3.

1 Study Area: Bandipur National Park 

Bandipur National Park covers868.63 km2 (335.38 sq. mi) located

in Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka, India. It was established as a national park
under Project Tiger in 1973. It is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve since 1986.

Fig 1: Map Showing the Study Area and the list of ranges in Bandipura National
Park.
 The National Highways NH-181 and NH-766 pass through Bandipur National
Park. This road has been a major concern as speeding vehicles have killed many wild
animals in spite of frequent warnings to travelers from the forest department officials and
restriction on movement of vehicles in some stretches between 6 P.M to 6 A.M. This has
raised fears of extinction of habitat of wild animals exclusively in this national park.

METHODOLOGY

Initially Geo-mapping of grassland areas. Brushwood identification and uprooting or

cutting in a proper way. Grasses broadcasting (Nutritive grasses). First de-weeding in
proper way identification. Observation of grasses seeds germination. Followed by de-
weeding (Weed eradication should be before fruit formation). Grasses identification and
herbarium preparation. Weeds identification. Wild leguminous plants identification.
Useful grasses seeds collection. These grasses seeds are useful for restoration practices
after Invasive species and Brush-woods plant species eradication. In the next phase
Grasses, the seeds drying, labelled, and stored in protection camps areas. Identification of
wild fruit trees and browsing plant species by plants expert. After the rainy season
management of all-natural and artificial water bodies. (Removal of aquatic weeds, aquatic
unwanted algal flora, remove terrestrial weeds) check eutrophication in water ponds.
Finally monitoring of grasslands in each season and its documentation by forests guard
and deputy range staff of the protected area. Preparation of grasslands observation and
management register in each range staff of the Tiger Reserve.

A. Morphological study of Lantana and Opuntia Bandipur National Park.

The Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) is an international organisation that
focuses on making scientific data on biodiversity available via the Internet using web
services. Impact studies in the 3 months is destruction of biodiversity, which is directly
hampering the food chain of forest ecosystem (Costello et al., 2013).

B. Distribution of Lantana and Opuntia in Bandipur National Park.

By understanding the land use/ land cover, community perceptions of villagers,

attitudes also Spatio-temporal patterns observations recorded and relevant data availed
from local community members and Forest Department officials on field observations
using ArcGIS 10.2 version Software (Hiremath and Sundaram, 2013).
 C. Impact of Lantana and Opuntia in the study area

A survey conducted by forest department during 2022, Lantana and other weeds
coverage observed. Grassland development activities have been carried out by sowing
locally available species of grass seeds and grass slips. The said grasslands will be
maintained for three years. Removal of Lantana and other weeds and Grassland
Management in Bandipur National Park and promoting grasslands patches on sides of
infested areas (Sivakumar et al., 2018).
B. Distribution of invasive species in Bandipur National Park

a) Distribution of Lantana

Fig. 18A: Mapping of spatial distribution Lantana camara in Bandipur National Park.

Lantana is a South American shrub, has become one of the worst weed in recorded
history. It is very adaptable species, which can inhibit a wide variety of ecosystem. Once it
has been introduced into habitat it spreads rapidly (Sharma et al., 1981). It spread from its
native central and South America to around 50-60 countries (Between 45 S and 45 N and
more than 1400m altitude) where it became an invasive species. It first spread out of the
America when it was brought to Europe by Dutch explores and cultivated widely. Soon
spreading further into Asia where it has established itself as a notorious weed. In 1870, it was
introduced in India and in Goa it was introduced by the Portuguese. Lantana has spread to
become a global weed (Achhireddy et al., 1984).
Local Distribution: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal
Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand,
Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal. Global Distribution:
Asia: Bhutan, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Singapore,
Thailand, Vietnam; Africa; Australasia; Europe; North America: Bahamas, Canada, Cuba,
Jamaica, Mexico, Puerto Rico, United States of America; South America: Colombia,
Venezuela.

b) Distribution of opuntia

Fig. 18B: Mapping of spatial distribution of opuntia in Bandipur National Park.

