerical

integration of the system differential equations. Unlike transient stability pro-
gramme which generally models positive sequence quantities only, representing a
perfectly balanced system, EMTP presents full three phase model of the system
with much more detailed models of the transmission lines, cables, machines and
special devices such as series capacitors with complex bypass arrangements. The
turbine generator unit can be modelled in detail as lumped parameter models and
the bilateral coupling of the mechanical and electrical system is included. It allows
the nonlinear modelling of complex system components providing great flexibility
to model machines and their controllers, transient faults, circuit breaker action and
other types of switching events. Due to its flexibility and generality, EMTP can be
used to study all three types of SSR [10, 19, 21].
2.6 Comparison of SSR Analysis Methods
Table 2.2 provides a direct comparison of these methods. It can be observed that
frequency scanning method has capabilities to detect all three aspects of SSR.
Eigenvalue analysis provides more accurate information about the steady state SSR
(dynamic instability) but cannot detect transient torque amplification problem. EMT
simulations can indicate dynamic instability and transient torques amplification
problem, but are not suitable for the studies in large networks due to very detailed
modelling requirements.
Table 2.2 Comparison of SSR analysis methods

Frequency Eigenvalue analysis EMT
scanning simulations
Can identify dynamic instability? Yes Yes Yes
Indicate transient torques Yes No Yes
amplification?
Detailed models required No Moderate Very
Applicable to large systems Yes Selective eigenvalue Impractical
analysis
Suitable for analysing effects of No Yes Yes
controllers
2.7 Test Networks 63
2.7 Test Networks
Two standard test networks are used within this thesis. The standard AC networks
are presented in the following sections. Modifications made for various case studies
conducted (such as compensation of line or addition of HVDC line), will be
detailed on case by case basis to avoid any ambiguity.
2.7.1 Test Network 1
A large sixteen machine, sixty eight bus is mostly used within this thesis to
investigate SSR phenomenon. This network is presented in the Fig. 2.19 and it was
introduced in [31] and extensively used in [32] for damping controller design
studies. This network represents a reduced order equivalent model of New England
Test System and the New York Power System (NYPS). This network consists of
five separate areas: NETS includes G1-G9; NYPS consists of generators G10-G13
and three further infeeds from neighbouring areas are represented separately by
equivalent generators G14, G15 and G16. With loading details in [32], NYPS area
is importing power from the neighbouring areas due to generation shortage of
approximately 2.7 GW.
All generators are represented by eightth order models. Generators G1-G8 are
equipped with slow DC1A exciter, whilst G9 uses a fast acting ST1A_v2 static
exciter and PSS. The remaining generators (G10-G16) are under constant manual
excitation. Power system loads are represented by constant impedance.
The generator G16 is a dynamic equivalent of the whole area, in most of studies
conducted, it is replaced by the network shown in Fig. 2.20.
G16ðActive PowerÞ ¼ ðG16-1 þ G1-1 þ G8-1 þ G9-1ÞActivePower
G16-1 parameters are same as that of G16 with inertia constant H = 10 while
G1-1, G8-1 and G9-1 have same parameters as G1, G8 and G9 respectively.
NEW ENGLAND TEST SYSTEM NEW YORK POWER SYSTEM

G 13
G7 G5 G3 G2 G 12 G 16
3 2 16
G6 G4 13
39 50
7 5 59 43
12 18
65 62 63 44 L71
6 4 60 17 45
36
23 20 58 35 51
64 L41
22 19 34 L66
21 24 66 57 49
L42 61 33 G 15
67 56
G9 32 46 15 L67
68 52 30
55 42
L2 37 L43 31
9 11
28 27
26 L7 L46 G 11
L3 L44 10
29 25 54
L4 L45 G 10 G 14
47 L69
40 14
8 1 53 48
41
G8 G1
Fig. 2.19 16 Machine, 68 bus test system. Separate areas (NETS, NYPS, G14, G15, G16) and
inter-areas links highlighted
G9-1
L75
46 42
L66 L67 9-1
28-1
L72
54-1 25-1 26-1 29-1
G16 18
16-1 1-1 8-1

G16-1 G1-1 G8-1
Fig. 2.20 G16 equivalent
400 MW
7 9
1 5 6 8 10 11 3
G1 G3
P = 700 MW P = 719 MW
Q = 185 MVAR Q = 176 MVAR
Et = 1.03 ∟20.2° Et = 1.03 ∟-6.8°
2 PL = 967 MW PL = 1,767 MW 4
QL = 100 MVAR QL = 100 MVAR
QC = 200 MVAR QC = 350 MVAR
G2 G4
P = 700 MW P = 700 MW
Et = 1.01 ∟10.5° Et = 1.01 ∟-17.0°
Fig. 2.21 Kundur two-area test network (adapted from [1])
2.7.2 Test Network 2
A small four machine, two area network presented in Fig. 2.21, is also utilized
within this thesis. It is introduced in [1] for use with small disturbance stability
studies. This system requires roughly 400 MW power transfer from bus 7 to 9
through a long transmission corridor. All generators are represented by eightth
order model neglecting leakage reactance. All four generators are equipped with
ST1A_v1 static exciters and PSSs. All power loads are modelled as constant
impedance.
2.8 Summary
This chapter has presented the modelling details of the power system components
and analysis methods which will be used throughout this thesis.
This chapter began by describing the basic operation and structure of syn-
chronous machine. Insight into synchronous mechanical and electrical mechanism
provides the fundamental knowledge to perform, and analyse subsynchronous
resonance phenomenon. Then mathematical models of the power system
2.8 Summary 65
components used in the studies within these theses are described. The models
included, synchronous machine model and its associated controls, transmission
lines, and loads. The models for LCC-HVDC system, VSC-HVDC system and
TCSC are also presented.
The chapter briefly reviews the most commonly used subsynchronous resonance
analysis methods. These three methods are employed throughout this thesis to
perform SSR analysis. Finally, the test networks used throughout this research have
been introduced.
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Chapter 3
Ranking of Generators Based
on the Exposure to Subsynchronous
Resonance
Abstract It is well known that the presence of fixed series compensation, in

particular, and HVDC controller exposes the turbine generator to the potential
hazard of subsynchronous resonance. Generators in a meshed network are generally
at lower risk of subsynchronous resonance than the generators in radial configu-
ration. However, there can be a range of scenarios, e.g., outage of a line, nearby
generator out of service, change of compensation level that could change the
severity of SSR problem. This chapter presents a methodology to establish the
severity of subsynchronous resonance for different turbine generators in a meshed
power network with AC transmission lines and HVDC lines. Two indices are
developed, and generators are ranked based on the severity of SSR problem.
Developed indices also assist in identifying safe operating ranges of the turbine
generator for different series compensation levels in different network configura-
tions and in the presence of VSC-HVDC line.
3.1 Frequency Scanning Methods
In these studies frequency scanning method is used to analyse SSR phenomenon.

Frequency scanning methods can be divided further into three categories.
i. Simplified Analytical Method
ii. Two Axis Analytical Method
iii. Test Signal Method.
3.1.1 Simplified Analytical Method
This method was first discussed in [1, 2]. It is commonly used in the industry for
initial SSR studies. The technique is based on the determination of the driving point
impedance of the network over the frequency range of interest as viewed from the

68 3 Ranking of Generators Based on the Exposure …
neutral bus of the studied generator. Frequency scanning method provides the
resistance and reactance of the system (the network + the study generator) in a
frequency plane as appeared at neutral of the study generator.
The study generator under study is typically represented by the induction
machine equivalent circuit comprising stator resistance, subtransient reactance and
effective rotor resistance divided by the slip [1]. If the induction generator equiv-
alent model of a generator is not available, the study generator is typically repre-
sented by subtransient reactance and zero net resistance for the generator and step
up transformer [2]. The transmission lines are modelled by their nominal
π-equivalent circuit.
3.1.1.1 Self Excitation Due to Induction Generator Effect
The magnetic field produced by subsynchronous frequency currents rotates at a

lower speed than the rotor of the generator which rotates at the synchronous speed,
therefore, rotor resistance viewed from the armature terminals appears negative.
When the magnitude of this negative resistance is higher than the sum of armature
and network resistance at a resonant frequency, self excitation called induction
generator effect occurs.
Induction generator effect problem is readily detected with the output of fre-
quency scan. For any subsynchronous frequency if the SSR reactance is zero or very
close to zero and the net SSR resistance is negative, an induction generator problem
is indicated. The magnitude of negative resistance corresponds to the growth rate of
electrical oscillations. These electrical oscillations do not cause undamped shaft
oscillations, however, may be intolerable by the electrical system [2].
Figure 3.1 shows the output of frequency scan program clearly indicating
induction generator effect problem. It can be observed that SSR reactance passes
through zero in a negative to positive direction at a frequency that corresponds to
0.5
0.45
reactance
Resistance/Reactance
0.4
0.35 resistance
0.3
0.25 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.15
0.1 0.1
0.05
0
0
19 19.5 20 20.5 21
-0.05 -0.1
-0.1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Frequency 'Hz'
Fig. 3.1 Graphical representation of frequency scan program indicating induction generator effect
3.1 Frequency Scanning Methods 69
net negative resistance. A possible solution for induction generator effect problem is
to install damper windings to reduce the effect of the negative resistance effect of
the machine.
One important principle to extract information from frequency scanning is that a
series resonance is indicated when the reactance moves from negative to positive as
electrical frequency increases whereas a parallel resonance is indicated when
reactance moves from positive to negative.
3.1.1.2 Self Excitation Due to Electrical and Mechanical System

Interaction
Self excitation due to interactions of electrical and mechanical systems occurs if the
negative damping introduced in any torsional mode by the electrical system exceeds
the mechanical damping of that particular mode.
The net negative damping due to electrical system including the effect of sub-
synchronous and supersynchronous currents can be written as given by (2.42) and
reproduced here for the completeness of discussion
!
f fn Rsub f þ fn Rsup
Drn ¼ þ ð3:1Þ
2 8fn Hn R2sup þ Xsup
2
where
fn = mechanical modal frequency = torsional mode frequency
Hn = inertia p.u.
Rsub and Xsub = p.u. subsynchronous resistance and subsynchronous reactance of
the network seen from neutral of the study generator at (f − fn) Hz
Rsup and Xsup = p.u. supersynchronous resistance and supersynchronous reactance
of the network seen from neutral of the study generator at (f − fn) Hz
The subsynchronous currents introduce negative damping while supersyn-
chronous currents introduce positive damping. From the output of frequency
scanning program, Δσn can be calculated for each mechanical mode of the turbine
generator system. If for any mode Δσn is found to be greater than the machine
(mechanical) damping, instability due to torsional interactions is indicated.
3.1.1.3 Transient Torques Amplification Due to SSR
Frequency scanning technique also provides an indication of transient torque

problems. The potential of a transient torque is indicated by the dip of reactance
minimum, in the proximity of the synchronous frequency complement of torsional
modes frequencies [1, 2].
3.2 Two Axis Analytical Method
Two axis analysis method is based on full d–q representation of the study machine
developed in [3]. This technique explains the interactions between electrical and
mechanical system with complex torque coefficients Ke(jλ) and Km(jλ). The fre-
quency response Ke(jλ) describes the behaviour of the electrical system including the
electrical damping, whereas Km(jλ) illustrates the mechanical system. Multiplication
of these by the phasor e which denotes the generator rotor oscillation yields the
electrical and the mechanical torques respectively. This method is also referred to as
complex torque coefficients, frequently used in academic literature [4, 5].
This technique make use of the fact that synchronous machine connected to the
power system can exhibit small rotor oscillations of amplitude ê. These rotor
oscillations lead to oscillatory variations in the terminal voltage, stator current and
magnetic flux in the machine. These pulsations are calculated in d–q reference
frame and the electrical torque oscillations resulting from shaft excitation are
determined.
A synchronous machine develops an additional torque DTe in response to small
rotor oscillations. Assuming that the rotor oscillations can be represented by a
rotating phasor ~e and the electrical torque pulsations by another phasor DTe , the
electrical complex torque coefficient can be written as
DT e
Ke ðjkÞ ¼ ¼ Ke þ jkDe ð3:2Þ
e
with k ¼ ffn
where
f = synchronous frequency
fn = mechanical modal frequency = torsional mode frequency
Ke = electrical spring constant
De = electrical damping constant, after dividing the imaginary part in (3.2) by λ
It is assumed that the effect of interactions between the electrical and mechanical
system of a turbine generator can be described by the equation of the motion of the
generator rotor. Another assumption is that the generator rotor exhibits oscillations
of small magnitude. Mechanical complex torque coefficient is then given by the
following equation
Km ðjkÞ ¼ Km þ jkDm ð3:3Þ
Dm = Mechanical damping constant, after dividing the imaginary part in (3.3) by

Km = Represents the basic form of the equation of oscillation for each mechanical
system frequency
3.2 Two Axis Analytical Method 71
The equation governing the interaction can be written as
½Ke ðjkÞ þ Km ðjkÞe ¼ 0 ð3:4Þ
The torque coefficient Km(jλ) can be determined if all mass inertias, spring
constants and damping constants of the shaft model are known. It can be shown that
interactions can occur only at the frequencies when [4]
Km þ Ke 0 ð3:5Þ
This method derived in [3] is more accurate than the simplified analytical
method but it is demanding to implement and requires more detailed machine data
[6].
Possible short coming of this method include [7]
• The complex torque coefficients method is not able to predict monotonic
instability due to the presence of real roots in the system.
• The complex torque coefficient method may not be able to identify, or it may
identify wrong oscillatory mode(s) of the system, if the net damping of the
system is considerable by shifting significantly the intersection point(s) of
Km + Ke = 0 along the ω axis.
• Positive or negative sign of the net damping (Dm + De) at the frequency of the
oscillatory mode does not represent stable or unstable behaviour of the mode,
respectively.
3.3 Test Signal Method
This method discussed in [4, 5], is also known as the complex torque coefficient
method realized by the time domain simulations. It models the power system in a
time domain simulations software such providing the flexibility to use complex load
and generator models if required.
The small changes of the electrical torque at the study generator can be
expressed in per unit as
De
DTe ¼ Ke Dd þ Dx ð3:6Þ
x0
where Ke is the synchronization torque coefficient, De is the damping torque

coefficient, δ is the electrical angle of the machine, ω is the speed of the machine
and ω0 represents nominal speed.
A small angular perturbation of frequency Ω in the generator axis corresponding
to a variation in the electrical angle of the machine can be written as
Dd ¼ D^d sinðXtÞ ð3:7Þ
resulting in
Dx ¼ D^dX cosðXtÞ ¼ ReðD^dXejXt Þ ð3:8Þ
When this speed modulation given by the real part of a rotating phasor D^dXejXt
excites the shaft, it will result in a torque modulation of the same frequency Ω. The
electrical torque of the study generator is measured, and resolved into an average
and an oscillating component
Te ¼ Tav þ ReðDTejxt Þ ð3:9Þ
where the complex phasor
DT ¼ DTx þ jDTy ð3:10Þ
Hence DTe ¼ DTx cosðXtÞ DTy sinðXtÞ ð3:11Þ
DTy DTx x0
Ke ¼ & De ¼ ð3:12Þ
^
Dd D^dX
In order to find the power system damping for all subsynchronous frequencies of
interest, the excitation frequency is varied between zero and the nominal electrical
frequency.
In essence, complex torque coefficient method and test signal are same. Test
Signal method is only valid for power system with one generator and some fixed
frequency sources but not valid for multi machine system [4]. Since test signal
method uses nonlinear detailed models of power system components, it can detect
SSR problem due to HVDC controls and FACTs devices.
3.4 Choice of Frequency Scanning Method
The two axes analytical method is more accurate than simplified analytical method,
however, its implementation is tedious and it requires much more generator’s data
which may not be readily available [7]. The test signal method on the other hand is
applicable only in power system with one generator and some fixed frequency
sources and it is not valid for multi machine system [6].
Simplified analytical frequency scan method is used in this study because of its
simplicity and its ability to indicate all three aspects of SSR. This method can give
quantitative results for wide range of operating conditions with adequate accuracy.
3.4 Choice of Frequency Scanning Method 73
This particular frequency scan program in DIgSILENT PowerFactory measures the

thevenin impedance at the node by using the fault calculations functions provided
by the software. By disconnecting study generator from the network, considering all
nodes voltages equal 1 ∠ 0° p.u. and performing three phase fault with zero
impedance at the study node, the network impedance seen from the generator
terminals is easily calculated.
3.4.1 Validation of Frequency Scanning Program
The frequency scan function in DIgSILENT Powerfactory is validated using IEEE

second benchmark model for SSR studies. The second benchmark model and study
results were provided in 1985 to compare analytical techniques and results for SSR
studies [8].
The conductance Gn for IEEE 2nd bench mark model for mode 1 and mode 2 is
determined by using the DIgSILENT PowerFactory frequency scan method. And
then negative damping introduced in mode 1 and mode 2 is calculated for different
compensation levels.
The negative damping calculated for mode1 and mode 2 using IEEE 2nd
benchmark frequency model are given by the solid line in Fig. 3.2a, b, and the
negative damping determined using DIgSILENT PowerFactory frequency scan is
given by the square points. The negative damping values calculated for the second
benchmark using DIgSILENT PowerFactory lie on the solid line which indicates
close correlation.
(a) (b)
0.6 0.06
NegaƟve Damping (rad/sec)
NegaƟve Damping(rad/sec)
0.5 0.05
0.4 0.04
0.3 0.03
0.2 0.02
0.1 0.01
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
% CompensaƟon % CompensaƟon
Fig. 3.2 Comparison of results with IEEE 2nd benchmark model a Mode 1, b Mode 2
3.5 Modified Test System 1
The sixteen machine, sixty eight bus network is modified to introduce compensated
lines and HVDC lines. With loading as given in [9], the NYPS area is importing
power from the surrounding areas due to an active power demand of 8.57 GW in
the area and generation of only 5.86 GW. Details of the active power import across
inter-area are given in Table 3.1.
Line L71 as the most heavily loaded line, and lines L44 and L45 as heavily
loaded lines connecting cluster of generators from NETS to NYPS are compensated
to facilitate better inter-area power transfer as shown in Fig. 3.3.
Generator G16 is a dynamic equivalent of the whole area, and it is directly
connected to the compensated line L71. Therefore, it is replaced by the equivalent
network, shown in Fig. 2.20, to facilitate better insight in its torsional torques. The
modified network therefore, had 19 generators and 77 buses.
Since induction generator equivalent model is not available, hence, study gen-
erator is modelled with subtransient reactance and zero resistance of the generator
and step up transformer, while other generators are represented by their subtransient
reactance. Lines are modelled by their π equivalent. Loads are modelled as constant
impedance.
Table 3.1 Active power imported into NYPS from surrounding areas
Active power imported from To NYPS bus # Active power (MW)
Area Bus # Line #
NETS 60 L41 and L42 61 404.9
NETS 27 L43 53 27.6
NETS 54 L44 and L45 53 276.8
G14 41 L69 40 588.7
G16 18 L66 46 364.1
G16 18 L71 50 786

G13
G7 G5 G3 G2 G12 G16
3 2 16
G6 G4 13
39 50
7 5 59 43
12 18
65 62 63 44 L71
6 4 60 17 45
36
23 20 58 35 51
64 L41
22 19 34 L66
21 24 66 57 49
L42 61 33 G15
67 56
G9 32 46 15 L67
68 52 30
55 42
L2 37 L43 31
9 11
28 27
L7 L46 L45 G11
26 10
L3
29 25 54
L4 L44 G10 G14
47 L69
40 14
8 1 53 48
41
G8 G1
Fig. 3.3 Modified test network 1

3.6 Indices for Assessing Generator Exposure to SSR 75
3.6 Indices for Assessing Generator Exposure to SSR
In the modified test network, frequency scan is carried out for each of the generators
with 70 % compensation in L44, L45 and L71. It is observed that G2, G3 in New
England Test systems, G11 in NYPS and G15 (the dynamic equivalent of the
neighbouring area) do not see any subsynchronous electrical frequency as shown in
Fig. 3.4.
All other generators G1, G4, G5, G6, G7, G8 in NETS, G10, G11, G13 in NYPS
and G14 and G16-1 see subsynchronous electrical frequency, therefore, detailed
studies are carried out for each of them.
After replacing generator G16 with the network shown in Fig. 2.20, the plots of
frequency scan show that only G16-1 sees a minimum in the reactance curve. The
reactance and resistance seen by the generators G1-1, G8-1 and G9-1 curves have
negligible minimum as shown in Fig. 3.5a. Figure 3.5b indicates a small minimum
in the reactance plot of G14 compared to G16-1.
Frequency scan results for NETS generators are presented in Fig. 3.6. It can be
observed that generators G1, G8 and G9 see a significant dip in the reactance curve
while the dip in the reactance seen by the generators G4, G5, G6 and G7 is
negligible.
Figure 3.7 shows the reactance seen by the NYPS generators G10, G12 and
G13. It can be observed that G10 sees a considerable dip in the reactance while for
G12 and G13, it is negligible.
These initial studies indicated that NETS generators are more sensitive to
compensated line as compared to NYPS. In G16 equivalent network only first
generator G16-1 is sensitive to the compensated line.
0.3
0.25 G2 G3
Reactance 'ohms'
G11 G15
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
10 20 30 40 50
Frequency 'Hz'
Fig. 3.4 Network reactance seen by G2, G3, G11 and G15 from generator neutral with 70 %
compensation
(a) (b)
0.3 0.2
G1-1 G16-1
0.25
Reactance 'ohms'
Reactance 'ohms'
G8-1 0.15 G14
0.2 G9-1
0.15 0.1
0.1
0.05
0.05
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency 'Hz' Frequency 'Hz'
Fig. 3.5 Network reactance seen by a G1-1, G8-1, G9-1, b G14 and G16-1 from generator neutral
with 70 % compensation
(a) (b)
0.4 0.4
0.35 G7 G6
Network reactance 'ohms'
0.35
G1 G4 G5
0.3
Reactance 'ohms'
0.3 G8
0.25 G9 0.25
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency 'Hz' Fequency 'Hz'
Fig. 3.6 Reactance seen by a G1, G8, G9, b G4, G5, G6, G7 from generator neutral with 70 %
compensation
0.35
0.3 G10
G13
0.25
Reactance 'Ohms'
G12
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
10 20 30 40 50
Frequency 'Hz'
Fig. 3.7 Reactance seen by G10, G13, G12 from generator neutral with 70 % compensation
3.7 Index for Assessing Self Excitation Due to Torsional Interactions (RISSR) 77
3.7 Index for Assessing Self Excitation Due to Torsional

Interactions (RISSR)
Presence of series capacitor in transmission line typically results in a natural

electrical frequency (fne) of the system being lower than the synchronous frequency,
commonly referred to as subsynchronous frequency. The oscillations at subsyn-
chronous frequency are generally damped by the line and transformer resistance.
However, the rotating machine will feed energy into the positive sequence sub-
synchronous currents as the field set up by these currents rotates at a lower speed
than the machine’s rotating field (rotating at synchronous speed). The negative
sequence currents on the other hand, rotating backwards, acts as a brake on the rotor
by absorbing the energy to damp the oscillations. Positive sequence currents might
be poorly or negatively damped if machine feeds more energy into the system than
energy that is absorbed by the resistance loss in lines and transformers [10]. These
positive sequence subsynchronous currents, therefore, induce negative damping in
the torsional modes of a turbine generator. When this negative damping is greater
than the inherent positive damping of the modes, torsional interactions between the
mechanical and electrical system occur resulting in torsional torques of very large
amplitudes. The electrical damping of the mode due to subsynchronous and
supersynchronous currents is given by (3.1). Subsynchronous currents introduce
negative damping while supersynchronous currents introduce positive damping. To
make the analysis simpler, without any loss of generality and as the results will be
more conservative, only the negative damping due to subsynchronous currents is
considered here. By considering only the effect of subsynchronous currents (3.1)
can be re-written as

ðf fn Þ Rsub ðf fn ÞGn
Drn ¼ ¼ ð3:13Þ
8fn Hn Rsub þ Xsub
2 2 8fn Hn

Rsub
Gn ¼ ð3:14Þ
Rsub þ Xsub
2 2
where f is the synchronous frequency, fn is the modal (torsional mode) frequency,

Rsub is the subsynchronous resistance and Xsub is the subsynchronous reactance, Hn
is the modal inertia and Gn is the conductance.
From (3.13) it can be seen that the negative damping introduced by the electrical
system is directly proportional to Gn and inversely proportional to Hn. From the
output of frequency scan Gn for each torsional mode of the study generator can be
calculated. The Hn for each mode can be calculated with help of mode shapes and
masses of turbine sections as given by (3.15).
Xm 2
vk
Hn ¼ ðstored energyÞðWR2 Þk ð3:15Þ
k¼1
v g
Table 3.2 Mechanical data and mode shapes for G1

Mass Spring Mode shapes
(lb-ft2) constant p.u. f = 14.17 Hz f = 18.3 Hz f = 22.77 Hz f = 29.29 Hz
torque (rad)
HP 69,220 46 −2.1462 −3.2899 5.7578 −1.2556
IP 108,825 84 −1.5741 −1.8288 1.8119 0.16,640
LPA 597,829 126 −0.8998 −0.3283 −1.4181 0.78294
LPB 618,047 171 0.3060 1.1318 −0.5073 −1.6018
GEN 606,491 6.83 1 1 1 1
EX 23,682 2.6534 −28.51 −1.675 −0.6093
where
vk = velocity of the kth mass,
vg = velocity of the generator = 1,
(WR2)k = inertia of kth mass,
m = number of masses.
Since no real data is available for this studies, therefore, turbine generator
mechanical data of is taken from the first bench mark model for SSR studies and
scaled to match the generator size and total inertia of the unit. Mechanical data and
mode shapes for G1 are given in Table 3.2.
The procedure to calculate equivalent inertia for the torsional modes is given
below for G1 modes.

Stored energy ¼ 2079 106 WR2 MW:s for 3000 r:p:m units

Stored energy for G1 ¼ 1:73 106 WR2 :s on 600 MVA base
Equivalent Inertia for the nth mode of generator G1
X
m 2
vk
Hn ¼ 1:73 106 ðWR2 Þk ð3:16Þ
k¼1
vg
Using the data in Table 3.2, the equivalent inertia Hn for mode 2, 3, 4 and 5 is
calculated by the knowledge of mode shapes and masses of turbine sections.
H2 ¼ 1:73½ð0:06922Þð1:25562Þ2 þ ð0:108825Þð0:166408Þ2 þ ð0:597829Þð0:782936Þ2

þ ð0:618047Þð1:60183Þ2 þ ð0:606491Þð1Þ þ ð23682Þð0:60934Þ2 ¼ 4:62
H3 ¼ 8:13; H4 ¼ 37:75; H5 ¼ 3:29
Mode 1 is not considered in this analysis because there is a very little motion
indicating that it is very hard to excite that mode from the generator.
0.25
0.2
X 38 Hz
0.15
ohms
R
0.1
0.05
0
10 20 30 40 50
Frequency 'Hz'
Fig. 3.8 Resistance and reactance seen from G1 neutral with 70 % compensation of L44, L45 and
L71 in normal network configuration
Figure 3.8 shows output of frequency scan program for simultaneous 70 %

compensation of L44, L45 and L77. The figure shows the network resistance and
reactance as a function of frequency, seen from the neutral of generator G1. The dip
in the reactance curve indicated by arrow is the electrical frequency seen by the
study generator. Using (3.13) the conductance ‘Gn’ for each torsional mode of
generator G1 is calculated.
Now as modal inertia for each mode, and the value of conductance ‘Gn’ for each
torsional mode from the output of frequency scan program for 70 % compensation
of L44, L45, L71 are known, the negative damping introduced by the electrical
system in each mode of generator G1 can be calculated. The results are shown in
Table 3.3, it can be observed that even the values of the conductance for third and
fourth mode are approximately the same, due to very high value of equivalent
inertia the negative damping introduced in the fourth mode is much smaller than the
negative damping introduced in the third torsional mode.
Note: The torsional resonant frequencies are the most uncertain parameters of the
generator shaft system. For a machine whose modal frequencies are known from
test results ±1 Hz variation in frequency is considered to be sufficient to account
for the variation in system data. Therefore, the conductance values in the range of
±1 Hz of torsional frequencies are observed and the highest value of Gn is used to
calculate Δσn.
Table 3.3 Negative damping in the torsional modes of G1 with all lines in service (70 %
compensation of L44, L45, and L71)
Modes fn (Hz) f − fn (Hz) Hn (p.u.) Gn ¼ R2 RþsubX 2 p.u. Drn ¼ ðf8ff nÞ
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 1.16 0.02

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 0.8397 0.015
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.8 0.0045
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 1.39 0.1335
As described in Chap. 1, self excitation due to electrical and mechanical inter-

actions occurs when one or more torsional modes become unstable. Total damping
of a torsional mode is the sum of mechanical damping and electrical damping.
Mechanical damping is always positive but, very small. It is mainly due to friction,
wind losses and steam flow around the rotor. It is lowest at no load, and increases
with generator loading. Series compensation of transmission lines introduces neg-
ative damping in torsional modes. This negative damping varies with series com-
pensation level and network configuration.
A torsional mode is unstable when
|Mechanical Damping| < |Electrical (negative damping)|
The negative damping of the torsional modes indicates the stability of the
mechanical system for different operating conditions of a turbine generator system.
Therefore, the highest value of negative damping introduced by the electrical
system in any of its torsional modes can be taken as the index for assessing
potential torsional interactions of that particular generator in that particular network
configuration, and is represented by RISSR in these studies.
3.7.1 RISSR for 70 % Compensation
It can be observed in Table 3.3 that the highest value of negative damping is
0.1335 rad/s; hence, RISSR of G1 for 70 % compensation with all lines in service is
0.1335 rad/s. In general no load mechanical damping is in the range of 0.02–
0.05 rad/s and full load damping is in the range of 0.2–0.25 rad/s [11].
Table 3.3 shows that the negative damping introduced by the system in the fifth
torsional mode is much greater than the no load damping. Therefore, G1 fifth
torsional mode can be unstable at no load or lower generator output.
Figure 3.9 shows network resistance and reactance as a function of frequency as
appeared from the neutral of G8 and G9.
Generator G8, G9 and G16-1 mechanical data is given in Appendix B. Using the
same procedure equivalent inertia of the modes and negative damping introduced in
each of the torsional modes of G8, G9 and G16-1 is calculated. Table 3.4 presents
the negative damping values for G8 torsional modes.
It can be observed in Table 3.4 that the negative damping introduced in G8 fifth
torsional mode is of the highest magnitude. Therefore, RISSR of G8 for 70 %
compensation in normal network configuration is 0.093 rad/s. It is greater than no
load damping and complement of the electrical frequency (50-fne) is close to fifth
mode torsional frequency, therefore, G8 can suffer from torsional interactions
problems at no load or low generator (G8) outputs.
Tables 3.5 and 3.6 present induced negative damping values for generator G9
and G16-1 respectively. RISSR, for generator G9 is 0.0349 rad/s and for G16-1 is
0.0436 rad/s.
(a) (b)
0.3 0.4
Resistance/Reactance ohms
Resistance/Reactance ohms
37 Hz
0.25 X
X 0.32
37 Hz R
0.2 R
0.24
0.15
0.16
0.1
0.08
0.05
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50
Fig. 3.9 Resistance and reactance seen from, a G8, b G9, neutral with 70 % compensation of
L44, L45 and L71 in normal network configuration
fn (Hz) f − fn (Hz) Hn (p.u.) Gn ¼ R2 RþsubX 2 (p.u.) Drn ¼ ðf8ff nÞ
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.45 20.55 3.9 0.54 0.012

