Second Language Acquisition

“How second languages are learned?

How learners create a new langauge system with limited exposure to a second langauge?”

These papers were made up to fulfill assignment of Second Language Acquisition

By 7th Group

1. Siti Zulfa 21210140000001

2. Dhila Nurul Azmi 21210140000004

MAGISTER PROGRAM ENGLISH EDUCATION

FACULTY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES

SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF JAKARTA

2021
INTRODUCTION

Everyone has a different language intelligence capacity from other individuals, resulting
in diverse proceeds of second language acquisition. The acquisition of a second language is a
conscious learning process of understanding language (HOQUE, 2017). Developing a person's
competence in a second language can be carried out through language learning, people learned
the second language since they need communication in developing their life. According to
Fahriany (2018), in second language acquisition, students' personalities and cognitive become
critical factors in the learning process. It means the learning activities require understanding the
proper method to instruct students in acquiring the language. The beneficial of second language
acquisition impacts to other educational programs (Fahriany, 2018). It means the function of
second language learning becomes necessary for learners in every circle of ages. The second
language acquisition students could be young or adult people based on their purpose in the
learning process. Hence, students' characteristics and conditions would influence the learning
process of second language acquisition. Besides, the learning styles and strategies could
influence second language learning. Also, the learners could create a new language system with
limited exposure utilizes language acquisition device (LAD) in the second language learning
process.

Students' characteristics and conditions related to the factors in second language

acquisition, namely age. Young learners were easier to understand the language in particular
pronunciation while adults were easier to comprehend reading and writing faster in the learning
process (Ozfidan & Burlbaw, 2019). Young learners used to speak without feeling guilty if they
made errors, they could convey proper pronounce of the second language. While adult learners
focus on creating the proper utterance before stating it, they could more understand the word and
express ideas adequately since they have already conceived the second language. In addition, the
students’ characteristics and conditions are affected by environments. According to Krashen
(2002), second language learning could be artificial or formal and natural or informal. The
formal second language learning process lies in the classroom, where teachers, teaching
methods, and students’ presence supports learning activities. On the other hand, the natural or
informal environment allows learners to learn from society without formal instructor guidance.
Moreover, second language learning could be influenced by learning styles and strategies that
learners use in the learning process.

Learning style and language learning strategy are the two main factors that determine
how and how well the learner masters a second or foreign language (Oxford, 2003). The strategy
of mastering language is a long-term, abstract, and constant cognitive process. This process is
usually experienced by all students regardless of their background, age, and language acquisition
context. A popular and widely studied strategy is the Oxford Model. Oxford (1990) formulated
six main types of language learning strategies divided into direct strategies and indirect
strategies. Direct strategy means using the target language for the learning process. Direct
strategies include memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and compensation strategies. In
contrast, the indirect strategy does not use the target language for the learning process. These
strategies include metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies. If the
learning style and strategies are chosen with one's characteristics, the second language learning
will run effectively. For other effects, the goal of mastering the language will be easily achieved.

In addition, second language learning ties with the way conducting the learning process.
M.Lightbown and Spada (2013) mentioned that four types of theories could be implemented in
second language learning: behaviorists, innatist, cognitive, and social/cultural. Behaviorism is
related to students' practices in acquiring a second language and innatist connected to students'
traits to study. While the cognitive could influence learners' participation in the learning process,
the social/cultural play important roles in acquiring a second language. Implementing those
theories could assist second language learners in enhancing the quality of the learning process.
Besides, learners must know a second language regarding the knowledge system, concept, and
communication competence (Saville-Troike, 2006). The knowledge system demands learners to
know the principles and the potential to create meaning in the language. Also, the language
concept is emphasized with the grammatical elements in the language. Then, communicative
competence establishes learners to achieve the goal in second language learning.

Moreover, the learners could create a new language system with limited exposure and
utilize a language acquisition device (LAD) in the second language learning process. Chomsky
pioneered the theory of Universal Grammar (UG) that humans construct innately with universal
language-specific knowledge; naturally, humans have the capacity to understand something
(Larsen-Freeman & H. Long, 1991). Learners' development could influence their ability to
acquire the second language, their competence in studying strengthened by their willingness and
experiences in life. Hence, the second language learning environment provides the learners'
process in acquiring a second language. Humans are equipped with the brain and nerves to
manage the language system; the left side of the cerebral hemisphere performs to organize the
language (Hasanah, 2006). It means learners' ability in understanding the language supported by
the brain system to cultivate the language rules. The gift of human ability to understand the
language is the presence of language device acquisition (LAD) to help communicate and acquire
many languages.

