Theories, Principles and Models

5/15/2022
in Education and Training
Contents
Introduction..............................................................................................................................................2
Task 1........................................................................................................................................................3
1.1 Analyse theories, principles and models of learning....................................................3
1.2 Explain ways in which theories, principles and models of learning can be applied
to teaching, learning and assessment..........................................................................................4
1.3 Analyze models of learning preferences...........................................................................5
1.4 Explain how identifying and taking account of learners’ individual learning preferences
enables inclusive teaching, learning and assessment............................................................................6
Task 2....................................................................................................................................................7
2.1 Analyze theories, principles and models of communication............................................7
2.2 Explain ways in which theories, principles and models of communication can be
applied to teaching, learning and assessment............................................................................8
Task 3....................................................................................................................................................9
3.1 Analyze theories, principles and models of assessment...................................................9
3.2 Explain ways in which theories, principles and models of assessment can be
applied in assessing learning........................................................................................................11
Task 4..................................................................................................................................................12
4.1 Analyze theories and models of curriculum development..............................................12
4.2 Explain ways in which theories and models of curriculum development can be
applied in developing curricula in the student’s own area of specialism..........................13
Task 5..................................................................................................................................................15
5.1 Analyze theories and models of reflection and evaluation..............................................15
5.2 Explain ways in which theories and models of reflection and evaluation can be
applied to reviewing the student’s own practice......................................................................17
Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................18
Reference............................................................................................................................................19
 Introduction

This paper explains how to understand and apply important theories, principles, and models of learning
in education and training, as well as how to apply these theories, principles, and models of learning to
teaching, learning, and assessment, as well as models of learning preferences, with an emphasis on how
to identify and take into account learners' individual learning preferences. It also demonstrates effective
communication theories, ideas, and models, as well as how they can be applied to teaching, learning,
and evaluation. Better understanding of assessment theories, principles, and models, as well as how
they might be used to assess learning. This report will be completed with a deep examination of
curriculum and development theories and models, as well as a grasp of the theories and models of
reflection and evaluation within my field of study.
 Task 1
1.1 Analyse theories, principles and models of learning

Bloom's taxonomy of learning - Bloom's taxonomy of learning can be used to create lesson plans, set
goals, and assess students. This paradigm gives three learning domains or learning goals to help them
learn a new skill, information, or attitude.

• Cognitive – knowledge

• Affective – growth in positive feelings of self

• Psychomotor – skills

The following method is used to gain knowledge, and each stage must be completed before moving on
to the next: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and assessment. (Clarke 2015).
This concept has been chastised for oversimplifying thought and its application to learning (Marzano
2006). According to research, tutors who constantly utilize Bloom's taxonomy are unable to distinguish
which questions are more difficult at higher levels than those at lower levels (Marzano 2006).

Behaviorism – When behaviors alter, learning has occurred. Positive reinforcement for desired
behaviors is used to achieve conditioning. Continuous reinforcement is essential when starting this
procedure. This paradigm has been chastised for having a one-dimensional view of human behavior. It
ignores alternate learning methods that do not entail rewards and penalties. It doesn't take into
consideration things like free choice or internal variables like mood (Flores 2013).

Cognitivism- Internal learning is a process. Internalized information is integrated into a person's values,
beliefs, and behaviors. Internalization is comparable to conditioning in that some habits become
ingrained in the individual. This is the cognitive stage, in which general images are learned, followed by
the learning stage, in which new skills are acquired.

Socially situated learning – Learning cannot take place without social interaction and collaborative
work. Learning is an unintended process that requires contextualization. The cognitive method, on the
other hand, thinks that learning occurs in isolation. People may transfer information to other
environments, according to research. (2012, Learning Theories).
 1.2 Explain ways in which theories, principles and models of learning can be
applied to teaching, learning and assessment.

It is critical that instruction be fully inclusive of all students, hence differentiation through the use of pre-
assessments is required. These assessments will also aid in determining the proper resources needed to
deliver the course. For example, some of our students are unable to read, so giving them written
material would be inappropriate.

The organization's preferred teaching methodology must also be considered during the learning process,
as going against the tutor's views is likely to result in conflict and poor tutor performance management.
As a result, it is critical to follow all policies, procedures, and working practices.

It would not be suitable to offer examples of people playing polo in an impoverished suburban area, for
example, because cultural awareness is required alongside past experience. Stereotyping must be
avoided, and examples from the learning materials should not be used.