Mode 3 23.24 26.76 6.77 0.39 0.008
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 30.9 0.37 0.00259
Mode 5 14.33 35.67 2.68 0.8 0.093
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 5.07 0.48 0.008

Mode 3 23.24 26.76 9 0.38 0.006
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 43.34 0.3492 0.0017
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.53 0.39 0.0349
Table 3.6 Negative damping in the torsional modes of G16-1 with all lines in service (70 %
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 11.46 1.35 0.01

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 20.27 0.997 0.0073
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 93.7 0.9379 0.002
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 8.2 1.132 0.0436
Table 3.7 Ranking of generators for 70 % compensation with all lines in service
Generator RISSR
G1 0.1335
G8 0.093
G16-1 0.0436
G9 0.0349
It can be observed from Table 3.6, column Hn, that the equivalent inertia values
for G16-1 are much higher than those of G1 and G8. Therefore, the negative
damping introduced in the torsional modes of this generator is lower than those for
G1 and G8 even in the case when the corresponding equivalent conductance of
G16-1 is of the same order or slightly higher than those of G1 and G8.
Equation (3.13) shows that the negative damping introduced in nth torsional
mode is directly proportional to conductance Gn. The conductance values calculated
from frequency scan for G6, G7, G10 and G13 are very small which eliminates the
need of further detailed analysis for these generators.
After this analysis, all the generators in the network that can be potentially
exposed to SSR, have been assigned risk index indicating the severity of self
excitation problem due to torsional interactions. Using this risk index the generators
are ranked in the descending order with respect to risk of the torsional interactions.
Table 3.7 shows that G1 is at the highest risk because the risk index is con-
siderably higher than the no load mechanical damping which is typically between
0.02 and 0.05 rad/s. Similarly, G8 is at the higher risk since the complement of the
electrical frequency is close to the fifth torsional mode and negative damping is
greater than no load damping. The risk index is lowest for G16-1 and G9, and it is
in the range of no load damping.
3.7.2 Effect of Compensation Level and Network Topology

on Ranking of Generators Using RISSR
3.7.2.1 Effect of Compensation Level
Since the electrical frequency, resistance and reactance seen by each generator
changes with compensation level, therefore, the variation in risk index and ranking
of generators, for different compensation levels is investigated. Frequency scan is
repeated for 50 and 30 % compensation levels for G1, G8, G9 and G16-1. Same
lines are compensated in each study case, i.e., L44, L45 and L69.
Figure 3.10 shows the resistance and reactance seen by G1 for 70, 50 and 30 %
compensation levels. It is evident from Fig. 3.10 that the dip in the reactance curve
increases with an increase in compensation level. The magnitude of electrical fre-
quency seen by the generator also increases as the compensation level increases.
The electrical frequency seen by G1 is 25 Hz for 30 % compensation level, this
Resistance/Reactance 'ohms'
0.25
70% X
70%R 32.1
0.2
50%X 38
50%R
0.15 25
30%X
30%R
0.1
0.05
0
10 20 30 40 50
Frequency 'Hz'
Fig. 3.10 Reactance and resistance seen by G1 for three studied compensation levels
Table 3.8 Negative damping in torsional modes of G1 and G8 for 50 and 30 % compensation
Modes G1 G8
50 % comp. 30 % comp. 50 % comp. 30 % comp.
Mode2 0.0229 0.0302 0.012 0.012
Mode3 0.019 0.0117 0.008 0.008
Mode4 0.023 0.0024 0.00259 0.00259
Mode5 0.034 0.029 0.037 0.036
Table 3.9 Negative damping in torsional modes of G9 and G16-1 for 50 and 30 % compensation
Modes G9 G16-1
50 % comp. 30 % comp. 50 % comp. 30 % comp.
Mode2 0.00836 0.00860 0.0017 0.012176
Mode3 0.00623 0.00622 0.0039 0.009108
Mode4 0.0024 0.00159 0.0035 0.002016
Mode5 0.02596 0.025 0.0339 0.028589
move to 32.1 Hz for 50 % compensation level and becomes 38 Hz for 70 %

compensation level.
Using the frequency scan and (3.15) conductance and the negative damping
introduced by series compensation in each of torsional modes of G1, G8, G9 and
G16-1 are calculated, respectively. Results are presented in Tables 3.8 and 3.9.
Risk index for each of studied generators is determined for each studied compen-
sation level and presented in Table 3.10.
Table 3.10 shows that by lowering the compensation level from 70 to 50 %, the
RISSR reduced to within the range of no load damping for each generator. It can also
be observed that decrease in the compensation level from 50 to 30 % does not affect
RISSR of any generator significantly, i.e., it stays within the same range (0.025–
0.036 rad/s).
Table 3.10 Ranking generators for 70, 50 and 30 % compensation level

Generator RISSR
Compensation level
70 % 50 % 30 %
G1 0.1335 0.034 0.036
G8 0.093 0.037 0.029
G16-1 0.0436 0.0339 0.028
G9 0.0349 0.0259 0.025
3.7.2.2 Stability Analysis of Torsional Modes
As discussed earlier in the section, for nth torsional mode to be stable, the modal
mechanical damping σn must be greater than Δσn, it means that (3.13) can be written
ðf fn Þ Rsub
rn ¼ ð3:17Þ
2
Rsub 8fn Hn
\ rn ¼ Kn ð3:18Þ
R2sub þ Xsub
2 ðf fn Þ
After slight manipulation, (3.18) can be written as
Rsub
R2sub þ Xsub
2
[0 ð3:19Þ
Kn

1 2 1 2
Rsub þ Xsub
2
[ ð3:20Þ
2Kn 2Kn
Equation (3.20) is the equation of the circle of radius 1/2Kn with centre at
(1/2Kn, 0). For the stability of a torsional mode in a R–X plane, Rsub and Xsub must
lie outside the circle. From (3.18), it can be seen that Kn is directly proportional to
machine modal damping and thus inversely proportional to radius of the circle. If
the machine’s damping is known for various load levels, a family of circles can be
drawn for each load level. Each circle is tangent to all other circles at the origin and
separates the stable and unstable boundaries for the given load levels. The region
inside the circle represents the unstable region.
A family of three circles corresponding to full load (smallest circle), half load
(medium circle) and no load (the biggest circle) are shown in Fig. 3.11. Area inside
each circle represents unstable region corresponding to that loading level. It can be
observed that unstable region increases with decrease in the loading the generator.
To analyse further the sensitivity of stability with respect to Rsub and Xsub,
examine the expression for conductance
X
Full
Half No
load
Load Load
(4)
(1)
positive (3)
0 R
(2)
Negative
(5)
Fig. 3.11 Sensitivity analysis with circle diagram
Rsub
Gn ¼ ð3:21Þ
R2sub þ Xsub
2
By differentiating the above equation with respect to Rsub, it can be found that it has
a maximum value at Rsub = ±Xsub. Two red colour lines representing Rsub = ±Xsub
are drawn in Fig. 3.11. These lines divide the R-X plane into two regions, to the left of
Rsub = ±Xsub line an increase in Rsub reduces the damping, as shown by point
(1) which is in the stable region for all loading levels. With increase in Rsub, point
(1) moves to the unstable region for no loading operating condition. Similarly point
(2) already unstable (at no load and half load) moves away further to higher instability
region. To the right of the Rsub = ±Xsub lines an increase in Rsub reduces the
undamping and operating points migrate towards less unstable region as indicated by
the movement of point (3) outside the unstable region for no load operating condition.
To analyse the sensitivity with respect to Xsub the R and X diagram of the
Fig. 3.11 can be divided into two regions along Rsub = 0 line. Above this line, any
increase in Xsub moves the operating point towards a more stable region. For
example if Xsub is positive and the system equivalents are determined with maxi-
mum generation on line (minimum equivalent impedance), any reduction in gen-
eration would increase Xsub resulting in more stable system. It has been shown by
points (4). However, if in the simulated operating condition the point lies below
Rsub = 0, an increase in Xsub would move the system to less stable (or unstable
region) as shown by point (5) moving inside the unstable region for no load
operating condition.
Assuming the full load mechanical damping value of 0.2 rad/s for mode 5 of
generator G1, Kn given by (3.22) the radius of the circle can be calculated as
follows
8fn Hn
rn ¼ Kn ð3:22Þ
f fn
For G1, fn = 14.17, f − fn = 35.83, Hn = 3.29, σn = 0.2, Kn = 2.08 and the

radius of the circle = 1/2Kn = 0.24.
Figure 3.12 shows the sensitivity analysis of G1’s fifth torsional mode for full
load damping. For any operating condition or compensation level, the area inside
the circle corresponds to instability while any point outside the circle indicates
stability. It can be seen that for 30, 50 and 70 % compensation level provided all
lines are in service, the points (Rsub, Xsub) lie outside the circle, it means this mode
is stable for all compensation levels. It can be seen that for 70 % compensation the
point (Rsub, Xsub) is very close to circle as compared to 30 and 50 % compensation
level.
As the generator loading decreases to no load, radius of the circle increases to
1.06 and region of instability increases leading to no load instability of this torsional
mode for 70 % compensation level.
0.28
All lines in 30% comp 0.24 All lines in 70% comp

(0.011,0.137) (0.08,0.18)
0.2
All lines in 50% comp 0.16

(0.007,0.118)
0.12
0.08
Reactance 'X'
0.04
(0.24,0)
(0.24,0
0
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.4 0.44 0.
0.48 0.52
-0.04 Resistance
R i t ''R'
-0.08
-0.12
-0.16
-0.2
-0.24
-0.28
Fig. 3.12 Sensitivity analysis of G1’s fifth torsional mode

3.7.2.3 Generator Radially Connected to Compensated Line
As identified in the past reports the generator, at the highest risk of SSR is the
generator connected radially to the compensated line [12–14]. A generator con-
nected radially to the compensated line, certainly sees an electric resonant fre-
quency and if it is equal or close to the complement of the any torsional mode, it
will generate condition for torsional interactions provided that the negative damping
exceeds the mechanical damping. Therefore, it is important to investigate how the
radial connections of the generators affect the electric frequencies and negative
damping. The studies are carried out for radial connection of each of the generators,
G1, G8 and G16-1.
Outage of L46 and L4 connects the generator G1 radially to the compensated
lines L45 and L46 as shown in Fig. 3.13.
Figure 3.14 shows the radial connection of G8, outage of G1, L46 and L3
connects G8 radially to compensated lines L45 and L46.
Figure 3.15 shows radial configuration of G16-1, outage of L67, L75 and L72
puts G16-1 in radial connection to compensated line L71.
Frequency scan is performed, conductance and negative damping for each of
torsional modes of each study generator are calculated in radial configuration. The
negative damping introduced in torsional modes of each study generator in radial
connection for different compensation levels are presented in Tables 3.11, 3.12 and
3.13.
The risk index for each study generator in a radial configuration is determined
and presented in Table 3.14.
Inspection of Table 3.14 reveals that in the case of 70 % compensation of L44,
L45 and L71 both G1 (in particular) and G8 operate with very high RISSR (much
higher than the full load damping). In all considered cases, G8 and G1 are at higher
risk than G16-1. Even for reasonably modest compensation of 30 %, the RISSR for
both G1 and G8, although, less than full load damping is higher than no load
damping indicating increased risk of SSR at lower power outputs.

G13
G7 G5 G3 G2 G12 G16
3 2 16
G6 G4 13
39 50
7 5 59 43
12 18
65 62 63 44 L71
6 4 60 17 45
36
23 20 58 35 51
64 L41
22 19 34 L66
21 24 66 57 49
L42 61 33 G15
67 56
G9 32 46 15 L67
68 52 30
55 42
L2 37 L43 31
9 11
28 27
26 L7 L46 G11
L3 L44 10
29 25 54
L4 G10 G14
47 L69
40 14
8 1 53 48
41
G8 G1
Fig. 3.13 Radial connection of G1 with simultaneous outage of L4 and L46


G13
G7 G5 G3 G2 G12 G16
3 2 16
G6 G4 13
39 50
7 5 59 43
12 18
65 62 63 44 L71
6 4 60 17 45
36
23 20 58 35 51
64 L41
22 19 34 L66
21 24 66 57 49
L42 61 33 G15
67 56
G9 32 46 15 L67
68 52 30
55 42
L2 37 L43 31
9 11
28 27
26 L7 L46 G11
L3 L44 10
29 25 54
L4 G10 G14
47 L69
40 14
8 1 53 48
41
G8 G1
Fig. 3.14 Radial connection of G8 with simultaneous outage of L46 and L3
G9-1
L75
46 42
L66 L67 9-1
28-1
L72
54-1 25-1 26-1 29-1
G16 18
16-1 1-1 8-1

G16-1 G1-1 G8-1
Fig. 3.15 Radial connection of G16-1 with simultaneous outage of L66, L67 and L72
Table 3.11 Negative damping in the torsional modes of G1 for three studied compensation levels
in radial configuration
Modes Compensation level
70 % 50 % 30 %
Mode 1 0.00042 0.00126 0.185
Mode 2 0.0018 0.0156 0.0169
Mode 3 0.00297 0.035 0.0012
Mode4 4.707 0.043 0.01056
Table 3.12 Negative damping in the torsional modes of G8 for three studied compensation levels
in radial configuration
70 % 50 % 30 %
Mode 1 0.01 0.0149 0.115
Mode 2 0.018071 0.095 0.019
Mode 3 0.02936 0.0105 0.0024
Mode 4 0.33204 0.0499 0.031
Table 3.13 Negative damping in the torsional modes of G16-1 for three studied compensation
levels in radial configuration
70 % 50 % 30 %
Mode 1 0.0013 0.0017 0.005
Mode 2 0.0013 0.0039 0.00726
Mode 3 0.000874 0.0035 0.00084
Mode 4 0.046 0.024 0.0084
Table 3.14 Ranking generators for three studied compensation level in radial configuration
Generator RISSR
Compensation level
70 % 50 % 30 %
G1 4.7 0.043 0.185
G8 0.33 0.095 0.115
G16-1 0.046 0.024 0.008
With the help of developed risk index safe operating conditions of a turbine
generator, for different compensation levels and different network configurations
can also be identified. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.16 for generator G1. The red bars
in the figure represent the magnitude of risk index and green blocks represent the
safe operating range. Full load mechanical damping is taken to be 0.2 rad/s and no
load mechanical damping is taken to be 0.045 rad/s. SSR index for 70 % com-
pensation level in radial configuration is 4.7 rad/s much higher than the full load
damping. Therefore, Generator G1 is at very high risk of SSR for all operating
0.25
off scale, real value =4.7 Full load
damping
0.2
SSR Index
0.15
0.1
No load
damping
0.05
0
radial 70%
all lines 70%
radial 50%
all lines 50%
radial 30%
all lines 30%
Fig. 3.16 Identification of G1 operating conditions for three studied compensation levels with the
help of RISSR
conditions, i.e., no safe operating range. However, for the same compensation level
with all lines in service, risk index reduces to 0.1335 rad/s. As discussed earlier, a
torsional mode becomes unstable when the magnitude of induced negative damping
is less than mechanical damping. Mechanical damping increases with generator
output. G1 with 70 % compensation in the network is not at the risk of SSR for the
operating conditions when mechanical damping of modes is higher than the risk
index. This region is indicated with green block in Fig. 3.16.
Reduction of compensation level from 70 to 50 % reduces the risk index to no
load damping value in normal and radial configuration; hence, G1 is not at risk of
SSR for any operating condition.
Further reduction in compensation level to 30 % keeps the risk index below no
load damping in normal network configuration. In radial configuration, it increases
to 0.185 rad/s, and it can be seen in Fig. 3.16 that safe operating range has become
very narrow.
3.8 Index for Assessing Amplification of Transients

Torques
Figure 3.17 shows the reactance and resistance seen by the generators G1, G8 and
G9 for three studied compensation levels, i.e., 70, 50 and 30 %. Results of fre-
quency scan for G1, G8, G9 and G16-1 do not indicate any electrical resonant
frequency, i.e., a frequency at which reactance seen from generator becomes zero,
therefore, these generators are not likely to experience SSR due to induction gen-
erator effect. Frequency scan results also show that the dip in the reactance curve of
the generator is bigger if the generator is closer (electrical distance) to the com-
pensated line, i.e., the risk of SSR increases with generator’s proximity to com-
pensated line.
For all compensation levels considered, the reactance dip for G1 and G8 is
greater than other generators indicating their potential higher exposure to high
amplitude transient torsional torques. The severity of the potential problem depends
on both the proximity of the dip to the synchronous frequency complement of the
torsional mode frequencies and the depth of the dip. (Note: The subsynchronous
currents at frequency fne produce oscillating torques at frequency f − fne, therefore,
the presence of reactance minimum at or near the synchronous frequency com-
plement of torsional frequency can lead to torque amplification and in worst case
scenario can result in SSR.)
It has been established in the past studies that a system is likely to have transient
torsional torque problem if synchronous frequency complement of the electrical
frequency (f − fne) is within ±3 Hz range of any torsional frequency and % depth
of the dip is equal or greater than 5 % [2]. Following this line of argument, it can be
seen from Fig. 3.17a that G1 could have transient torques problems for all three
compensation levels as the depth of reactance dip in each case is noticeable and the
3.8 Index for Assessing Amplification of Transients Torques 91
(a)
0.25
70% X
70%R 32.1
0.2
50%X 38
50%R
0.15 25
30%X
30%R
0.1
0.05
0
10 20 30 40 50
Frequency 'Hz'
(b)
0.4
0.35 70%X
0.3 70%R
50%X 24.8 31.5 37
0.25 50%R
0.2 30%X
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
10 20 30 40 50
Frequency 'Hz'
(c)
0.4
0.35 70% X 37
70%R 31.9
0.3 50%X 24.7
0.25 50%R
30%X
0.2
30%R
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
10 20 30 40 50
Frequency 'Hz'
Fig. 3.17 For three studied compensation levels, resistance and reactance seen from a G1, b G8,
c G9
(f − fne) frequency at which those occur (25, 17.9 and 12 Hz for 30, 50 and 70 %
compensation, respectively) is within ±3 Hz range of torsional mode frequencies
(22.7, 18.3 and 14.2 Hz).
Table 3.15 summarizes the prerequisite information to assess the severity of
transient torque problem for studied compensation levels. The depth of reactance
dip from the reactance curves obtained for G1, G8, and G9 is calculated as illus-
trated in Fig. 3.18.
Table 3.15 Slip frequency and depth in reactance minimum of G1, G8 and G9 for three studied
compensation levels
Generator 70 % compensation 50 % compensation 30 % compensation
f − fne fn Depth of f − fne fn Depth of f − fne fn Depth of
reactance reactance reactance
minima minima minima
(%) (%) (%)
G8 13 14.33 50 18.5 18.3 65 25.2 23.24 37
G1 12 14.17 67 17.9 18.3 48 25 22.77 50
G9 13 14.17 8 18.1 18.3 6 – – –
G16-1 – – –
From Table 3.15, it can be seen that the dip in the reactance minima of G1 is
bigger than other two generators, G8 and G9, for each compensation level.
However, the slip frequency (f − fne) of G8 is closer to the torsional mode in most
of the cases.
In order to quantify the severity of potential transient torque problem and to rank
the generators accordingly a new risk index is developed. The boundaries estab-
lished in [2] are used here to develop the index that will indicate potential exposure
of any generator in the network to high torsional torques. Consider Fig. 3.18 and
assume that 20 and 35 Hz are the synchronous frequency complements of torsional
mode frequencies of a study generator. In order to reduce the risk of high transient
torsional torques the electrical frequency seen by the study generator should not fall
Fig. 3.18 Graphical illustration of conditions leading to potentially high transient torsional
torques
3.8 Index for Assessing Amplification of Transients Torques 93
in the shaded areas (±3 Hz around the complement of torsional mode frequency),
or if this happens, the depth of reactance minima should be less than 5 %.
If ΔX is the depth of reactance minimum and Δf = |(f − fne) − fn| is the fre-
quency deviation where f is the synchronous frequency, fne is the electrical fre-
quency and fn is the frequency of the nearest torsional mode. As discussed above
the severity of transient torque problem is directly proportional to ΔX and inversely
proportional to Δf. Therefore, the severity of potential transient torques can be
expressed by corresponding risk index RITT given by (3.23), considering that
thresholds DXcritical and Dfcritical have been previously established as 5 % and
±3 Hz, respectively [1].
jDX j jDX j
jDXcritical j jDX j
RITT ¼ ¼ 5
¼ 0:6 ð3:23Þ
jDf j jDf j jDf j
jDfcritical j 3
Therefore, for a generator to be at risk of experiencing high transient torsional

torques the RITT 1 with ΔX ≥ 5 % and Df 3Hz.
The relationship (3.23) presents a novel transient torque index, formulated in this
thesis for the first time based on previous observations related to transient torque
amplification.
The calculated transient torque indices (RITT) for G1, G8, G9 and G16-1 (from
corresponding reactance curves) are shown in Table 3.16. It can be seen that G8 is
potentially the most exposed generator to high transient torsional torques (at any
level of compensation) and that the RITT for all generators is the highest with 50 %
compensation of the lines.
Inspection of Table 3.16 reveals that for all three studied compensation levels
G8 is at the highest risk of transient torque amplification as it has the highest
transient torque risk index (RITT).
It can be observed from Table 3.15 that the dip in the reactance curves of G8 is
smaller than the dip in the reactance curves of G1. However, the slip frequency
(f − fne) is closer to torsional modes than the slip frequency in G1’s case, this leads
to higher values of RITT for G8.
Table 3.16 Ranking of generators based on transient torque risk index (RITT) for three studied
compensation levels
Generator RITT
Compensation level
70 % 50 % 30 %
G8 23 151 12
G1 18 97 12
G9 3.6 18 –
G16-1 – – –
Table 3.17 Grouping of generators

RISSR RITT
Appreciable risk G1, G8 G1, G8
Moderate risk G9, G16-1 G9
Low risk G2-G7, G10-G15, G1-1, G8-1 and G9-1
3.9 Ranking of the Generators
Based on previous studies and using developed indices, the generators can be
grouped into three risk groups, as shown in Table 3.17, with respect to potential
risk of torsional interactions due to SSR.
The analysis shows that generator’s position within the group might change with
compensation level in the network but its group doesn’t change. In all considered
cases G1 and G8 are the most affected generators with the highest value of risk
indices. Though, G16-1 is directly connected to compensated line, it did not appear
as one of the top two affected generators indicating that the risk of exposure to SSR
depends on both, generator location in the network and modal inertia of its modes.
3.10 Verification of Generator Ranking
In the test network G1–G8 were originally equipped with slow dc excitation control
while G9 has a fast acting static excitation system. The system was stable following
a large disturbance with uncompensated lines, however, it is oscillating with
compensated (L44, L45 and L77). Therefore, dc excitation systems of G1and G8
are replaced with fast acting static excitation system and PSS. The PSS produces a
damping signal in phase with change in the speed signal and improves damping of
the system. The static exciter and PSS at G1 stabilized the system for both, 30 and
50 % compensation levels. To verify the previous ranking of generators, electro-
magnetic transients simulations are performed.
To study the effects on G1 three phase short circuit is simulated at bus 54 and
cleared after 85 ms. Similarly, for G9 the three phase fault is simulated at bus 29
and cleared after 85 ms. Figure 3.19 shows torsional torques in the LPB-G shaft
section of G1 (red shade) and G9 (grey shade) for 70 % compensation (L44, L45
and L71 and in a meshed network configuration (all lines and generators in service).
These two generators were previously identified using developed indices as gen-
erator at the highest and lowest risk, respectively, of SSR. Figure 3.19 confirms
previous findings (see Table 3.10) as torsional torque of G1 is unstable; the mag-
nitude of the torque is increasing while the magnitude of the torque of G9 is
decaying.
3.10 Verification of Generator Ranking 95
G1(70% comp)
1.8
G9 (70% comp)
LPB-G Torques 'p.u'

1.5
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.3
0
-0.3
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
Fig. 3.19 LPB-G shaft torsional torques of G1 (red shade) and G9 (t grey shade) for 70 %
compensation (L44, L45 and L71) in meshed network configuration
14
LPB-G Torques 'p.u'
10 Radial all lines

6
2
-2
-6
-10
-14
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
Fig. 3.20 LPB-G shaft torsional torques of G1 (LPB-G) for 70 % compensation in radial and
meshed generator connection
Figure 3.20 shows torsional torques in LPB-G shaft section of G1 connected

radially (red shade) and in full meshed configuration (grey shade) to the 70 %
compensated lines. It can be observed that in the case of radial connection the
mechanical torques are growing much more rapidly (due to very high values of
negative damping) as predicted by the RISSR results presented in Table 3.14.
Figure 3.21 shows torsional torques in LPB-G shaft section with 70 % com-
pensation level (red shade) and 30 % compensation level (grey shade) in normal
network configuration. It can be observed that torsional torques are unstable (red
shade) with 70 % compensation level, and are stable with 30 % compensation
level. Figure 3.21 confirms the effect of different compensation levels on generator
G1 as predicted by the RISSR results presented in Table 3.10.
1.8
70% comp 30% comp
LPB-G Torques 'p.u'

1.5
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.3
0
-0.3
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
Fig. 3.21 LPB-G shaft torsional torques of G1 (LPB-G) for 70 % compensation (red shade) and
30 % compensation (grey shade) in meshed generator connection
3.11 Effect of Different Compensation of Lines
3.11.1 Uncompensated Line in Parallel with Compensated

Line
The compensation of a line reduces its X/R ratio. The presence of uncompensated
line in parallel with compensated line improves this ratio, thereby, reduces the
negative damping effect of compensation.
To investigate the effect of uncompensated line operating in parallel to com-
pensated line, two case studies are performed
i. One of the two parallel lines is compensated by 70 % and both risk indices
RISSR and RITT are calculated in normal and radial network configuration. Then
this 70 % compensation is evenly divided between L44 and L45 resulting 35 %
compensation in each of the line and both of the risk indices are calculated
again.
ii. Risk indices RISSR and RITT are calculated in normal and radial network con-
figuration with one of the two parallel lines is compensated by 50 %. Then both
risk indices are calculated in normal and radial configuration again after
compensating each line by 25 %.
Figure 3.22 shows the reactance seen by the generator G1 in both studied cases.
It can be observed that the magnitude of the electrical frequency seen by the
generator is decreased in both cases.
The results presented in Table 3.18 compare the effect of uncompensated line
operating in parallel with compensated line. It can be observed that the presence of
the uncompensated line in parallel with 70 % compensated line in meshed network
configuration leads to RISSR for G1 in the range of no load damping and in radial
configuration higher than no load damping. However, 35 % compensation of both
lines (L44 and L45) results in RISSR greater than no load damping in both network
configurations (meshed and radial) for G1. In case of 50 % compensated line
3.11 Effect of Different Compensation of Lines 97
(a) (b)
0.25 0.25
70% 50%
Reactance'Ohms'
Reactance 'ohms'
0.2 35% each 39.9 0.2 25% each 33.9
0.15 27 0.15
22.8
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50
Fig. 3.22 Reactance seen from neutral of G1 a 70 % compensation in one line and 35 %
compensation both lines, b 50 % compensation in one line and 25 % compensation in both lines
Table 3.18 Risk Indices of G1 with uncompensated line in parallel with compensated line
70 % in one 35 % in each 50 % in one 25 % in each
line line line line
RISSR (all lines) 0.045 0.106 0.038 0.043
RISSR (radia 0.146 0.06 0.048 0.19
config.)
RITT (all lines) 13 24 13 16
operating in parallel with uncompensated line, RISSR is of the order of no load

damping in meshed and radial configuration while 25 % compensation of two
parallel lines in radial configuration results in RISSR in the range of full load
damping. Presence of uncompensated line also has improved the transient torque
Index RITT in the both cases presented below. Based on the above analysis, it can be
concluded that in general, the presence of the uncompensated line operating in
parallel with compensated reduces the risk of SSR.
3.11.2 Uneven Compensation of Parallel Lines
The effect of uneven compensation of the parallel lines has also been studied.
Frequency scan is carried out with L44 and L45 compensated unevenly such that
compensation level between the buses 53 and 54 is equal to 50 %.
Figure 3.23 compares the reactance seen by G1 when both lines are compen-
sated evenly (each by 50 %) and unevenly (one line by 60 % and other by 40 %). It
can be seen that uneven compensation of L44 and L45 results in two electrical
0.2
50% uneven
0.15 50% even
'Ohms'
0.1
0.05
0
10 20 30 40 50
Frequency 'Hz'
Fig. 3.23 Resistance and reactance seen from G1 neutral for even and uneven compensation of lines
Table 3.19 Risk indices of RISSR 50 % comp. RITT 50 %

G1, G8 and G9 for 50 % even comp. Uneven
and uneven compensation
Uneven Even Uneven Even
G1 0.0749 0.034 17 97
G8 0.03 0.037 8 151
G9 0.025 0.0259 – 18
Table 3.20 Risk indices of RISSR 30 % comp. RITT 30 % comp.