The way second language learners acquire the learning process entangles their
characteristics and conditions, learning styles, learning strategies, and application in second
language learning based on theories; the points need to be concerned by learners to achieve
second language goals. Besides, second language learners were provided by the brain system to
control the language system called the language acquisition device (LAD). Hence, this paper
would like to present detailed information about how a second language is learned and how
learners create a new language system with limited exposure to a second language. It is a
necessary topic to be discussed since language plays a primary role in communication.

DISCUSSION

The second language is important for learners to develop their ability to acquire more
than one language. Second language learning has related the activities to study about the
language. Language learning aims to know students' output about the language; it is related to a
conscious process and teacher controls (Hoque, 2017). Second language learning is carried out
intentionally by learners to achieve the objective of understanding the language. According to
Saville-Troike (2006), second language embrace informal and formal learning; informal is
related to naturalistic context, while formal entangled classroom activities. Obtaining a second
language could be carried out through social life and academic life. Communicating with society
using the language is part of second language activities, while the classroom format allowed
learners to develop the language in an educational environment (Hashim & Yunus, 2018).
Second language learning tends to relate to formal classroom processes, but social interaction
could assist learners in understand the second language. There are many aspects could influence
second language learning, namely learners’ characteristic and conditions, learning styles,
learning strategies, application of theories. Besides, in the second language learning could create
a new language system with limited exposure by employing language acquisition device (LAD).

Learners’ characteristics and conditions

In second language learning, the instructor must acknowledge learners’ characteristics

and conditions in learning activities. According to M.Lightbown and Spada (2013), learners'
characteristics relate to cognitive maturity and metalinguistic awareness; learners' conditions
involve adequate time, feedback, and input in the learning process. Second language learners
consist of young and adult learners in the learning process. Young learners will try to use the
language even with limited comprehension, while adult learners feel burdened if they cannot use
it correctly. The learners' environment to study a second language influences the language
learning process; young learners still have time to practice, but adult learners force to use it in
their activities. Besides, learners have no boundaries to understand a second language, whether
they are young or adult. Since language is related to written or oral ability, young or adults could
comprehend language learning. It needs to concern learners' characteristics and conditions in
second language learning.

Learners' characteristics entangle learners' cognitive in learning. Adult learners could

learn faster since they already understand to use linguistic rules in the language, while young
learners assume that language learning is a device for uttering meaning (Khasinah, 2014). Young
learners are still free to express their idea in practice a second language; if they make a mistake,
it can be corrected. It must be a different context for adult learners since they already know the
language rules to use it properly. Thus, as learners get older in the study, they become self-
conscious about using their language, particularly oral language (Zafar & Meenakshi, 2012).
Adult learners are forced to express their idea accurately by using correct grammatical rules and
rich vocabulary. While, the nature of young learners of errors could make them tend to study
about the language (Briscoe, 2000). Making mistakes was not the fault for young or adult
learners; they could improve their language knowledge. It is also essential to consider learners'
conditions in second language learning since every learner has a different background in the
study process.
 There must be different conditions for young and adults to study the second language.
M.Lightbown and Spada (2013) mentioned that the allocation to learning a second language for
young learners has space, while adult learners perhaps only have restricted time. The young
learners could practise with their peers in the classroom or with their parents. Adult learners have
a narrow environment to develop their second language in the workplace. In addition, adult
learners get better comprehension in syntactic and morphological, while young learners get
better proficiency in the second language (Krashen et al. (1979) as cited in Stefánsson, 2013).
The condition for adult learners to study a second language allows them to understand the
grammatical form quickly since they already know the second language. On the other side, the
complete form in acquiring a second language would be better for young learners because they
could build the concepts of a second language earlier. The second language learning process is
significant for young and adult learners in obtaining learning goals. The factor of age could
perhaps influence it, but understanding the language involves themselves to implement the
language in communication.