The models of learning can be applied in the following ways

• Bloom's taxonomy was created for top-down organizations, which is not an appropriate model to use
when working with students.

• By embedding incentive systems into the course content, behaviorist models can be implemented.
Punishments are ineffective and do not motivate people, especially if they have low self-esteem and
regard. We employ a reward system in which participants receive a free meal coupon that can be used
for a 2-course lunch after attending two sessions. This reward supports Maslow's theory and the
obligation to meet primary basic requirements. People can also learn without changing their behavior.

• Although we seek to assist learners in achieving self-actualization, we are unlikely to be able to do so

at the level of pupils with whom we work. Humanism, on the other hand, can be used to ensure that
education takes a comprehensive approach to the learning process, one that goes beyond what
humanists recommend.

• Motivation theories can help tutors create lesson plans that boost learner motivation; yet, failing to
apply this model could lead to disengagement and the learner not reaching their full potential.

• Cognitive models can be used since they acknowledge that knowledge must be assimilated in order to
change behavior. As a result, strategies can be devised to help this process and guarantee that learners
have as complete a picture as possible of the new knowledge being assimilated.
• Social situation theories can help with training development by ensuring that tutors present real-
world examples and when to use these new behaviors. It's similar to a role play in that it allows students
to do a "dummy run" and practice skills in a safe environment to confirm they're successful.

• Reflexive practice theory can help to enhance the lesson by allowing learners to reflect during class
time. This allows learners to think and begin the process of internalization, which cognitivists believe is
the goal of learning.

1.3 Analyze models of learning preferences

According to Honey and Mumford, there are four different learning styles (Mobbs no date). People who
learn by doing are activists. Theorists gain knowledge by comprehending the theory that underpins
actions in the form of model conceptions and facts. Pragmatists must be able to apply what they have
learned in the classroom to the actual world. Reflectors learn by observing and reflecting on what they
see. They also learn through watching.

According to Kolb, there are four cyclic stages to learning. A new experience, such as a problem,
happens, which is then reflected on and alternative solutions are offered, which are then tested for their
capacity to remedy the problem (McLeod 2010).

According to the VARK model, we all have a preferred learning style: visual, aural, read/write, or
kinesthetic sensory (VARK 2017). Individual learning styles should be accommodated in lesson content,
materials, and assessments. Our ideal representational system explains this further.

The oversimplification of these models has been challenged. According to neuroscientists, we make
meaning of the world by combining all of our senses. As a result, isolating the senses has a negative
impact (brainbox no date). Organizing people into a few categories prevents tutors from taking into
account the vast array of elements that influence learning (brainbox no date). If tutors concentrate on
one way of material delivery, it will be detrimental to the learning process, as learning necessitates a
variety of approaches to maximize earning potential. Students may sometimes use this as an excuse for
poor performance, claiming that it is the tutor's fault for not include their preferred learning methods in
the classes (brainbox no date). There is also a risk that focusing solely on an individual's talents will miss
out on opportunities to holistically develop the learner by allowing them to use all of their senses to
their full potential.
 1.4 Explain how identifying and taking account of learners’ individual learning
preferences enables inclusive teaching, learning and assessment

Individual learning preferences will have a considerable impact on the model used in the teaching
method. It is critical to choose the most appropriate models for each case. The model chosen will have
an impact on how the course is delivered. However, when each model is reduced to its bare elements,
these models are essentially prescribing the various approaches to achieve behavior change, which is
done through a process of experience and evaluation and requires the tutor to inspire or provide
positive reinforcement. Different learning styles will be covered in further detail in the following section,
but for the kinesthetic learner, for example, a more practically focused model would be more
appropriate to maximize their learning potential. Individual learning styles should be considered while
assessing students, since some may flourish in written tests while others excel in practical examinations.

Honey and Mumford presented a learning styles model. The following learning styles exist among
students, and education should be tailored to them.

· Activist (as opposed to kinesthetic). Mind mapping, problem solving, practical activities, group debates,
and role plays should all be part of the learning process.

• Theorist - critical for autistic learners who learn by analyzing and synthesizing information to build
logical hypotheses. Models, statistics, tales, quotes, background information, and related theories
should all be included in the learning material.

• Pragmatists — allowing these students to experiment is critical. Case studies, discussions, problem
solving, and time for reflection should all be included in the classroom.