G1, G8 and G9 for 30 % even
Uneven Even Uneven Even
and uneven compensation
G1 0.084 0.029 22 12
G8 0.029 0.0369 8 12
G9 0.025 0.025 – –
frequencies. Both RISSR and RITT are calculated for uneven 50 % compensation
with all lines in service and results are presented in Table 3.19.
It can be seen from Table 3.19 that the 50 % uneven compensation of parallel
lines increased the RISSR for G1 (directly connected to the compensated lines) and
decreased RISSR for G8 while at the same time it decreased the RITT of both G1 and
G8. Table 3.20 shows that uneven 30 % compensation resulted in similar varied
influence on RISSR and RITT for different generators. 30 % uneven compensation
increased RISSR above no load damping and nearly doubled the RITT, for G1. It
reduced RISSR and RITT for G8.
It can be seen from Table 3.19, the 50 % uneven compensation of parallel lines
increased the RISSR for G1 (directly connected to the compensated lines) and
decreased RISSR for G8 while at the same time.
So, though uneven compensation lowered RISSR and RITT for G8, and RITT for
G1, it increased RISSR for G1 above the no load damping. Therefore, uneven
compensation could be a useful measure to reduce overall transient torque risk
provided that G1 is operating at higher outputs.
3.11.3 Asymmetrical Compensation
Asymmetrical compensation schemes, in order to reduce the risk of SSR has been
also discussed in the past, for the first time in [15]. This phase wise compensation
method exploits the fact that the flow of symmetrical currents of subsynchronous
frequency in generator armature generates a magnetic field in the air gap that rotates
at a subsynchronous frequency. Its interaction with synchronously rotating mag-
netic field due to field winding develops an electromagnetic torque on the generator
shaft at the slip frequency. Therefore, potential risk of SSR can be eliminated by
preventing the subsynchronous currents from producing an interacting magnetic
field. The interactions, between the magnetic field produced by subsynchronous
currents and the synchronously rotating magnetic field, are strongest when sub-
synchronous currents are balanced in time and space domains.
Balanced three phase subsynchronous currents produce a circular magnetic field
of constant radius, rotating at constant subsynchronous speed. Unbalanced three
phase currents create elliptic field of time varying amplitude and speed. Elliptic
field produced by unbalanced currents is equivalent to the circular magnetic field of
lower strength. Hence, phase imbalance reduces the capability of subsynchronous
currents to develop an interacting electromagnetic torque.
In this scheme, each phase is compensated with different combination of
inductive and capacitive element. Frequency characteristics of each arrangement are
such that at the synchronous frequency, the level of compensation, in each phase is
the same, however, at all other frequencies, reactance of each phase is different due
to different inductor and capacitor values. This asymmetrical compensation pro-
duces out of step currents in the windings of generator armature. The magneto-
motive force produced by these asymmetrical currents has a smaller radius
compared with the corresponding mmf due to symmetrical currents. The smaller the
radius of the mmf, less is its capability to develop an interacting electromagnetic
torque to exchange energy between the electrical and mechanical systems. The
asymmetrical compensation scheme can be implemented as series resonance
scheme, and parallel resonance scheme [15].
3.11.3.1 Series Resonance Scheme
In this method, in addition to the compensating capacitors in each phase, two

phases are customized by connecting series resonant circuits (comprising additional
inductor and capacitor) as shown in Fig. 3.24.
L and C of each resonant circuit are given by
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 1
x¼ ¼ ð3:24Þ
La Ca Lc Cc
La C Ca Phase A
C Phase B
C Cc Phase A
Lc
Fig. 3.24 Series resonance asymmetrical scheme
where ω is the synchronous frequency. The ratios CCa and CCc are the degree of
asymmetry between the three phases. The magnitudes of these ratios determine the
“decoupling” degree of the mechanical system from the electrical system at asyn-
chronous oscillations.
3.11.3.2 Parallel Resonance Scheme
In this method, a series/parallel combination of R, L and C is added in parallel to a

part of the compensating capacitors in two of the phases as shown in Fig. 3.25.
3.11.3.3 Applicability of Developed SSR Index in Systems

with Asymmetrical Lines
L44 and L45 are compensated asymmetrically (phase wise) by 70 % such that
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
C C 1 1
¼ 0:25; ¼ 0:5; x0 ¼ ¼
Ca Cc La Ca Lc Cc
Frequency scan is performed from G1 in meshed and radial configurations with

70 % asymmetrical compensation. Resistance and reactance seen from G1 neutral
as a function of frequency for asymmetrical compensation for L44 and L45 are
presented in Fig. 3.26.
For meshed network configuration, RISSR is reduced from 0.1335 to 0.046 and in
radial connection from 4.7 to 0.3. This reduction of risk of SSR is also verified
through EMT simulations.
Fig. 3.25 Parallel resonance La Ra

compensation scheme Ca
C s1 C s2 Phase A
C Phase B
C s1 C s2 Phase C
Cc
Lc Rc
0.3
Reactance/Resistance
0.25
0.2 R X
'ohms'
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
10 20 30 40 50
Time 'sec'
Fig. 3.26 Resistance and reactance seen by G1 for 70 % asymmetrical compensation
1.7
70% sym 70% asym
LPB-G Torques 'P.u'
1.3
0.9
0.5
0.1
-0.3
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
Fig. 3.27 LPB-G shaft torsional torques of G1 in meshed network configuration, asymmetrical
compensation (grey shade) symmetrical compensation (red shade)
It can be observed from Fig. 3.27 that mechanical torques with asymmetrical
compensation are reducing in case of meshed network configuration as indicated by
RISSR. In case of radial generator connection, Fig. 3.28 torques are growing with
symmetrical and asymmetrical compensation. However, the mechanical torques
with symmetrical compensation are growing at much slower rate than the
mechanical torques with symmetrical compensation as indicated by the decrease in
risk index from 4.3 to 0.3.
16
70%Sym
LPB-G Torques 'p.u'
11 70% Asym
6
1
-4
-9
-14
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
Fig. 3.28 LPB-G shaft torsional torques of G1 in radial configuration, asymmetrical compen-
sation (grey shade) symmetrical compensation (red shade)
These results demonstrate that developed indices are capable to indicate the SSR
risk with symmetrical and asymmetrical compensation.
3.12 Effect of VSC-HVDC Line on Generator Ranking
A VSC-HVDC is controlled by an AC reference voltage in accordance with active

and reactive power flow demand. The AC reference voltage results from a control
process that includes active power (or DC voltage) control and reactive power (or
AC voltage) control. Using Pulse Width modulation, the converter produces an AC
side voltage that contains a fundamental component equal to the AC reference
voltage [16, 17]. The active and reactive power flow between the AC network and
the converter is governed by
Vac Vcon sinðdÞ

P¼ ð3:25Þ
X
Vac ðVcon cosðdÞ Vac Þ
Q¼ ð3:26Þ
X
Vac is the AC system voltage, Vcon is the AC side converter voltage, δ is the phase
angle and X is the reactance between Vcon and Vac.
It can be seen from (3.25) that the active power is mainly affected by the phase
shift angle whilst (3.26) shows that the reactive power is dependent on the
amplitude difference of the two voltages. An increase in AC network frequency
advances the actual phase angle of AC bus voltage, leading to an increase in the
phase shift angle in case of rectifier, and a decrease in the phase shift angle of the
converter if it is operating as an inverter. As a result, more active power is exported
from the AC system in case of rectifier and less active power is imported to AC side
in case of inverter. In both scenarios, the tendency of an increase in AC network
frequency is subsided. Similarly, as the AC network frequency decreases, the phase
shift angle decreases in a rectifier operation and δ increases in case of an inverter.
This applies an immediate brake on the reduction of AC network frequency by
exporting less power from AC side in case of rectifier and by importing more active
power in case of inverter. Therefore, the VSC HVDC system has an inherent
positive damping effect on subsynchronous frequency oscillations whether it
operates as a rectifier or an inverter.
Since the dominant influence on damping of torsional torques by HVDC system
is due to setting of its controls, frequency scan method used in this research cannot
take into account these control interactions, therefore, eigenvalue analysis of the
network with VSC-HVDC line is used instead.
Two VSC-HVDC lines are connected in the test network, one between buses 50
and 18 (in parallel with existing AC line L71) and one between buses 53 and 54 in
parallel with existing AC line, L44 (L45 is disconnected) as shown in Fig. 3.29.
3.12 Effect of VSC-HVDC Line on Generator Ranking 103

G13
G7 G5 G3 G2 G12 G16
3 2 16
G6 G4 13 50 VSC HVDC
59 39
7 5 12 43 18
65 62 63 44 L71
6 4 60 17 45
36
23 20 58 35 51
64 L41
22 19 34 L66
21 24 66 57 49
L42 61 33 G15
67 56
G9 32 46 15 L67
68 52 30
55 42
L2 37 L43 31
9 11
28 27 VSC HVDC
26 L7 L46 G11
L3 L44 10
29 25 54
L4 G10 G14
47 L69
40 14
8 1 53 48
41
G8 G1
Fig. 3.29 Modified test network with two VSC HVDC links
Both VSC-HVDC lines are 50 kV monopole lines with DC voltage and reactive
power control at the rectifier end and AC voltage and active power control at the
inverter end.
Damping (real part of eigenvalues) of torsional modes for three compensation
levels (30, 50 and 70 %) are presented in Table 3.21. It can be seen that the
presence of a VSC-HVDC line in the network improves slightly the damping of the
lower frequency torsional modes, as it has been also reported in the past studies
[18, 19].
Results of EMT simulations with and without VSC-HVDC lines in the network
are presented in Fig. 3.30. In this figure, the solid line represents mechanical tor-
ques in LPB-G shaft section of G1 for 70 % compensated line L44, L45 discon-
nected, and the dotted line represents mechanical torques for 70 % compensated
line L44 operating in parallel with VSC-HVDC line. The identified slight
improvement in damping of torsional torques with VSC-HVDC line in service is
evident from this figure.
Figure 3.31 shows simulations results with and without VSC-HVDC line
operating parallel to L71. In this figure, red line represents mechanical torques in
LPB-G shaft section of G16-1 for 70 % compensated line L71, and grey shade line
represents mechanical torques for 70 % compensated line L71 operating in parallel
with VSC-HVDC line. It can be observed, in case of G16-1, there is negligible
improvement in the decay rate of mechanical torques with VSC-HVDC line.
Similar results are obtained with 30 and 50 % compensation of AC line. So, it
can be concluded that in general, VSC-HVDC adds a very small to negligible
positive damping to the torsional modes and therefore, it is unable to change the
overall rank of the generator with respect to its potential exposure to SSR. It has to
be stressed though that the interaction of VSC controls (different control strategies
and controller settings that may be applied to VSC) with torsional modes was not
studied here (fixed control setting is used) and that potential interactions should not
be excluded.
Table 3.21 Damping of G1 torsional modes with AC and AC + VSC HVDC line
Modes 70 % 50 % 30 %
(Hz) AC AC + HVDC AC AC + HVDC AC AC + HVDC
43 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
29 0.0061 0.0.0076 0.028 0.032 0.039 0.042
22.8 0.0099 0.011 0.024 0.038 0.081 0.094
18.3 0.3834 0.395 0.439 0.521 0.401 0.43
14.3 0.0053 0.0064 0.0076 0.0095 0.0096 0.01
Fig. 3.30 G1 (LPB-G shaft) torques with 70 % compensation with all lines in service and
VSC-HVDC operating in parallel to compensated line
2.2
LPB-G Torques 'p.u'
AC AC+VSC
1.7
1.2
0.7
0.2
-0.3
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
Fig. 3.31 G16-1 (LPB-G shaft) torques with 70 % compensation with all lines in service and
VSC-HVDC operating in parallel to compensated line
3.13 Summary
The chapter introduced a methodology for assessing the exposure of generators to

SSR in meshed power networks with compensated AC transmission lines and
VSC-HVDC lines. In order to facilitate this assessment and to rank generators with
respect to the risk of self excitation due to SSR and development of high transient
3.13 Summary 105
torsional torques in generators’ shaft, two risk indices are proposed, namely the
Risk of High Transient Torsional Torques Index-RITT, and the Risk of
Self-excitation of SSR Index-RISSR. Both indices are derived using frequency
scanning method, therefore, they are inherently conservative, i.e., the operating
conditions or network configuration identified as stable/favourable by the frequency
scan will be even more so in real life. The proposed methodology (and developed
indices) facilitates identification of generators that are most affected by the com-
pensated line and ranks generators accordingly. It also indicates the safe operating
ranges and safe line compensation levels for different generators in the network.
The effect of VSC-HVDC lines operating in parallel with compensated lines on
ranking of generators was also studied. It has been found, as in the past studies, that
the presence of VSC-HVDC line in the network improves the damping of torsional
modes. The improvement of damping, however, is very small so it does not change
the ranking of the generators.
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analysis of torsional dynamics. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 20, 268–275 (2005)
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Chapter 4
Methodology for the Evaluation of Risk
of Subsynchronous Resonance
Abstract Future transmission networks, as well as the existing ones, are expected
to be meshed and, therefore, exposed to relatively low risk of subsynchronous
resonance. However, power systems are increasingly being operated closer to the
boundaries of stability limits in order to augment economics of their use since the
power industry entered deregulation era. These stressed operating conditions have
contributed to deterioration in system reliability. Many power outages have
occurred across the world in past several years [1]. Aftermaths of power failures
extend from electricity interruptions in local areas to a possible widespread
blackout. Penalties due to supply interruptions are not restricted to loss of revenue
by the utility but also include indirect costs levied on society. In addition, there are
always random failures of system equipment that are generally outside the control
of power system personnel. Loads that always had a degree of uncertainty asso-
ciated with them will further diversify in the future due to new type of devices
connected to the network and particularly due to proliferation of electric vehicles
whose contribution will be characterized by both spatial and temporal uncertainty.
Finally, integration of new types of generators in the network (mainly stochastic
and intermittent) will add another layer of uncertainty to system operation. Energy
exports and imports in the deregulation environment depend on the volatile power
market. This uncertain, to a large extent probabilistic, behaviour of power system is
the root origin of risk. Risk management and quantification of risk have become
increasingly important when discussing and assessing operation of power system.
The purpose of risk evaluation is to create indices or degree representing system
risk. A comprehensive risk evaluation should not contain only the probability of
failure events but also the severity and degree of their consequences. Utilities have
dealt with the power system risks for a long time. The methods applied in all
practical applications were deterministic, such as the percentage reserve in gener-
ation capacity planning and the single contingency rule in transmission planning.
The deterministic criteria have served the power industry adequately for years. The
basic drawback of deterministic approach is that it does not respond to the prob-
abilistic nature of the power system behaviour, load variation and component
failures. Most of the past SSR studies adopted deterministic approach to analyze
SSR problem. This chapter introduces an approach to evaluate SSR risk associated

108 4 Methodology for the Evaluation of Risk …
with different compensation levels in various contingencies taking into account the
combination of probability of occurrence of each contingency, probabilities of
different operating conditions and severity of SSR problem. SSR risk evaluation can
assist in the selection of best mitigation scheme for a given transmission system by
providing information about the severity and probability of SSR occurrence.
4.1 Methodology for Risk Evaluation of SSR
SSR risk evaluation consists of following four tasks in accordance with general
power system risk studies:
i. Line Outage Model
ii. Selection of System Contingencies and Calculation of their Probabilities
iii. Evaluation of the Severity of the Problem for each Contingency
iv. Calculating the Risk Indices.
4.1.1 Line Outage Model
A power system comprises many components, including generators, transmission

lines, cables, transformers, breakers, switches and a number of reactive power
source components. Component outages are the main cause of system failure. The
first task in the risk evaluation of the system is to determine component outage
models.
In risk assessment studies, the outage that happens randomly and is totally out of
one’s control is most commonly defined as
k f MTTR
U¼ ¼ ð4:1Þ
kþl 8760
where λ is the failure rate (failures/year), μ is the repair rate (repairs/year), f is the
average failure frequency (failures/year) and MTTR is the mean time to repair (h).
Many other factors such as weather effect, common cause outage and aging failure
can be included in outage rate model [2–5].
The studies described in this chapter are performed with simple outage model
defined by (4.1) for lines outages. The outage rate λ and repair rate μ of power
system component are usually calculated from historical data. For test network
used, this data is not available, therefore, it is taken from [5].
4.1 Methodology for Risk Evaluation of SSR 109
4.1.2 Selecting System Contingencies and Calculating

Their Probabilities
The second task is to select system failure states and calculate their probabilities. In
case of risk evaluation of SSR, system failure states are the system contingencies.
State Enumeration and Monte Carlo simulations are two principal methods for
selecting system contingencies in risk evaluation studies.
State Enumeration is an analytical technique that generates all possible contin-
gencies of the power system. In a large network, number of selected contingencies
can be reduced by identifying the level of contingency and defining a threshold for
the probability or severity of the event. Monte Carlo technique is based on the
random selection of the system contingency and its operating condition.
State Enumeration is an appropriate method for SSR studies. Highest level of
contingency (N − 1, N − 2, etc.) to be examined can be identified by the fact that
radially connected generators are at the highest risk of SSR [6, 7]. Therefore, it is
sufficient to examine contingency level that leads to radial connection of the gen-
erator under study.
4.1.2.1 Evaluating the Severity of SSR for Selected

System Contingencies
The third task is to perform the analysis for the selected contingencies and assess
their consequences. In order to evaluate the impact of selected contingencies on the
severity of subsynchronous problem, it is important to look at the mechanism of
subsynchronous resonance.
Subsynchronous resonance can be classified into two areas: dynamic instability
and transient torque amplification.
Dynamic instability is caused by the interaction of natural electrical power
system resonant frequencies (fne) with excitation field of turbine generator rotor.
These interactions produce pulsating air gap torques at a slip frequency (f − fne),
difference between the system synchronous frequency and natural electrical fre-
quency. Resulting oscillating voltages in the generator armature winding either
reinforce or sustain these generator shaft oscillations. Dynamic instability can be
described as insertion of negative resistance in the generator armature winding,
viewed from its terminals, which leads to amplification of generator shaft
oscillations.
Electrical disturbances such as capacitor switching, line switching, power system
faults and fault clearing may produce high amplitude mechanical torques often
referred to as transient torque amplification.
Dynamic instability and transient torques can result in cumulative fatigue

damage of the material of the shaft when these torsional vibrations exceed the
material fatigue limits. This may lead to reduced life of different components of the
mechanical system such as shaft, buckets (blades), retaining rings, and rotors. In
worst case scenario, these adverse interactions can lead to growing oscillations and
shaft damage, including twisted couplings and broken shafts.
Both, transient torque amplification and dynamic instability are caused by the
same interactions [8, 9] that introduce negative damping in torsional modes of a
turbine generator mechanical system. The magnitude of negative damping increases
as the slip frequency (f − fne) moves closer to any torsional mode frequency of the
turbine generator mechanical system. Negative damping due to series compensation
can lead to dynamic instability when it is greater than mechanical damping of
torsional modes. Negative damping values lower than mechanical damping can
cause transient torques amplification if slip frequency is in close vicinity (±3 Hz) of
any torsional mode.
Therefore, severity of SSR problem can be analysed by calculating the negative
damping introduced in the torsional modes due to series compensation.
The damping of torsional modes can be more accurately determined from the
real part of eigenvalue corresponding to a torsional mode. However, eigenvalue
analysis is generally more computationally intensive and it requires more data and
more detailed models than frequency scanning method. Frequency scan method on
the other hand is simple, easy to implement and can be used for fast assessment of
the performance of large systems. In addition, and more importantly, it clearly
separates electrical and mechanical system so that electrical phenomena in the
network can be studied independent of operating condition of the mechanical
system.
With frequency scan method negative damping introduced due to series com-
pensation, i.e., electrical damping is determined independently of the mechanical
damping existing in turbine generator shaft. The net damping of a torsional mode
(that can be accurately determined by eigenvalue analysis), however, is a sum of
mechanical damping (if included in modelling of the shaft of turbine generator) and
electrical damping. If mechanical damping is not modelled, however, then eigen-
value analysis will show only electrical damping. Mechanical damping component
is generally small but always positive and increases with generator loading. On the
other hand, series compensation of transmission line introduces negative electrical
damping that varies with compensation level and network configuration. The
overall severity of SSR ultimately depends on network configuration, compensation
level and the generator loading. The exact contribution of series compensation to
the severity of SSR can be identified directly by frequency scan method.
Frequency scanning technique is used in this study to assess the severity of SSR
problem. This method is based on the calculation of network impedance seen from
the study generator as a function of frequency [10, 11].
Negative damping introduced in each torsional mode of a turbine generator can
be calculated in rad/s by using (3.13).
4.1 Methodology for Risk Evaluation of SSR 111
4.1.3 Calculation of Risk Index
As discussed earlier, risk is a combination of probability and consequences. Using

the information gathered in Sects. 4.1.2 and 4.1.2.1, an index given by (4.2) that
truly represent SSR risk can be created.
X
n
SSRRI ¼ PðconÞi CONSSRi ð4:2Þ
i¼1
where n is the number of states or contingencies with the consequences above the
threshold. P(con)i is the probability of ith contingency and CONSSRi is the severity
of SSR in ith contingency.
4.1.3.1 Assessing the Degree of Risk (Qualitative Approach)
Risk evaluation can be also performed using qualitative risk analysis to evaluate an
identified risk in accordance with its possible impacts on the system performance.
In this approach, risk probability along its consequences is described in a qualitative
manner, e.g., using the expressions “very high”, “high”, “moderate”, “low” and
“very low”.
Risk matrix can be employed to differentiate the unacceptable risk levels from
those which are acceptable. In risk evaluation, the magnitude of risk is often
established with two dimensional matrix, having consequences on one dimension
and probability of the event on the other. Severity of risk is then evaluated in a scale
of 1–50 [12]. The scores for consequences or severity of the problem can be
interpreted as shown in Table 4.1.
In addition to the consequence assessments, a number ranging from “1” to “5” is
assigned to the likelihood of the event. The higher the number is the more likely for
the event to occur. The assigned numbers indicating the likelihood of the event are
given in Table 4.2.
Considering the severity of the problem and likelihood of the event, risk matrix
can be created as shown in Table 4.3. Green cells in the risk matrix represent the
network configurations at negligible risks either due to severity of the problem or
Table 4.1 Consequences scores explanation

Scores Scores explanation
1–10 Negligible consequences
10–20 Minor consequences
20–30 Moderate consequences
30–40 Major consequences
40–50 Catastrophic consequences
Table 4.2 Scores for probability of event

Scores Scores explanation
1 Rare likelihood
2 Unlikely to happen
3 Possible to happen
4 Likely to happen
5 Almost certain
Table 4.3 Risk matrix
Negligible Minor Moderate Major Catastrophic

Almost
Certain
Likely to
happen
Possible to
happen
Unlikely to
happen
Rare likelihood
probability of occurrence. Yellow colour indicates moderate level of risk, orange

colour cells are the system states at high risk and red colour represents very high
risk of SSR.
4.1.4 Modified Test System
The test system used in this study is the same, used in previous chapter, reproduced
here in Fig. 4.1 for the completeness of discussion. Future reinforcement of the
network is represented by compensating most heavily loaded lines, L44 and L45
between the buses 54 and 53, directly connected to clusters of generators.
(Note: Lines L66, L71 and L69 transport higher power than L44 and L45, and
are directly connected to generators G14 and G16 but these generators are dynamic
equivalent of the area with very large values of inertia.)
The methodology for risk evaluation of SSR described above is demonstrated for
generator G1. Turbine generator mechanical data for G1 is taken from 1st bench-
mark model for SSR studies and scaled appropriately to match the generator size
and total inertia of the unit.
4.2 Risk Evaluation of SSR 113

G13
G7 G5 G3 G2 G12 G16
3 2 16
G6 G4 13
39 50
5 59 43
7 12 18
65 62 63 44 L71
6 4 60 17 45
36
23 20 58 35 51
64 L41
22 19 34 L66
21 24 66 57 49
L42 61 33 G15
67 56
G9 32 46 15 L67
68 52 30
55 42
L2 37 L43 31
9 11
28 27
L45 G11
26 L7 L46
10
L3
29 25 54
L4 L44 G10 G14
47 L69
40 14
8 1 53 48
41
G8 G1
Fig. 4.1 16 machine, 68 bus network with series compensated lines L44 and L45
4.2 Risk Evaluation of SSR
4.2.1 Example of Risk Evaluation for G1
It is well known that turbine generators connected radially to compensated lines are
most exposed to risk of SSR. From Fig. 4.1, it can be seen that simultaneous
outages of L46 and L4 lead to radial configuration of G1; therefore, N − 2 is the
highest level of contingency considered.
As explained in Sect. 4.1.2, in state enumeration method, it is common practice
to choose a threshold for probability or consequences in order to limit the number
of states. In this research, the threshold value of consequences (severity of SSR
problem) is chosen to be equal to no load damping (0.045 rad/s) [7, 8]. Therefore,
all those contingencies that generate consequences (negative damping) greater than
0.045 rad/s are considered. Frequency scan is performed for 70, 50 and 30 %
compensation levels in normal network configuration. Output of frequency scan
program is resistance and reactance of the network seen from generator terminal as
a function of frequency. Using (3.14) and (3.13) conductance and negative damping
introduced in each torsional mode are calculated. Frequencies of the torsional
modes are the most uncertain parameters, however, for a machine with known
modal frequencies obtained through station tests, ±1 Hz variation is adequate to
account for the variation in the data [11]. Therefore, the highest value of conduc-
tance ‘Gn’ in the range of ±1 Hz of synchronous frequency complement of tor-
sional mode frequencies is used in the calculation of negative damping given by
(3.13). The calculated negative damping values (in 50 Hz system) of each mode for
three studied compensation levels are presented in Table 4.4.
Mechanical damping of torsional modes is always positive but quite small. No
load damping values are generally in the range of 0.02–0.05 rad/s and full load
damping values are typically in the range of 0.2–0.25 rad/s [8, 13]. Though
mechanical damping values differ slightly from one mode to the other, in these
Table 4.4 Calculated values of negative damping in torsional modes of G1 for 70, 50 and 30 %
compensation level
fn f fn (Hz) Hn 70 % 50 % 30 %
(Hz) (p.u.) compensation compensation compensation
Gn Drn Gn Drn Gn Drn
(p.u.) (rad/s) (p.u.) (rad/s) (p.u.) (rad/s)
29.29 20.71 4.62 1.16 0.02 1.2 0.0229 1.58 0.03
22.77 27.23 8.13 0.8397 0.015 1.05 0.019 0.64 0.0117
18.3 31.7 37.75 0.8 0.0045 4.61 0.023 0.42 0.0024
14.17 35.83 3.29 1.39 0.1335 0.36 0.034 0.379 0.036
studies, it is assumed that all torsional modes have same mechanical damping (no
load damping = 0.045 rad/s and full load damping = 0.2 rad/s). Negative damping
introduced in torsional modes can be used to assess the stability of turbine generator
mechanical system for different operating conditions, e.g., with 70 % compensa-
tion, the calculated value of negative damping in 14.17 Hz torsional mode is
0.1335 rad/s, much higher than no load damping indicating that this mode can be
unstable for lower outputs of turbine generator. For any torsional mode, negative
damping value greater than mechanical damping indicates that any oscillations in
the shaft can be sustained or amplified. Therefore, the highest value of negative
damping introduced in any torsional mode of turbine generator system, represented
by RISSR in the previous chapter, is used to determine the severity of SSR problem
in that particular network configuration.
Threshold for the severity of the problem or consequences is 0.045 rad/s,
selected on the basis that negative damping values less than no load damping do not
affect the system since net damping (mechanical damping + negative damping due
to the electrical system) is positive. All network contingencies that result in neg-
ative damping equal or greater than 0.045 rad/s are considered in this analysis.
Table 4.5 illustrates the severity of SSR problem, i.e., the difference between
threshold value and calculated negative damping (e.g., for 70 % compensation level
with all lines in service, calculated value of negative damping is ‘0.1335’ and
severity of SSR problem is ‘0.0885’).
From Table 4.5, it can be observed that in a normal network configuration with
all lines in service, 70 % compensation results in negative damping much higher
than threshold. Therefore, all N − 1 and N − 2 contingencies in NETS are taken
into account in quantifying risk associated with 70 % compensation. Frequency
scan results show that outages of the lines that are not directly connected to gen-
erator do not change the conductance values significantly. Therefore, results for
these outages are not presented in Table 4.5.
Negative damping due to 50 % compensation is less than no load damping,
provided all the lines are in service. With 50 % compensation, N − 1 and N − 2
contingencies in NETS that lead to the negative damping higher than the threshold
value are given below
Table 4.5 Severity of SSR problem for three studied compensation levels
Compensation All lines in L4 out L46 out L4 and L46 out
level
70 % 0.1335 − 0.045 = 0.0885 0.2 − 0.045 = 0.155 0.3 − 0.045 = 0.255 4.7 − 0.045 = 4.655
50 % 0.034 < 0.045 = 0 0.07 − 0.045 = 0.025 0.06 − 0.045 = 0.015 0.09 − 0.045 = 0.045
30 % 0.036 < 0.045 = 0 0.038 < 0.045 = 0 0.07 − 0.045 = 0.025 0.185 − 0.045 = 0.14
• Outage of L46
• Outage of L4
• Simultaneous outage of L4 and any other line in NETS
• Simultaneous outage of L46 and any other line in NETS
• Simultaneous outage of L4 and L46
Similarly, 30 % compensation of L44 and L45 with all lines in service results in
negative damping less than no load damping, zero consequences. The contingencies
with consequence higher than zero are presented below.
• Outage of L46
• Outage of L46 and any other line in NETS
• Simultaneous outage of L4 and L46
The severity of SSR problem calculated in Table 4.5 is verified through EMT
simulations.
Figure 4.2 compares the torsional torques in LPB-G, LPA-LPB, IP-LPA and
HP-IP shaft sections of generator G1 in normal network configuration (all lines in
service) with 70 and 30 % compensation levels. Grey shade shows the torsional
torques with 70 % compensation and grey shade represents the torques with 30 %
compensation level. It can be observed that with 70 % compensation level the
system is unstable, torques are growing slowly as predicted by the severity of SSR
problem in Table 4.5. The system is stable with 30 % compensation level; torques
in the same shaft sections are decaying, confirming the SSR severity presented in
Table 4.5.
Figure 4.3 compares the torsional torques in LPB-G shaft section of generator
G1 for 70 % compensation level, in radial and normal network configuration. Red
shade shows the torques due to simultaneous outage of L4 and L46, and grey shade
represents the torques in the same shaft section with the same compensation level in
normal network configuration.
It can be observed that the system is unstable in both cases, but the growth rate
of torsional torques in a radial configuration is much higher than the normal net-
work configuration. Results presented in Table 4.5 shows that the severity of SSR
problem is increased from 0.0885 to 4.65 when G1 becomes radial. Thus, severity
of SSR problem presented in Table 4.5 is in full agreement with EMT simulations
results.
The line outage data for the test network is not available, therefore, it is taken
from [5] and unavailability of the lines is calculated as shown in Table 4.6. It is
1.8
70% comp 30% comp
LPB-G Torques 'p.u'
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.3
0
-0.3
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
LPA-LPB Torques 'p.u'
0.9
70% comp 30% comp
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
70% comp 30% comp