Learning styles

The second language learning process is necessary to support learners in obtaining the
language learning goals; every individual has a different learning style to participate in the
learning process. According to M. Hummel (2014), learning style means achieving, processing,
and remembering new information and skills. Learners and teachers have to know the learning
style that is appropriate to the learning activities. Comprehending the materials in the second
language involves students' participation towards their learning style in the learning process.
Learning style is the way of someone to capture and maintain the learning information and skill;
every person has their learning style in the education process (Rita Dunn (1984) as cited in Vyas,
2017). Learners need to adjust their learning styles in accomplishing the learning purpose,
particular in second language learning process. In addition, Hoque (2017) divided learners’ style
into four categories: 
1. Reflectivity and impulsivity
In reading activities, reflective learners are slower but more accurate than impulsive
learners. In the second language learning process, instructors and learners could concern
learning styles. Shaban et al. (2017) mentioned that reflectivity learners are concerned
 with accuracy and fluency in the learning process, while impulsive learners more
rigorously than more precisely in second language learning.
2. Visual and auditory
In learning activities, visual learners are suitable with graphic information, while auditory
learners fit with audiotapes. Sanjanaashree et al. (2014) writes visual learners will
understand the materials if the teachers present them in chart or graph, while auditory
learners can easily understand the information by listening to the instructors.
3. Field independence and field dependence
Learners who were dominant in field independence formatted in classroom activities.
While field dependence learners related to the social environment. Field dependence and
field independence learners are thinking differently in second language learning; field
independence learners use analytic strategies, and field dependence learners mostly use
global strategies in learning activities (Ahmadi and Yamini (2003) as cited in Kafipour &
Noordin, 2021).
4. Ambiguity tolerance
The early second language learning activities need to tolerate learners to adapt to new
conditions in learning new language materials. New language learning learners must have
little information related to the grammatical rules; hence, they need time to read more
about it and practice again. (Ely (1989) as cited in BAŞÖZ, 2015).

Learning strategies
The second language learning process entangled learning strategies for learners to achieve
learning goals. Learning strategies implied that the way or technique students use in developing
their improvement in using second language (Oxford (1990) as cited in M. Hummel, 2014).
Learning strategies also part of students’ behavior consciously to manage their learning progress
towards second language learning (Ortega (2009) as cited in Montaño-González, 2017).

Learning Strategies Classification

(adapted from O’Malley & Chamot, 1990, Table 2.1, p. 46 as cited in M. Hummel, 2014, Table
8.2, p. 213)

Metacognitive strategies Selective attention Focusing on special aspects

 of learning tasks, as in
planning to listen for key
words or phrases.
Planning Planning for the
organization of either
written or spoken discourse.
Monitoring Reviewing attention to a
task, comprehension of
information that should be
remembered, or production
while it is occurring
Evaluation Checking comprehension
after completion of a
receptive language activity,
or evaluating language
production after it has taken
place.
Cognitive strategies Rehearsal Repeating names of items or
objects to be remembered
Organization Repeating names of items or
objects to be remembered
Inferencing Using information in text to
guess meanings of new
linguistic items, predict
outcomes, or complete
missing parts.
Summarizing Intermittently synthesizing
what one has heard to ensure
the information has been
retained
Deducing Applying rules to the

Social/affective strategies
understanding of language.
Imagery Intermittently synthesizing
what one has heard to ensure
the information has been
retained
Transfer Using known linguistic
information to facilitate a
new learning task
Elaboration Using known linguistic
information to facilitate a
new learning task
Cooperation Working with peers to solve
a problem, pool information,
check notes, or get feedback
on a learning activity
Questioning for clarification Eliciting from a teacher or
peer additional explanation,
rephrasing, or examples.
Self-talk Using mental redirection of
thinking to assure oneself
that a learning activity will
be successful or to reduce
anxiety about a task

Metacognitive strategies

The strategies in metacognitive marked by O’Malley and Chamot (1990), learners

entangled to concern about their learning process, learning plan, monitor the task and learning
evaluation (Putra, 2018). This strategy leads learners to be aware and understand the second
language learning process. Learners need to make the target of understanding language materials,
the agenda to study or drill the language skills, accomplishing the assignment, and improve their
second language quality to achieve languages objectives.