During 2019-20 removal of Lantana activity started in Bandipur National Park on pilot
basis. Information shared by Dr. P. Ramesh Kumar, IFS., Conservator of Forests and Field
Director, Project Tiger, Bandipur A workshop was conducted on the removal of Lantana camara
in presence of senior forest officials, Wild Life board member, NGO’s, Scientists and other
delegates at Biligiri Ranganatha Swamy Temple Tiger Reserve. MoU signed with Kalika Green
Energy for Lantana Camara Removal for a term of 3 years. Allowed to remove Lantana camara
using machines with modified buckets (Fig. 18A and Fig. 18B).

Opuntia species are the most cold-tolerant of the lowland cacti, extending into western
and southern Canada; one subspecies, O. fragilis var. fragilis, has been found growing along
the Beatton River in central British Columbia, southwest of Cecil Lake at 56° 17’ N latitude
and 120° 39’ W longitude. Others are seen in the Kleskun Hills Natural Area of north-
west Alberta at 55° 15’ 30’’ N latitude and 118° 30’ 36’’ W longitude. Globally Distributed
South East America; naturalized in India (Smith et al., 2011).
Prickly pears produces fruits, commonly eaten in Mexico and in the Mediterranean
region, known as tuna; it also is used to make aguas frescas.  The fruit can be red, wine-red,
green, or yellow-orange. In the Galápagos Islands, the Galápagos prickly
pear, O. galapageia, has previously been treated as a number of different species, but is now
only divided into varieties and subvarieties.  Most of these are confined to one or a few
islands, so they have been described as "an excellent example of adaptive radiation". On the
whole, islands with tall, trunked varieties have giant tortoises, and islands lacking tortoises
have low or prostrate forms of Opuntia. Prickly pears are a prime source of food for the
common giant tortoises in the Galápagos Islands, so they are important in the food web.
Charles Darwin was the first to note that these cacti have thigmotactic anthers; when
the anthers are touched, they curl over, depositing their pollen. This movement can be seen
by gently poking the anthers of an open Opuntia flower. The same trait has evolved
convergent in other species (Castellanos et al., 2021).
Table. 2: Among twelve Ranges in Bandipur National Park Division, the Lantana infested
Area (in sq.km).

Sl no. Ranges of Bandipur National Park Lantana Infested

Area (in sq.kms)

1 Ainur Marigudi 9,774.00

2 Bandipur 5,097.00

3 Gopala Swamy Betta 7,883.00

4 Gundre 5,729.00

5 Hediyala 9,587.00

6 Kundukere 12,544.00

7 Maddur 8,256.00

8 Moliyur 9,002.00

9 Moolehole 11,224.00

10 Nisna Begur 6,054.00

11 Nugu 2,836.00

12 Omkara 6,639.00

Total 94,625.00
 Fig 19: Land Use percentage twelve Ranges in Bandipur National Park Division, the
Lantana infested Area (in sq.kms).

C. Impact of Lantana and Opuntia in Bandipur National Park.

Invasion by introduced exotic species is recognized as one of the major environmental

problems and threats to biodiversity. Many of the deliberate introductions relate to the human
interest in nurturing species for agricultural, forestry or ornamental uses. Invasion by exotic
plant species can significantly alter the native plant community composition and ecosystem
processes, although the types and magnitudes of impacts of individual invasive species can
vary with the type of ecosystem or invasive species. Even though some studies argue that
plant invasions rarely cause biodiversity loss, others have shown significant declines in
biodiversity due to introduced invasive plants. Various invasive plants are also known to
change species composition or diversity, decrease ecosystem productivity and alter the rate of
nutrient cycling, and hence impact ecosystem services and human well-being. Moreover,
invasive species have been considered important agents in homogenizing plant communities
at spatially different levels. Biotic homogenization is the process of increasing similarity
among previously distinct communities within a specific region and plant invasions may
cause homogenization of the natural habitats by adapting to the new environmental
conditions and dominating the native vegetation (Tesfay et al., 2021).
Out of 373 Waterholes, a few of water holes have been identified and selected for
grassland management around the waterhole. Due to which, a good quality of fodder will be
available for prey, herbivores and mega herbivore species. It is also beneficial for integrated
management of waterholes around which grass lands will be maintained. It increases the effective
catchment area of the waterhole. By increasing the availability of fodder and water in forest areas,
it minimises the wild animals from straying in to agricultural fields in search of water and food
thereby checks man-animal conflict in the TR, in pilot basis grassland management activities are
taken up.