• Reflector – see things from several angles to come to conclusions. Pairing groups, self-analysis work,
surveys, time to think, observation, coaching, and tutor feedback should all be used in the classroom
(Mobbs no date).
 Task 2
2.1 Analyze theories, principles and models of communication

Below are some theories of communication

• Transactional analysis - We communicate in three ego states and can switch between them during a
conversation. These states are parent adult child, and we engage with each other as parents, adults,
children, and adults. Each ego state corresponds to a distinct set of ideas and actions. However, due to
persistent mental health issues, it would be impossible for some of these students to move on from
being the child. For example, one of our service users with a severe form of bipolar disorder cannot help
himself when he becomes aggressive; it is a symptom of his illness. There are also people who have
experienced considerable psychological trauma in the past and find it difficult to transition to adult
engagement.

• Interactive - Both verbal and nonverbal communication occurs. Encoder source and decoder are
involved in the communication process. The message originator is the source, and the encoder and
decoder are the entities that receive the information and then reply with feedback or source as a result
of the decoding that they provided (businesstopia 2017). Although this model describes how
communication is carried out, it does not provide communication tactics. Again, the decoding of the
message may be altered by the mental health issues of certain of our service users. Those suffering from
paranoia or delusions will interpret what has been said according to their circumstances; for some, it
may be more appropriate to work with them initially in order to obtain medical intervention, but the
majority will refuse to seek help because they do not believe they have a problem.

• Linear - Communication is the process of sending a message with meaning to another person, with
the receiver having the ability to interpret it in their own way. This approach is probably most suited to
the type of learner we have, and while not explicit, it does allow for the possibility that the message may
not be received as intended. This also ensures that tutors are aware of the fact that what we express is
not always interpreted as we intend. As a result, all communication must be clear and simple, and it
must be consistent with differentiation ideas, thus we must be aware of individual variations even in our
communications.

• Institutional - The institution, i.e., the educational setting, establishes the norms and frameworks that
persons receiving the information must follow, i.e., how to act (Lammers no date). To some extent, all
educational institutions accomplish this; the question is how and to what extent. All of the courses are
designed to enhance habits and skills, and they teach the guidelines for doing so. Institutions can take a
classic top-down approach — that is, we tell you what to do and you do it – or a more collaborative
approach. The latter method is usually the most beneficial, as learners become more invested in their
own development and are more likely to sustain such behaviors after the course is completed.
2.2 Explain ways in which theories, principles and models of communication can
be applied to teaching, learning and assessment

The numerous communication models can be used in a variety of teaching, learning, and evaluation
situations, and are essential for lesson design. The sort of lesson plan developed will be determined by
the organization's teaching model; for example, if the institution uses an institutional model, the lessons
will be very different from the interactive model.

Models like the TA and linear should be considered. The idea is to help students transition away from
childish relationships and toward greater adult-to-adult contact. Nonverbal communication is also vital,
and while it cannot be planned for because it is unconscious, it is crucial to be aware of one's own
nonverbal communication. Reading a learner's nonverbal communication will also allow for a course
evaluation because it will gauge the learner's engagement. However, it is vital to remember that autistic
students would be unable to read nonverbal clues.

The Bloom's taxonomy of learning can be used to create lesson plans, set goals, and assess students.
This paradigm gives three learning domains or learning goals to help them learn a new skill, information,
or attitude.

• Cognitive – knowledge

• Affective – growth in positive feelings of self (this is the core target which we aim to achieve with our
service users as this fulfils our mission statement – we work with homeless and vulnerable people to
raise self-confidence, thereby enabling positive life changes (London Gazette 2016)

• Psychomotor – skills

The following method is used to gain knowledge, and each stage must be completed before moving on
to the next: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and assessment. This model
can be used to examine a learner's achievement of certain goals once again. These objectives could be
agreed upon by the tutor and the student, or required by the accreditor if conducting an accredited
course. Lesson ideas for the course will be influenced by the many types of goals.

It's also crucial to consider potential communication hurdles; failing to do so may result in inefficient
teaching approaches and may cause the learner to lose interest in any future learning. As a result, all
classes must be carefully organized to ensure that they are totally inclusive. It would be prudent to do
pre-learner assessments to guarantee that this occurs, as it would be a waste of resources to
accommodate for special needs that are not required. The FOG and SMOG indexes (Readability forums
2017) could be used to analyze the readability of information to ensure that the course is oriented at the
proper level in respect to the course material. At this point, listening abilities should be tested, and
special learning hurdles such as ADHD should be considered; for example, it would not be suitable to
conduct a class that is totally sat listening in this case because it does not meet their specific needs. Also,
some of our students are unable to read, necessitating the use of alternative learning resources.