IP-LPA Torques 'p.u'
0.5
0.3
0.1
-0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
0.4
HP-IP Torques 'p.u'
70% comp 30% comp
0.2
-0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
Fig. 4.2 Shaft torsional torques of G1 for 70 % compensation (red shade) and 30 %
compensation (grey shade) in meshed generator connection
common practice to consider independent failures in risk assessment studies

[14, 15], therefore, simultaneous outage of L4 and L46 are considered independent.
Probability of simultaneous outages of L4 and L46 is the product of L4 and L46
outage probabilities.
Radial All lines
LPB-G Torques 'p.u'

11
6
1
-4
-9
-14
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
Radial All lines

1.1
0.6
0.1
-0.4
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
1.5
Radial All lines
0.5
- 0.5
-1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
1
Radial All lines
HP-IP Torques 'p.u'
0.5
-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
Fig. 4.3 Torsional torques of G1 for 70 % compensation (grey shade) radial network
configuration and (red shade) meshed generator connection
Table 4.6 Outage and unavailability data

Voltage Length Failure Mean time f MTTR
Unavailability = 8760
(kV) (km) frequency to repair,
per year, f MTTR
L4 230 9 0.0377 20.8 0.00009
L46 230 16 0.06 20.8 0.000154
L4 + L46 230 0.0000000138
Now the risk index for three compensation levels can be calculated as a product
of probability of SSR occurrence and consequences.
SSRRIð70Þ ¼ Pðall linesÞ ðConÞSSRðall linesÞ þ ðRPðN 1Þ PðL4Þ PðL46ÞÞ ðConÞSSRðN1Þ

þ PðL4Þ ðConÞSSRðL4Þ þ PðL46Þ ðConÞSSRðL46Þ þ PðN 2ÞL4 þ L46 ðConÞSSRðL4 þ L46Þ
þ RPðN 2Þ PðN 2ÞL4 þ l46 ðConÞSSRðN2Þ
SSRRIð70Þ ¼ 0:0889
where P(all lines) is probability of all lines in service, and (Con)SSR(all lines) is the
severity (Consequences) of SSR with all lines in service given in Table 4.5.
P(N − 1) is the probability of N − 1 contingency, P(N − 2) is the probability of
N − 2 contingency, P(L4) is the probability of N − 1 contingency due to L4 out-
age, P(L46) is the probability of N − 1 contingency due to L46 outage, P(N − 2) is
the probability of N − 2 contingency, P(N − 2)L4+L46 is the probability of N − 2
contingency due to simultaneous outage of L4 and L46.
Similarly, SSR risk index, for 30 and 50 % compensation levels is calculated
considering contingencies with severity of SSR problem higher than the threshold
value.
SSRRIð50Þ ¼ 0:0000046
SSRRIð30Þ ¼ 0:00000394
From the magnitude of developed SSR risk index, it can be concluded that 70 %
compensation level exposes generators to very high risk of SSR compared to 50 and
30 % compensation levels. Since SSRRI for different compensation levels is cal-
culated in the same network for the same study generator, therefore, probability of
each contingency is the same for three compensation levels. Very high magnitude
of SSRRI for 70 % compensation shows that the severity of SSR problem is sig-
nificantly higher in most of contingencies with 70 % compensation compared to 50
and 30 % compensation levels.
Risk index, developed in these studies is a novel application of risk evaluation in
SSR studies. Even though no historical data are available for setting bounds for
different risk levels, with the help of a risk matrix, the degree of SSR risk associated
with each studied compensation level in various contingencies for different oper-
ating conditions of a turbine generator can be established, and boundaries for
different risk levels can be drawn.
4.2.2 Risk Matrix
Risk matrix for risk evaluation of SSR can be constructed by having the severity of
SSR on one axis and likelihood of the contingencies on the other axis. Severity of
SSR problem is assessed by the net damping (mechanical damping + electrical
damping) of torsional modes.
Note: Mechanical damping is the lowest in the range of 0.02–0.05 rad/s when a
turbine generator operates at no load because very small amount of steam flows in a
turbine at no load. As loading of the generator increases, steam flow around the
rotor increases and mechanical damping increases. Negative damping in torsional
modes is introduced due to series compensation.
Considering that net damping of torsional modes, depends on the turbine gen-
erator operating condition and negative damping caused by series compensation,
consequences or severity of SSR problem scores are assigned on two basis
i. Magnitude of negative damping introduced by the series compensation
ii. Turbine generator operating conditions determined through load duration curve
First of all maximum loading of the network is determined. All loads, either
active or reactive, are gradually increased and optimal load flow (OPF) is run for
each gradual increase in loads until OPF does not converge. For optimal load,
following constraints are considered.
PGi ¼ PG maxi i ¼ 1; . . .; 16
QG mini QGi QG maxi i ¼ 1; . . .; 16
0:9 p:u Vbusn 1:1 p:u n ¼ 1; . . .; 68
In used test network, optimal load flow does not converge with 17.4 % increase
in all loads, indicating 1.173 is the maximum loading factor of the network.
Figure 4.4 shows a typical (IEEE RTS) load duration curve taken from [148]. It
can be observed that the system operates at full load for a very short period of time.
To calculate the probability of different operating conditions of turbine gener-
ator, load duration curve is segmented into four time slots as shown in Fig. 4.4
where 100 % of the peak load corresponds to 1.173 loading factor. Only four time
segments are selected to simplify the explanation of the methodology, though time
segmentation can be done using any number of segments, e.g., every hour.
With the help of these time slots, multistep model of the annual load duration
curve is created as shown in Fig. 4.5. Each loading level is the mean of load points
in that particular time slot and probability of each load level is given by
100
80
% of the Peak Load

60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
DuraƟon of Demand as % of Year
Fig. 4.4 IEEE load duration curve
100
LDC MulƟload Levels
90
% of the Peak Load
80
70
60
50
40
30
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fig. 4.5 Multiload levels of load duration curve
NIi
Pi ¼ ð4:3Þ
8760
where NIi are number of load points in ith load level.

For each of these load levels OPF is performed, active and reactive support from
all generators is noted. Active power contribution and loading of G1 as a percentage
of its nominal (rated) load, PG_N, for each load level are given in Table 4.7.
Mechanical damping of torsional modes increases with generator loading and net
damping of a mechanical system is the sum of the mechanical damping (always
positive) and the electrical damping (negative in presence of series compensation).
High negative values of net damping (mechanical damping + electrical damping)
indicate fast growing rate of mechanical oscillations. However, if net damping is
positive, high values of negative damping due to compensation (electrical damping)
indicate potential exposure of the generator to transient torque amplification
problem. Therefore, consequences scores are assigned to different negative damp-
ing ranges as shown in Table 4.8 considering the magnitude of negative damping
(electrical damping) and probability of G1 operating condition.
Table 4.7 Active power contribution and loading of G1 for four studied load levels
% peak network load % probability of loading PG (MW) %PG_N
100 0.2 474 100
90 12 461 97
70 41 388 81
50 40 261 55
35 6.8 237 50
Table 4.8 Scores for SSR severity
Nega ve damping (N.D.) Scores

0.045 < N.D < 0. 107 0-10
0. 107< N.D < 0. 138 10-20
0. 138< N.D < 0.16 20-30
0.16 < N.D < 0.2 30-40
0.2 ≤ N.D 40-50
Only no load (PG_o) and full load (PG_N) mechanical damping values are
available in literature. In order to demonstrate the proposed methodology,
mechanical damping values for 40 % PG_N, 60 % PG_N and 80 % PG_N are
assumed as follows:
40 % PG_N − damping = 0. 107 rad/s
60 % PG_N − damping = 0.138 rad/s
80 % PG_N − damping = 0.16 rad/s
The negative damping intervals in Table 4.8 correspond to the loading intervals
in load duration curve shown in Fig. 4.5. The probability of G1 operating at
PG < 50 % PG_N is very low and values of negative damping are small, therefore,
consequences score assigned to the negative damping (ND) range given in row 2 is
0–10, negligible consequences.
It can be observed from Table 4.7 that there is 40 % probability of G1 operating
at 40 % PG_N < PG < 60 % PG_N (minimum loading of G1 is 50 % PG_N).
Therefore, negative damping values (electrical damping) greater than mechanical
damping values corresponding to 40 % PG_N and less than 60 % PG_N, are assigned
score range of 10–20 (Table 4.8) minor consequences. The score assigned to
negative damping range 0.138 < ND < 0.16 is 20–30, moderate consequences. The
probability of G1, operating with 60 % PG_N < PG < 80 % PG_N, is approximately
the same (41 %) as previous. However, the magnitude of negative damping, is
higher for this range, therefore, consequences score is also higher.
The probability of G1 operating with PG > 80 % PG_N is 12.2 % and negative
damping values are quite high, therefore, severity of consequences assigned to this
range is major consequences.
Table 4.7 shows clearly that the probability of generator operating at PG_N is
only 0.2 %. The negative damping value could be very high in this case and may
result into very fast growth of torsional torques, therefore, score assigned to the
negative damping range equal or greater than full load mechanical damping is
40–50 and corresponds to catastrophic consequences.
Table 4.6 gives the values of failure frequency per year for line L4 and L46.
These values are converted into ‘single outage/years’ to assess the likelihood of the
outages.
L4—1 outage/26.5 years
L46—1 outage/16.6 years
No details about the bus configuration were available for this network, therefore,
to keep the analysis simple only independent failures are considered. However, if
bus configurations are available, other modes of failures such as substation origi-
nated failures (including dependent failures) should also be considered.
Based on ‘single outage/years’, outages of L4 and L46 (N − 1 contingency) are
assigned likelihood of likely to happen and simultaneous outages of L4 and L46
(N − 2 contingency) are assigned likelihood of possible to happen as shown in
Table 4.9.
Final step is to develop risk matrix that shows acceptable and unacceptable risk
levels for 70, 50 and 30 % compensation level. It is illustrated in Table 4.10. It
shows different risk levels associated with three studied compensation levels in
various contingencies for different operating conditions of a turbine generator.
It can be observed that risk matrix is divided into four zones, indicated with four
different colours based on severity of problem and probability of an event.
Negative damping due to 30 and 50 % series compensation in normal network
configuration is below threshold value (no load damping); therefore, these states of
the system do not appear in risk matrix.
All N − 1 contingencies excluding the outage of L46, with 30 % compensation
result in SSR consequences below threshold, therefore, are not present in
Table 4.10. Line L46 outage leads to a negligible SSR problem as negative
damping caused by 30 % compensation is greater than no load damping and less
than 40 % load mechanical damping. Similarly, all N − 2 contingencies in NETS,
involving L46 outage expose G1 to negligible risk of SSR due to 30 % compen-
sation. However, simultaneous outages of L4 and L46 lead to high risk of SSR
because negative damping value is greater than 80 % and less than full load
Table 4.9 Scores for probability of SSR event

Scores Scores explanation Scores explanation
1 Rare likelihood –
2 Unlikely to happen –
3 Possible to happen N − 2 contingency
4 Likely to happen N − 1 contingency
5 Almost certain Normal network
Table 4.10 SSR risk matrix

Consequence scores 10 20 30 40 50
NegaƟve damping 0.04 < N.D 0.107 < N.D 0.138 < N.D 0.169 < N.D
ConƟngency < 0.107 < 0.138 < 0.169 < 0.2 0.2 ≤ N.D
All lines in service (0.1335)

70%
All N-1 conƟngencies (0.07) (0.1335)
excluding L46 & L4 50% 70%
L46 outage (0.07, 0.06) (0.2 )
50% & 30% 70%
L4 outage (0.07) ( 0.3)
50% Comp 70%
All N-2 conƟngencies 0.06, 0.07 (0.2)
involving L4 outage 50% & 30% 70%
All N-2 conƟngencies (0.3)
involving L46 outage 70%
Simultaneous outage (0.09) (0.185) (4.7)
of L4 and L46 50% 30% 70%
Remaining N-2 (0.1335)
conƟngencies 70%
mechanical damping. In other remaining N − 2 contingencies, severity of SSR

problem is below the threshold value.
It can be observed from Table 4.10 that with 30 % compensation all contin-
gencies are either below threshold or within an acceptable level of risk, represented
by green cells, excluding simultaneous outages of L4 and L46 (N − 2 contingency)
indicated with orange cell (high risk).
Risk matrix also indicates that with 50 % compensation all contingencies in
NETS are at negligible risk of SSR, highlighted with green cells or below the
threshold.
Further inspection of Table 4.10 shows that 70 % compensation exposes G1 to
high risk of SSR in the normal network configuration. These risk level increases
from high to very high in N − 1 contingencies generated by L4 or L46 outage.
These states of the system are indicated with red colour in the risk matrix. Severity
of SSR problem due to simultaneous outage of L4 and L46 is much more serious
compared with single outage of L4 or L46, but the probability of N − 2 contin-
gency is much lower than the probability of N − 1 contingency, therefore, overall
risk for the N − 2 contingency is lowered from very high to high considering
independent failure mode.
It can be also seen that 70 % compensation exposes G1 to a high risk of SSR in
each N − 2 contingency, generated by simultaneous outage of L4 or L46 with any
other line in NETS. This level is decreased from high to moderate in all N − 1
contingencies excluding L4 and L46 outages.
From the presented analysis, it can be concluded that the risk matrix successfully
indicates risk level for generator G1 in normal network configuration, N − 1 and
N − 2 contingencies for three studied compensation levels taking into account the
severity of SSR problem, probability of its occurrence and probability of different
operating conditions of a turbine generator.
This risk of SSR evaluation can be beneficial in planning studies and taking
mitigating or protection measures. For example, in the test network, 30 % com-
pensation introduces high SSR risk in only one contingency, radial connection of
G1. Therefore, by considering the probability of occurrence of this contingency
series capacitors installed in the line can be either disconnected or the level of
compensation temporarily reduced, or as the ultimate measure, the protection relays
to trip the generator during such event can be installed. On the other hand, 70 %
compensation exposes G1 to high risk of SSR in normal network configuration,
therefore, appropriate mitigating measures must be taken if this level of compen-
sation is to be implemented.
4.3 Summary
This chapter presented novel application of risk evaluation in SSR studies. Risk is
evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively by using proposed methodology for three
studied compensation levels. It is shown that the developed risk index SSRRI can
effectively quantify the risk of SSR that the study generator is exposed to, for
different compensation levels taking into account probability of each contingency
and severity of SSR problem.
This chapter also shows by using the risk matrix, developed in this chapter,
different SSR risk levels (low, moderate, high and very high) can be identified for
each contingency considering the probability and severity of the SSR problem.
It should be noted that results of frequency scan method employed to calculate
negative damping in torsional modes are inherently conservative, therefore, com-
pensation levels or contingencies identified as posing a low risk will result in low
risk of SSR in real life, as well.
The methodology developed in this chapter can be applied to evaluate the risk of
SSR that any generator in the network is exposed to. With the help of corre-
sponding risk matrices, critical contingencies and compensation levels in the net-
work can be identified, and corresponding mitigating actions can be taken to avoid
potentially catastrophic failures of shafts of turbogenerators.
References 125
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System Adequacy Evaluation of the IEEE Reliability Test System, in IEEE Transactions on
Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-104, pp. 2649–2656 (1985)
15. R. Billinton, R.N. Allan, Reliability Evaluation of Power Systems (Plenum, New York, 1984)
Chapter 5
Influence of Uncertainties
in Mechanical Parameters
Abstract This chapter presents comprehensive analysis of the effect of the

uncertainties in mechanical parameters of the turbine generator on SSR in meshed
AC/DC network. The chapter begins with case studies performed to compare the
influence of uncertainties in mechanical parameters on subsynchronous resonance
in a meshed power network with conventional line commutated converter
(LCC) and voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC transmission lines. The uncer-
tainties in various mechanical parameters are modelled using probability density
functions. Based on case studies covering different operating conditions, it is shown
that VSC-HVDC system leads to better damping of torsional modes and smaller
magnitudes of the torsional torques compared to LCC-HVDC system. After
establishing that the peak torques are higher and modal damping is lower with
LCC-HVDC, a series of case studies are performed for different fault types in a
meshed AC network with LCC-HVDC line. Following this, analysis of the effect of
uncertainties on SSR is extended to compensated AC network. Case studies are
performed with two types of series compensation schemes, symmetrical and
asymmetrical series compensation. The range of uncertainty is adopted as realis-
tically as possible, to assess the extent to which the uncertainties can affect the risk
of SSR in series compensated power networks.
5.1 Influence of Uncertainties in Meshed AC/DC

Networks
As discussed previously in Chap. 1 that various case studies and analysis have
demonstrated that HVDC control interactions with a turbine generator are signifi-
cantly less adverse compared to that caused by fixed series compensation. The
incident at square butte (HVDC system control interaction with the turbine gen-
erator) led to future HVDC system including mitigation for torsional interaction as a
major design criteria and control functions to ensure torsional stability as an integral
portion of the overall system [1]. Research and expertise in subsynchronous reso-
nance phenomenon has reached to the point where torsional interactions event

128 5 Influence of Uncertainties in Mechanical Parameters
between HVDC controls and a turbine generator system is highly unlikely.

However, electrical disturbances may produce high amplitude mechanical torques.
Each occurrence of these high amplitude transient torques results in some loss of
shaft fatigue life.
A few studies have been carried out to investigate the effects of VSC-HVDC
system on subsynchronous torsional interactions. It has been reported in studies that
VSC-HVDC system can contribute positive damping in the frequency range of
interest [2, 3]. However, there are very few studies which are carried out in meshed
networks. Furthermore, the effects of uncertainties in mechanical parameters of a
turbine generator system in a meshed AC network with HVDC lines have not been
investigated at all. Since it is anticipated that future transmission network will be
even more meshed and include more HVDC lines, it is important to explore dif-
ferent scenarios which can lead to SSR or inflict shaft fatigue.
5.1.1 Modification in the Test System
The test system used for the analysis in this section is Test Network 2, presented in
Fig. 5.1.
Generator G2 has a multistage steam turbine model attached to it; all other
generators are standard sixth order generator models with lumped inertia. All
generators are equipped with AVR and PSS. To highlight and compare the effects
of uncertainties in the mechanical parameters on transient torques in AC/DC system
in presence of LCC-HVDC and VSC-HVDC, modifications are made to the test
network. The modified test system in Fig. 5.2 contains a LCC-HVDC line operating
between the bus 7 and 9, and the test system in Fig. 5.3 has a VSC-HVDC line
operating between the same two buses.
Both HVDC systems are transporting 300 MW through the line from bus 7 to 9
and are operating at 170 kV. The active power demand of the load at bus 7 is
reduced by 300 MW, and active power demand of the load at bus 9 is increased by
300 MW.
400 MW
7 9
1 5 6 8 10 11 3
G1 G3
P = 700 MW P = 719 MW
Et = 1.03 ∟20.2° Et = 1.03 ∟-6.8°
2 PL = 967 MW PL = 1,767 MW 4
QL = 100 MVAR QL = 100 MVAR
QC = 200 MVAR QC = 350 MVAR
G2 G4
P = 700 MW P = 700 MW
Et = 1.01 ∟10.5° Et = 1.01 ∟-17.0°
Fig. 5.1 Two area test network

5.1 Influence of Uncertainties in Meshed AC/DC Networks 129
16 17
15 18
12 20
19
14
13 21
7 9
1 5 8 10 11
6 3
G3
G1 P = 719 MW
P = 700 MW Q = 176 MVAR
Q = 185 MVAR
Et = 1.03 ∟-6.8°
Et = 1.03 ∟20.2° PL =667 MW 4
2 PL = 2,067 MW
QL = 100 MVAR
QL = 100 MVAR
QC = 200 MVAR
QC = 350 MVAR G4
P = 700 MW
G2 Q = 202 MVAR
P = 700 MW Et = 1.01 ∟-17.0°
Q = 235 MVAR
Et = 1.01 ∟10.5°
Fig. 5.2 Two area network with a LCC-HVDC line
14 15
13 16
12 17
8 9
7
1 5 6 10 11 3
G3
G1 P = 719 MW
P = 700 MW
P L = 2 ,067 MW 4
P L = 667 MW
2 Q L = 100 MVAR Q L = 100 MVAR
Q C = 200 MVAR Q C = 350 MVAR
G4
G2 P = 700 MW
P = 700 MW
Fig. 5.3 Two area network with a VSC-HVDC line
The conventional line commutated LCC-HVDC system is a 12 pulse monopole

170 kV line with current and firing angle control at rectifier end and voltage and
constant extinction angle control at the inverter end.
The VSC-HVDC system is a three level bridge block using close to ideal
switching device mode of IGBT. VSC-HVDC system is a 170 kV monopole link
with DC voltage and reactive power control at rectifier, and AC voltage control and
reactive power control at the inverter end. Control settings for both HVDC system
controls are provided in Appendix B.
Uncertainties in mechanical parameters spring constant K, inertia constant H and

internal damping Di–i are modelled probabilistically by generating random values of
K and H (±20 % variation of standard values) using a normal distribution with 3σ
variance and random values of Di–i (±20 % variation of standard values) with σ
variance. Values of K and H are adapted from [4]. Values of Di–i taken from [5].
5.1.3 Analysis Methods
The analysis of steady state SSR (dynamic instability) can be carried out by lin-
earized models at the operating point using eigenvalue analysis or damping torque
analysis.
The analysis of torsional torques amplification due to electrical disturbances
requires transient simulations of the nonlinear model of the system. For the case
studies within this chapter both, eigenvalue and transient simulations methods are
used.
5.1.4 The Influence of Uncertainties
First, the effect of different HVDC technologies on the maximum peak torques in all
shaft sections without the inclusion of uncertainties in the mechanical parameters is
investigated. A three phase fault is introduced at bus 6 at 0.2 s and cleared after
75 ms. The highest magnitude of peak torques, in each shaft section without any
HVDC line, and with each type of HVDC system, are recorded and are presented in
Table 5.1. It can be observed that the highest value of torsional torques, with
standard values of mechanical parameters, are higher in the presence of
LCC-HVDC in AC network as compared to VSC-HVDC.
The change in mechanical torque is proportional to induced current in stator
following a disturbance. This induced current depends on electrical components in
the system, fault clearing time and breaker operation. Results presented in Table 5.1
Table 5.1 Maximum torsional torques with standard parameters in AC, AC + LCC-HVDC and
AC + VSC-HVDC systems
Maximum torques with standard LPB-GEN LPA-LPB IP-LPA HP-IP
parameters (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.)
AC 1.63 1.2 0.61 0.41
AC + LCC 1.78 1.34 0.65 0.42
AC + VSC 1.67 1.23 0.61 0.4
indicate that these induced currents are higher for LCC-HVDC system.
A contribution in these currents is made by the reactive power compensation which
is fulfilled by capacitors banks, filters or dynamic compensation equipment. In
studied system, the reactive power compensation is provided with capacitors.
To compare the effects of both HVDC (LCC and VSC) technologies in meshed
AC network on transient torques in the presence of the uncertainties in mechanical
parameters of a turbine generator system, randomly and independently generated
values of K, H and D (explained earlier in this section) are selected such that each
value is used once which results in 1000 sets of different values of K, H and D.
A three phase fault is introduced at 0.2 s and cleared after 75 ms. Maximum torques
occurring in each shaft sections are recorded for each set of parameters values with
both types of HVDC and are presented in Figs. 5.4, 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7.
Figures 5.4, 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7 show clearly that inclusion of probabilistic mod-
elling of uncertainties in mechanical parameters has spread the highest value of
maximum transient torque considerably with both HVDC systems in all shaft
sections.
100 100
80 Tmax = 0.46 80
Tmin = 0.36 Tmax = 0.51
Occurrence
Occurrence
60 T prob = 0.41 60 Tmin = 0.38

Tprob = 0.429
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.36 0.41 0.46 0.51 0.4 0.45 0.5
(a) Max HP-IP Torques (b) Max.HP-IP Torques
Fig. 5.4 Maximum torques in HP-IP section: a AC + VSC, b AC + LCC
100 100
80 Tmax = 0.71 80 Tmax = 0.785

Occurrence
Occurrence
Tmin = 0.525 Tmin = 0.62

60 Tprob = 0.59 60 Tprob = 0.559
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8
(a) Max IP-LPA Torques (b) Max.IP-LPA Torques
Fig. 5.5 Maximum torques in IP-LPA section: a AC + VSC, b AC + LCC

100 100
80 Tmax = 1.34 80 Tmax = 1.44

Occurrence
Occurrence
Tmin = 0.976 Tmin = 0.973
Tprob = 1.24 Tprob = 1.35
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
(a) Max LPA-LPB Torques (b) Max LPA-LPB Torques
Fig. 5.6 Maximum torques in LPA-LPB section: a AC + VSC, b AC + LCC
120 100
100 80
Occurrence
Occurrence
80 Tmax = 1.85
Tmin = 1.38 60 Tmax = 1.96
Tprob = 1.64 Tmin = 1.49
60 Tprob = 1.79
40
40
20
20
0 0
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
(a) Max LPB-GEN Torques (b) Max LPB-GEN Torques
Fig. 5.7 Maximum torques in LPB-GEN section: a AC + VSC, b AC + LCC
Tmax represents the highest value, Tmin represents the minimum value, and Tprob
represents the most probable value of the maximum torque from the set of recorded
data.
It can be observed from Fig. 5.4a, b that, with LCC-HVDC, the magnitudes of
Tmax, Tmin and Tprob are higher compared to VSC-HVDC, and the number of
occurrence for Tmax and Tmin are the same with both type of HVDC technologies.
Inspection of Fig. 5.4a reveals that the magnitude of the most probable maximum
torque with VSC is in the centre of the histogram whilst the magnitude of the most
probable with LCC (Fig. 5.4b) is leaning towards left, smaller values of the his-
togram. However, the magnitude of the most probable torque is still higher with
LCC, and the number of occurrence is nearly the same as with VSC.
Figure 5.5a, b shows the same trend for the magnitudes of Tmax, Tmin, and the
number of occurrence, i.e., higher values with LCC-HVDC and the same number of
occurrence of Tmax, Tmin with LCC and VSC. However, the magnitude of Tprob is
higher in IP-LPA shaft section with VSC-HVDC compared to the magnitude of
Tprob with LCC-HVDC.
Figure 5.6 shows the maximum torques generated with inclusion of uncertainties
in LPA-LPB shaft section with LCC and VSC-HVDC line. The magnitudes of
Tmax, Tmin, and Tprob are higher with LCC compared to VSC, and the number of
occurrence is nearly same for Tmax and Tmin. It can also be observed from Fig. 5.6
that the most probable value has moved towards the right of the histogram, higher
values of maximum torques, with both HVDC technologies. The histogram fit with
normal distribution is less accurate in this case.
It can be observed from Fig. 5.7 that the magnitude of Tmax, Tmin and Tprob have
higher values with LCC compared to VSC. With VSC, the most probable value of
the maximum torque is in the middle of the histogram, and it moves towards right
(higher values of maximum torques) with LCC.
For further analysis the results of electromagnetic transients simulations with
probabilistic modelling of uncertainties in mechanical parameters with both type of
HVDC technologies are presented in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 shows clearly the magnitude of the highest value of maximum tor-
sional torques has increased significantly in each shaft section with both types of
HVDC lines, Table 5.2 results also highlight that percentage increase in transient
torques with LCC/VSC varies shaft section to shaft section. From Table 5.2, it can
be observed that the percentage change in mechanical torques of LPB-GEN shaft
section is the same with VSC and LCC, it is higher in LPA-LPB shaft section, and
is lower in IP-LPA and HP-IP shaft sections with VSC-HVDC line. Since, the
highest value of maximum torques with VSC-HVDC has a smaller magnitude in
each shaft section compared to LCC, therefore, even the same percentage rise in
magnitude of torsional torques will result in smaller magnitudes of transients tor-
ques with VSC-HVDC.
Table 5.2 Torsional torques in AC + LCC and AC + VSC network with ±20 % uncertainties in
mechanical parameters
LPB-GEN (p.u.) LPA-LPB (p.u.) IP-LPA (p.u.) HP-IP (p.u.)
Tmax with 20 % variation
AC + LCC 1.96 1.44 0.77 0.51
AC + VSC 1.85 1.34 0.71 0.46
% change in Tmax
AC + LCC 10 7 18 21
AC + VSC 10 9 16 15
Tmin with 20 % variation
AC + LCC 1.49 0.973 0.62 0.38
AC + VSC 1.38 0.976 0.525 0.36
Tprob with 20 % variation
AC + LCC 1.79 1.35 0.559 0.429
AC + VSC 1.64 1.24 0.59 0.41
Where % change in Tmax = (the highest value of maximum torque with probabilistic modelling of
uncertainties − the highest value of peak torque with standard parameters) × (1/100)
5.1.4.1 Influence of Uncertainties for Different Operating Conditions

of a Turbine Generator
To investigate the effect of different operating conditions, above studies are repe-
ated for three different power outputs of the generator; Cosφ = 0.75, P = 585 MW,
Cosφ = 0.87, P = 700 MW and Cosφ = 0.97, P = 820 MW in both systems.
Results for Cosφ = 0.87, P = 700 MW have been presented in Figs. 5.4, 5.5, 5.6,
5.7 and Table 5.2.
Table 5.3 presents the maximum value of peak torque for three studied operating
conditions of the turbine generator with standard value of mechanical parameters.
It can be observed from Table 5.3 that the magnitude of mechanical torques
depends on the operating condition as well. Mechanical torques are higher in all
shaft sections for more loaded generator, this is due to initial steady state torques
which are higher for more loaded generator [6].
The electromagnetic transients simulations results with probabilistic modelling
of uncertainty in mechanical parameters for three operating conditions of turbine
generator are presented in Figs. 5.8, 5.9 and 5.10.
Table 5.3 Maximum torsional torques with standard parameters for three operating conditions of
a turbine generator
Maximum torques with Active LPB-GEN LPA-LPB IP-LPA HP-IP
standard parameters power (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.)
P = 585
AC + LCC 1.57 1.17 0.49 0.275
AC + VSC 1.46 1.05 0.455 0.255
P = 700
AC + LCC 1.78 1.34 0.65 0.42
AC + VSC 1.67 1.23 0.61 0.41
P = 820
AC + LCC 2.01 1.57 0.79 0.62
AC + VSC 1.95 1.45 0.82 0.55
LPB-GEN
LPA-LPB
IP-LPA
HP-IP
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 Tmax [p.u]