A survey conducted by forest department during 2019-20, Lantana and other weeds were
removed to an extent of 270 Ha. And grass land development activities have been carried out by
sowing locally available species of grass seeds and grass slips. The said grasslands will be
maintained for three years.

A brief long-term plan was made in 2019 -20 to know the exact area of grassland
annually, and prepare the grasses seed plot identification of perennial, annual palatable grasses by
staff with local names. Enrichment of useful palatable grasses in grasslands. Removal of weeds in
proper way and timings useful to upgrade the grasslands. Grasses seed plot management.
Weeding during flowering season, and prepare the grasses seed bank of local grasses. Biological
nitrogen fixations, increases protein content of grasses, soil fertility increases. Interconnection of
grasslands, Grasslands restoration by nutritive grasses species by grasses seeds addition in proper
season.

a. Impact of Lantana in study area

Lantana can outcompete native species leading to a reduction in Biodiversity. It can
also cause problems to agricultural areas because of its toxicity, vegetative propagation
(grows fatly), can propagate by spreading of seeds by birds, rats, and other animals. When in
mechanically cut, it generates large number of new shoots that can grows up to six times
faster than the mother plant resulting in dense impenetrable thickets.
Lantana is an exotic species, and became an invasive species (weed) because of its
toxicity, wide range dispersal of seeds by birds, rats, and other animals that eat its drupes, less
prone to being eaten by animals due to toxicity, quite resistance to fire, tolerance of
environmental conditions, increase in logging and habitat modification that prefers the
growth, and production of toxic chemicals, extremely high seed production (12,000 seeds
each plant/year). Lantana was initially brought to India in 1807 as an ornamental plant at the
National Botanical Garden (Kohli et al., 2006) and as an ornamental hedge plant in Calcutta
in the early 19th century (Hakimuddin, 1929). But later this plant has spread out across all
open areas along road sides, railway tracks, edges of crop fields and open forest all over the
country. Now it has become completely naturalized and found throughout India. In west
Himalayan region Lantana was introduced during 1905 in Kathgadam district Nainital. It has
invaded about 13.2 million in Indian posture lands besides forest and fallow areas. Lantana is
widely distributed in the tropical and sub-tropical zones including the protected forest areas
of India (Ram et al., 1984).
Animals like elephants are affected in a variety of ways by invasive plants like Lantana.
The Asian elephant won't eat these plants (Elephas maximus). Lantana forms dense thickets
that exclude native species, Lantana invasion threatens 40 percent of India's tiger habitat,
reports study. Additionally, they encroach significantly on elephant habitat and compete for
space with the plants that provide food for elephants. In the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve in
India, we investigated whether the inclusion of Lantana would improve forecasts of how the
elephants would use their habitat. From 62 line transects of 1 km in length, elephant dung
density was used to evaluate elephant habitat utilisation. The findings showed that elephant
habitat use at a landscape scale was highly influenced by habitat and the impact of human
settlements. The idea that the presence of Lantana strongly predicted elephant habitat use at
the landscape level was not supported, however. The dry deciduous forest (DDF), where
there was a substantial interaction between DDF and Lantana, was where we evaluated the
relationship between Lantana and elephant habitat utilisation. Elephant habitat use was
strongly predicted by Lantana in the DDF. We draw the conclusion that whereas Lantana had
no appreciable effects on elephant habitat usage across the board in a reserve, they were
evident at a smaller scale and in certain habitats (Wilson et al., 2013).
Lantana many negative economic, environmental, social and cultural impacts. Some
weeds also change fire behaviour and intensity. High impact weeds can invade and change the
landscape. Other weeds need some help to invade, and their spread is sometimes a symptom of
poor land management or high levels of disturbance. compete with and take over native plants,
destroy native wildlife habitat and reduce natural food supplies, make fires hotter and more
destructive, hide feral animals and make them difficult to control, damage waterways and
water quality. loss of good grazing country such as desirable pasture plants are replaced by
weeds, increased weed control costs such as herbicide and aerial spraying, increased
mustering costs, altered fire regimes, which reduces access to pasture and feed, illness and
loss of stock that eat toxic weeds, weeds use water which would otherwise be available for
stock, weeds such as mimosa and prickly acacia can block stock from getting to water,
increased costs because of weed contamination of agricultural products and quarantine
requirements, increased feral animal control costs as animals including feral pigs hide in
weedy areas. Bushes and shrubs of these weeds are indirectly helpful for the hunting, fishing,
boating, camping, bush walking. Weeds can replace native plants and animals and reduce
traditional foods and other resources used by Aboriginal people. Weeds can harm the social
wellbeing of Aboriginal landowners by altering their spiritual and physical connections to
country. Very intense and destructive fires carried by weeds can destroy rock art and other
important sites (Chatterjee, R. 2015).