Task 3
3.1 Analyze theories, principles and models of assessment

Initial/ diagnostic - Before teaching begins, the learner's present knowledge, skill sets, and capacities
are assessed. Knowing your students' strengths and limitations might help you prepare effective lessons
and teach them. Assessments can be of various types.

• Pre-tests i.e., current abilities

• Self-assessments

• Interviews

The benefits include the ability for the instructor to determine the learner's level and any special
requirements. This means that the classes can be tailored to meet the needs of individual students. The
negative is that the instructor may have formed preconceived notions as a result of this, which may
impede the learners' progress.

Formative - Formative evaluations are a two-way street. Continuously provides feedback to ensure that
students are on track. The emphasis is on areas for improvement rather than grades. They're used to
figure out how well students are learning and how effective teachers are. It enables students to quickly
determine their strengths and limitations, as well as possibilities for progress. Formative assessments
include the following:

• concept map to represent their understanding

• provide a summary of the main points of the lesson

• Observations

• Homework

• Role play

• class discussions

• Reflections journals
• Question and answer sessions

• In-class activities

• Student feedback with questions about delivery and self-evaluation

Effective large- Scale evaluation is difficult to accomplish and may be logistically impossible. It is a
lengthy procedure that necessitates tremendous continual dedication. Formative assessment lacks the
objective and comparative measures that are essential for accountability. Tutors may also be
unprepared to use formative exams effectively.

Summative - An end-of-course evaluation procedure that assesses levels of achievement and course
delivery efficacy. Accredited tests, or high-stakes summative assessments, are delivered at the end of a
specific period and follow a standardized framework. Then, in an unbiased manner, levels of knowledge
can be measured against a global benchmark. Summative assessment can take several forms.

• Accredited Examinations

• Final examination

• Projects

• Essays

• Portfolios

• Performances

• Student evaluation

• Instructor self-evaluation

The benefits include the ability to illustrate how much a student has learned and evaluate progress and
achievement, the ability to grade against a standard, and the ability to measure improvements.
However, because concerns only arise at the conclusion of the course, they cannot intervene before
they become significant. These types of assessments place pressure on students, who may grow
worried, affecting their test results.

There are many different types of assessments, both formal and informal. Various factors will influence
the assessment method chosen.

• Validity and reliability - If the course is accredited, assessments must be more legitimate and
dependable, thus they must be rated against a common standard, such as marking standards (which
also enables complete fairness and an objective set of criteria in which to grade learners). This assures
that those who have earned this certification have met a certain criteria. If this is the desired learning
outcome, more formal assessment procedures are required.

• the needs of individual learners - Individual learners will be assessed, and adaptations will need to be
made to accommodate this even in more formal forms of assessment, e.g., adaptations for people with
dyslexia will need to include additional time to finish exams. Assessment selection for more casual
examinations will be based on characteristics such as individual learning styles.

• current prominent teaching and education theories Evaluation methods have evolved over time, and
current theories will likely influence the assessment methods used.

• the business's current methodologies — if the organization is more top-down or delivers more
academic courses, more formal types of assessments are more likely to be used.

• accreditors requirements – Accreditors will choose how their courses are assessed and will have an
impact on course content.

3.2 Explain ways in which theories, principles and models of assessment can be
applied in assessing learning

The numerous assessment models can aid in the development and implementation of evaluations. As
previously said, a variety of circumstances will influence the assessments that are used. Pre-assessments
are used to gauge existing competence and can then be used to measure progress, whereas formative
assessments are used to track development throughout the course. It's critical to incorporate this into
lesson plans so that if students don't understand the material, they can get help quickly. Summative
assessments are given at the end of the course and can be compared to pre-assessments to show how
much has changed. All of these assessment approaches should be incorporated into lesson planning.

There are numerous types of assessments, therefore determining the assessment's objective is
essential. These models allow a vast selection of tools to pick from, depending on the accreditation
standards and the relevance to the course. This process can be influenced by learning style, and various
assessment methods can be used to meet individual needs. This also guarantees that tutors follow all
legal obligations for taking into account differences between students.