HP-IP IP-LPA LPA-LPB LPB-GEN
VSC 0.32 0.56 1.14 1.6
LCC 0.35 0.578 1.24 1.78
Fig. 5.8 The highest value of maximum torque with ±20 % variation in standard parameters for
P = 585 MW
LPB-GEN
LPA-LPB
IP-LPA
HP-IP
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 Tmax [p.u]

VSC 0.46 0.71 1.34 1.85
LCC 0.51 0.77 1.44 1.96
P = 700 MW
LPB-GEN
LPA-LPB
IP-LPA
HP-IP
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Tmax [p.u]

VSC 0.55 0.82 1.45 1.95
LCC 0.62 0.79 1.57 2.01
P = 820 MW
Figures 5.8, 5.9 and 5.10 show the highest value of the maximum torques in
each shaft section of a turbine generator with ±20 % variation in mechanical
parameters, for three studied loading levels of the generator.
It is evident from Figs. 5.8, 5.9 and 5.10 that, for each operating condition of the
turbine generator, the torsional torques are higher in each shaft section except
IP-LPA (P = 820 MW) with LCC-HVDC compared to VSC-HVDC.
Figures 5.11, 5.12 and 5.13 compare the percentage change in the magnitude of
the maximum torsional torques in the presence of uncertainties in the mechanical
parameters with both types of HVDC technologies for three operating conditions of
the turbine generator.
Figure 5.11 shows the percentage increase in the highest value of peak torques
in each shaft section of a turbine generator with LCC and VSC-HVDC systems,
when G2 is delivering active power of 585 MW. It can be observed that the
percentage change in the mechanical torques is higher with LCC in LPB-GEN and
HP-IP section and is lower in IP-LPA and LPA-LPB shaft sections.
LPB-GEN
LPA-LPB
IP-LPA
HP-IP
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 ΔTmax [%]
VSC 25 23 9 10
LCC 27 18 6 13
Fig. 5.11 % change in the highest value of maximum torque with ±20 % variation in standard
parameters for P = 585 MW
LPB-GEN
LPA-LPB
IP-LPA
HP-IP
0 5 10 15 20 25 ΔTmax [%]
VSC 15 16 9 10
LCC 21 18 7 10
Figure 5.12 shows the percentage increase in the highest value of peak torques
in each shaft section of a turbine generator with LCC and VSC-HVDC systems,
when G2 is operating at P = 700 MW. It can be noticed that the percentage change
in the mechanical torques is higher with LCC in HP-IP and IP-LPA section and is
lower in LPA-LPB shaft section.
The results presented in Fig. 5.13 are for P = 820 MW. Inspection of Fig. 5.13
reveals that the percentage change in the mechanical torques is higher with LCC in
HP-IP shaft section, and is lower in IP-LPA and LPB-GEN shaft sections.
Figures 5.11, 5.12 and 5.13 indicate that the effect of uncertainties in mechanical
parameters of a turbine generator shaft system on torsional torques becomes more
significant with both types of HVDC lines, when the generator operates at lower
LPB-GEN
LPA-LPB
IP-LPA
HP-IP
0 5 10 15 20 ΔTmax [%]
VSC 11 17 9 7
LCC 19 6 9 3
output. This trend becomes more significant in IP-LPA and HP-IP shaft sections
with both types of HVDC lines. However, the effect of uncertainty in the presence
of different HVDC technology on the percentage increase in the torsional torques
depends on the operating condition of a turbine generator and the shaft segment.
The above studies are also performed for ±10 % variation in mechanical
parameters to analyse the effect of level of the uncertainty on the highest value of
the maximum torques, and results are presented in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4 shows that with LCC the effect of 10 % variation in mechanical
parameters is more pronounced compared to the 20 % variation in parameters in all
shaft sections except IP-LPA whilst with VSC different shaft sections exhibit dif-
ferent effects. In HP-IP and LPA-LPB shaft sections trend is the same as with LCC
but in LPB-GEN and IP-LPA the highest value of peak torque increase linearly with
the increase in the level of uncertainty.
For further analysis the percentage changes in the highest values of peak
mechanical torques, for two studied levels of uncertainties in mechanical parame-
ters, are plotted in form of bar charts, presented in Figs. 5.14 and 5.15. Figure 5.14
Table 5.4 Highest value of maximum torques with 20, 10 % variation in parameters
LPB-GEN (p.u) LPA-LPB (p.u.) IP-LPA (p.u.) HP-IP (p.u.)
Tmax with 20 % uncertainty
AC + LCC 1.96 1.44 0.77 0.51
AC + VSC 1.85 1.34 0.71 0.46
Tmax with 10 % uncertainty
AC + LCC 1.89 1.4 0.7 0.48
AC + VSC 1.75 1.32 0.66 0.44
Tmax with standard parameters
AC + LCC 1.78 1.34 0.65 0.42
AC + VSC 1.67 1.23 0.61 0.4
LPB-GEN
LPA-LPB
IP-LPA
HP-IP
0 5 10 15 20 25 ΔTmax[%]
Lcc 10% 14 8 4 6
LCC 20% 21 18 7 10
Fig. 5.14 Comparison of ±10 and ±20 % variation in mechanical parameters with LCC-HVDC
line
LPB-GEN
LPA-LPB
IP-LPA
HP-IP
0 5 10 15 20 Δ Tmax[%]
VSC 10% 12 8 7 5
VSC 20% 15 16 9 10
Fig. 5.15 Comparison of ±10 and ±20 % variation in mechanical parameters with VSC-HVDC
line
compares the effect of two levels of uncertainties on the magnitude of peak torque
in the presence of LCC-HVDC line. It can be noticed that the change in the highest
value of maximum torques in each shaft section is more significant for ±10 %, i.e.,
the percentage change in the highest value of the maximum peak torques is not
doubled with the variation range is doubled except IP-LPA shaft section.
Figure 5.15 shows the percentage change in the mechanical torques, for two
studied levels of uncertainties in mechanical parameters, in the presence of
VSC-HVDC line. It can be observed that the trend in HP-IP and LPA-LPB shaft
sections is the same as with LCC-HVDC line, the percentage change in the highest
value of the maximum peak torques is not doubled as the variation range is dou-
bled. However, the magnitude of the highest value of peak torque is doubled in
IP-LPA and LPB-GEN sections as the level of uncertainty is doubled from 10 to
20 %.
(a) 2
LPb-G Torques 'pu'

1.5
1
0.5
0
20% 10% standard
-0.5
0.19 0.39 0.59 0.79 0.99
Time 'Sec'
(b)
LPA-LPb Torques 'pu'
1.1
0.6
0.1
20% 10% standard
-0.4
0.19 0.39 0.59 0.79 0.99
Time 'Sec'
(c)
20% 10% standard
IP-LPA Torques 'pu'
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.19 0.39 0.59 0.79 0.99
Time 'sec'
(d)0.6
0.5
Hp-IP Torques 'pu'
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
20% 10% standard
0
0.19 0.39 0.59 0.79 0.99
Time 'sec'
Fig. 5.16 a LPB-GEN, b LPA-LPB, c IP-LPA and d HP-IP torsional torques with standard and
20, 10 % variation in mechanical parameters with LCC-HVDC
Figure 5.16 presents the plots of mechanical torques in LPB-GEN, LPA-LPB,

IP-LPA and HP-IP shaft sections with standard, 10 and 20 % variation in mechanical
parameters when LCC line operates parallel to AC lines for P = 700 MW.
It can be observed that the highest values of peak torques with 10 and 20 %
uncertainty in mechanical parameters are very close for each shaft section except
IP-LPA.
Figure 5.17 shows the torsional torques in in LPB-GEN, LPA-LPB, IP-LPA and
HP-IP shaft sections with standard, 10 and 20 % variation in mechanical parameters
in the presence of VSC-HVDC line.
(a)
1.8
LPB-Gen Torques
1.5
1.2
'p.u'
0.9
0.6
0.3
20% 10% standard
0
0.19 0.39 0.59 0.79 0.99
Time 'sec'
(b)
1.3
0.8
0.3
20% 10% standard

-0.2
0.19 0.39 0.59 0.79 0.99
Time 'sec'
(c)
0.7
0.5
0.3
20% 10% standard

0.1
0.19 0.39 0.59 0.79 0.99
Time 'sec'
(d)
0.45
HP-IP Torques 'p.u'
0.35
0.25
0.15
20% 10% standard
0.05
0.19 0.39 0.59 0.79 0.99
Time 'sec'
Fig. 5.17 a LPB-GEN, b LPA-LPB, c IP-LPA and d HP-IP torsional torques with standard and
20, 10 % variation in mechanical parameters with VSC-HVDC
It can be noticed that for LPB-GEN and IP-LPA shaft sections the increment in the
highest value of peak torque is linear with increase in the level of uncertainty. However,
it is more significant for 10 % variation in HP-IP and LPA-LPB shaft sections.
5.1.5 Results of Modal Analysis
The stability of the system is determined by eigenvalues of the system matrix. If the
real part of the eigenvalues of the system, and in case of SSR, the real part of
eigenvalues of torsional modes is negative, the system is stable. Uncertainties in the
mechanical parameters lead to uncertainties in the natural frequencies and damping

of torsional modes. Damping of the torsional modes controls the decay rate of the
mechanical oscillations in the turbine generator shaft system, higher is the damping,
faster is the decay rate. The overall damping of torsional modes is due to
i. Steam pressure on turbine
ii. Bearing friction and windage on shaft elements
iii. Hysteretic damping of shaft material
iv. Electrical damping due to generator exciter and transmission network
In this study, modal analysis of systems in Figs. 5.2 and 5.3 is carried out using
Q-R algorithm and damping contributions from i, iii and iv are considered. The
modal damping of torsional modes in the presence of LCC-HVDC is much smaller
compared to the VSC line connected between the same buses. The results of modal
analysis with both HVDC technologies are presented Table 5.5 with standard
values of K, H and D.
Results of modal damping for the parameters values which generated maximum
and minimum torques in LPB-GEN shaft sections also have been included
Table 5.5. In Table 5.5, max and min correspond to the modal damping values for
the parameters which generated maximum and minimum torques in LPB-GEN
shaft section.
min max
% change in Table 5:5 ¼ 100 ð5:1Þ
standard
Table 5.5 shows that modal damping of all modes except mode1 and mode 5 is
significantly improved with VSC while with LCC modal damping of all the modes
is significantly reduced.
The columns “% change” correspond to the change in the modal damping
calculated using (5.1). It can be noticed that different modes behave differently. The
damping of mode 1 is increased by 8 %, mode 2 is decreased by 31 %, mode 3 is
increased by 52 %, mode 4 is increased by 132 % and mode 5 is decreased by
57 % with VSC-HVDC line, for the parameters which generated minimum torques
in LPB-GEN shaft section.
Table 5.5 Modal damping of torsional modes in AC, AC + VSC-HVDC and AC + LCC-HVDC
system
Modes Modal Modal damping AC + VSC (s−1) Modal damping AC + LCC HVDC
damping (s−1)
with AC Standard Max Min % Standard Max Min %
(s−1) change change
1 0.133 0.1365 0.137 0.148 8 0.1325 0.13 0.13 0
2 1.79 18.82 22 16 −31 0.076 0.089 0.11 27
3 2.85 7.58 5 9 52 0.174 0.17 0.15 −12
4 0.66 2 1.37 4 132 0.0002 0.0001 0.0002 50
5 19 4 4 1.72 −57 0.067 0.066 0.063 −44
The modal damping values with the mechanical parameters that generated
minimum torques in LPB-GEN shaft section with LCC-HVDC line show less %
variation compared to VSC-HVDC. The damping of mode 1 is unchanged, the
damping of mode 2 is improved by 27 %, mode 3 is reduced by 12 %, mode 4 is
increased by 50 % and mode 5 is reduced by 44 %. Note: The peak mechanical
torques following brief electrical disturbances are practically independent of the
damping level, as they occur in the various shaft sections in a few milliseconds.
However, following a system disturbance, the amount of damping present in tor-
sional modes determines the decay rate of mechanical torques in each shaft section.
Results of Table 5.5 show that uncertainties do affect the modal damping of tor-
sional modes which is more pronounced with VSC-HVDC line as the average per-
centage change with VSC-HVDC is 56 % compared to 27 % with LCC-HVDC. It
could be of serious concern in case of operation with LCC where stability margin is very
low.
5.2 LCC-HVDC Versus VSC-HVDC
Sections 5.1.4 and 5.1.5 presented a quantitative comparison of the effects of two
types of HVDC technologies (VSC and LCC) in meshed AC network on the
highest value of peak torques and modal damping of torsional modes using tran-
sient torques analysis and eigenvalue (modal) analysis.
Results of modal analysis show that modal damping of the torsional modes in
the presence of LCC-HVDC in meshed AC network is very small compared to the
VSC-HVDC under same operating conditions. These results indicate inherent
negative damping characteristics of LCC-HVDC system and inherent positive
damping characteristics of VSC-HVDC system.
Results of transients torques analysis show that torsional torques are slightly
lower with VSC-HVDC compared to those with LCC-HVDC under the same
operating conditions.
However, the effect of uncertainty, in the presence of different HVDC tech-
nology, on the percentage increase in the torsional torques depends on the operating
condition and shaft segment of the turbine generator.
The percentage increase in the highest value of mechanical torque due to
uncertainties in mechanical parameters increases as a generator operates at lower
power output with both types of HVDC technologies.
Since torsional torques are higher (Table 5.4) and modal damping is lower with
LCC-HVDC (Table 5.5), the shaft fatigue inflicted in the presence of uncertainties
in the mechanical parameters in case of LCC would be higher as compared with
VSC, even for the same percentage increase in torsional torques.
5.3 Effect of Uncertainty in Mechanical Parameters on Peak Torques … 143
5.3 Effect of Uncertainty in Mechanical Parameters

on Peak Torques Due to Different Types of Faults
It is well known from past experience and studies that SSR problem with
LCC-HVDC is of higher concern than with VSC-HVDC. Studies presented in
Sect. 5.1 complemented the previous findings and demonstrated that peak torques
are higher and modal damping values are lower with LCC-HVDC.
This section extends the analysis of the effect of uncertainties in mechanical
parameters on the peak torques to different types of electrical faults with and
without LCC-HVDC line. The test network is the same presented in Fig. 5.2 and
the power transfer across the HVDC line in this study is 343 MW.
Case studies are performed with three phase (LLL) fault, LL to ground
(LLG) short circuit, two phase (LL) short circuit and single phase to ground
(SLG) fault with three different power outputs from 900 MVA generator, i.e.,
P = 585 MW, P = 700 MW and P = 840 MW. Uncertainties are modelled as
described in Sect. 5.1.2. In this study it is assumed that all faults are cleared
successfully.
5.3.1 Three Phase Short Circuit
5.3.1.1 P = 585 MW
A three phase (LLL) fault is introduced at bus 6 at 0.2 s and cleared successfully
after 75 ms. The highest values of the peak torque occurring in each shaft for each
of 1000 simulations are recorded. Simulations are performed with 10 and 20 %
variation in mechanical parameters. Figures 5.18, 5.19, 5.20 and 5.21 present the
histograms of recorded maximum torques for each shaft with 10 and 20 % variation
in parameters when the turbine generator operates at P = 585 MW.
80 80
Tmax = 1.635
No.of occurrence
Tmax = 1.66
No.of occurrence
Tmin = 1.405
60 Tmin = 1.3 60
Tprob = 1.54
Tprob = 1.54
40 40
20 20
0 0
1.3 1.35 1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55 1.6 1.65 1.3 1.35 1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55 1.6 1.65
(a) Max.Torques LPB-GEN (b) Max.Torques LPB-GEN
Fig. 5.18 Maximum torques in LPB-GEN section with LLL fault for P = 585 MW: a 20 %
uncertainty and b 10 % uncertainty
160 160
140 140
No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
Tmax = 1.22 Tmax = 1.19

120 120
Tmin = 0.82 Tmin = 0.9
100 Tprob = 1.13 100 Tprob = 1.13
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
(a)Max.Torques LPA-LPB (b) Max.Torques LPA-LPB
Fig. 5.19 Maximum torques in LPA-LPB section with LLL fault for P = 585 MW: a 20 %
80
Tmax = 0.6 80
No.of occurrence
Tmin = 0.385 Tmax = 0.535

No.of occurrence
60 Tprob = 0.471 Tmin = 0.425

60
Tprob = 0.487
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6
(a) Max.Torques IP-LPA (b) Max.Torques IP-LPA
Fig. 5.20 Maximum torques in IP-LPA section with LLL fault for P = 585 MW: a 20 %
80 80
Tmax = 0.33
No.of occurrence
60 Tmax = 0.31
No.of occurrence
Tmin = 0.22 60
Tmin = 0.245
Tprob = 0.275
Tprob = 0.285
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3 0.32 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3 0.32
(a)Max.Torques HP-IP (b)Max.Torques HP-IP
Fig. 5.21 Maximum torques in HP-IP section with LLL fault for P = 585 MW: a 20 %
Figure 5.18 indicates that the increase in the level of uncertainty from 10 to
20 % does not affect the magnitude of the most probable maximum torque in
LPB-GEN shaft section. It stays at ‘1.54’ in both cases. It can also be noticed that
the increase in the level of uncertainty changes the magnitude of the minimum peak
torque in the histograms significantly, from 1.405 to 1.3, whilst the increase in the
highest value of peak torques is comparatively small, i.e., 1.635–1.66.
Figure 5.19 exhibits the same trend, the magnitude of the most probable peak
torque remains the same in both cases, and the change in the minimum value of
peak torque is greater than the change in the highest value of peak torque. The
magnitude of minimum value of peak torques changes from 0.9 to 0.82 p.u., and
the highest value of maximum torques rises from 1.19 to 1.22 p.u.
Figure 5.20 shows the maximum torques histograms in IP-LPA shaft sections
for two studied levels of uncertainty. For IP-LPA shaft section, the increase in the
highest value of maximum torques is greater than the shift in the minimum value of
maximum torques. The minimum value of maximum torques changes from 0.425 to
0.385 p.u., and the highest value of maximum torques increases from 0.535 to
0.6 p.u. There is also a slight change, i.e., 0.487–0.471 p.u., in the most probable
value of the peak torque with the increase in the level of uncertainty.
For HP-IP shaft section, there is minor change in the magnitude of the most
probable maximum torque for two studied levels of uncertainty. The magnitude of
the highest value of peak torque increases from 0.31 to 0.33 p.u., and the magnitude
of minimum value of peak torques changes from 0.245 to 0.22 p.u.
5.3.1.2 P = 700 MW
The histograms of the recorded results for P = 700 MW with three phase fault are
presented in Figs. 5.22, 5.23, 5.24 and 5.25.
Inspection of Figs. 5.22 and 5.23 highlight the same trend, observed with
P = 585, in LPB-GEN and LPA-LPB shaft sections. The increase in the highest
value of maximum torque is small compared to the change in the minimum value of
100 100
80 80
No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
Tmax = 1.88 Tmax = 1.84

Tmin = 1.48 Tmin = 1.61
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
100 100
Tmax = 1.39 Tmax = 1.38
No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
80 80
Tmin = 0.98 Tmin = 1.09

60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
(a) Max.Torques LPA-LPB (b) Max.Torques LPA-LPB
80 80
No.of occurrence
Tmax = 0.7
No.of occurrence
Tmax = 0.77 Tmin = 0.57

60 Tmin = 0.535 60
Tprob = 0.654
Tprob = 0.613
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75
Fig. 5.24 Maximum torques in IP-LPA section with LLL fault for P = 700 MW: a 20 %
60 Tmax = 0.48 60 Tmax = 0.465

No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
Tmin = 0.37 Tmin = 0.39

Tprob = 0.421 T prob= 0.435
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.38 0.4 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.38 0.4 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48
(a) Max.Torques HP-IP (b) Max.Torques HP-IP
peak torques due to increase in the level of uncertainty in mechanical parameters.

However, in this case, the most probable value of maximum torques changes with
the level of uncertainty and has a higher magnitude for 10 % variation than 20 %.
Figures 5.24 and 5.25 show the histograms of maximum torques in IP-LPA and
HP-IP shaft sections. It can be noticed that the increase in the highest value of
maximum torques is greater than the change in the minimum value of the peak
torques indicating similar features observed previously with P = 585 MW.
5.3.1.3 P = 840
Figure 5.26 shows the histograms of the maximum torques in LPB-GEN shaft
section when the turbine generator operates at P = 840. It is evident that the highest
value of maximum torques does not change with the increase in the level of
uncertainty. However, the minimum value and the most probable value of peak
torques increase by lowering the level of uncertainty.
Figure 5.27 displays exactly the same features as observed in Fig. 5.26, the
magnitude of the highest value of maximum torques remains the same for both level
of uncertainties. The minimum value and the most probable value of maximum
torques increase with the decrease in the level of uncertainty.
From Fig. 5.28 it can be observed that the increase in the highest value of
maximum torque is smaller than the change in the minimum value of maximum
torques with the increase in the level of uncertainty.
Figure 5.29 exhibits the same observed trend in HP-IP shaft section, the varia-
tion in the highest value of maximum torque is greater than the change in the
minimum value of peak torques.
By looking at the histograms of mechanical torques in LPB-GEN and LPA-LPB
for three generator outputs, it can be deduced that rise in uncertainties level from 10
to 20 % in mechanical parameters doesn’t affect the percentage change in the
highest value of maximum torques significantly in these shaft sections, though
histograms for IP-LPA and HP-IP present different picture, the influence of rise in
210 210
180 Tmax = 2.05 180

No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
Tmin = 1.01 Tmax = 2.05

150 150 Tmin = 1.82
Tprob = 1.91
120 Tprob = 1.93
120
90 90
60 60
30 30
0 0
0.97 1.17 1.37 1.57 1.77 1.97 2.1 0.97 1.17 1.37 1.57 1.77 1.97 2.1
150 150
120 120
No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
Tmax = 1.55 Tmax = 1.55
Tmin = 0.7 Tmin = 1.25
90 Tprob = 1.46 90 Tprob = 1.47
60 60
30 30
0 0
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
(a) Max.Torques LPB-LPA (b) Max.Torques LPA-LPB
140 140
120 120
No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
Tmax = 0.895 Tmax = 0.836

100 100
Tmin = 0.5 Tmin = 0.696
80 Tprob = 0.769 80 Tprob = 0.788
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.46 0.56 0.66 0.76 0.86 0.9 0.46 0.56 0.66 0.76 0.860.9
Fig. 5.28 Maximum torques in IP-LPA section for P = 840 MW: a 20 % uncertainty and b 10 %
uncertainty
120 120
Tmax = 0.62
No.of occurrence
100 100
No.of occurrence
Tmin = 0.37 Tmax = 0.585

Tprob = 0.551 Tmin = 0.51
80 80
Tprob = 0.563
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6
uncertainties level is more noticeable in these turbine sections. A shift is also

observable in LPB-GEN and LPB-LPA histograms, distributions with lower
uncertainty level have moved towards right, higher torques.
Table 5.6 summarizes the results of three phase fault for three operating con-
ditions of the turbine generator. Rows 3, 4 and 5 show that amplitude of mechanical
torques with standard mechanical parameters values is amplified with generator
loading; this is due to initial steady state torques which are higher for more loaded
generator. The highest value of maximum torque (rows 6, 7 and 8) increases with
the generator output, but uncertainties in mechanical parameters stimulate higher
percentage increase (given by rows 9, 10 and 11) in mechanical torques when
generator is lightly loaded for all shaft sections except LPA-LPB. Rows 12, 13 and
14 illustrate that the magnitude of most probable peak torque is always higher with
lower level of uncertainty. It can also be noticed that the most probable values of
the maximum torques are less than the magnitude of peak torques with standard
parameters in all shaft sections except LPA-LPB.
5.3.2 Two Phase to Ground Short Circuit
The above studies are performed with LL to ground (LLG) fault for three studied
power outputs of the turbine generator. Since the percentage change in the
Table 5.6 Impact of 3 phase short circuit on mechanical torques with P = 585 MW,
P = 700 MW and P = 840 MW
MW HP-IP IP-LPA LPA-LPB LPB-GEN
20 % 10 % 20 % 10 % 20 % 10 % 20 % 10 %
Max. torques with 585 0.29 0.49 1.15 1.56
standard parameters 700 0.43 0.66 1.29 1.78
840 0.56 0.8 1.38 1.95
Highest value of max. 585 0.33 0.31 0.6 0.535 1.22 1.19 1.66 1.635
torques 700 0.48 0.465 0.77 0.7 1.39 1.38 1.88 1.84
840 0.62 0.585 0.895 0.836 1.55 1.55 2.05 2.05
% increase in 585 14 8 22 9 6 3 6.4 5
torsional torques 700 12 8 16 6 7.8 7 5.6 6
840 10 4 11 5 12 12 5 4
Most probable value 585 0.275 0.285 0.471 0.487 1.13 1.13 1.54 1.54
700 0.421 0.435 0.613 0.654 1.31 1.33 1.71 1.77
840 0.551 0.56 0.769 0.788 1.46 1.47 1.91 1.93
Minimum value of 585 0.22 0.245 0.385 0.425 0.82 0.9 1.3 1.4
peak torques 700 0.37 0.39 0.613 0.654 0.98 1.09 1.48 1.61
840 0.37 0.51 0.5 0.698 0.7 1.25 1.01 1.82
100 100
Tmax = 1.32
No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
80 Tmin = 1.05 80 Tmax = 1.315
Tprob = 1.21 Tmin = 1.14
Tprob = 1.24
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3
Fig. 5.30 Maximum torques in LPB-GEN section with LLG fault for P = 585 MW: a 20 %
maximum torsional torque is the highest for lightly load generator, therefore, his-
tograms for P = 585 MW are presented within this section.
Histograms of mechanical torques, Figs. 5.30, 5.31, 5.32 and 5.33, for LLG fault
show almost the same trend. The highest value of torsional torques does not
increase considerably with the increase in uncertainty level in LPB-GEN and
LPA-LPB shaft sections while amplitude of maximum torques increases signifi-
cantly with rise in uncertainties level in IP-LPA and HP-IP shaft sections. A shift in
the distribution with lower uncertainty level is also observable in LPB-GEN and
LPA-LPB shaft sections.
Table 5.7 presents the results of LLG short circuit for three outputs of the turbine
generator. It can be observed that the magnitude of maximum torques, with (rows 3,
4, 5) standard mechanical parameters and uncertainty in mechanical parameters
(rows 6, 7, 8) increases with the generator output in each shaft section. Rows 9, 10
and 11 of Table 5.7 highlight similar type of phenomenon as was observed with 3
phase fault, i.e., the influence of uncertainties becomes more prominent when the
100 100
Tmax = 0.873 Tmax = 0.858
No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
80 Tmin = 0.673 80 Tmin = 0.734

Tprob = 0.813 Tprob = 0.813
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85
Fig. 5.31 Maximum torques in LPA-LPB section with LLG fault for P = 585 MW: a 20 %
120
120
100
100
No.of occurrence
Tmax = 0.44
No.of occurrence
80 Tmin = 0.352 Tmax = 0.398
Tprob = 0.368 80 Tmin = 0.35
Tprob = 0.372
60
60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.34 0.36 0.38 0.4 0.42 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.4 0.42 0.44
Fig. 5.32 Maximum torques in IP-LPA section with LLG fault for P = 585 MW: a 20 %
120 120
100 Tmax = 0.242 100

No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
Tmin = 0.184 Tmax = 0.233

80 Tprob = 0.212 80 Tmin = 0.202
Tprob = 0.215
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.18 0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.18 0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25
Fig. 5.33 Maximum torques in HP-IP section with LLG fault for P = 585 MW: a 20 %
generator is at low power output, and the most probable values of the maximum
torques are less than the magnitude of peak torques with standard parameters in all
shaft sections except LPA-LPB shaft section.
5.3.2.1 Two Phase Short Circuit
Figure 5.34, 5.35, 5.36 and 5.37 present histograms for LL fault for the generator
output of P = 585 MW. Histograms of mechanical torques, for LL fault emphasize
the same features as discussed above.
Table 5.8 presents the results of LL short circuit for three operating conditions of
the turbine generator. Table 5.8 results are in full agreement with Tables 5.6 and
Table 5.7 Impact of LLG short circuit on mechanical torques with P = 585 MW, P = 700 MW
and P = 840 MW
20 % 10 % 20 % 10 % 20 % 10 % 20 % 10 %
Max. torques with 585 0.21 0.37 0.8 1.24
840 0.5 0.65 1.13 1.65
Highest value of 585 0.24 0.22 0.44 0.398 0.87 0.85 1.32 1.315
max. torques 700 0.385 0.376 0.595 0.55 1.05 1.49 1.47
840 0.54 0.52 0.76 0.73 1.278 1.23 1.725 1.7
% increase in 585 15 7 19 8 9 7 6 6
torsional torques 700 6 3 13 4 7 7 5 4
840 8 4 3 2 13 8 4.6 3.6
700 0.361 0.363 0.518 0.52 0.994 0.984 1.41 1.41
840 0.477 0.494 0.676 0.676 1.16 1.15 1.61 1.63
Minimum value of 585 0.184 0.202 0.335 0.35 0.673 0.734 1.05 1.14
peak torques 700 0.334 0.348 0.48 0.5 0.848 0.898 1.23 1.33
840 0.448 0.464 0.598 0.62 1.03 1.09 1.38 1.54
80 Tmax = 1.19 80
No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
Tmin = 0.98
Tprob = 1.12 Tmax = 1.17
60
60 Tmin = 1.04
Tprob = 1.11
40 40
20 20
0 0
1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2
Fig. 5.34 Maximum torques in LPB-GEN section with LL short circuit for P = 585 MW: a 20 %
5.7. Rows 3–8 show that the magnitude of maximum torques, with standard
mechanical parameters and in the presence of uncertainty, increases with the
loading of the generator. However, the percentage in the magnitude of maximum
torques (rows 9–11) is the highest for the lowest power output of the generator in all
shaft sections. Most probable value of peak torques in most of the cases is less than
the magnitude of peak torques with standard parameters.
80 80
Tmax = 0.775
No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
Tmax = 0.8
Tmin = 0.684
60 Tmin = 0.63 60
Tprob = 0.728
Tprob = 0.728
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8
Fig. 5.35 Maximum torques in LPA-LPB section with LL short circuit for P = 585 MW: a 20 %
140 140
120 120 Tmax = 0.366
No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
Tmax = 0.39 Tmin = 0.316