Toxic plants are of major concern to veterinarians because of their harmful effects to
livestock in terms of causing mortality and reduction in productivity. The severity of toxic
effects caused by poisonous plants varies among species and depends upon the nature, part
and amount of toxic component taken, environmental conditions, species, age, size and body
condition of the animals. These invasive plants have turned to predators and are responsible
for causing diseases in animals as well as in plants. Among poisonous plants Lantana is one
of the most commonly known noxious and invasive weed worldwide. The most important
toxic components present in this weed are lantadenes. Lantadenes are pentacyclic triterpenes
and often led to hepatotoxicity, photosensitization and jaundice. There are 2 forms isolated
from Lantana toxins crystalline and amorphous. The amorphous form is found to be
icterogenic to guinea pigs. Among the known compounds present in Lantana, certain other
compounds like naphthoquinones, oil constituents, iridoid glycosides and some of the
oligosaccharides are of lesser importance as far as toxicity is concerned. The lantadenes are
mainly present in the leaves of this plant having varying toxic effects among different species
and strains of mammals/livestock. The toxic effects of this plant are evident both in
ruminants as well as in non-ruminants (Kumar et al., 2016).

The impact of Lantana on the diversity and richness of native plant species in this
region, and the mechanism of its interference, are lacking. The Lantana-infested areas have
an appreciable amount of Lantana litter. In general, secondary metabolites in litter play an
important role in affecting plant community structure and composition through their multiple
effects, including phytotoxicity to other species. Some recent studies have demonstrated
allelopathy as one of the mechanisms facilitating the spread of alien invasive species in the
environment. The allelopathy of living leaves, fruits and other parts of Lantana is well
documented, also applies to freshly fallen senescent Lantana leaves and has been reported to
play a role in invasion by Lantana. However, no information is available in relation to such a
role of Lantana litter is the dead and/or decaying Lantana leaves, fruits and peduncles lying
on the surface of the soil. Allelopathy was therefore tested as one of the possible strategies
employed by Lantana, which enable it to dominate in the invaded regions. Lantana leaf litter
(comprising of leaves at various stages of decomposition, fruits and peduncles) released some
putative inhibitory substances that interfered with growth of native plants and thus negatively
affected the structure and composition of native communities (Singh et al., 2014).

In some places, it has also entered in the temperate zones (Kimothi et al., 2010). In
the Garhwal Himalayan. Lantana found growing profusely in all habitats of sub-mountain
and montane zone up to 2000m altitude. Lantana introduced to Karnataka as an ornamental
plant in Kodagu in 1860.

Table. 3: Among twelve Ranges in Bandipur National Park Division, the Lantana infested
Area (in sq.km).
Lantana Infested
Sl no. Ranges of Bandipur National Park
Area (in sq.kms)
1 Ainur Marigudi 9,774.00
2 Bandipur 5,097.00
3 Gopala Swamy Betta 7,883.00
4 Gundre 5,729.00
5 Hediyala 9,587.00
6 Kundukere 12,544.00
7 Maddur 8,256.00
8 Moliyur 9,002.00
9 Moolehole 11,224.00
10 Nisna Begur 6,054.00
11 Nugu 2,836.00
12 Omkara 6,639.00
  Total 94,625.00
Fig. 20: Percentage of Lantana infested Area (in sq.kms) in twelve Ranges in Bandipur
National Park Division.