Some evaluation methods, such as self or peer assessments, may be more appropriate for higher level
learners and will require a much higher amount of autonomy to be effective. However, for learners who
are unable to do this form of evaluation on their own, a modified version called guided self-assessment
can be employed.
Each assessment approach has advantages and disadvantages. It guarantees that the learner has a
complete and entire mastery of the topic and can apply that knowledge to relevant circumstances by
using various evaluation methods.

Task 4
4.1 Analyze theories and models of curriculum development

A curriculum is a set of learning objectives that must be met. These pans can have many different
shapes. There are three different curricular models to choose from.

All learning is defined by what learners should be able to do at the end of the course. It focuses on
learning outcomes and employs a methodical planning approach. It begins with the course's objectives,
after which course content is created to support the achievement of the objectives, which is then
reviewed for its effectiveness in accomplishing the objectives. The emphasis is on education.

There are 4 steps to curriculum design

• Identify the broad aims and specific objectives

• Construct the course so objectives can be achieved

• test capacity of the course to achieve objectives

• explain the curriculum and objectives to teachers

However, objectives should not be so narrow that they limit what the teacher may do, as this could lead
to missed learning opportunities. This paradigm has the advantage of allowing subject benchmarking
and program definitions. It's part of the Outcomes-Based Education movement (Multiprofessional
faculty development 2012). This suggests that teachers consider desirable outcomes and define them
properly and unambiguously. Then they must work backwards to find relevant learning experiences in
order to fulfill the given goals. This style pushes teachers to concentrate on what students will do and to
plan classes accordingly.

The model is cyclical. It entails identifying purposes and objectives based on needs assessments of
professional bodies and students, followed by selection and content development, selection of learning
activities, and assessment / evaluation, similar to the linear model (Veness 2010). "Changes should be
planned and implemented on a rational and valid basis according to a logical process," Nicholls (1978)
emphasized. (Shahazad 2014: Nicholls & Nicholls, 1978)

According to Peyton and Peyton (1998: Multiprofessional faculty development 2012), development
begins with a needs assessment, then moves to design and implementation in order to reach a goal.
After this point, the assessment must be reassessed, and new requirements recognized. They also
mentioned that needs will alter based on society's expectations, making them very fluid and not fixed
over time, and unique to each learner. There must be several steps to the curriculum development
process.

These consist of

• Identify the context of what is to be delivered. This will include current educational or social belief,
culture, politics, economy, learners, teachers, professional bodies, exam boards, funding bodies and past
influence.

• Identify learners needs and curriculum bodies requirements

• Outline aims and outcomes of the sessions

• Identify ideas and limitations

• Detail the main structure, topics and sequence of the sessions and any assessments required

• Identify and develop each topic based on outcomes required

• Deliver course

• Develop evaluation strategies

• Review the course based on feedback and if it met the requirements

Both approaches use a rational and efficient approach. They are prescriptive, with explicit objectives and
evaluation methodologies that are aligned to determine how effectively students have met the learning
objectives. The benefit of this paradigm is its logical sequential structure, which even inexperienced
teachers can follow. However, developing and analyzing it takes a long time.

4.2 Explain ways in which theories and models of curriculum development can be
applied in developing curricula in the student’s own area of specialism

A combination of objective and process-based methods might help traditional, more academic courses.
In this case, the linear model is appropriate, especially if the course concludes with an exam or test. In
order to succeed/pass the subject, clearly defined objectives must be met. Accredited courses must also
follow a set of guidelines, thus curriculum design must be uniform across institutions. This is also true
when evaluating more work-related skills. Even in this case, however, a solely outcomes-oriented
approach is inappropriate, as learning is a far more comprehensive process than simply achieving stated
goals. Because certain learners will require more than the passive learner strategy to attain the specified
targets, active learning must be added to ensure multisensory learning. However, for remote learning
courses where practical application is less crucial, the simply linear approach may be adequate. Learner
engagement is not acceptable in this case, and the course content is presented in its entirety.

In connection to more vocational and lifelong learning courses, the linear method is important to
consider because the goal is for the learner to gain some skills at the end of the course. More student-
led focus is required. This is especially significant in our context, since the goal is to help students
overcome unfavorable educational experiences by allowing them to direct what they learn to some
extent.

Because our workshops are limited to eight students, we teach as a group, with participants producing
their own work or in small groups. Because some learners progress more slowly than others, it is
sometimes appropriate to allow learners to assist others or to assign cleaning tasks to those who
progress quickly.