100 100
Tmin = 0.328 Tprob = 0.331
80 Tprob = 0.305 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.3 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.3 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.4
120 120
100 100
No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
Tmax = 0.22 Tmax = 0.21

80 80 Tmin = 0.1776
Tmin = 0.17
Tprob = 0.187 Tprob = 0.189
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.17 0.18 0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22
Table 5.8 Impact of LL short circuit on mechanical torques with P = 585 MW, P = 700 MW
and P = 840 MW
20 % 10 % 20 % 10 % 20 % 10 % 20 % 10 %
Max. torques with 585 0.18 0.33 0.7 1.13
840 0.46 0.6 1.03 1.48
Highest value of max. 585 0.22 0.21 0.39 0.366 0.8 0.775 1.19 1.17
torques 700 0.38 0.36 0.57 0.525 0.965 0.955 1.375 1.35
840 0.5 0.477 0.685 0.645 1.135 1.1 1.56 1.54
% increase in 585 22 17 18 11 14 11 5 4
torsional torques 700 10 4 16 7 8 7 5 3
840 8 4 14 8 10 7 5 4
700 0.339 0.34 0.48 0.48 0.9 0.9 1.28 1.3
840 0.455 0.459 0.598 0.62 1.04 1.04 1.448 1.47
Minimum value of 585 0.17 0.178 0.305 0.316 0.63 0.68 0.98 1.04
peak torques 700 0.312 0.325 0.451 0.466 0.79 0.86 1.15 1.24
840 0.429 0.443 0.567 0.578 0.94 0.99 1.29 1.39
5.3.2.2 Single Line to Ground Fault
Figures 5.38, 5.39, 5.40 and 5.41 show histograms of SLG fault for P = 585 MW.
It is evident that the features are the same as were seen with previous faults.
The highest values of maximum torques in IP-LPA and HP-IP shaft are affected
more than the highest values of maximum torques in LPB-GEN and LPA-LPB
shaft section with the increase in the level of uncertainty.
Results of the SLG fault for three studied power outputs of the generator are
summarized in Table 5.9.
100 100
No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
Tmax = 1.01
80 80
Tmin = 0.88 Tmax = 0.99
Tprob = 0.979 Tmin = 0.925
60 60 Tprob = 0.976
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1
Fig. 5.38 Maximum torques in LPB-GEN section with SLG short circuit for P = 585 MW:
a 20 % uncertainty and b 10 % uncertainty
75 75
60 Tmax = 0.735 60 Tmax = 0.72

No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
Tmin = 0.579
Tmin = 0.536
Tprob = 0.665
Tprob = 0.688
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7
Fig. 5.39 Maximum torques in LPA-LPB section with SLG short circuit for P = 585 MW:
a 20 % uncertainty and b 10 % uncertainty
120
120
100 100
No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
Tmax = 0.39
80 80
Tmin = 0.27 Tmax = 0.348
Tprob = 0.325 Tmin = 0.29
60 60 Tprob = 0.323
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.28 0.3 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.26 0.28 0.3 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.4
Fig. 5.40 Maximum torques in IP-LPA section with SLG short circuit for P = 585 MW: a 20 %
100 100
No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
80 80 Tmax = 0.192
Tmax = 0.21
Tmin = 0.168
Tmin = 0.156
60 60 Tprob = 0.18
Tprob = 0.18
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.2 0.21 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.2 0.21
Fig. 5.41 Maximum torques in HP-IP section with SLG short circuit for P = 585 MW: a 20 %
Table 5.9 Impact of SLG short circuit on mechanical torques with P = 585 MW, P = 700 MW
and P = 840 MW
20 % 10 % 20 % 10 % 20 % 10 % 20 % 10 %
Max. torques with 585 0.176 0.33 0.64 0.94
840 0.44 0.59 0.96 1.275
Highest value of 585 0.21 0.192 0.39 0.348 0.735 0.72 1.01 0.99
max. torques 700 0.35 0.338 0.53 0.495 0.898 0.88 1.175 1.16
840 0.462 0.445 0.64 0.614 1.03 0.99 1.305 1.3
% increase in 585 18 9 18 5 15 13 7 5
torsional torques 700 8 4 12 5 9.5 7 2.4 1
840 5 2 8 5 7 3 2 2
700 0.323 0.325 0.46 0.47 0.828 0.828 1.14 1.15
840 0.435 0.437 0.586 0.59 0.96 0.97 1.27 1.28
Minimum value of 585 0.156 0.168 0.27 0.29 0.536 0.579 0.88 0.925
peak torques 700 0.298 0.313 0.41 0.438 0.685 0.738 1.05 1.1
840 0.408 0.42 0.529 0.557 0.83 0.885 1.17 1.23
Rows 9, 10 and 11 in Table 5.9, like in previous cases, show that the percentage
increase in the magnitude of torsional torques due to SLG fault rises swiftly as the
generator is operating at low power output. In most of the cases, the most probable
values of the maximum torques are less than the magnitude of the maximum torques.
In most of the case studies presented above IP-LPA is the most adversely
affected shaft section, traces of the shaft torques for maximum and minimum values
of the max. torques for 20 % uncertainty level for P = 585 MW are presented in
Fig. 5.42. Thick dashed line represents the minimum value and thin dashed line
corresponds to the highest value of torsional torques as shown in histograms. Solid
line represents the torsional torque with standard mechanical parameter.
A comprehensive quantitative analysis of the influence of the uncertainties in
mechanical parameters of turbine generator shaft on torsional torques excited by
different faults in meshed network with monopolar DC link is presented in this section.
It is shown that sensitivity of torsional torques to uncertainties in mechanical
parameters of turbine-generator shaft depends on operating condition and type of
faults.
LLL fault typically leads to the highest values of torsional torques in all turbine
shaft sections followed by LLG, LL and SLG fault. These results are in agreement
with the studies carried out in 1980 [7].
Magnitude of mechanical torques increases with generator loading due to initial
steady state torques which are higher for more loaded generator. The influence of
uncertainty of shaft parameters on torsional torques, however, increases (larger
variation in mechanical torques due to uncertainties) when generator is lightly
(a)
standard min max
IP-LPA Torques'p.u'
0.5
0.3
0.1
-0.1
0.19 0.39 0.59 0.79 0.99
Time' sec'
(b)
0.45
0.35
0.25
0.15
0.05 standard max min

0.19 0.39 0.59 0.79 0.99
Time 'sec'
(c)
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
standard max min
0.05
0.19 0.39 0.59 0.79 0.99
(d) Time 'sec'
0.45
standard max min

0.35
0.25
0.15
0.05
0.19 0.39 0.59 0.79 0.99
Time 'sec'
Fig. 5.42 Torsional torques in IP-LPA shaft: a three phase fault, b two phase to ground short
circuit, c two phase short circuit and d single phase to ground fault
loaded (in most cases). The percentage change in the magnitude of torsional torques
is higher for SLG and LL fault compared to LLL and LLG fault.
5.3.3 Influence of Different Types of Lines
To emphasize that influence of uncertainties varies with type of transmission lines,

generator operating conditions and type of faults, studies are conducted for P = 585
without LCC-HVDC line for different types of faults. Table 5.10 compares the effect
Table 5.10 Impact of different faults on mechanical torques with P = 585 MW in AC network
with and without HVDC line
Type Type Type of line HP-IP IP-LPA LPA-LPB LPB-GEN
of fault
Max. torques LLL AC 0.26 0.45 1.05 1.44
with standard AC + HVDC 0.29 0.49 1.15 1.56
parameters
LLG AC 0.22 0.38 0.85 1.25
AC + HVDC 0.21 0.37 0.8 1.24
LL AC 0.195 0.336 0.788 1.086
AC + HVDC 0.18 0.33 0.7 1.13
SLG AC 0.165 0.294 0.629 0.94
AC + HVDC 0.176 0.33 0.64 0.94
Highest value LLL AC 0.33 0.57 1.16 1.61
of max. AC + HVDC 0.33 0.6 1.22 1.66
torques due to
LLG AC 0.27 0.48 0.985 1.38
modelled
uncertainty AC + HVDC 0.242 0.44 0.87 1.32
LL AC 0.229 0.385 0.825 1.18
AC + HVDC 0.22 0.385 0.8 1.19
SLG AC 0.183 0.33 0.675 0.99
AC + HVDC 0.21 0.39 0.735 1.01
% increase in LLL AC 26 27 10 12
torsional AC + HVDC 14 22 6 6
torques
LLG AC 22 26 16 10
AC + HVDC 15 19 9 6
LL AC 17 5 5 9
AC + HVDC 22 18 14 5
SLG AC 10 12 7 5
AC + HVDC 18 18 15 7
of uncertanities in mechanical parameters of turbine generator on torsional torques

excited by different faults in AC network with and without LCC-HVDC line.
It can been seen from Table 5.10, rows 18–21 that presence of LCC-HVDC link
reduces the effect of uncertainties on torsional torques excited by LLL fault and
LLG fault while presence of LCC-HVDC link amplifies the influence of uncer-
tainties on torsional torques generated by LL and SLG fault.
From the analysis of Table 5.10, it can be concluded the presence of
LCC-HVDC line in AC network may either, reduce or increase the effect of
uncertainties in mechanical parameters on torsional torques. The resulting torsional
torques depend on the type of fault, shaft segment and operating condition of the
network. It is not possible to draw general conclusion, i.e., that the presence of
LCC-HVDC line would either mitigate or magnify the effect of parameter
uncertainties.
5.4 Effect of Uncertainty in Mechanical Parameters … 159
5.4 Effect of Uncertainty in Mechanical Parameters

on Risk of Subsynchronous Resonance with Different
Types of Compensation Schemes
The section presents a robust analysis of the effect of uncertainty in mechanical

parameters of a turbine generator shaft system on dynamic instability and transient
torque amplification due to subsynchronous resonance phenomenon, with sym-
metric and asymmetric compensation. Uncertainties in mechanical parameters are
incorporated in the turbine generator model, and EMT simulations are performed,
on critically compensated system to analyze the effect of uncertainties on dynamic
instability. Following this, probability of the system becoming unstable is calcu-
lated with both types symmetrical and asymmetrical compensation schemes.
Influence of uncertainties on transients torque amplification is studied with the help
of shaft fatigue curve. Following this the effect of uncertainties on the degree of risk
assessed using risk evaluation method is also investigated.

of Turbine Generator
A normal distribution, of mechanical parameters stiffness K and inertia constant

H around the standard parameters adopted from first benchmark model, is chosen to
represent the uncertainties in these parameters. 1000 parameters values, of K for
each shaft section and inertia constant H of each mass, are generated through ±5 %
variation in standard parameters with ±3σ deviation.
It has been found from tests that torsional mode frequencies are usually within
±1 Hz of that predicted by the manufacturer. Inertia constant values can be
determined through tests with typically ±1 % accuracy for solid shafts, though for
welded shafts this accuracy drops. Similarly, shaft stiffness constant can be deter-
mined with ±5 % accuracy. This implies that there is generally only a small degree
of uncertainty associated with the turbine generator data provided by the manu-
facturers [8].
The maximum change in the torsional frequencies is about 1 Hz with ±5 %
variation in the mechanical parameters. This range of uncertainty (also suggested by
plant engineers) is adopted in this study for illustration of the methodology and to
assess, as realistically as possible, the extent to which the uncertainties can affect
the risk of SSR in series compensated power networks.
5.5 Effect of Uncertainty on Dynamic Instability
A system becomes dynamically unstable when negative damping introduced in one

or more torsional modes becomes greater than the mechanical damping of the
corresponding mode.
Influence of the uncertainty in mechanical parameters of a turbine generator on
dynamic instability is assessed by performing SSR analysis on critically compen-
sated system. The test network is 16 machine NETS-NYPS system presented in
Fig. 4.1.
5.5.1 Critically Compensated System
To find the critical compensation level, compensation level in both lines L44 and
L45, of test power network shown in Fig. 4.1 is increased in steps of 5 % until the
system becomes unstable. Then, the compensation level is reduced in steps of 1 %
until the system regains stability. This is denoted as critical compensation level of
the system. Further increase in the compensation leads to oscillating or continu-
ously growing mechanical torques.
5.5.2 SSR Analysis
Random combinations of K and H are selected from the sets of generated data in
such a way that each generated value of K and H is used once. This process results
in 1000 sets of different values of K and H.
A three phase fault is introduced at bus 54 at 0.2 s and cleared after 85 ms. EMT
simulations are run for 10 s. Maximum mechanical torques and time of their
occurrence in each shaft section for each set of mechanical data are recorded.
Occurrence of peak torques within 1 s indicates the system is stable as torques
are decaying while occurrence of peak torques between 9 and 10 s shows that
torques are continuously rising or oscillating, which is a characteristic of an
unstable system. From the recorded response data, the probability of the system
being unstable is calculated.
Past studies and experience with series compensation have demonstrated that
generators connected radially to compensated lines are generally at higher risk of
SSR than the generators in meshed network configuration [8, 9]. Therefore, the
analysis is also performed for critical contingencies.
5.6 Effect of Uncertainty on Transient Torque Amplification 161
5.6 Effect of Uncertainty on Transient Torque

Amplification
Electrical disturbances in series compensated system may produce high amplitude

mechanical torques. When the amplitude of these mechanical torques exceed a
certain minimum level, shaft life is expended during each cycle.
Fatigue is a cumulative process. An observable crack in the shaft will be initiated
only when all the fatigue life is consumed up. Hence, if a shaft system is inspected
after a severe torsional disturbance, and no cracks are identified, there is a low level
of assurance of low torsional duty as the entire shaft fatigue life may have been
expended. A few relatively minor torsional vibrations in the future may then initiate
the crack.
Certainly, fatigue damage of the turbine generator shafts is undesirable; how-
ever, it may not practical to completely avoid it. Therefore, it is important to
quantify it and assess its severity. Torsional cyclic fatigue is typically assessed with
the help of fatigue curve presented in Fig. 5.43. Machine manufacturers provide
this data, the expected number of torsional cycles that will initiate crack as a
function of torsional torque amplitude, for each shaft section.
The severity of transient torque problem can be assessed using fatigue curve.
This curve relates the loss of shaft life per cycle of torsional torque to the amplitude
of torsional oscillations. It can be observed that fatigue is divided into two regions
namely low cycle fatigue and high cycle fatigue. In low cycle fatigue region the
magnitude of torsional torques is high, therefore, required number of cycles to
initiate crack in the shaft is lower. In high cycle fatigue region number of torsional
oscillations cycles required to initiate the crack in the shaft is high since the
amplitude of torsional torques is lower.
Three phase faults typically produce higher shaft torques than two line to ground
faults or single line to ground fault, therefore, it is general practice to apply three
phase faults in the analysis when searching for maximum torques [5] and similarly
Fig. 5.43 Typical fatigue curve

fault location (faults in proximity to studied generator) is chosen to maximize the

shaft torques. It has been observed that torques due to the other fault types can be
scaled from the torque amplification studies of three phase faults using the fol-
lowing factors [8]:
LLG faults produce torques 60–80 % of the torques for 3-phase faults.
SLG faults produce 40–60 % of the torques for 3-phase faults.
To assess the effect of uncertainty on transient torque amplification, a three phase
fault is introduced at bus 54, and EMT simulations are performed for 1000 sets of
generated mechanical data. Magnitude of peak torques is recorded for each set in
each turbine shaft section.
Histograms of the peak torques are plotted for each shaft section. The most
probable and the highest peak torques values in each shaft section are determined.
Using fatigue curve cycles to failure, are calculated for the peak torque with standard
parameters, and for the highest peak torque generated with the inclusion of uncer-
tainties. Difference between the cycles to failure with and without uncertainties gives
an estimate of reduction in cycles to failure in the presence of uncertainties.
5.7 Dynamic Stability Analysis in the Presence

of Uncertainties in Shaft Mechanical Parameters
Lines L44 and L45 are compensated symmetrically by 20 %, and EMT simulations
are performed with standard parameters. Observed mechanical torques in each shaft
section are decaying, indicating that the system is stable. Compensation level in
each of the line L44 and L45 is increased by 5 % and simulations are performed to
verify system stability. This procedure is repeated until the system becomes
unstable, i.e., mechanical torques are either oscillating or continuously increasing.
At 60 % symmetrical compensation level, the system becomes unstable, and the
critical compensation level determined (following previously described procedure)
is 58 %. At this compensation level, the system is stable with standard parameters
in all network configurations. Figure 5.44a shows the mechanical torques, with
58 % compensation level (grey shade), and 59 % compensation level (red shade). It
can be observed that the system is stable (torques are decaying) with 58 % com-
pensation while it becomes unstable with 59 % compensation, i.e., the torques are
increasing.
With asymmetrical compensation critical compensation level is increased from
58 to 71 % provided all lines are in service. In this case, the system becomes
unstable for N − 1 and N − 2 contingencies generated by the outage of L4 and L46
at 66 % compensation level.
Note: The system becomes unstable for N − 1 and N − 2 contingency with
symmetrical compensation at 59 % compensation level same as in a normal net-
work configuration.
5.7 Dynamic Stability Analysis in the Presence of Uncertainties in … 163
(a) 2
59% Sym 58% Sym
1.5
LPB-G Torques
1
0.5
0
-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
(b) 71% asym 70% Asym
2
1.5
LPb-G Torques
1
0.5
0
-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
Fig. 5.44 Torsional torques in LPB-G shaft section with critically compensated system and
unstable system with all lines in service: a symmetrical compensation and b asymmetrical
compensation
After determining the critical compensation levels, EMT simulations are per-
formed by including the uncertainties in mechanical parameters. For each set of
mechanical data simulations are run for 10 s in critically compensated system. Peak
torques and time of their occurrence is noted. It can be seen from Fig. 5.45a that
uncertainties in mechanical parameters can make the system unstable in some cases
for both type of compensation schemes, symmetrical and asymmetrical. For both
compensation schemes, the probability of the system becoming unstable due to
uncertainties associated with mechanical parameters is 13 %.
It is important to highlight that if compensation level is lowered from critical
compensation level, the system does not become unstable when the uncertainties
are modelled in the mechanical system of a turbine generator.
As demonstrated in [6], variation in modal inertia H and spring constant K affect
the modal damping of the torsional modes. Increase in inertia leads to reduction in
damping and decrease in inertia increases the modal damping. Different combi-
nation of spring constants results in different values of modal damping. For a
critically compensated system, this small change in the modal damping is enough to
make the system unstable in certain cases.
Asymmetrical compensation of the lines L44 and L45 increases the critical
compensation from 58 to 71 %, however, the probability of dynamic instability is
the same as it is with symmetrical compensation (see Fig. 5.45).
Figure 5.45b shows the results of simulations with symmetrical and asymmet-
rical compensation levels in N − 1 contingency generated by the outage of L46. It
can be observed that probability of system becoming unstable due to uncertainty in
(a) 1000 (b) 1000

800
No. of occurrence
800
No.of occurrence
600 600
400 400
200 200
0 0
Sym Asym Sym Asym
unstable 116 115 unstable 117 7
stable 884 885 stable 883 994
Fig. 5.45 Ratio of stable and unstable cases due to symmetric and asymmetric compensation:
a all lines in service and b L46 out
mechanical parameters with asymmetrical compensation is much lower than with

symmetrical compensation.
The probability of system becoming unstable in the studied N − 1 contingency
is only 0.7 % with asymmetrical compensation, and it is 13 % with symmetrical
compensation. Similar results are obtained for L4 outage. This probability of
instability in N − 2 contingency is increased to 2 % with asymmetrical compen-
sation and to 15 % with symmetrical compensation. (Note that critical compensa-
tion levels with symmetrical and asymmetrical compensation are different, as
discussed above.)
Performed analysis shows that when system is operating at the critical com-
pensation level, there is a probability that uncertainties in mechanical parameters
can destabilize the system.
5.7.1 Dynamic Stability Analysis in the Presence

of Uncertainties in Shaft Mechanical Parameters
The influence of uncertainties on transient torque amplification is studied by

compensating the lines by 45 % well below the critical compensation levels. EMT
simulations are performed for each set of generated mechanical data, and peak
torques are recorded for each case in each shaft section.
Histograms of recorded peak torques in LPA-GEN, LPA-LPB, IP-LPA and
HP-IP shaft sections with symmetrical and asymmetrical compensation are pre-
sented in Figs. 5.46, 5.47, 5.48 and 5.49. It can be observed that modelling
uncertainties in mechanical parameters has “spread” the peak torsional torques
asymmetrically between the minimum and maximum value.
The peak torques with standard parameters are indicated by an arrow in each
histogram. By modelling the uncertainty in mechanical parameters, the most
probable peak torque in LPB-GEN shaft section is moved up with both type of
compensation, for symmetrical compensation from 1.46 to 1.47 p.u. (0.68 %
120 120
100 100
No of occurrence
No.of occurrence
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1.39 1.41 1.43 1.45 1.47 1.49 1.5 1.52 1.54 1.56 1.58 1.6 1.62
(a) LPB-GEN (b) LPB-GEN
Fig. 5.46 Peak torques in LPB-GEN shaft section with a symmetrical and b asymmetrical
compensation
140
140
120
No.of occurrence
No.of occurrence
120
100
100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.815 0.82 0.825 0.83 0.835 0.84 0.83 0.835 0.84 0.845 0.85 0.855 0.86
(a) LPA-LPB (b) LPA-LPB
Fig. 5.47 Peak torques in LPA-LPB shaft section with a symmetrical and b asymmetrical
compensation
120 120
100 100
No. of occurrence
No.of occurrence
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.34 0.345 0.35 0.355 0.36 0.345 0.35 0.355 0.36 0.365 0.37 0.375
(a) IP-LPA (b) IP-LPA
Fig. 5.48 Peak torques in IP-LPA shaft section with a symmetrical and b asymmetrical
compensation
140 140
120 120
No. of occurrence
No.of occurrence
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.188 0.19 0.192 0.194 0.196 0.198 0.2 0.19 0.192 0.194 0.196 0.198 0.2 0.202 0.204 0.206
(a) HP-IP (b) HP-IP
Fig. 5.49 Peak Torques in HP-IP shaft section with a symmetrical and b asymmetrical
compensation
increase), and for asymmetrical compensation from 1.57 to 1.58 p.u. (0.63 %
increase). The highest value of the peak torque in the histogram with symmetrical
compensation is 1.485 p.u. (1.7 % increase), and with asymmetrical compensation
is 1.6 p.u. (2 % increase).
Table 5.11 summarizes the peak torques with standard parameters, and the
maximum and the most probable value of peak torque with uncertainties modelled,
with symmetrical and asymmetrical compensation. It can be observed that proba-
bilistic modelling of uncertainties does not change the value of the most probable
peak torque significantly, in most of the cases. It is common practice in shaft fatigue
studies to consider worst case scenarios, therefore, the highest value of peak torques
with the inclusion of uncertainties are used in the analysis.
When the magnitude of shaft torques exceed a certain minimum level, shaft
fatigue life is reduced for each cycle. The change in the number of low cycle fatigue
due to uncertainties in mechanical parameters is estimated using the fatigue curve.
Table 5.11 Peak torques with uncertainties in mechanical parameters

LPB-GEN LPA-LPB IP-LPA HP-IP
(p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.)
Sym Peak torques with standard parameters 1.46 0.83 0.35 0.193
±5 % variation in Most 1.47 0.829 0.352 0.193
mechanical probable
parameters Maximum 1.485 0.84 0.361 0.199
peak torque
% change in 1.7 1.2 3 5.3
peak torque
Asym Peak torques with standard parameters 1.57 0.844 0.358 0.197
±5 % variation in Most 1.59 0.845 0.359 0.2
mechanical probable
parameters Maximum 1.61 0.854 0.371 0.204
peak torque
% change in 2 4 3 7
peak torque
2 high cycle fa gue

low cycle fa gue
1.8
1.6
ShaŌ torques (p.u)

1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Cycles to failure
Fig. 5.50 Fatigue life curve for LPB-GEN (purple dashed line) and LPA-LPB (purple solid line)
shaft section with symmetrical compensation
Figure 5.50 shows fatigue life curve (solid purple line) for LPA-LPB shaft
section adopted from [1] and scaled up fatigue life curve (dashed purple line) for
LPB-GEN shaft section when the lines are symmetrically compensated. It is
assumed that the region for high cycle and low cycle fatigue are identical for each
shaft section since no data is available in the literature.
It can be observed, by considering the highest value of peak torque due to
uncertainties, in LPB-GEN section, the number of cycles to failure is approximately
the same as with standard parameters. Similarly, for LPA-LPB, IP-LPA and HP-IP
shaft sections, the reduction in number of cycles is not significant as the change in
the amplitude of the torques is very small.
Figure 5.51 relates the change in the amplitude of the peak torque in the pres-
ence of uncertainties, to the change in the number of cycles to failure, for LPB-GEN
2
low cycle fa gue high cycle faƟgue
1.8
1.6
ShaŌ torques (p.u)
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7
Cycles to failure
Fig. 5.51 Fatigue curve for LPB-GEN (red dashed line) and LPA-LPB (red solid line) shaft
section with asymmetrical compensation
and LPB-LPA shaft sections when lines are asymmetrically compensated. It can be
observed that for LPB-GEN number of cycles to failure are reduced from 3000 to
2500 cycles. For LPA-LPB, in IP-LPA and HP-LPA, shaft sections, the change in
the magnitude of the peak torque is very small. Note that the number of cycles to
failure with symmetrical compensation (4000) is higher than with asymmetrical
compensation (3000).
In a series compensated system when the fault is cleared, a large part of energy
stored in L-C circuit is released in the form of subsynchronous frequency currents
and thereby, transient torques are amplified. Therefore, asymmetrical compensation
produces higher torques as compared to the symmetrical compensation. As the
degree of asymmetry or decoupling degree increases (that requires bigger capaci-
tor), the magnitude of peak torques increases [10].
5.7.2 Effect of Uncertainties on Level of Risk of SSR

for Different Compensation Schemes
Following the procedure, detailed in Sect. 4.2.2, severity of SSR is calculated in

critically compensated system for symmetric and asymmetrical compensation
schemes in normal, N − 1 and N − 2 contingency with standard parameters, and
with the set of parameters that destabilize the system. There is a negligible increase
in the magnitude of the severity of SSR problem with the parameters that desta-
bilize the system, and the risk assessed stays in the same level as was with standard
parameters. Since the highest value of negative damping in the range of ±1 Hz of
synchronous frequency complement of torsional mode frequencies is used as SSR
risk index, therefore, small changes in frequency do not affect the severity of SSR
problem.
Table 5.12 shows the risk assessed for the critical compensation levels with
symmetrical and asymmetrical compensation schemes. It can be observed that the
Table 5.12 SSR risk matrix for critical compensation levels

Negative 0.045 ≤ 0.107 ≤ 0.138 ≤ 0.169 ≤

RISSR
damping RISSR RISSR RISSR RISSR
ш 0.2
contingency < 0.107 < 0.138 < 0.169 < 0.2
sym 58%
All lines in Asym 71%
N-1 due to sym 58%
L4 or L46 Asym 67%
N-2 due to L4 or Sym 58%
L46 Asym 67%
system is at high risk (indicated with orange cells) in all network configurations
with symmetrical compensation. With asymmetrical compensation system is at high
risk in normal and N−2 contingency and moves to moderate risk (yellow cells) in
N − 1 contingency.
The change in the magnitude of SSR risk index (RISSR) is negligible with
inclusion of uncertainty; therefore, the risk level assessed with and without
uncertainties stays the same. This analysis shows that the degree of risk of SSR
determined using the methodology established in Sect. 4.2.2 is not affected by the
uncertainties in the mechanical system if those are considered to be bounded to
investigated range (±5 %).
A system assessed to be at low risk of SSR does not become unstable in the
presence of uncertainties. The effect of uncertainties, however, becomes more
prominent as the risk level moves from moderate to high risk, i.e., the probability of
dynamic instability increases with inclusion of parameter uncertainties. It was
observed that the probability of dynamic instability is only 0.7 % for the system at
the moderate risk level, but it increases to between 13 and 15 % for the system at
high risk level when uncertainties in mechanical parameters are considered.
5.8 Summary
This chapter presented a thorough analysis of the effect of uncertainties in

mechanical parameters on SSR in AC/DC meshed power networks.
Results of series of case studies show that the effect of uncertainty, in the
presence of different HVDC technology, on the percentage increase in the torsional
torques depends on the operating condition and shaft segment of the turbine gen-
erator. The percentage increase in the highest value of mechanical torque due to
uncertainties in mechanical parameters increases as a generator operates at lower
power output with both types of HVDC technologies. Since torsional torques are
higher and modal damping is lower with LCC-HVDC, the shaft fatigue inflicted in
the presence of uncertainties in the mechanical parameters in case of LCC would be
higher than with VSC, even for the same percentage increase in torsional torques.
The percentage change in the magnitude of torsional torques due to uncertainties
is higher for SLG and LL fault compared to LLL and LLG fault.
It can be concluded from the case studies presented within this chapter that
presence of LCC-HVDC line in AC network may either, reduce or increase the
effect of uncertainties in mechanical parameters on torsional torques. The resulting
torsional torques depend on the type of fault, shaft segment and operating condition
of the network.
The chapter also presented analysis of the effect of uncertainties in mechanical
parameters of turbine generator shaft system on both aspects of SSR, dynamic
instability and transients torque amplification. It has been found, in normal network
configuration, critically compensated system may become unstable with as low as
±5 % uncertainty in the mechanical parameters. Asymmetrical compensation
results in higher value of the critical compensation level in the normal network
configuration and each contingency. The probability of becoming unstable due to
mechanical parameter uncertainty, however, stays the same as with symmetrical
compensation scheme in the normal network configuration and reduces in N − 1
and N − 2 contingency.
In the stable system, the peak torques with asymmetrical compensation are
slightly higher than the peak torques with symmetrical compensation. The estimated
reduction in the shaft life with symmetrical compensation is negligible, and there is a
reduction of approximately 500 life cycles with asymmetrical compensation.
This section also demonstrates that risk based approach provides better (more
robust) picture of all credible scenarios and risk of SSR in compensated power
networks. The risk level indicated with standard parameters does not change under
the influence of small uncertainties in the mechanical parameters, i.e., the risk
boundaries established with standard parameters remain valid with the inclusion of
uncertainties.
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9. K.R. Padiyar, Analysis of Subsynchronous Resonance in Power Systems (Kluwer, Boston,
1999)
shafts. IEEE Trans. Power Appar. Syst. PAS-100, 4373–4380 (1981)
Chapter 6
Optimal Series Compensation of Lines
to Minimize the Exposure of Generators
to SSR
Abstract This chapter proposes a methodology for the selection of optimal con-
figuration of line compensation devices for reducing the risk of subsynchronous
resonance in the network. The methodology developed is based on the robust risk
evaluation of SSR that takes into consideration the severity of subsynchronous
resonance and probability of its occurrence. The subsynchronous resonance risk
index developed previously in Chap. 3 is used to assess the severity of subsyn-
chronous resonance. Devices considered for mitigation of SSR include thyristor
controlled series capacitors and fixed series capacitors.
6.1 Mitigating SSR with TCSC
Subsynchronous frequency characteristics of the power system with thyristor

controlled series capacitors (TCSC) differ significantly from fixed series capacitors
[1, 2]. The brief conduction periods of the thyristor valve prevent the capacitor from
participating in the resonant oscillation. The TCSC appears as a resistor at sub-
synchronous frequency and reduces the resonance effect [3, 4]. A compensated
system that consists entirely of TCSCs is SSR neutral, i.e., it doesn’t generally
experience resonances at subsynchronous frequencies. Flexibility of changing the
compensation level and ability to effectively damp subsynchronous resonance and
electromechanical oscillations make them an attractive and versatile series com-
pensation option. These additional benefits come with considerable higher costs.
Therefore, future transmission networks will have many instances where thyristor
series capacitor will be used in conjunction with fixed series capacitors due to
reliability and economic reasons [5].
Adding small TCSCs to fixed series compensation has proved to be effective in
damping electromechanical oscillations [6]. Effective SSR mitigation with TCSCs,
however, requires approximately 25–45 % of the total series compensation to be
done by TCSCs [7]. The exact proportion of TCSCs to be added depends on the
severity of SSR problem and conservatism of TCSC’s control.