Table. 4: Among twelve ranges in Bandipur National Park Division, the Lantana removal
and Grassland (in sq.km).
Lantana removal
Sl no. Ranges of Bandipur National Park and Grassland (in
sq.kms)
1 Ainur Marigudi 35.31
2 Bandipur 66.77
3 Gopala Swamy Betta 30.5
4 Gundre 30
5 Hediyala 30.31
6 Kundukere 31.89
7 Maddur 34.31
8 Moliyur 28.87
9 Moolehole 22.54
10 Nisna Begur 25.6
11 Nugu 25.23
12 Omkara 32
  Total 393.33
 Fig. 21: Percentage of Lantana removal and Grassland (in sq. kms) in twelve Ranges in
Bandipur National Park Division.

b. Impact of Opuntia in study area

It hybridizes readily between species. This can make classification difficult, yielding a
reticulate phylogeny where different species come together in hybridization. Opuntia has a
tendency for polyploidy. The ancestral diploid state was 2n=22, but many species are
hexaploid (6n=66) or octaploid (8n=88) Opuntia. Opuntia abject, Opuntia aciculate, Opuntia
alta, Opuntia ammophila, Opuntia anahuacensis, Opuntia articulate, Opuntia arenaria-dune
prickly pear, diplod (2n=22). It can cause upset stomach, diarrhoea, bloating, and headache in
some cases. In some individuals, it can cause allergic reactions resulting in nasal
inflammation or asthma. This movement cad be seen by gently poking the anthers of an open
Opuntia flower. The fruit is used as food, it must be peeled carefully to remove spines on the
outer skin before consumption. The seeds are used for flour, soups, salad, entrees, vegetable
dishes, breads, desserts, beverages, candy, jelly and drinks, they are commonly used in
Mexican cuisine in dishes (Barba et al., 2022).
Opuntia is the most widespread and forms dense impenetrable thickets that negatively
impact on rangeland livelihoods and resources. The communities in the region are well aware
of Opuntia invasion in the area, which has increased rapidly over the recent past and
spreading to various ecosystems. The cause of spread was attributed to planting the species
for various purposes, garden throw-outs and floods. More than 70% of the respondents
perceived the species as undesirable with negative impacts only. The impacts include denied
access to natural resources, reduced productivity and increased threat to livestock and human
health. Pasture lands, farmlands and degraded lands were the most invaded areas. Chopping
was the preferred method of management but was combined with other mechanical and
chemical methods in order to be more effective. Appropriate interventions are suggested to
mitigate the negative impacts and improve rural livelihoods and their environment (Githae et
al., 2017).

Prickly pear cactus is likely safe when eaten as food. The leaves, stems, flowers, fruit
and standardized extracts of the prickly pear cactus are possibly safe when taken by mouth as
medicine in appropriate amounts for a short period of time. Prickly pear cactus can cause
some side effects including mild diarrhoea, nausea, increased amount and frequency of stool,

bloating, and headache. Pregnant or breast-feeding effects on child helath. Stay on the safe side

and stick to food amounts . During Surgery Prickly pear cactus might affect blood sugar levels,
making blood sugar control difficult during and after surgery. Stop using prickly pear cactus at
least 2 weeks before a scheduled surgery.
Table. 5: Among twelve Ranges in Bandipur National Park Division, the Opuntia infested
Area (in sq.km).

Sl no. Ranges of Bandipur National Park Opuntia Infested

Area (in sq.kms)

1 Ainur Marigudi -

2 Bandipur 597.00

3 Gopala Swamy Betta 880.00

4 Gundre -

5 Hediyala 987.00

6 Kundukere (Moyar) 5,644.00

7 Maddur -

8 Moliyur -

9 Moolehole -

10 Nisna Begur -

11 Nugu -

12 Omkara 2,987.00

Total 11,095.00
Fig. 22: Percentage of opuntia (in sq. kms) in twelve Ranges in Bandipur National Park.
Opuntia found maximum in Kundukere (Moyar) range, Omkara range and small
patches in Gopala Swamy Betta, Bandipur, Hediyala. There is no traces of opuntia at
Maddur, Moliyur, Moolehole, Nisna Begur, Nugu, Gundre ranges of Bandipur National Park
(Fig. 22).