We teach in a completely inclusive manner. Many of our clients are on the street. When we were
discussing the end of sessions at a new staff member's induction today, the staff member said, "Well,
you tell them to go home." I then stated that such rhetoric was inappropriate because many people do
not have a place to call home. I further mentioned that all food is taken away in silver containers, and
that plastic forks are provided so that the rough sleepers can eat the food they have prepared later in
the day. It is critical to utilize proper terminology since failing to do so may result in inequalities and
hurdles in learning and adopting cultural norms (such as having a place to call home) that are
inappropriate in our situation. As a result, we follow laws that promote equality, diversity, and equal
opportunity for all students.

Apart from cooking, we attempt to include other talents into all of our activities. Our main goal is to
increase self-esteem and progress toward self-actualization and true potential maximizing. As needed,
we incorporate literacy and numeracy skills into the lesson. It also improves teamwork and cooperation
skills.

There is no formal assessment mechanism for our course because it is not accredited. The main purpose
is to create a main and a desert. However, we identify those with whom it is acceptable to work toward
a basic food hygiene certificate, which is completed online and aids in the development of ITC skills. We
also provide one-on-one feedback and discuss the growth and development of learners.
 Task 5
5.1 Analyze theories and models of reflection and evaluation

Reflective practice enables growth and development by increasing self-awareness about performance
and behavioural change (Osterman 1993). For the most part, reflexive practice is a learned talent.
Reflexive practice is studied using a variety of theories and methods.

Experiential learning (e.g., Piaget) is a reflexive practice theory that focuses on the processes and
circumstances of learning (Osterman 1993). Learning begins with a difficult situation. People become
more engaged in the learning process when it is relevant to their needs, they are driven to learn, and
they are cooperatively involved in the process (Osterman 1993). "Experience, observation and
reflection, abstract reconceptualization, and experimentation" are all part of the learning process (Kolb,
1984: Osterman 1993). Many have criticized the models for failing to precisely define concepts,
allowing them to be interpreted in a variety of ways (Orey 2016), resulting in a number of theories that
do not fit together under this paradigm. It also fails to take into account the impact of non-reflective or
shared experiences on the learning process.

It's difficult to tell who the tutor is in reflexive practice, therefore groups talk about it. The teacher's job
description includes instructing, advising, participating in discussions, and listening. Learners take an
active role in the learning process (Osterman 1993).

Models of reflection include

• Gibbs (1988) reflective cycle is a six stage cyclic process (University of Cumbria no date)

O description of the situation,

o analysis of feelings/ emotions

o evaluation of how it went

o analysis and make sense of the situation

o conclusion i.e., could have done any more and what learnt

o Action plan and how to improve next time

Models of self-reflective practice include

• Peters (1991: Brainboxx no date) DATA model. His consists of 4 stages

O Describe - looking at the training and assessing what needs to be changed and why

o Analyze – the results and effectiveness of training from various sources

o Theorize- alternative ways of delivering the training which are more effective

o Act – trial new approaches

• Brookfield’s (1995: Brainboxx no date) 4 critical lenses to reflect on practice. These lenses include

O Autobiography or personal views – Brookfield states this is the most important evaluation tool

o Learners views this gauge’s people motivation to learn and participate in the course, results can then
be applied to improve the content of the course

o Views of colleagues

o Theoretical perspectives

Effective reflection necessitates a high level of impartiality; nonetheless, it is impossible to suspend our
opinions and values fully while ignoring the prevalent ideological backdrop and cultural beliefs (Finlay
2008). Another issue is that this paradigm is incompatible with Chinese values (Sung-Chan et al., 2006:
Finlay 2008). Because most instructors are under considerable time constraints, it may be impossible to
devote enough time to teaching and nurturing self-reflection. The effectiveness of this technique is also
determined by how much the organization and the instructor value this method.

Kirkpatrick’s Four-Level Training Evaluation Model (1994) analyses the effectiveness of the impact of
training for future improvements (MindTools 2016). The 4 levels are

• reaction – measures how learners reacted to the training, including assessment of the venue, to
gauge how well it was received and how it can be improved. This is typically assessed through
satisfaction and feedback surveys

• learning - measure what learners have learnt and whether this matches the specific learning
objectives of the course. To accurately assess the level of learning it is advisable to complete an
assessment before and after the training.