172 6 Optimal Series Compensation of Lines to Minimize the Exposure …
In general the suitable combination of TCSCs and fixed series compensation is

determined through iterative electromagnetic simulations process [7].
Studies of risk assessment in power systems are gaining importance due to the
increased number of power outage incidents across the world in recent years. Day
to day operation of power systems is associated with many uncertainties; therefore,
even though the risk of system failure cannot be eliminated fully, it can be eval-
uated and reduced to an acceptable level in system planning, design, operation and
maintenance activities.
This chapter proposes a methodology for selection of the optimal proportion of
thyrsitor controlled series capacitors and fixed series capacitors to maintain SSR
risk within the acceptable level across all feasible contingencies and operating
conditions of the turbine generator.
TCSCs are a unique application of thyristors where the voltage across the valve
varies substantially over the operating range. Almost in all other applications of
thyristor valves, the voltage across the valve is nearly constant; the maximum
voltage variation is over a 2–1 range in normal operation [7]. In series compen-
sation application the voltage is proportional to line current which can vary over a
range beyond 20–1 [7]. Hence, for series compensation application, thyristor valves
are designed to withstand the high current extremes and ensure secure gating at a
voltage of only a few percentage of the maximum. Thyristors have an inherent limit
on the voltage for the secure gating operations, therefore, there could be situations
when thyristors valve must be blocked and normal thyristor control is lost. Hence,
bypassing the TCSC under certain conditions must be considered. In TCSC bypass
mode, the remaining fixed series compensation must be below the level at which
SSR concern exit.
Constant reactance control of the TCSC is the most basic control which in some
cases may not be adequate in suppressing SSR. Other reactance modulation con-
trols based on line power or line current, e.g., enhanced power control with a fast
inner current controller offers robust SSR mitigation solutions [8, 9]. A constant
angle control can be also used to successfully damp the subsynchronous oscillations
[1, 9]. To ensure the reliability of the operation a minimum control range of the
TCSC must be used in mitigating SSR [5, 7].
6.2 Methodology
The methodology for selecting the optimal proportion of TCSCs and fixed series
capacitor compensation to keep the SSR risk within the acceptable level, proposed
here is based on risk evaluation of SSR (described in Chap. 4) in the network. Risk of
SSR is evaluated following the procedure described in Sect. 4.1.3.1; using established
power system risk studies methods. It consists of three major tasks. (i) SSR severity
measure (ii) Selection of network contingencies (iii) Probability of occurrence.
6.2 Methodology 173
6.2.1 SSR Severity Measure
The SSR index (RISSR) developed in the previous chapter, also discussed in
Sect. 4.1.2.1 is used as SSR severity measure.
SSR index is based on the negative damping introduced in the torsional modes.
Frequency scanning method provides the network resistance and network reactance
seen from generator neutral as a function of frequency. With the help of (3.13) and
(3.14), conductance and negative damping introduced in each torsional mode of the
study generator can be calculated. The highest value of the negative damping
introduced in any torsional mode is effectively the SSR index that varies with
network configuration and compensation level.
6.2.2 Selection of Network Contingencies
State enumeration method is used to select network configurations or contingencies,

as explained in Sect. 4.1.2. The threshold for the severity of SSR problem is
selected to be equal to no load mechanical damping, 0.045 rad/s. Mechanical
damping is always positive, and at it is lowest when the turbine generator is
operating at no load. Hence any negative damping values less than the no load
damping will lead to positive values of net damping.
The selection of contingencies level in these studies is guided by the fact that
generators connected radially to compensated lines are at the highest risk of
exposure to SSR [10, 11].
6.2.3 Probability of Network Contingencies
The probability of any contingency is calculated using line outage model given by (4.1).
6.2.4 Assessment of Risk of SSR
SSR risk is evaluated using standard risk matrix presented in Table 4.3 and
reproduced here in Table 6.1 for the clarity of discussion. The degree of risk is
assessed from negligible to very high risk based on the severity of SSR problem and
frequency of this severity.
For the required compensation level of the line, frequency scan is performed in
normal network configuration and RISSR is calculated. If SSR risk index is higher
than threshold, the compensation level is reduced by 5 % and RISSR is calculated
again. This process is repeated until RISSR is below the threshold. After meeting the
Table 6.1 Risk matrix

Almost
Certain
Likely to
happen
Possible to
happen
Unlikely to
happen
Rare likelihood
first condition, RISSR is calculated for each contingency. The risk level is determined
using risk matrix for all contingencies selected through state enumeration method.
If the risk level is not, within green and yellow cells for each contingency, com-
pensation level is lowered by 5 % and the same process is repeated to the point
where risk level in all contingencies is within green and yellow zone. This is
acceptable level of fixed series compensation. The difference between the required
compensation level and acceptable fixed series compensation level obtained
through risk matrix is the TCSC contribution in the total compensation of the line.
The procedure described above is summarized in the flowchart of Fig. 6.1.
6.2.5 Modified Test System
The test system used to illustrate selection of optimal series compensation is the
same, as before, the 16 machine, 68 bus network shown in Fig. 6.2.
Table 6.2 shows the power transfer through inter-area tie lines. Future rein-
forcement of the network is represented by compensating the most heavily loaded
inter-area ties L41 and L42.
Note: Though power transfer, through L69 and L71, is higher than L41 and L42,
these lines are connected to the equivalent area generators. Therefore, these lines
are not compensated.
Series compensation introduces negative damping in torsional modes of the
generators electrically close to the compensated line. Frequency scan is performed
for G2, G3, G12 and G13. The calculated value of conductance is the highest for
G2, and conductance values for G3, G12 and G13 are very small.
Turbine generator mechanical data is taken from first benchmark model for SSR
studies [12] and scaled appropriately to match generator size and its inertia.
Generator G2 mechanical data and mode shapes are given in Table 6.3.
6.2 Methodology 175
Start
Construct risk matrix
Perform Frequency scan in normal network

configuraƟon
Calculate RISSR
Reduce CompensaƟon
Level by 5%
RISSR < threshold ? No
Yes
Calculate RISSR for each N-1 conƟngency
selected through state enumeraƟon method
Acceptable level of risk? No
Yes
Yes calculate RISSR
Increase conƟngency level and
in each conƟngency selected through state
enumeraƟon method
Acceptable level of risk? No
Yes
Is this radial configuraƟon? No
Yes
Save results and compensaƟon level
End
Fig. 6.1 Iterative procedure to determine optimal proportion of TCSC
NEW ENGLAND TEST SYSTEM

NEW YORK POWER SYSTEM
G13
G7 G5 G3 G2 G12 G16
3 2 16
G6 G4 13
39 50
7 5 59 43
12 18
65 62 63 L29 44 L71
6 4 L28 60 17 45
L15 36
23 20 58 35 51
64 L30 L41
22 19 L17 34 L66
21 24 66 57 49
L18 L42 61 33 G15
67 L19 56
G9 32 46 15 L67
68 52 L27 30
55 42
L2 37 31
9 11
28 27
L44
26 L7 L46 G11
L3 10
25 54 L43
29
L4 G10 G14
47 L69
40 14
8 1 53 48
41
G8 G1
Fig. 6.2 16 Machines, 68 bus network with highlighted inter-area tie lines
Table 6.2 Active power imported into NYPS from surrounding areas
Active power To NYPS bus # Line # Active power MW
imported from
Area Bus #
NETS 60 61 L41 & L42 404.9
NETS 27 53 L43 27.6
NETS 54 53 L44 & L45 276.8
G14 41 40 L69 588.7
G16 18 46 L66 364.1
G16 18 50 L71 786
Table 6.3 G2 mechanical data and mode shapes of torsional modes

(lb-ft2) constant f2 = 29.29 Hz f3 = 22.77 Hz f4 = 18.3 Hz f5 = 14.17 Hz
p.u.
Torque/rad
HP 69,220 46 −1.256 5.758 −3.289 −2.146
IP 108,825 84 0.1664 1.812 −1.828 −1.574
LPA 597,829 126 0.7829 −1.418 −0.328 −0.899
LPB 618,047 171 −1.6018 −0.5073 1.1318 0.3060
GEN 606,491 6.83 1 1 1 1
EX 23,682 −0.6093 −1.675 −28.51 2.6534
6.2.6 Application of Proposed Method
Fossil fuel power plants take generally long time, to change their output and do not
necessarily follow load duration curve. Therefore, load duration curve is divided
into five steps and it is assumed that the turbine generator operates only at five
loading levels given in Table 6.4.
In the risk matrix, the severity of the SSR problem is assigned on the basis of
SSR index RISSR and probability of the generator output. SSR index is calculated
using frequency scan method. The probability of the loading of the generator is
determined through multilevel load duration curve shown in Fig. 6.3.
Table 6.4 Active power contribution and probability of four studied load levels for generator G2
% Peak network load % Probability of loading PG2 (MW) % PG2_N
100 0.2 745 100
90 12 691 92.6
70 41 610 82
50 40 410 55
30 6.8 400 53
6.2 Methodology 177
100
LDC MulƟload Levels
% of the Peak Load

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fig. 6.3 Load duration curve and multilevel load duration curve
The probability of the load falling in a particular range is determined from

Fig. 6.3. Optimal load flow is performed for each network loading level, given by
Fig. 6.3. The probabilities of the network load for the five operating ranges are
shown in Fig. 6.3, and the corresponding loadings of the generator G2 are pre-
sented in Table 6.4.
The output of generator G2 is 53 % of its nominal load when the network is at
minimum load. Occurrence of certain contingencies affects G2 output significantly;
however, the minimum loading observed in all considered contingencies selected
through state enumeration method is 52 % of the nominal output.
Figure 6.4 shows the variation in the mechanical damping of a torsional mode
with generator output adapted from [10]. It can be observed that mechanical
damping increases noticeably from no load to full load. Though the increase in
mechanical damping is different for different modes [10] there is always an increase
in damping with the increase in generator loading.
Assuming that all modes of G2 have mechanical damping characteristics as
depicted by Fig. 6.4; consequences due to the severity of SSR problem are assigned
taking into consideration the magnitude of SSR risk index of G2 and probability of
generator G2 operating condition, given by Table 6.5.
0.25
Mechanical Damping of a
0.235
0.2
0.2
Torsional Mode
0.15 0.163
0.1 0.125
0.093
0.05
0.045
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
% of Nominal Generator Load
Fig. 6.4 Mechanical damping of torsional mode verses generator loading

Table 6.5 Severity of SSR
Negligible consequences are assigned to RISSR range when it is equal or greater than
no load mechanical damping and less than mechanical damping at 40 % load, since the
minimum loading determined through OPF is 53 %. The consequences allocated, to
RISSR range equal or greater than mechanical damping at 40 % load and less than
mechanical damping at 60 % load are minor. This is due to the fact that the results of
frequency scan are inherently conservative, and the minimum load of G2 is 53 % with
the probability of G2 operating in this range is 40 %. RISSR range corresponding to the
mechanical damping, equal or greater than 60 % and less than 80 % fall into the
moderate category on the basis that magnitude of RISSR (negative damping) is higher,
though the probability of G2 operating in this output range is nearly the same as it is for
the previous loading range. Major consequences are assigned to RISSR when it is equal
or greater than mechanical damping at 80 % load and less than mechanical damping at
full load; since magnitude of negative damping is very high and probability of G2
operating in this load range is only 12.2 %. RISSR values equal or greater than
mechanical damping at full load are assigned catastrophic consequences on the basis
that probability of G2 operating at full load is only 0.2 % and values of negative
damping can be very high leading to fast grow of undamped torsional torques.
The line outage data is taken from [13]. Frequency of the failure per year,
unavailability and single outage/years for the lines that affect the SSR index are
presented below in Table 6.6. Outages of the other lines do not affect the SSR
index.
Table 6.6 Line outage and outage/years data

Failure frequency Mean time to Unavailability ¼ f MTTR
8760
Outage/years
per year f repair MTTR (1/f)
L 28 0.0377 20.8 0.000089516 26.5
L29 0.02 20.8 0.000474886 50
L15 0.036 20.8 0.0000854795 27.7
L17 0.01144 20.8 0.00002715 87.4
L18 0.055 20.8 0.000131523 18
L27 0.0937 20.8 0.00022251 10.6
L30 0.048 20.8 0.000114577 20.7
L19 0.056 20.8 0.000134122 17.7
6.2 Methodology 179
Simultaneous outages of L15, L28, L29 and L17 connect G2 nearly radially to
compensated lines. Therefore, N − 4 is the highest contingency level considered in
these studies.
The probability of simultaneous outages is a product of unavailability of each
individual line considering only independent failures. The probability of contin-
gency occurrence decreases and “single outage/years” increases substantially with
the increase in contingency level. The probability of simultaneous outages within
the stage also depends on the breaker configuration. If the lines are adjacent in a
ring bus configuration, then the probability of simultaneous outage would be high.
For the test network details about the bus configuration are not available, therefore,
to keep the analysis simple only independent failures are considered. For practical
purposes where details about bus configuration are available, dependent failures
should also be considered.
The occurrence likelihood of N − 1 to N − 4 contingencies is assigned con-
sidering the “single outage per years”. N − 1 contingencies are likely network
configurations, N − 2 contingencies are possible network configurations (likelihood
of N − 2 contingency is less than the likelihood of N − 1 contingency). Probability
of three simultaneous outages is extremely low, therefore, N − 3 is unlikely and
N − 4 is highly unlikely network configuration.
In order to facilitate large power transfer from NETS to NYPS, it is assumed that
lines L41 and L42 are compensated at 70 %. Findings of the studies presented in
the previous chapter show that the generator located electrically close to the
compensated lines is at the highest risk of SSR. To assess the severity of SSR
problem that the generators in the network are exposed to, frequency scan is per-
formed for generator G2, G3, G12 and G13. Using (3.3) negative damping intro-
duced in each torsional mode is calculated and RISSR is determined.
The magnitude of RISSR is much lower than threshold value (0.045 rad/s) for
generators G3, G12 and G13. However, it is much higher than full load damping
(0.235 rad/s) for generator G2 in normal network configuration. This is an unac-
ceptable level of risk as net damping is negative when mechanical damping is at its
maximum.
This risk of SSR can be reduced from unacceptable to acceptable level using
TCSCs. They offer rapid, continuous control of the transmission line series com-
pensation level. TCSCs exhibit different frequency characteristics from the fixed
series capacitors that enable them to suppress subsynchronous oscillations. Below
synchronous frequency, TCSCs present an inherently resistive-inductive reactance,
effectively damping the subsynchronous oscillations [5, 14]. However, adding
TCSCs for the total series compensation raises the costs significantly. Experience
and studies show that SSR threat can be mitigated by using TCSC in conjunction
with fixed series capacitors [5, 7, 15]. As the proportion of TCSC increases, the
subsynchronous frequencies characteristics of the combination of TCSCs and fixed
series capacitors compensation lean towards that of TCSC’s. Studies have also
demonstrated that in subsynchronous frequency range (28–50 Hz), the real part of
TCSC impedance increases with Xorder. This contributes a larger resistive damping
to low frequency torsional modes (0–22 Hz) since the electrical frequency is the
synchronous frequency complement of torsional mode frequencies [5, 14].
The proposed scheme guarantees that the compensated line can still operate with
reduced series compensation in case of any inadvertent failure of TCSC, i.e., even
without TCSC the risk of SRR is below threshold in normal network configuration.
The situation is improved in terms of available risk-free power transfer through the
line when TCSC is operating. The extent of the damping of torsional oscillations
will depend on the sophistication of the TCSC control applied but the risk of SSR
will still remain below the threshold.
The magnitude of RISSR due to 70 % compensation of lines L41 and L42 in
normal network configuration (all lines in) is 0.348 rad/s, much higher than full
load damping, hence, risk level of SSR associated with this compensation level in
this network configuration is very high and represented by red cell in Table 6.7.
Compensation level is reduced by 5–65 %, and RISSR is calculated again, however
the risk level stays very high (still in red zone). Same process is repeated until RISSR
falls below the threshold for normal network configuration. Compensation of lines
L41 and L42 at 55 % level, with series capacitors only, resulted in RISSR of
0.042 rad/s, i.e., less than no load damping. Therefore, this operating scheme does
not appear in the first column of the risk matrix of Table 6.7.
RISSR is calculated for each N − 1 contingency, and risk is assessed for all con-
tingencies generating RISSR higher than threshold. Outages of L19, L15, L17 and L18
result in RISSR higher than threshold, i.e., in the range, 0.045 rad/s ≤ RISSR < 0.125
rad/s. The SSR severity assigned to this range of RISSR is negligible, based on the
probability of G2 loading and magnitude of negative damping. N − 1 contingency is
Table 6.7 Risk matrix for the maximum contribution of fixed series capacitors
6.2 Methodology 181
likely, but not a certain network configuration, therefore, the risk stays in the green
region of risk matrix.
In N − 2 contingencies RISSR stays negligible, (0.045 rad/s ≤ RISSR < 0.125 rad/s)
for all possible combinations:
• L17 and any other line in the network except L15
SSR severity is increased from negligible to minor (0.125 rad/s ≤ RISSR < 0.163
rad/s) in N − 2 contingencies that include the simultaneous outages of L15 and one
of lines L17, L18, L19, L27, L28, L29, L30.
However, the overall risk level which is a combination of the severity of SSR
problem and probability of its occurrence, stays in the green zone since N − 2
contingencies are less likely to happen than N − 1 contingencies considering only
independent failure modes.
In case of N − 3 contingencies, the highest value of SSR index lies in the same
range as with N − 2, minor consequences.
The contingencies that generate RISSR in the range 0.125 rad/s ≤ RISSR < 0.163
rad/s, minor consequences, are listed below
• L15 and any two lines from (L17, L18, L19, L27, L28, L29, L30)
• L17 and any two lines from (L15, L18, L19, L27)
The contingencies that lead to negligible consequences 0.045 rad/s ≤ RISSR
< 0.125 rad/s are
• L15 and any two lines except (L17, L18, L19, L27)
The N − 3 contingency, however, is an unlikely network configuration. The risk
level for all N − 3 contingencies remains in green zone.
Highest value of RISSR has moved from minor to major consequences 0.163 rad/s ≤
RISSR < 0.2 rad/s in two N − 4 contingencies:
• Simultaneous outages of L15, L19, L27, L28
• Simultaneous outages of L15, L19, L27, L29
Since N − 4 is highly unlikely network configuration hence the risk level stays in
green zone.
The contingencies that generate RISSR in the range 0.125 rad/s ≤ RISSR < 0.163
rad/s, minor consequences are listed below
• L15 and any three lines from (L17, L18, L19, L27, L28, L29, L30)
• L17 and any three lines from (L15, L18, L19, L27)
The contingencies that lead to negligible consequences 0.045 rad/s ≤ RISSR
< 0.125 rad/s are
• L15 and any three lines except (L17, L18, L19, L27)
It can be concluded from this SSR risk evaluation for generator G2 that 55 %
compensation of lines L41 and L42 is an acceptable fixed series compensation
level. The required compensation level for the lines L41 and L42 is 70 %, therefore,
15 % contribution should be made by TCSCs.
TCSC contribution = Required compensation level − Acceptable fixed series
compensation = 70 − 55 % = 15 %.
The proposed method maximizes the use of fixed series capacitors and such
reduces the cost of solution. In case of TCSCs failure, the compensated line can still
continue to operate, with reduced level of series compensation, and provide rea-
sonable system support. The risk of SSR is always kept within acceptable range for
all credible network configurations.
6.2.7 Validation of Results with EMT Simulation
Risk matrix based approach, discussed above, combines the severity of SSR
problem, and probability of occurrence of different network configurations deter-
mined through historical data [16]. The conclusions drawn using the risk matrix
based approach are validated by the results of EMT simulations presented in the
sequel.
Figure 6.5 shows the torsional torques in LPB-G shaft section for normal net-
work configuration with three compensation levels. It can be observed, as already
identified by risk matrix shown in Table 6.7, that the system is unstable for 70 %
and 60 % series compensation and that it stabilizes once the compensation level is
reduced down to 55 %.
Figure 6.6 compares the torsional torques in LPB-G shaft section for 55 %
compensation level in normal network configuration, N − 1 contingency and N − 4
contingency. It can be observed that system is stable in all cases as indicated by
severity levels given in Table 6.7. It can be seen though that as the risk severity
6.2 Methodology 183
70% 60% 55%

4
LPB-G Torques 'p.u'

3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
Fig. 6.5 Torsional torques in LPB-G shaft section with 70, 60 and 55 % compensation
55%C,N-4 55%C,N-1 55%C,all lines

LPB-G Torques 'p.u'
2.5
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
Fig. 6.6 Torsional torques in LPB-G shaft section with 55 % fixed series compensation in
normal, N − 1 and N − 4 contingency
level increases, the magnitude of peak torques increase as well and the decay rate of
oscillations reduces.
Finally, Figs. 6.7 and 6.8 show the effect of TCSCs operating in conjunction
with series capacitors in N − 4 and N − 1 contingency. It can be observed that in
both cases the magnitude of peak torques reduces and the decay rate (damping) of
oscillations improves. Note that addition of TCSC results in effective compensation
level of 70 % which was not possible with series capacitors only. In this study the
TCSC is considered to operate in the most basic control mode, constant impedance
55%C,N-4 55%C+15%TCSC,N-4
2.5
LPB-G Torques 'p.u'
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
Fig. 6.7 Torsional torques in LPB-G shaft section with 55 % fixed series compensation and 55 %
fixed series compensation +15 % TCSCs in N − 1
55%C,N-1 55%C+15%TCSC,N-1
2.5
LPb - G Torques 'p.u'

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time 'sec'
Fig. 6.8 Torsional torques in LPB-G shaft section with 55 % fixed series compensation, and
55 % fixed compensation +15 % TCSCs compensation of L41 and L42
control. The thyristor valves are triggered using synchronous voltage reversal
approach as described in [17]. More sophisticated TSCSC control would
undoubtedly lead to even better damping of torsional torques.
6.3 Summary
The chapter presented a methodology for selecting an optimal combination of

TCSCs and fixed series capacitors for compensation of transmission lines while
minimizing the risk of exposure to Sub-synchronous resonance.
The proposed methodology maximizes the use of fixed capacitors (as a cheaper
option) by not only considering the severity of SSR in the network, but also the
probability of turbine generator operating condition and probability of different
network contingencies. The proposed approach for selecting appropriate compen-
sation scheme guarantees that the severity of SSR is always kept within the
acceptable threshold and ensures the reliability of operation across a wide range of
credible contingencies.
It is shown in the Sect. 5.7.2 that the degree of risk of SSR assessed using the
risk evaluation of SSR methodology stays the same in the presence of uncertainties
in the mechanical parameters of the turbine generator shaft section. The method-
ology for selecting an optimal combination of TCSCs and fixed series capacitors is
based on the risk evaluation of SSR, therefore, uncertainties in mechanical
parameters do not affect the analysis results.
References
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Publisher, Boston, London, 1999)
2. P.M. Anderson, R.G. Farmer, Series Compensation of Power Systems. (PBLSH Inc,
California, 1996)
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Chapter 7
Future Work and Conclusions
Abstract In this chapter the main conclusions of the research are discussed and
suggestions are made for the future development and improvement of the presented
methodologies.
7.1 Conclusions
This thesis has thoroughly investigated the phenomenon of subsynchronous reso-

nance in meshed AC/DC networks. In completing this research, methods have been
developed which assess the risk of subsynchronous resonance in power transmis-
sion networks, and subsequently applied to propose a methodology for the optimal
proportion of TCSCs and fixed series capacitors for the compensation of trans-
mission lines.
A thorough review of past research surrounding subsynchronous resonance
phenomena indicates that SSR has been investigated extensively. The phenomenon
has been well understood, several analysis methods have been developed, and
numerous mitigating schemes have been proposed.
Electric power transmission networks are going through continuous transfor-
mation and restructuring due to the penetration of a large number of renewable
energy sources. The number of series compensated AC lines and VSC-HVDC lines
in transmission networks continue to increase to enable bulk power transfers. In
terms of network topology, future transmission networks are expected to be
meshed, relatively at low risk of SSR. But at the same time electric power networks
are increasingly operated closer to the boundaries of stability since the industry has
entered deregulation era. These stressed operating conditions and increased
uncertainty in generation and loading, require a method to identify generators which
are at risk of SSR and rank them on the basis of severity of SSR problem in meshed
AC/DC networks.
A new methodology to assess the exposure of generators to SSR in meshed
power networks with compensated AC transmission lines and VSC-HVDC line has
been developed and it represents the first original contribution of the thesis. In

188 7 Future Work and Conclusions
order to enable this assessment and rank generators based on the risk of torsional
interactions and development of transient torque amplification, two risk indices
have been proposed. The proposed methodology also indicates the safe operating
ranges and safe compensation levels for different generators in the network. The
effect of VSC-HVDC lines operating in parallel with the compensated lines is also
investigated. It is found that the presence of VSC-HVDC line in the network
improves the damping of the torsional modes. The improvement of damping is very
small, therefore, it does not change the ranking of the generators.
Despite the increasing importance of risk management and evaluation of risk in
power systems’ operation, risk evaluation of SSR is largely unexplored. The review
identified that an approach to evaluate risk that considers both the probability and
severity of SSR problem is required. A risk based methodology has been developed
to facilitate the assessment of exposure of generators to SSR, and is the second
original contribution of the thesis. Developed methodology is the novel application
of risk assessment methods to subsynchronous resonance studies. Proposed risk
index that includes the probability of each contingency and the severity of SSR
problem can effectively quantify the risk of SSR. It has been demonstrated that with
the help of the risk matrix, the boundaries for different risk levels (low, moderate,
high and very high) can be drawn for each contingency and different compensation
levels. The boundaries for different risk levels are established by considering the
severity of SSR problem, and the probability of each contingency and turbine
generating operating condition.
Asymmetrical compensation scheme was proposed in 1990s to reduce the
problem of SSR. The foremost advantage of this scheme is its simplicity and
reliability. The performed studies show that the asymmetrical compensation scheme
increases the critical compensation level of the system in normal network config-
uration and in each contingency. The quantification of this increase is the third
original contribution of the thesis.
A review of past research indicates that the importance of accurate modelling
and effect of a turbine generator parameters on the damping of the torsional modes
has been realized very early. There are only a few studies which are carried out in
meshed networks. Furthermore, effects of uncertainties in mechanical parameters of
a turbine generator system, in a meshed AC network with HVDC lines have not
been investigated at all. Case studies within this thesis analyse the influence of
uncertainties in mechanical parameters on SSR, in a meshed AC/DC system for
both types of HVDC technologies and different operating conditions of the turbine
generator. The results of the analysis show that uncertainties in the parameters do
affect the magnitude of the peak torques and damping of the torsional modes. Since
torsional torques are higher and modal damping is lower with LCC-HVDC, the
shaft fatigue inflicted in the presence of uncertainties in the mechanical parameters
in case of LCC would be higher compared to VSC, even for the same percentage
increase in torsional torques. This is the fourth original contribution of this research
work.
There is no published work that compares the effect of uncertainty in mechanical
parameters on SSR with symmetrical and asymmetrical compensation schemes.
7.1 Conclusions 189
A thorough analysis of the influence of uncertainties in mechanical parameters on

dynamic instability and transient torque amplification is carried out. It has been found
that critically compensated system may become unstable with as low as ±5 %
uncertainty in the mechanical parameters. The probability of becoming unstable due
to uncertainty in mechanical parameters remains the same with both compensation
schemes in the normal network configuration and reduces in N − 1 and N − 2 con-
tingencies with asymmetrical compensation. The work within this thesis also
investigates the influence of uncertainties in mechanical parameters on risk levels
boundaries, drawn using the risk evaluation of SSR. The analysis shows that the risk
level indicated with standard parameters does not change in the presence of
mechanical parameter uncertainty. This finding demonstrates that risk based
approach provides better picture of all credible scenarios and risk of SSR in the
compensated system. This assessment of the influence of the uncertainties on SSR
with different compensation schemes is the fifth original contribution of the thesis.
The sixth and final original contribution of this research is a methodology, based
on the risk evaluation of SSR, for the optimal proportion of TCSCs and fixed series
capacitors for the compensation of transmission lines. The developed method
maximizes the use of fixed series capacitors (cheaper option) whilst maintaining the
risk of SSR at acceptable level. The proposed approach, guarantees that the severity
of SSR is always kept within the acceptable level, and it also ensures the reliability
of the operation across wide range of credible contingencies.
7.2 Future Work
The work presented within this thesis achieved all of the research aims and
objectives, initially defined.
The review of the past work shows a wealth of literature written on the subject
of SSR. There may be many turbine-generator units facing potential SSR problem;
however, there is no reported major SSR incident except those mentioned in Chap. 1.
This is only possible due to careful analysis and application of appropriate SSR
countermeasures. It is apparent that the industry understands SSR phenomenon, to a
large extent, has the tools required to evaluate it and proven countermeasures for the
control of SSR.
The ultimate hazard of SSR is the shaft fracture at rated speed. It is very hard to
predict the exact damage from such occurrence, but extensive equipment damage
can occur and there can be a personnel safety hazard. A more likely SSR hazard
would be the cumulative shaft life expenditure of 100 %, indicated by the crack
initiation at the surface of a turbine generator shaft. SSR mitigation methods have
been developed to the point where the most likely SSR hazards for a single SSR
event can be limited to a unit trip and less than 50 % fatigue life expenditure.
Corresponding SSR countermeasures vary greatly in their application, effective-
ness, and cost. Economic penalties are also associated with an excessive number of
unit trips. The methods developed within this thesis can help to quantify and
evaluate risk of SSR. The proposed risk evaluation methods facilitate the assess-
ment of occurrence of SSR considering the probability of each contingency, the
severity of SSR problem and the probability of turbine generator loading. The
developed methods can be beneficial in selecting cost effective mitigation/
countermeasures for a power plant and the power system as a whole.
The immediate extension of this work would be development of optimization
framework for cost-effective minimisation of risk of SSR in meshed AC/DC power
networks using methodologies and techniques developed in the thesis.
Furthermore on 22nd October, 2009 a subsynchronous control interaction
(SSCI) event occurred in the Zorilla area of southeast Texas and created significant
damage to two wind power plants with Type 3 doubly fed induction generator
(DFIG) wind turbine and series capacitor equipment. The event was initiated by
single line to ground fault, and lasted for 1.5 s before the series connected
capacitors were bypassed. The subsequent clearing of the fault (2.5 cycle clearing
time) left two large wind farms connected radially into series compensated high
voltage line. This resulted in the fast build up of subsynchronous oscillations. The
system experienced overvoltages up to 195 %. It was estimated that wind turbine
generator damage occurred approximately 200 ms after the fault clearing when the
turbine equipment exceeded its electrical ratings and system voltages exceeded 1.5
p.u. (520 kV on a 345 kV system). After this, system voltage continued to rise and
approached 2 p.u. with system damage occurring sometime during this condition.
The subsynchronous oscillations were finally damped 1.5 s after the initial event
when the series capacitors were bypassed.
This event was the result of subsynchronous control interactions between wind
power plant and series capacitor compensated system and has been referred to as
subsynchronous control interactions (SSCI). The oscillations resulting from SSCI
may grow very quickly as compared to mechanical SSR effects, since the
undamped oscillations are based purely on electrical and controller interactions,
with no mechanical system involved.
After this event studies were performed to investigate the phenomenon and to
introduce appropriate study techniques and tools [157–161]. Since this is relatively
new occurrence and therefore very limited studies have been done in this area.
Considering the level of penetration of wind generation in current power networks,
the area of research following this thesis should be the investigation of SSCI
phenomenon. This should include modelling of the uncertainties associated with the
wind power generation, effect of different controls and application of the developed
methods to the system containing steam turbine generators and wind power plants.
The work can be extended to assess risk of SSCI in current and future networks
considering other converter connected generation.
Finally considering the complexities involved in the assessment of SSR and
SSCI and generally limited time available to power system engineers for detailed
modelling and analysis, user friendly graphical interface could be developed to
facilitate the visualisation of risk of SSR and SSCI in power systems in close to real
time.
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Appendix A
Network Data
This appendix provides the data required in order to perform dynamic studies on the
test systems used throughout this thesis.
A.1 NETS-NYPS Test Network Data
Full system details, generator and exciter parameters are adopted from [1] with PSS
settings for G9 sourced from [2].
A.1.1 Line Impedances
The line impedance data for the network is presented in Table A.1, including
transformer off-nominal turns ratio (ONR) where applicable.
Table A.1 Line data for the NETS-NYPS test network