Fig. 23: Kundukere range of Bandipur National Park Lantana infested area
Fig. 24: Moolehole range Bandipur National Park Lantana infested area

Fig. 25: Brushwood identification and uprooting or cutting in proper way

 Fig. 26: Weed eradication should be before fruit formation at Hediyala.

Fig. 27: Brushwood and shrubs have deeply buried roots of considerable length, which
require suitable tools for their removal, to prevent cutting the roots off methods to avoid
spread of invasive species.
Restoring Invasive species Cleared Areas: Soil and Moisture Conservation works like Contour
trenches, Sowing of fodder species, Planting of local species, Creation of grass land.
Table. 6: List of Shramadhan Grassland twelve ranges in Bandipur National Park Division,
the Lantana removal and Grassland (in sq.kms).

Sl no. Ranges of Bandipur National Park Shramadhan

Grassland (in
sq.kms)

1 Ainur Marigudi 25

2 Bandipur 5

3 Gopala Swamy Betta 18

4 Gundre 16

5 Hediyala 18

6 Kundukere 12

7 Maddur 25

8 Moliyur 1

9 Moolehole 20

10 Nisna Begur 15

11 Nugu 11

12 Omkara 0

  Total 166
Fig. 28: Percentage of Shramadhan Grassland (in sq.kms) in twelve Ranges in Bandipur
National Park Division.

Fig. 29: Percentage of Total area of Bandipur National Park

Among 12 Ranges, the average Invasive species infested area is 6,545.00 sq. kms which
means 93.53 percent (Fig. 30) Total Invasive species infested area is 94,625.00 sq. kms. Total
area Invasive species removal and promoted Grassland is 393.326 sq. kms, Shramadhan
Grassland 166 sq. km. total grassland promoted area is 227.326 sq. kms which means 42.20
percent (Table. 2).
 Total area of Kundukere range is the largest among 12 other ranges, also Lantana infested
area is 12,544 sq. kms (About 93.53% is infested by Lantana. Nugu range is the smallest area of
3,032,00 sq. kms and the invasive species infested area is 2,836 sq. kms (Table. 3). In the dry
areas, particularly Kundukere Range, we found significant correlation between Invasive species
and water bodies. That is Invasive species is largely absent from the landscape except near water
bodies. There are only around 2-3 perennial waterholes in the whole range, and all of them are
surrounded by thick Invasive species.

In Bandipur range invasive species is removed and made those areas into grassland is
estimated to be 66.77 sq.kms followed by A.M Gudi 35.31 sq. kms and Maddur is 34.31 sq. kms.
Moolehole range (22.54 sq. kms) the most minimum area where Lantana removed and native
grass species are sown to restore the land (Table. 4). In Bandipur Range, which is also the
tourism zone, almost 90% are taken over by invasive species. This could be because of the
extensive road network, here again the best areas for removal are perhaps along water bodies, to
maximize wildlife viewing.

A.M Gudi and Maddur have the highest shramadhan grassland of 25 sq. kms followed by
Moolehole (20 sq. kms) In Moolehole range, which is very wet, there seems to be a correlation
between streams/roads and Invasive species, where the infestation is high close to streams and
roads and not much in other places (Fig. 23; Fig. 24; Fig. 25). Hediyala and Gopala Swamy
Betta 18 sq. km. This will be an easy target for removal in Gopalswamy Betta Range, almost all
the valleys/low lying areas are taken over by Invasive species, and the hill tops/grassland areas
are mostly invasive species free (Fig. 26 and Fig. 27). But there are some areas in the hills
around the temple that have clumps of Invasive species. Chromolaena odorata was present
everywhere through the Range, and is in some ways a more serious problem than Invasive
species in this range (Fig. 28). This may spread further into the grasslands, so it is best to target
this area for removal. There is no shramadhan grassland observed at Omkara range. Moliyur
shramadhan grassland covers 1 sq. kms followed by Bandipur shramadhan grassland of 5 sq.kms
(Table. 6).