Cognitive strategies

Learners could use cognitive strategies in second language learning—cognitive concepts

related to understanding first and second language (Straková, 2013). Learners are expected to
comprehend their mother tongue before learning a second language because there must be
differences in language rules. Hence, learners’ basic knowledge about a second language must be
forceful. Learners could implement the information-related second language by practice in
communication.

Social/affective strategies

The Learning strategies through social/affective related to interaction with others. Learners
should be brave to drill language skills in communication by their peers or society. Teachers’
role is vital to guide learners get into social relations; teachers need to develop positive and
confident frames for students and help them when they have difficulties (Scimonelli (2002) as
cited in Fandiño Parra, 2010). Second language learning could be explored through a social
practice with surroundings, but learners must focus on getting the language target.

Application in second language learning based on theories

The types of theories in the second language could be applied in second language learning.
According to M.Lightbown and Spada (2013), the theories point out how the mind understands,
retains, arranges, and retrieves the information. There are four perspectives applied in second
language learning; the explanation is as follows:

1. The behaviorist perspective

The behaviorist perspective used mimicry and memorization to apply in second language
learning. In second language learning, learners' habitual as a key in communication.
Learners could use utterances and dialogues in drilling language materials. 
2. The innatist perspective
The innatist perspective uses Krashen's 'Monitor Model' in second language applications
related to the hypothesis:
 a. Acquisitional learning hypothesis: The learner understands a second language
identical to the first language with no conscious language form.
b. Monitor hypothesis: controlling learners about language production oral or written.
c. Natural order hypothesis: learners could predict the step in second language learning.
d. Affective filter hypothesis: it negative attitudes that could affect learners to create
correct language rules.
3. The cognitive perspective
The cognitive perspective involves four steps in applicating second language learners:
a. Interacting: to drill their language understanding in communication.
b. Noticing: learners must know the language rules in second language learning.
c. Processing: learners could understand to convey the meaning.
d. Practicing: second language learning requires practicing in academic or daily
conversation with meaningful practice. 
4. The sociocultural perspective
The sociocultural perspective applied in second language learning focus on learning by
talking. Learners could gain language knowledge by interacting with society.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Children are equipped with a language acquisition tool called the Language Acquisition
Device (LAD) when they are born into the world. For this gift that God has given, humans must
be grateful to Him because with a set of tools that make it easier for humans to acquire language.
According to (Andarwati, 2004), humans are born with LAD but other species are not. The
Language Acquisition Device or LAD, is part of Chomsky's acquisition hypothesis. The LAD is
a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn the language, and
accounts for the order in which children learn structures and the mistakes they make as they learn
(Nurbaya & Mujinem, 1997). Therefore, language acquisition device is a person's inborn ability
that underlies all human language.

According to (Brow & Ford, 1962) Language acquisition device has several components
as follows:
1. The ability to distinguish the sounds of a language from other languages

2. The ability to organize linguistic units into a number of classes that will develop further

3. Knowledge of possible and impossible language systems

4. The ability to use the language system in assessing the development of the linguistic system

In the process of LAD, language acquisition receives "speech" and other related data
through the five senses as input and forms linguistic formulas based on that input which is then
derived as output. If a sufficient number of utterances from a language (any language) are
"given" to a child's LAD as input, then the LAD will form one of the formal grammars as output.
The process of language acquisition device is below (Putri, 2010)

Based on this process, that children from birth have been given the ability to acquire their
mother tongue. The proof is that although the input is in the form of utterances with incorrect,
incomplete, and grammatical structures, it turns out that children are able to master their mother
tongue. In fact, mother tongue can be acquired by children in various circumstances.

CONCLUSION

Second language learning has many approaches for learners to obtain language
objectives. The implementation of second language learning has to consider learners’
characteristics and conditions since it could develop how they understand the language. Besides,
learning styles and strategies must be well-prepared for instructors and learners because each
individual has a way of learning. Then, understanding application in second language learning
based on theories allows teachers and students to utilize students and their environment to assist
the second language. Moreover, the second language learners have set with the ability of
language acquisition device (LAD) that assist them to acquire the language comprehend.
Teachers and learners must understand the way second language learning is learned and the
implication regarding second language learning activities.

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