From bus To bus R (p.u.) X (p.u.) B (p.u.) ONR
2 53 0 0.0181 0 1.025
6 54 0 0.025 0 1.07
10 55 0 0.02 0 1.07
19 56 0.0007 0.0142 0 1.07
20 57 0.0009 0.018 0 1.009
22 58 0 0.0143 0 1.025
23 59 0.0005 0.0272 0 1
25 60 0.0006 0.0232 0 1.025
29 61 0.0008 0.0156 0 1.025
31 62 0 0.026 0 1.04
32 63 0 0.013 0 1.04
(continued)

in AC/DC Systems, Springer Theses, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-44947-0
200 Appendix A: Network Data
Table A.1 (continued)

36 64 0 0.0075 0 1.04
17 65 0 0.0033 0 1.04
41 66 0 0.0015 0 1
42 67 0 0.0015 0 1
18 68 0 0.003 0 1
36 17 0.0005 0.0045 0.32 –
49 18 0.0076 0.1141 1.16 –
16 19 0.0016 0.0195 0.304 –
19 20 0.0007 0.0138 0 1.06
16 21 0.0008 0.0135 0.2548 –
21 22 0.0008 0.014 0.2565 –
22 23 0.0006 0.0096 0.1846 –
23 24 0.0022 0.035 0.361 –
16 24 0.0003 0.0059 0.068 –
2 25 0.007 0.0086 0.146 –
25 26 0.0032 0.0323 0.531 –
37 27 0.0013 0.0173 0.3216 –
26 27 0.0014 0.0147 0.2396 –
26 28 0.0043 0.0474 0.7802 –
26 29 0.0057 0.0625 1.029 –
28 29 0.0014 0.0151 0.249 –
1 30 0.0008 0.0074 0.48 –
9 30 0.0019 0.0183 0.29 –
9 30 0.0019 0.0183 0.29 –
30 31 0.0013 0.0187 0.333 –
1 31 0.0016 0.0163 0.25 –
30 32 0.0024 0.0288 0.488 –
32 33 0.0008 0.0099 0.168 –
4 14 0.0008 0.0129 0.1382 –
13 14 0.0009 0.0101 0.1723 –
14 15 0.0018 0.0217 0.366 –
15 16 0.0009 0.0094 0.171 –
33 34 0.0011 0.0157 0.202 –
35 34 0.0001 0.0074 0 0.946
34 36 0.0033 0.0111 1.45 –
9 36 0.0022 0.0196 0.34 –
9 36 0.0022 0.0196 0.34 –
16 37 0.0007 0.0089 0.1342 –
31 38 0.0011 0.0147 0.247 –
33 38 0.0036 0.0444 0.693 –
(continued)
Appendix A: Network Data 201

41 40 0.006 0.084 3.15 –
48 40 0.002 0.022 1.28 –
42 41 0.004 0.06 2.25 –
18 42 0.004 0.06 2.25 –
17 43 0.0005 0.0276 0 –
39 44 0 0.0411 0 –
43 44 0.0001 0.0011 0 –
35 45 0.0007 0.0175 1.39 –
39 45 0 0.0839 0 –
44 45 0.0025 0.073 0 –
38 46 0.0022 0.0284 0.43 –
1 47 0.0013 0.0188 1.31 –
47 48 0.0025 0.0268 0.4 –
47 48 0.0025 0.0268 0.4 –
46 49 0.0018 0.0274 0.27 –
45 51 0.0004 0.0105 0.72 –
50 51 0.0009 0.0221 1.62 –
37 52 0.0007 0.0082 0.1319 –
3 52 0.0011 0.0133 0.2138 –
1 2 0.0035 0.0411 0.6987 –
2 3 0.0013 0.0151 0.2572 –
3 4 0.0013 0.0213 0.2214 –
4 5 0.0008 0.0128 0.1342 –
5 6 0.0002 0.0026 0.0434 –
6 7 0.0006 0.0092 0.113 –
5 8 0.0008 0.0112 0.1476 –
7 8 0.0004 0.0046 0.078 –
8 9 0.0023 0.0363 0.3804 –
6 11 0.0007 0.0082 0.1389 –
10 11 0.0004 0.0043 0.0729 –
12 11 0.0016 0.0435 0 1.06
10 13 0.0004 0.0043 0.0729 –
12 13 0.0016 0.0435 0 1.06
1 27 0.032 0.32 0.41 –
50 18 0.0012 0.0288 2.06 –
A.1.2 Load Flow Data
Data required to complete load flow is included in Table A.2 G13 connected to bus
65 is the slack.
Table A.2 Load flow data for the NETS-NYPS test network
1 – – – 252.7 118.56
3 – – – 322 2
4 – – – 200 73.6
7 – – – 234 84
8 – – – 208.8 70.8
9 – – – 104 125
12 – – – 9 88
15 – – – 320 153
16 – – – 329 32
17 – – – 6000 300
18 – – – 2470 123
20 – – – 680 103
21 – – – 274 115
23 – – – 248 85
24 – – – 309 −92
25 – – – 224 47
26 – – – 139 17
27 – – – 281 76
28 – – – 206 28
29 – – – 284 27
33 – – – 112 0
36 – – – 102 −19.46
39 – – – 267 12.6
40 – – – 65.63 23.53
41 – – – 1000 250
42 – – – 1150 250
44 – – – 267.55 4.84
45 – – – 208 21
46 – – – 150.7 28.5
47 – – – 203.12 32.59
48 – – – 241.2 2.2
49 – – – 164 29
50 – – – 100 −147
51 – – – 337 −122
(continued)

52 – – – 158 30
53 1.045 – 250 – –
54 0.98 – 545 – –
55 0.983 – 650 – –
56 0.997 – 632 – –
57 1.011 – 505 – –
58 1.05 – 700 – –
59 1.063 – 560 – –
60 1.03 – 540 – –
61 1.025 – 800 – –
62 1.01 – 500 – –
63 1 – 1000 – –
64 1.0156 – 1350 – –
65 1.011 0 – – –
66 1 – 1785 – –
67 1 – 1000 – –
68 1 – 4000 – –
A.1.2.1 Generator Dynamic Data
The generator dynamic presented is given in Tables A.3 and A.4, scaled to the
given machine base.
Table A.3 Generator dynamic data for the NETS-NYPS test network
Gen Bus Rating (MVA) Xlk (p.u.) Xd (p.u.) Xd0 (p.u.) Xd00 (p.u.) 0
Td0 (s) 00
Td0 (s)
G1 53 100 0.0125 0.1 0.031 0.025 10.2 0.05
G2 54 100 0.035 0.295 0.0697 0.05 6.56 0.05
G3 55 100 0.0304 0.2495 0.0531 0.045 5.7 0.05
G4 56 100 0.0295 0.262 0.0436 0.035 5.69 0.05
G5 57 100 0.027 0.33 0.066 0.05 5.4 0.05
G6 58 100 0.0224 0.254 0.05 0.04 7.3 0.05
G7 59 100 0.0322 0.295 0.049 0.04 5.66 0.05
G8 60 100 0.028 0.29 0.057 0.045 6.7 0.05
G9 61 100 0.0298 0.2106 0.057 0.045 4.79 0.05
G10 62 100 0.0199 0.169 0.0457 0.04 9.37 0.05
G11 63 100 0.0103 0.128 0.018 0.012 4.1 0.05
G12 64 100 0.022 0.101 0.031 0.025 7.4 0.05
G13 65 200 0.003 0.0296 0.0055 0.004 5.9 0.05
(continued)

Gen Bus Rating (MVA) Xlk (p.u.) Xd (p.u.) Xd0 (p.u.) Xd00 (p.u.) 0
Td0 (s) 00
Td0 (s)
G14 66 100 0.0017 0.018 0.00285 0.0023 4.1 0.05
G15 67 100 0.0017 0.018 0.00285 0.0023 4.1 0.05
G16 68 200 0.0041 0.0356 0.0071 0.0055 7.8 0.05
Table A.4 Generator dynamic data for the NETS-NYPS test network (1)
Gen Bus Rating Xq (p.u.) Xq0 (p.u.) Xq00 (p.u.) 0
Tq0 (s) 00
Tq0 (s) H (s) D
(MVA)
G1 53 100 0.069 0.028 0.025 1.5 0.035 42 4
G2 54 100 0.282 0.06 0.05 1.5 0.035 30.2 9.75
G3 55 100 0.237 0.05 0.045 1.5 0.035 35.8 10
G4 56 100 0.258 0.04 0.035 1.5 0.035 28.6 10
G5 57 100 0.31 0.06 0.05 0.44 0.035 26 3
G6 58 100 0.241 0.045 0.04 0.4 0.035 34.8 10
G7 59 100 0.292 0.045 0.04 1.5 0.035 26.4 8
G8 60 100 0.28 0.05 0.045 0.41 0.035 24.3 9
G9 61 100 0.205 0.05 0.045 1.96 0.035 34.5 14
G10 62 100 0.115 0.045 0.04 1.5 0.035 31 5.56
G11 63 100 0.123 0.015 0.012 1.5 0.035 28.2 13.6
G12 64 100 0.095 0.028 0.025 1.5 0.035 92.3 13.5
G13 65 200 0.0286 0.005 0.004 1.5 0.035 248 33
G14 66 100 0.0173 0.0025 0.0023 1.5 0.035 300 100
G15 67 100 0.0173 0.0025 0.0023 1.5 0.035 300 100
G16 68 200 0.0334 0.006 0.0055 1.5 0.035 225 50
Generators G1–G8 all use type DC1A exciters, with the following parameters:
TR ¼ 0:01; KAex ¼ 40; TAex ¼ 0:02; Eex

min
¼ 10; Eex
max
¼ 10; TEex ¼ 0:785; KEex ¼ 1;
E ¼ 0:07; BE ¼ 0:91:
Aex ex
Generator G9 uses a type ST1A_v2 exciter, with the following parameters:
TR ¼ 0:01; KAex ¼ 200; Efd

min
¼ 5; Efd
max
¼ 5:
Generator G9 is also fitted with a PSS with the following settings:
TWPSS ¼ 10; T1PSS ¼ 0:05; T2PSS ¼ 0:01; T3PSS ¼ 0:05; T4PSS ¼ 0:02; KPSS ¼ 10;
min
EPSS ¼ 0:5; EPSS
max
¼ 0:5:
A.2 Two Area Test Network Data
All the data is adopted from [3].
A.2.1 Line Impedance Data
The line impedance data is presented in Table A.5.
Table A.5 Line data for Kundur two area network

From bus To bus R (p.u.) X (p.u.) B (p.u.)
1 5 0 0.15/9 0
2 6 0 0.15/9 0
3 11 0 0.15/9 0
4 10 0 0.15/9 0
5 6 25 × 0.0001 25 × 0.001 25 × 0.00175
10 11 25 × 0.0001 25 × 0.001 25 × 0.00175
6 7 10 × 0.0001 10 × 0.001 10 × 0.00175
9 10 10 × 0.0001 10 × 0.001 10 × 0.00175
7 8 110 × 0.0001 110 × 0.001 110 × 0.00175
7 8 110 × 0.0001 110 × 0.001 110 × 0.00175
8 9 110 × 0.0001 110 × 0.001 110 × 0.00175
8 9 110 × 0.0001 110 × 0.001 110 × 0.00175
A.2.2 Load Flow Data
Data required to complete load flow is included in, bus 1 is the slack (Table A.6).
Table A.6 Load flow data for Kundur two area network
Bus V (p.u.) θ (°) PG (MW) PL (MW) QL (MVar) QC (MW)
1 1.03 0 – – – –
2 1.01 – 700 – – –
3 1.03 – 719 – – –
4 1.01 – 700 – – –
7 – – – 967 100 200
9 – – – 1767 100 350
A.2.3 Generator Dynamic Data
The generator dynamic presented is given in on the machine base (Table A.7).
Table A.7 Generator dynamic data for the Kundur two area test network
Gen Rating Xd Xd0 Xd00 0
Td0 00
Td0 Xq0 Xq00 0
Tq0 00
Tq0 H (s)
(MVA) (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) (s) (s) (p.u.) (p.u.) (s) (s)
G1 900 1.8 0.3 0.25 8 0.03 1.7 0.25 0.4 0.05 6.5
G2 900 1.8 0.3 0.25 8 0.03 1.7 0.25 0.4 0.05 6.5
G3 900 1.8 0.3 0.25 8 0.03 1.7 0.25 0.4 0.05 6.175
G4 900 1.8 0.3 0.25 8 0.03 1.7 0.25 0.4 0.05 6.175
All generators use the same AVR settings, given below:
KAex ¼ 200; TAex ¼ 0:01; TBTGR ¼ 10; TCTGR ¼ 1; Efd

min
¼ 5:5; Efd
max
¼ 5:5:
Similarly, PSS settings on all generators are identical, and given below:
TWPSS ¼ 10; T1PSS ¼ 0:05; T2PSS ¼ 0:02; T3PSS ¼ 3; T4PSS ¼ 5:4;

KPSS ¼ 20; EPSS
min
¼ 0:1; EPSS
max
¼ 0:1:
A.3 HVDC System Details
A.3.1 VSC System Details
Details are provided for the HVDC system parameters used for various case studies
throughout this thesis (Table A.8).
Table A.8 VSC-HVDC control parameters

VSC control Key parameter data
Inner current control loop Kd and Kq = 0.89
Td and Tq = 0.00159
P and Vac feedback control Kpp ¼ 0:1; KIp ¼ 40; KpVac ¼ 1; KIVac ¼ 100
Q and Vdc feedback control KpQ ¼ 0:1; KIQ ¼ 40; KpVdc ¼ 4; KIVdc ¼ 120
A.3.2 LCC-HVDC Control Setting

For current controller I = 0.9 kV
Minimum firing angle at rectifier = 5°
Maximum firing angle = 180°
Minimum extinction angle = 10°
References
1. B. Pal, B. Chaudhuri, Robust Control in Power Systems (Springer Inc., New York, 2005)
3. P. Kundur, Power System Stability & Control (McGraw Hill, New York, 1994)
Appendix B
Risk Indices Data
This appendix will provide G8, G9 and G16-1 mechanical data and the calculations
for the negative damping.
B.1 Generators Data
Generators mechanical data is adapted from [1] and scaled up appropriately to

match generator size and its inertia (Tables B.1, B.2 and B.3).
Table B.1 Mechanical data and mode shapes for G8

Mass Spring constant Mode shapes
(lb-ft2) p.u. torque/rad f = 14.17 Hz f = 18.3 Hz f = 23.24 Hz f = 29.45 Hz
Hp 40245 19 −2.0996 −3.1684 5.9189 −1.3755
Ip 67404 34 −1.5721 −1.8371 2.0379 0.08011
Lpa 371995 52 −0.908 −0.3714 −1.3816 0.81434
Lpb 383061 70 0.2966 1.1142 −0.5576 −1.6164
GEN 376251 2.82 1 1 1 1
EX 14823 2.6247 −28.284 −1.6191 −0.6198
Table B.2 Mechanical data and mode shapes for G9

Mass Spring constant Mode shapes
(lb-ft2) p.u. torque/rad f = 14.17 Hz f = 18.3 Hz f = 2324 Hz f = 29.29 Hz
Hp 52896 25 −2.1006 −3.1976 6.0024 −1.3401
Ip 88628 45 −1.5724 −1.8399 2.0495 0.08501
Lpa 489108 68 −0.911 −0.3579 −1.4028 0.79265
Lpb 503664 93 0.3058 1.1388 −0.5467 −1.6043
GEN 494727 3.7 1 1 1 1
EX 19490 2.5761 −29.308 −1.6551 −0.6292

in AC/DC Systems, Springer Theses, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-44947-0
210 Appendix B: Risk Indices Data
Table B.3 Mechanical data and mode shapes for G16-1

(lb-ft2) constant p.u. f = 14.17 Hz f = 18.3 Hz f = 22.77 Hz f = 29.29 Hz
torque/rad
Hp 173072 46 −2.1462 −3.2899 5.7578 −1.2556
Ip 272107 84 −1.5741 −1.8288 1.8119 0.16640
Lpa 1494617 126 −0.8998 −0.3283 −1.4181 0.78294
Lpb 1545160 171 0.3060 1.1318 −0.5073 −1.6018
GEN 1516278 6.83 1 1 1 1
EX 59856 2.6534 −28.51 −1.675 −0.6093
B.2 Negative Damping Calculated for 50 %
See Tables B.4, B.5, B.6 and B.7.
Table B.4 Negative damping in the torsional modes of G1 with all lines in service (50 %
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 1.2 0.0229

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 1.05 0.019
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 4.61 0.023
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 0.36 0.034
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.45 20.55 3.9 0.54 0.012

Mode 3 23.24 26.76 6.77 0.39 0.008
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 30.9 0.37 0.00259
Mode 5 14.33 35.67 2.68 0.8 0.037
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 5.07 0.48 0.00836

Mode 3 23.24 26.76 9 0.39 0.00623
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 43.34 0.5 0.0024
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.53 0.29 0.02596
Appendix B: Risk Indices Data 211
Table B.7 Negative damping in the torsional modes of G16-1 with all lines in service (50 %
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 11.46 0.2211 0.0017

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 20.27 0.53 0.0039
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 93.7 1.538 0.0035
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 8.2 0.633 0.0339
B.3 Negative Damping with 30 % Compensation Level
See Tables B.8, B.9, B.10 and B.11.
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 1.58 0.0302

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 0.64 0.0117
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.42 0.0024
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 0.379 0.029
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.45 20.55 3.9 0.54 0.012

Mode 3 23.24 26.76 6.77 0.39 0.008
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 30.9 0.37 0.00259
Mode 5 14.33 35.67 2.68 0.4 0.036
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 5.07 0.4937 0.00860

Mode 3 23.24 26.76 9 0.389 0.00622
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 43.34 0.32 0.00159
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.53 0.29 0.029
Table B.11 Negative damping in the torsional modes of G16-1 with all lines in service (30 %
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 11.46 1.5788 0.012176

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 20.27 1.235 0.009108
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 93.7 0.87236 0.002016
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 8.2 0.7417 0.028589
B.4 Generators in Radial Connection with 70 % Compensation
See Tables B.12, B.13 and B.14.
Table B.12 Negative damping in the torsional modes of G1 for radial configuration (70 %
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 0.022 0.00042

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 0.099 0.0018
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.519 0.00297
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 49 4.707
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.45 20.55 3.9 0.45 0.01

Mode 3 23.24 26.76 6.77 0.85 0.018071
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 30.9 4.19 0.02936
Mode 5 14.33 35.67 2.68 2.86 0.33204
Table B.14 Negative damping in the torsional modes of G16-1 for radial configuration (70 %
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 11.46 0.177 0.0013

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 20.27 0.189 0.0013
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 93.7 0.378 0.000874
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 8.2 1.2 0.046
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 0.066 0.00126

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 0.85 0.0156
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 6.13 0.035
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 0.45 0.043
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.45 20.55 3.9 0.67 0.0149

Mode 3 23.24 26.76 6.77 4.47 0.095
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 30.9 1.5 0.0105
Mode 5 14.33 35.67 2.68 0.43 0.0499
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 11.46 0.2211 0.0017

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 20.27 0.53 0.0039
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 93.7 1.538 0.0035
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 8.2 0.633 0.024
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 9.6 0.0185

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 0.92 0.0169
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.21 0.0012
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 0.11 0.01056
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.45 20.55 3.9 5.16 0.115

Mode 3 23.24 26.76 6.77 0.89 0.019
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 30.9 0.35 0.0024
Mode 5 14.33 35.67 2.68 0.27 0.031
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 11.46 0.67 0.005

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 20.27 0.98 0.00726
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 93.7 0.36 0.00084
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 8.2 0.218 0.0084
B.7 70 % Per Phase Compensation in Normal Network

Configuration
See Table B.21.
Table B.21 Negative damping in the torsional modes of G1 with 70 % asymmetrical

compensation
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.45 20.55 4.62 0.8 0.0153

Mode 3 23.24 26.76 8.13 0.54 0.0099
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.46 0.0026
Mode 5 14.33 35.67 3.29 0.48 0.046
B.7.1 70 % Per Phase Compensation in Normal Network

Configuration
See Table B.22.
Table B.22 Negative damping in the torsional modes of G1 in radial configuration with 70 %
asymmetrical compensation
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.45 20.55 4.62 0.8 0.0153

Mode 3 23.24 26.76 8.13 0.54 0.0099
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.46 0.0026
Mode 5 14.33 35.67 3.29 0.48 0.046
B.7.1.1 Uncompensated Line in Parallel with Compensated Line
See Tables B.23, B.24, B.25, B.26, B.27, B.28, B.29 and B.30.
Table B.23 Negative damping in the torsional modes of G1 with 70 % compensation of in L44
and L45 uncompensated in normal network configuration
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 1.04 0.0198

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 0.7 0.0128
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.6 0.0034
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 0.46 0.045
and L45 uncompensated in radial network configuration
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 0.049 0.00093

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 0.04 0.000735
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.07 0.000402
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 1.51 0.146
Table B.25 Negative damping in the torsional modes of G1 with 35 % compensation in L44 and
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 1.37 0.02620

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 5.8 0.1066
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.4853 0.00278
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 0.36 0.03458
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 0.56 0.0107

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 3.5 0.064
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.34 0.0019
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 0.14 0.01345
and L45 uncompensated in normal network configuration
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 1.04 0.0198

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 0.75 0.0138
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.97 0.00556
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 0.4 0.038
and L45 uncompensated in radiall network configuration
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 1.04 0.0198

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 0.75 0.0138
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.97 0.00556
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 0.4 0.038
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 2.25 0.043

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 0.5 0.00919
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.43 0.002466
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 0.38 0.036
L45 in radial network configuration
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 2.25 0.1905

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 0.5 0.00735
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.43 0.000849
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 0.38 0.0076
B.8 Uneven Compensation of Lines
See Tables B.31, B.32, B.33, B.34, B.35 and B.36.
Table B.31 Negative damping in the torsional modes of G1 with 50 % uneven compensation of
L44 and L45 in normal network configuration
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 0.26 0.0235

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 0.29 0.0239
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.1069 0.0033
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 0.0935 0.0749
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.45 20.55 3.9 0.58 0.0129

Mode 3 23.24 26.76 6.77 0.375 0.0079
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 30.9 0.38 0.0026
Mode 5 14.33 35.67 2.68 0.26 0.03
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.45 20.55 3.9 0.48 0.0083

Mode 3 23.24 26.76 6.77 0.37 0.0059
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 30.9 0.32 0.0015
Mode 5 14.33 35.67 2.68 0.29 0.0259
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 4.62 0.26 0.084

Mode 3 22.77 27.23 8.13 0.29 0.014
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 37.75 0.1069 0.003
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.29 0.0935 0.034
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.45 20.55 3.9 0.7 0.015

Mode 3 23.24 26.76 6.77 0.39 0.0082
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 30.9 0.38 0.0026
Mode 5 14.33 35.67 2.68 0.25 0.0298
Gn (rad/s)
sub sub n Hn
Mode 2 29.29 20.71 5.07 0.51 0.0088

Mode 3 23.24 26.76 9 0.37 0.0059
Mode 4 18.3 31.7 43.34 0.32 0.0015
Mode 5 14.17 35.83 3.53 0.287 0.0256
References
1. IEEE Subsynchronous Resonance Task Force, First benchmark model for computer 87
simulation of subsynchronous resonance. IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus Syst. 96, 1565–1572
(1977)

Risk Based Assessment of Subsynchronous Resonance in ACDC Systems

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Springer Theses

Recognizing Outstanding Ph.D. Research

Recognizing Outstanding Ph.D. Research

Theses are accepted into the series by invited nomination only

• They must be written in good English.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8790

Risk Based Assessment

ISSN 2190-5053 ISSN 2190-5061 (electronic)

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Future transmission networks will be characterized by increased number of heavily

In addition to ﬁxed series capacitors, thyristor controlled series capacitors

Substantial research contributions can be found throughout this thesis and it

July 2016 Prof. Jovica V. Milanović, CEng, FIET, FIEEE

• J. V. Milanovic and A. Adrees, “Identifying Generators at Risk of SSR in

• A. Adrees, and J. V. Milanovic, “Effectiveness of Asymmetrical Series

I must express my gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Jovica V. Milanović for his

2.2.4 Power System Stabilizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.12 Effect of VSC-HVDC Line on Generator Ranking . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

5.7.2 Effect of Uncertainties on Level of Risk of SSR

a, b, c Three phase windings

uCZ Reversal voltage (at instantaneous reversal)

Abstract Electric power transmission networks are undergoing continuous chan-

1.1 Power System Stability

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 1

1.1.1 Oscillations in Power System

Electromechanical Oscillations within power systems have varying causes, and

1.2 Subsynchronous Resonance

IEEE Committee Report deﬁnes subsynchronous resonance (SSR) as an electric

1.2.1 Self Excitation

Subsynchronous frequency currents flowing in the generator terminals produce

Series compensation of transmission lines introduces electrical frequencies (fne),

1.2.2 Transient Torques Ampliﬁcation

1.3 Known Cases of Subsynchronous Resonance

Until 1971, it was a common notion that up to 70 % series compensation could be

1.3.1 The Mohave Incidents

In 1970, a 750 MVA cross compound turbine generator at Mohave Generating

1.3.2 Navajo Project

1.3.3 HVDC Turbine Generator Interactions

The advent of thyristor valves in nineteen seventies initiated the continuous

1.4 HVDC Transmission

1.5 HVDC Technology

LCC-HVDC was the ﬁrst practical HVDC conversion technology to be developed.

Fig. 1.1 Pulse converter I dc

Line commutated conversion is basically simple; it is the external plant required

1.5.1.1 General Operation Principle

1.5.1.2 Control of HVDC Systems

A HVDC transmission is highly controllable. Its efﬁcient use depends on appro-

1.5.1.3 Inherent Damping Characteristics of LCC-HVDC

A HVDC system connected to a turbine generator, in the absence of control, would

1.5.2.1 General Topology and Operation

Fig. 1.2 Production of converter output waveform

Fig. 1.4 Two level three phase VSC topology

1.5.2.2 Inherent Damping Characteristics of VSC-HVDC

The AC reference voltage controls VSC-HVDC in accordance with the demand of

Vac Vcon sinðdÞ

1.6 Past Research on Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR)

The phenomenon of subsynchronous resonance in AC power system was ﬁrst

1.6.1 Analysis Methods

1.6.2 Potential Sources of Subsynchronous Oscillations

1.6.2.1 Series Capacitor Compensation of Networks

Series compensation of transmission lines introduces natural resonant electrical

For resonant oscillations to be sustained, the net system resistance must be