• behaviour – the extent that the training has changed behaviours, and how learners apply what they
have learnt. This is usually conducted a considerable time after the training has occurred. But it is
important to take into consideration that even if behaviours don’t change that learners still may have
learnt from the training

• results – analysis of final outcomes of the training. This however can be costly and time consuming

Kirkpatrick's model is time-consuming and costly, and it cannot be used in all situations (MindTools
2016). Also, the findings of satisfaction questionnaires are not always correct; many students simply
mark yes OK since it is a chore; as a result, the results collected are frequently inaccurate. Because many
of our learners are transient in nature and assessment over time is impossible, Kirkpatrick's
methodology would not be an adequate measurement of evaluation in our setting.

Assessment Methods can either be

• Quantitative assessments use numeric data and can incorporate a huge amount of data to allow
generalizations about learning outcomes and evaluate the program's efficacy (Stanford University no
date). Structured interviews, questionnaires, and exams are examples of assessments. To assess specific
learners' needs, tests might be devised on a national or institutional level. However, this research does
not allow for the development of a comprehensive picture.

• Qualitative data provides more comprehensive information about the learner's path. The focus is on
how students make sense of the world and experience it (Stanford University no date). Data, on the
other hand, takes a long time to collect and analyze, has a limited scope, and cannot be generalized.
Interviews, focus groups, portfolios, self-reflection, and observations are all examples of assessments.

It is preferable to adopt both qualitative and quantitative methods to the reflection process.

5.2 Explain ways in which theories and models of reflection and evaluation can be
applied to reviewing the student’s own practice

There are various models in which reflective practice can be developed from. These include

• Gibbs reflective cycle - Description, emotions, assessment, analysis, conclusion, and plan of action This
paradigm assists the learner in making sense of their experiences, as well as evaluating and adapting
behaviors as needed. This is a straightforward process paradigm that enables detailed descriptions and
assessments of events or circumstances (Barnett 2013). However, this technique is not always suitable,
and a more critical approach that raises more precise questions about the environment is required. This
model also fails to account for changes in instructor and learner expectations, and students may be
resistant to it if they do not believe it meets their course needs (Barnett 2013).

• Atkins and Murphy – awareness, situation description, examination of feelings and knowledge,
relevance assessment, learning cycle identification (open Learn 2017) This paradigm allows for a more
in-depth level of self-analysis by looking for explanations for issues that have arisen, including our
preconceptions. This framework, if documented, can help learners remember prior occurrences that can
be pondered on at a later time. However, because it is more sophisticated than other models, it is not
suited for rapid evaluation or for individuals learning to self-reflect (MSC Student 2016). As a result, this
methodology would not be suited for our situation, as many of our students lack the ability to perform
more in-depth contemplation.
• Rolfe – What, so what, and now what model with three levels of application (descriptive, theoretical,
and action oriented) (MSC student 2016) This strategy is appropriate for students who are learning to
reflect because each level requires a deeper level of contemplation than the one before it. However,
appraisal occurs only in the context of the scenario. We want to help our students grow as persons,
which this approach does not allow.

• Johns – designed as a structured reflection model that offers particular prompt questions to reflect on
the context of situations in the environment (MSC student 2016). The questions make it easier for
beginners to finish this procedure, and the stages can be done in any sequence, allowing time to be
allocated to each portion according to the scenario that needs to be evaluated, and they can be used on
individuals or groups. The prompt questions, on the other hand, have a very ridged structure, and some
of the questions may not be relevant to the issue; they can also cause difficulty for those who are
unfamiliar with the process. As a result, this model may not be suited for our children.

For our specific cohort of learners, I would encourage and embrace the cyclic nature of learning from
the reflective models. However, I believe the theories do not go far enough because each learning
environment is unique, and no two identical situations will be handled the same way - especially
because all learners have different wants and needs. As a result, there must be an additional element of
adaptation in the actual environment when using theories and models.

Conclusion
Adopting a variety of trends to learn will result in enhanced articulation, knowledge, and efficiency. The
trainers are responsible for creating a pleasant learning environment. Performance and self-motivation
are influenced by practical learning. Instructors should consider education costs as an investment rather
than an expense. Only then will students be able to connect academic knowledge to the professional
world. Learning is a constant process, which is why time management and attitude formation are
essential. Academic curriculum should be provided by educational institutions that includes practical
learning opportunities such as internships, part-time jobs, and further research.
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